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Analysing and Understanding the Singing Voice: Recent Progress and Open Questions

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Analysing and Understanding the Singing Voice: Recent Progress and Open Questions 362 Current Bioinformatics, 2011, 6, 362-374 Analysing and Understanding the Singing Voice: Recent Progress and Open Questions Malte Kob*,1, Nathalie Henrich2, Hanspeter Herzel3, David Howard4, Isao Tokuda5 and Joe Wolfe6 1Erich Thienhaus Institute, University of Music Detmold, Germany; 2Department of Speech and Cognition, GIPSA-lab (UMR 5216: CNRS, INPG, University Stendhal, UJF), Grenoble, France; 3Institute for Theoretical Biology, Humboldt- University, Berlin, Germany; 4Department of Electronics, University of York, UK; 5Department of Micro System Technology, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Japan; 6School of Physics, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia Abstract: The breadth of expression in singing depends on fine control of physiology and acoustics. In this review, the basic concepts from speech acoustics, including the source-filter model, models of the glottal source and source-filter interactions, are described. The precise control, the extended pitch range, the timbre control and, in some cases, the uses of alternate phonation modes all merit further attention and explanation. Here we review features of the singing voice and the understanding that has been delivered by new measurement techniques. We describe the glottal mechanisms and the control of vocal tract resonances used in singing. We review linear and nonlinear components of the voice and the way in which they are measured and modelled and discuss the aero-acoustic models. We conclude with a list of open questions and active fields of research. Keywords: Singing voice, speech acoustics, vocal folds, vocal tract, source-filter interaction. 1. INTRODUCTION This article gives an overview of areas of singing voice research. It begins with an introduction to features of the The singing voice is probably the most versatile musical singing voice. The second section introduces the source-filter instrument of all. As a musical instrument, it covers a range theory of voice production. Sections 3 and 4 cover methods of some 80 dB in intensity, two to four or five octaves in to study the voice source and the vocal tract filter and some fundamental frequency and a broad range of timbre in results of these studies. In section 5 some aspects of numerous singing styles. In addition to the properties of a nonlinearities in voice production are presented. Section 6 musical instrument it adds verbal components to the describes recent approaches to singing voice modelling. The performance, which allows the expression of nearly all review concludes with a summary and outlook. aspects of spoken language. The power source of the singing voice is the same as that used for breathing – one of our most 2. FEATURES OF THE SINGING VOICE vital and basic functions – which probably contributes to the 2.1. Styles close relation between the singer’s mood and vocal expression. The human singing voice is capable of a wide variety of sounds. This diversity is reflected in the numerous singing The singing voice is probably our species’ oldest musical styles found around the world, including ‘classical’ singing instrument. Nevertheless, its production, performance and styles (e.g. western operatic, lied, baroque, ...) to popular perception are fascinating fields of ongoing research in ones (‘contemporary commercial music’, e.g. rock, jazz, domains such as acoustics, voice, phoniatrics, musicology musicals, ...) and traditional ones (e.g. yodel, kulning, and education. Further, the requirement of precise control of overtone singing, ...). In the past century, much research pitch in much of singing requires a deeper understanding, effort has aimed at understanding classical singing styles and a consideration of behaviours, such as resonance tuning, from both a physiological and a physical perspective [2]. that are observed in singing but that are probably rare in This scientific knowledge has provided the basis for speech, with the possible exception of theatrical speech. Due understanding popular and traditional singing styles. Pop, to its interdisciplinary nature, the results of singing voice jazz, blues and musical-theatre voice source characteristics research often have impact in several domains. One example have been compared to those of classical singers [3-7], is the understanding of the production of the growl sound demonstrating consistent differences in sub-glottal-pressure and the impact of its performance on voice health [1]. management, glottal behaviour and sound-pressure level. Knowledge and modelling of nonlinear source-filter interactions have provided insights into belting style [8]. *Address correspondence to this author at the University of Music Detmold, Voice-production characteristics of country singers have Erich Thienhaus Institute, Neustadt 22, 32756 Detmold, Germany; been compared with those of speech [9-12]. Some traditional Tel: +49-5231-975-646, Fax: +49-5231-975-689; singing styles, such as overtone singing, challenge the E-mail: [email protected] normal use of the voice apparatus [13,14]. 1574-8936/11 $58.00+.00 © 2011 Bentham Science Publishers Analysing and Understanding the Singing Voice Current Bioinformatics, 2011, Vol. 6, No. 3 363 2.2. Registers 2.4. Intonation The variety of singing sounds is produced by a single In many styles of singing, precise pitch control is a instrument, qualitatively similar for everyone, which consists desirable skill. The perceived pitch of a sung sound is largely of three subsystems: a breathing apparatus (muscles, lungs, determined by the fundamental frequency of vibration of the bronchi, trachea) delivers air flow, the larynx converts some vocal folds and less directly by the intensity, overall timbre of the aerodynamic energy in that flow into acoustic waves, and duration of the sound being produced. Auditory and the vocal tract (the upper part of the larynx, pharynx, feedback allows the singer to monitor and thus to adjust the oral and nasal cavities) modifies these waves to produce a pitch appropriately while singing. Quantitative monitoring of wide range of sounds. The perceived vocal qualities of the fundamental period to an accuracy of 1µs of vocal fold resulting sound can be categorised into singing-voice vibration is now reported [25]. Subjects were found to be registers, each register corresponding to a pitch range with more accurate when they tune a note against a recording of homogeneous timbre [15]. The singing-voice registers result themselves singing a reference note as opposed to tuning to a from specific pneumo-phono-articulatory adjustments made reference note from a female singer or a non-vocal complex by the singer to achieve a target vocal quality. Much remains tone [26]. In-tune singing and accurate ensemble intonation to be understood regarding these adjustments [16]. is essential for a cappella (unaccompanied) choral singing and singers tend towards just intonation, i.e. to a non-equal Recent studies have explored articulatory behaviors in the main singing-voice registers for both male and female temperament with commensurate ratios among notes in a chord [27]. A consequence is that pitch may drift when operatic singers by means of a dynamic Magnetic Resonance music changes key in some ways [28]. Performers can either Imaging technique [17-19]. For the studied singers, the stay in-tune or in-pitch; the latter requiring a pitch shift transition from modal to falsetto registers resulted in only which has been commented on since the sixteenth century minor modifications of vocal-tract shape, such as an [29]. elevation and tilting of the larynx and a lifted tongue dorsum. In comparison, the transition from modal to voix- mixte registers resulted in major modifications, such as a 2.5. Vibrato pharynx widening, lip and jaw openings, and increased jaw In singing, vibrato consists of a modulation of protrusion. fundamental frequency. It is a very common feature in The laryngeal nature of singing-voice registers, to which singing that is especially associated with Western opera [30]. the term register may sometimes solely refer [20], can be Sundberg [30] gives four parameters that quantify vibrato: described in terms of vocal-fold biomechanics, glottal-flow rate (typically 5-7.5 Hz), extent (typically 1 semitone for properties and non-linear dynamics (see section 5). From a opera singers), regularity (generally consistent but tends to physiological point of view, many researchers, including the vary most during the negative phase) and waveform present authors, described human voice production in terms (approximately sinusoidal). Vibrato in singing is usually of four laryngeal mechanisms (M0, M1, M2, M3), each accompanied by amplitude variation, which may in part be associated with a different biomechanical configuration of due to source-filter interactions. Only a few cycles of vibrato the laryngeal vibrator over the voice frequency range [21]. may appear in short sung notes. The perceived pitch of such The main mechanisms (M1 and M2) are used in classical and notes appears to be a function of the vibrato phase at the end non-classical singing styles. Modal, chest and male head of the note [31], but when sinusoids rather than synthesized voice are produced in M1, falsetto and female head voice are /a/ vowels are used, there are variations in the pitch changes produced in M2. The use of M0 (synonymous with vocal fry perceived [32]. and strohbass) can be found in Rhythm and Blues singing 2.6. Choir Sound/Choral Blend (e.g. Clarence ‘Frogman’ Henry). The laryngeal mechanism M3 (synonymous with whistle, or flute register) might be Choir singing requires singers to blend with each other used in classical singing to reach the highest notes in the top such that no one voice dominates and ‘individual voices are range of light sopranos. It is commonly used in jazz (e.g. imperceptible’ [33]. This is achieved by reducing the levels Mimi Perrin, ‘Les double six’). of the second and third formants [34] and using a narrower vibrato than in solo singing [34,35]. Relative positioning of 2.3. Ranges choir singers can alter blend and singers often have a The tonal pitch is defined by the vibratory frequency of preference for being mixed with other parts.
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