THE FACE OF THE PACIFIC
By KLAUS. MEHNERT
While leGtllril/g on the hiator-y of the Pacific in the Univeracily of Hawaii, the author becC/.me intere.Yted il~ the eL'ol"tiol~ of the Pacific map. The history of the Pacific map is the gll:inte.•swce of the history of the Pacific, for it visually recorda the cc>ulIlless voyages of e.rploration, c(mquest, commerce, andrel';giolls zeal on thi8 oceal1. Although it is fIL"CIIVltillg to 1/Jateh the gradual emerging of the Pacific's fet'twrc.'J from complete obscurity in a dramatic, three.centuries.long 8truggle between i11ll1gination and fuct8, .10 book CX1~ta a8 yet on tltia acubject. The author visited a number of lead'ing libraries poaae8aing old map" and, witlt the aid of tlte Univer8ity of Hawaii aut/lOritie8, the Un'iversity of Califorll
DAWN Martin Waldseemiiller was bom about 1470 in the German town of RadolIzell on ARTIN WaldseemiiJJer's map made an arm of Lake Constance. He grew up in in 1507 may be regarded as the Freiburg and studied at the university there. M" first map of the Pacific Ocean. It Later he i oined the group of scholars in is the first to represent the Pa.cific as an St. Die under the patronage of the Duke of «ean in its own right. The maps of the Lorraine and became the outstanding geog 'World produced by European cartographers rapher and mapmaker of his day. He died before 1507 did not contain l~ Pacific Ocean about 1518. In spite of his remarkable for the simple reason that they did not achievements, Waldseemiiller would only be know of America as a· continent and hence remembered by experts today were it not made the Atlantic reach from Spain to Asia. for his map of 1507, a huge wall map totaling One of the most famous representations of 36 square feet. It is famous for the facts, the world previous to 1507 is" the globe of first, that it is the first waU map of this :Martin Behaim, completed in 1492, before type; secondly, that it contains all important the news of Columbus's returH from his first discoveries of the preceding decades; and voyage becaml;l known (Fro. 16). This globe chiefly that it is the first map to apply the contains the sum of Europe's geographical word "America" to the New World. For knowledge on the eve of the discovery of us, however, this map if! of particular in America. But even after t,his discovery. terest because it contains in the ccnter of Columbus's idea, which he maintained up the upper part two world hemisphcres-to to his death, namely, that sailing westward our knowledge, the first of their kind-the he had reached, not a. new continent, but right-hand one of which is reproduced in our the eastern coast of Asia, continued to exist FlO. 1. for a while. The map of the world drawn Of course, there are many mistakes in by Juan de 111. Coso., one of Columbus's com this map. It suffers f!'Om the usual under panions, in 1500; the map of 1503 known as estimation of the width of the Pacific; it the map of Ba.rtolomeo Columbus; and Con· shows Japan near .America instead of near tarini's map of 1506 aU cling to this idea. Asia; the picture it gives of Indonesia is still Hence we are hardly according. Waltl. very inadequate; the coast of .East Asia seemiiUer too great an hcmor if we regard leaves much to be desired; Australia is his work as the beginlling of the real carto missing altogether; and the west coast of graphi.c history of the Pacific. America is drawn in straight lines. But, 10&2 THE XXth CENTURY compared to all cartographic products before between the two. What Waldsecmtiller 1507 and to many of tho ensuing decades, actually thought, nobody knows; however, this map by the German master is sur· a glance at FlO. I makes it hard to follow prisingly acourate. Tho fundamental fact this theory. Mter all, Waldseemiiller dre" whjch opened up the path to a complete the ellst coast of Asia up to 70° northern recognition of the cartograpWo picture of latitude not in straight lines but with varioUl the Pacific is to be found on his map. details, mainly from Behaim, which shoW! that he took it to be the actual coast. Any land connection between America and Atria could thus only be presumed north of 70'. We mnst add here that the history of gcog· raphy and part,icularly of cartography is a most controversial matter and, in order not to overburden tWa article with learned quotations, we shall henccforth not ellWl' into any of tqese controversies. Martin Waldseemiil1er was a great scholar, who studied many ancient and new sources before he produced his map. He was familiar with the works of Ptolemy of Alex andria, with the travels of Marco Polo and Colvmbus, and he took some very importMt ideas from a letter of Amerigo Vespucci FIG. I-Tho fil'8t map of t,he Pacifio, Martin Wald· dealing with the latter's voyages along the IlOOmiiUer'll hemisphere. It forms part of his hU"go wall f\)I\P or the world (1607). The angles eastern eOllats of America in the years have boon added oy us 14H7/1502. Considering the rate at which (To make our illustrations lUI clcar as possible news tfllvclcd in those days. Waldsecmiiller we havo greatly simplified them, reproducillg worked with astonishing speed: Amerigo only those feRtures of the maps which are o( wrote this particular letter in the spring interest in connection ~;th our article. We havo tr8Jl8lated tho inscriptions into English unle!l>l of 1503 to Florence; from there it reached the terms u.eed are still fl\miliar today, o.g., Alsace after a detour via Paris; and from "Cathay" for ChiWl, "ZiplUlgu" for Japan.) Alsace it WIlS sent on to WaldseemiiJler by. young Gonnan scholar. By 1507 the map America is shown as an indcpendent con was publi hed. tinent consisting of two large parts connected But 6cientific news did not always tTavel by a narrow isthmus, a continent which so quickly, and 110t all cartographers wero possesses a land bridge nt'ithor to Europe as eager to incorporate tho lateRt diRcovoriCtI. nor Asiu. Tho fn,et that Wal<.lsoomiiUer wit,h Moreover, geographical knowledge was his bold stra,ight lines gives 0. so amazingly guarded as sllspiciollsly by tho governments accurate outline of the Amerit:(ln west coast as military inventions arc nowadays. Hence is all the more surprising a·s, to sciencc's only some of· the cartographers were in knowledge, no European eye hud yet seen a fluenced by Waldseomti!Jl.'r, while many single bit of this coast in lG07. The only others continued to drag along old concep· trouble with Waldseemiiller, whom we shall tions for a long time. Imleed, there Wt18 have to mention many more times in thel:le evon retrogrcssion to be found. But idet18 pages, is his unwieldy Ilame (nnwieldy only live on. Wo.ldseemiiller's map of the world to the 1I0n·German, for ill German rns name -which had probably been inspired by an is easy cnough, meaning Forest Lake Miller). unusual combination of hard scientific work But would our readers prefer tile scientific and an almost visionary intuit.ion-was all, name which he adopted and which is a accomplished fact. Greek translation of Ws l1ame-Hylacomy. lOll? • The attempt bas been made to interpret If we wished to follow e\'ery pht18e in the Waldsccmiiller's straight lilies of the west evolution of the map of the ]>acific, we would COlUlt of Central and North America as an have to look at each bay of the coasts and indication that even to hjm America was each little island separately. In this article, a part of Asia and that he m~ely refrained however, we shall only deal with a few of from drawing the details of the connection the outstanding problems, THE FACE OF THE PACIFIC 143
HOW WIDE IS THE PAcnrJO? }<'or the accurate determination of the latter, reliable clocks art!' needed. such u.s were not The overestimntion of the extent of yet in existence in tho sixteenth and seven Burasia. from the western const of Spain to teenth centuries. This explains why the tile eastern coast of China on the part of maps of those days usually contain far moro 1Dedieval cosmographers contributed toward errors in longitude than in latitude. tile fact that the width of the ocean to be arossed in a westerly direction to reach It is all the more to be admired t.hat QIina was vastly underestimated. The Ribero's map ~f 1529 already assumes a JJorentine geographer Toscanelli, by whose width of 140 degrees. Of course, the writings Columbus was influenced, calculated following century saw many a throwback as, &be distance from Gibralt.'l.r westward to for instance, Helga's map of 1603, which &be coast of China to be 130 degree,,;, while returned to a width of !:.I5 degrees But on in reality it is 233 degrees. This miscalcula BIa.eu's map of 1606 t.he widt.h was already tion helped Columbus to decide upon his increased to 1[iO degrees. Complete ac· voyage; and when he found land he took it curacy wa.<; only obtained durillg the nine for granted that it was Eastern Asiatic soil. teenth century. Although WaldseemiHIer recognized tLe THE NAME OF THE I'ACIFIC eeparate nature of the newly-discovered land, he still clung to the overestimation of the Tho name which the mapmakers first extent of Eurasia which automatically cn· gave to this ocean dcpended on the sido iailed a·n underestimation of the Pacific. from which their thoughts approached the His two world hemispheres of 1507 prove Pacific. If t.hey looked eastward from that he assumed the distance from Gibraltar westward to the southeastern coast of Asia to be 155 degrees. Although this was 25 degrees nea.rer the truth than Toscanelli's calculation, it was still 78 degrees off. As Waldseemi.iller calculated the width of tho Atlantic between West Africa and Contml America fairly accurately nt 75 degrees, his entire miscalculation is projected into the width of the Pacific, which he represented to be 80 degrees instead of HiS degrees Ilightly nort.1I of the equator. FIG. 2-~tnrliJl Waldseernuller't; globe • AC1UL 165· gores of 1507 (or liiUU). Wo have roprorlueed only se'oen of the twelve WIIlltWAlDSttMiiLLER 1507 goroB of 30° each which muke lip the RUYSCH 1506 entiro ~Iobc. ]n thiB as well us in GLARUNUS 1510 other iIlustmtions the longitudinal VE SPUCCI t523 GOO degroes shown are thoso of \\0aldseo. muller, not of our time THORNE 1527 t20" 1100· I&RO 1529 1SO. Europc across Asia, the natural thing for IlAEUt606----..,I;·-~----- them was to call it the "Eastern Ocean," Tho widt.h of the Pl\cific at npproxil1lHtely the i.e., in Latin, Oceanll Ori.entalis (or tenth northern pArclle1, as it was represented OrientaHs Oceanus or Mare Orientale). This by Borne mapmnkers and us it is in reality is t.he term used on the globe gores of 1507 (or 15(9) also attributed to Wa.lciseemiiJIer Our chart shows how the calculation of the (l<'IG. 2), as well as no Nos. 10 and 23. (The width of tho Pacific has changcd since numbers refer to the list of maps at the Waldseemiillcr. At first the width assumed end of this article.) by bim was oven reduced. It was only the crossing of the Pacific by Magellan in 1520/21 If, on the ot.her hand, the mapmaker which created an ontirely new situat.ion. It was looking westwarJ, hc was illc1ined to was Borne time, however, before this new call the oecan. the ''\Vestern Ocean," Oceanus 8itm\t,ion found its expression in cartography. Occidentalis. The Dumber of those who It must be inserted here in explanation that followed t.his practice is small, as to most it is much easier to determine the latitude mapmakt'Ts the Atlantic was the Western at which one finds oneself than the longitude. Ocea.Jl. Nos. 8 and 28 give the name Ocean'U8 144 THE XXth CENTURY .. Occidelltall:s to the eastern Pacific and ocean as a whole. The point is this; people OcealU1S Oriental'is to the western Pacific. were not yet thinking in terms of the Pacifio a.s a single ocean. In a way, this also A third group was looking from Europe meant a retrogression after Waldscemiiller. so to spettk-southeastward. It considered While his hemisphere showed the entire the waters which washed the "Indiea"-as ocean, even though far too narrow, later all of south and southeastern Asia was fre world maps rarely presented the Pacific aB. quently called at that time-a.s the Indian a whole, because they usually had America Ocean, which it divided into two parts: a and part of the eastern Pacific at the western southern Indian Ocean corresponding to the end of the map and the Orient as well as Indiun Ocean of today (between Africa and part of the westcrn Pacific.at its eastern end. Malaya) and an· eastern Indian Ocean, Oceanus lndicus On:entalis, corresponding to our Pacific. This latter term is to be found I ,; './ ·.li ~ORT.H \\\\\\ on Nos. G, 9, 34. 49, while No. 14 gives the name Ocean:us Oriental-is to the northern Pacil1c and Oceanus Ind-ic'lls Or'iental'is to the southern Pacific. A ncw note entered into the nnme-giving contest when Bnlbon crossed the Isthmus of Panama. On September 25, 1513, he beheld the Pacifie from its eastern shore, "..l. "'!nl.-';)\\' ·,:.1 I _ ZUR', II the first European to do so. (Marco Polo I~ '" I had seen it from the Asiatic side.) This happened at a place where the isthmus runs from east to west. To cross it, Balboa had to march southward, and when he first saw FIG. 3--Abrahaffi Orte1ius's map of the Pacifio of 1589 the ocean it lay toward the sonth. So he caUed it la maor del Sur (the Southern Ocean). This term or its equivalents (Mare A 'Ilstrale , In this respect, the Ortelius map of Oceanus ltferidionalis) found entry in many 1589 (FIo. 3) opens a new period in the olltstanding maps and globes sllch as Nos. history of Pacific mapmaking, for this is, as 18, 22, 46, 54, 5.5, and 79. far as we know, the first map dedicated to the Pacific as such. The English translation The name by which we know the ocean of its title is "Latest Description of the today was gi\'en it most fittingly by its Pacific Ocean, commonly called the South first conqueror, Ferdinand Magellan, and it Sea, with the neighboring regions and the has survived beeallse it is so much more islands scattered in various pla-ees on it." expressive than those other purely geo It carries the words MARE PACIFICUM, QUOD graphical terms. When 011 November 28, VULGO NOllITNANT MAR DEL ZUR all across 1520, after terrible storms and hardships tIle entire ocean, clearly indicating that this in the strait which bears his name, Magellan term is meant not for a part bllt for the sailed out onto its broad, majestic Wll-\'CS, whole ocean. In his Illap of 1570, Ortelius he ca.lled it El Maor Pacifico, tho Peaccful I:!t.ill used the terms M~-\H DEL ZUR and EL Ocean. (lncidentally, Magellan had a knack MaR PACIFICO for two different portions of for suggest.iog geogmphieal names whieh the ocean, but his map of 1589, fallowing st,uck. Ooe need only remember his Tierra No. 73, gi\res definite preference to the word dcl Fupgo.) We find tohe new name for the Pacific. Owing to the great influence which tir;;t timc on toho map which his companion, this map exercised, Magellan's term now Pigafettu, made upon his return from the becamc firmly established. However, there voyage. It was some time, howe\~er, before were still a number of throwbacks to be the nalDe caught on. Balboa's term had ~t found after 1589, and to some extent the head start and was at first far more widely term South Sea.s has survived to this day, used. But on the Miinster lIlap (1540) w"c although more as a poetic than as a geo find ],[are padjic·llm., after Finueus (1531) gra.phic expression. had called it MARE MAl;ELJ..ANICUM. ONE AMERICA OR TWO? For a long time both terms, Southern Ocean and Pa,cific OCt'an, were used only With regard to the shape of Central for sections of the Pacilic and not for the America we find a contra.diction in Waldo THE FACE OF THE PACIFIC 145
filler's work of 1507. On his large worJd map he shows a narrow passage be 4nen North and South America, while on hemisphere (Fro. I) these are linked by ,a land bridge. We have not seen the eriginal of the lIlap for, of a thousand copies printed, only Q.ue has survived and is now apt in the Wollegg Cast,le iu Wurttemberg, Germany. But on the many reproductions 01 the hemisphere copied by other map makers the isthmus linking North and South America, at tho spot which we now call Central America, can be seen clearly. Both of Wa.ldseemiiller's conceptions have found their followers. One Bchool adopted his strait theory as shown on his large world map. (Nos. 6, 8, 10, II, 13, 30, 32, 40.) It was only after 1542 that no more important maps were drawn in this fashion. The land-bridge character of Central America had by then been established beyond doubt F~ 4--'1'he American portion of Diogo by half a century of exploration. The other Ribero's world map. In this reproduc echool followed the land-bridge theory which tion we have left all tbe name" COIl· fowld on his hemisphere. (Nos. 7, 9, tained in l,he original, although they we are too small to be legible. in order to 23, 27.) show how the old mapmakers worked Although Waldseemiiller drew his west coast of Central America before any Euro THE SOU~ST PASSAGE pean eye had Been it, he came remarkably Waldseemiiller's hemisphere of 1507 (FlO. close to the truth. It ruus toward the 1) only reaches to about 40° south. But his northwest, at first at an angle of 32°, then globe goros (FIG. 2) extend all the way to at an angle of 69° to the equator. In the South Pole, and on them South America. reality the two angles are 28° and 58°. But ends at about 43°. Thus Waldseemuller among those who believed in the land bridge assumed that the American land barrier between North and South America there soon did not reach the Antarctic. It was Magel developed a new school which, abandoning lan's similar conviction that prompted him Waldsoomiiller's conception, drew the course to look for a southwestern pa-ssage to the of Central America's Pacific coast almost Pacific, that is, a passage which would take Jl&fallel to the equator, indeed, Qven with a him l;outh and west around the American tendency toward the southwest rather than continent to the coveted Spice Islands (the the northwest. Among the maps available Moluccas), which the Portuguese had reached to us, the fir"t to show this new theory wal; in 1511. that of Thorne (1527), probably under the influence of idea-s similar to thOl;O which led Why did Waldseemilller and Magellan to the Schoner map of 1524, about which believe that there WILS a pa,')sage south of we shall have more to say later on. (Others America? .From a pamphlet printed about were No::!. 26, 28, 36, 37, 44, and 93b.) 1506 and called Copia der NelOen Zeytung E~'en so careful a mapmakcr as Ribero nits Presillg La.nd, we learn that somewhere (152!J), closely followed by No. 31, has an around 40° southern latitude on the east angle of only 9" (Fro. 4). coast of Sout.h America. a Portugueso ship had rounded a cape but then had been :Fl'om tho middle of the sixteenth century forced back owing to adverse winds. If onwl1l'ds, we find an increasing number of there is anything at all in this statement, it rna'll:; which S!IOW the coast more or less was probably the enormous mouth of the correctly. This is understandable. By 1539 Rio de la Plata (35° sOllthern latitude) which tho entire Pacific coast of Central America, the crow had seen. While it is very likely from the innermost point of the Gulf of that Magellan based his plan on some such Ca.lifornia in tho north to the coast of Co· report as this, in the case of Waldsccmuller lombia in the south, had been explored. it might have been just a guess or a strange 146 THE XXth CENTURY
int,uition. Or perhaps it was the idea that after one of their ships, the idea that Tierra there was one great ocean around the South del Fuego was part of a southern continen~ Pole and thl~t-like Africa, India, and was seriously impaired by Drake. The southeastern Asia--South America, too, had Silver Map on a medallion kept in the somewhere to come to an end. At any rate, British Museum and cut, probably soon all \\!aldsecmiiller's many followers u!:lCd his after 1580, in honor of Drake's voyage, conception. And even those cosmogra.phers shows a broad expanse of water south of who did not depcnd on him-such as the Tierra del Fuego. (Recognition of Drake', makers of the Lenox globe and the so-called discovery was also embodied in Nos. 79, Leonardo do, Vinci globe-show South Amer· 88, and 92a.) ica washed in the south by a wide expanse But in general the knowledge of Drake's of water. discovery spread very slowly. It would Another school of mapmakers took ov~ appear that for political reasons Queen Waldseemtiller'tl conception of the southern Elizabeth had at first forbidden any account port,ion of South America but added a huge of the expedition to be published-158B was south-polar continent furthel' to the south, the year of the Armada. Hence a large sepa,rutcd from America by It strait. We number of maps continued to show Tierra. find this idea for the firtlt time on the del Fuego as part of a southern continent. Scholwl' globe of HilS (FIC. ]7), that is, five (Nos. 77, SO, 82-86, 93b, 96.) years before Magellan actually disco\'ered It was only after the return 'Of the Schouten the strait. (Nos. II and 14 arc very similar.) < and Lc Maire expedition that the realization In September 1522, the few sUrvivors of of Tierra del Fuego's island character became the first circumnavigation of the globo re general. Since the navigators who had turned to Europe. Pigafetta's sketch of proved thill fact were Netherlanders, the the Strait of Magellan became known, It Dutch mapmakers became leading in the was now realized that I,he strait was about correct representation. The Janssonius map 10° to 12° further south than had been (1621) shows Tierra del l<'uego elearly as a a.'!sumed, that it was very narrow, and that separate island ·without any connection with Magellan had named the land south of it the southom continent. Tierra. dt>1 Fuego. I)l'Oof of the speed with which geographic news must have spread in SOUTH AMERICA'S PACIFIC CO,AtiT the first decades of the sixteenth century is Thanks to the efforts of four centuries of Schoner's globe of 1524, whieh already chroniclers and historians, we now know shows t,he strait at almost the correct almost every st,ep that was made in connec· latitude (Fro. 6). tion with the exploration of South America's While on this globe SchoneI' stiU showed west coast, and it seems to us as if the Mllgl~I1all's Tierra del Fuego as part of his outline of this coast should have bl>en clear own imagilULry southern continent which to mapmakers ever since ]537. In 1522 the was copied by many of his followers, more Spania.rds, having established themselves in detailed knowledge about Tierra del Fucgo Panama, began to explore the coast further was gained by :F'rancis Drake when in the south in searc.h of Peru, the land of gold. autumn of 157S he entered the Pacific by By 1537 the Spaniards had rmwhed a, {'oint wILy of the St.rait of :MageIJan. Unlike approxjmately 36° southern latitude. Magel. Magellan, he was met by heavy storms. la1l, on the other hand, had, after entering His 811ip was carried southward nntil the the Pacific, cruised northward along the coast of Tierra del Fuego, which appeared coast to a point somewhere betwccn the as a group of isl(~nds, cume to an end. "The thirtieth and fortieth parallel-if not farther uttermost cape or hcdland of all these llands -before he struck out westward; and in stands ncere in 56 deg., without which there 1526 Guevara sailed from Spain through the is no maine or Iland to be seene to the Strait of Magellan to Mexico's west coast. Southwards, but that the Atlanticke Ocean Yet, mainly owing to the difficulty in longi and the South Sea, meete in a most large tude determination, it was a long time bt'forc and free scope," reads the report of the the simple outline of the coast found its voyage. Although the first complete eir. correct reproduction on maps. cumllavigl~tion of Tierra del Fuego was only Reduced to fundamentals, the Pacific accomplished in January WI6 by the Dutch coast of South America consists of three navigators Schouten and Le Maire, who lines and two angles, as indicated in our named the southernmost, cape Cape Hoom sketch (FIG. 5). Omitting the Gulf of Pana. THE FACE 01" THE PACIFIC H7
one might even reduce the lines to two globe (1508) make.'! the angle -12°, Leonardo linking Aricn and Pt. Pa.riiin with tlte da Vinci (1519) still smaller. Thorno (1527) coast of Mexico. As FlO. I shows, gave tho coast the correct tilt toward the IJdaeemilUer nctuaUy 'used only two lines. east, and Mercator (1538) mado it para.lJel paring his idea of the coast with reality, with the meridilw. But the tendency to· we .find him rumarkably accurate in two ward the west remained. Even Holga (1603) ntial points. He placed the still hILS it. It was only in th IIJOt where the coast changes its first hall of the sc\'entcc'nth een· direction, Le., t\rien, at \70 south. tury tllat it w~ filHLlly elimi· _ latitude (in reality 1~!O), nated. IDd he believed that the angle During t.he sixteenth century l!etween tho two line.'l was 1\6° n peculiar dc\-c\ pmellt took (ill reality 133°). A~ain we must placc in tho dmwin' of Ihii! COil. 1,: "nmember that Wnldseemiiller sOllthel'Jl Chile dcvI·lupcd an IIgly drew his lines nll\ny years before 1Joil, which grew to lu,rgo dimell Illy European bad tmveled along sioml before it disappeared nguin. these coasts. H i::l conception of The reason for thill ill easy to 8ec. &his COlI t, including his error of The we. I, coast of •'out.h America uderestimating its southern ex 7'5. was cha.rted not ill one pi ~e but lenaion, ":M adopted by his many followers. FlO. 6-Oulliuo skotd.l mninl)' from tho north und partly o( Soull. America frolll the south. Owing to tbe To mako Wa1rl8flemlillor's coast dil1i ·ult.iel:! in determining longi. oorrespond to reldity, four chn.ngml were tudes, tho two lines did not quite fit DeceS8a.ry : together \ (tho Strait of "fI!agl'lIan had been placed tuo far ea.:;t.), jllst a.s if, (I) Tho continent had to bc made j.o 'reach further sOllth. This, as we hu\'e fleen, in building a tllnJlel at the same tillle from two side-'!, the directions were nnt properly 1Va8 done by neurly aU mapmakcrll aftcr tho result of ! gellan'l:! voyage became kno\nl. obscr\'(xJ. To lll/lke "I' for the di"e("('pancy, the boil don·loped. Perhnp. it W/IS al'o (2) The (.;nlf of Panama had to bo add(:d. purposely laalti\'/lled by the 'puninrdl:! to '!'his could be done after it had been explored fool any other people who might wish to in 1513/22. I::)uhoner (1524) alruady givos reach Peru. HI'! first indications arc to be lhe gen~ral idea. The Gull is drawn partic found on the lIlaps of Thorne (l!J27) nml ularly well on Hiberu's IlHtp of 1529 (Fifl. 4). Tramezini (1554-). It grew to full size in (3) The anglo at Arien. had to be in Ru 'ccUi (luUI) lind I:!uni\'ed through Ihe nmp:> QfCused. For q uitc some time after \.\ nld· of Mercator (I ;)13!J), Ortelius (I fi70. FII;. 19) aecmiiller, Ihe 1II11plllaken! did too llIt1uh of and many oillors. (Xos. ()~, 74, 77, '0, !J6.) a good tiling. Insu:l\d of stretching the A similar boil, but lit a point furillt'r l'ollth ~Ltgt'lIan, angle from I Ilio to 133°, they pra<:ticuUy ll.nd dircctly abo\'e the Strait llf drew a straight linc for the entirll WI'st is to Le found in allothel' group of maps. COllSt. On No. 12 the llng e i::l 154°, and (No::!. S~, 921\.) A relativt'ly ael'lJnlte carly No. 20 I;ltuWS 11.11 allgle of I ~)O0, in other presentat.ioll uf the general ollllilW of tlte won.ls II l' (4) Actually the long straight stretch of One of the rna I, intriguing my. teries of the Pacitic coa>lt of l:;outh Amerieu between the Pueific map was that of the north rn Arica and the :-;tmit of i\lagellan run:; alma t, passages. To understand the intenHity with but not quite·, paraUel to the meridian. It which this question was fought 0\'01' by tilts very slighlly to tbe east, forming lUI geographers, 0110 IIlIl!';t remem bel' thn I, tho angle of aLout"'S5 with the equutor. Wald aim of Colurnbll!:l ond his foUower;< llild bt'en IIOOllliiller's COMI, tilted in the opposite direc· to reach the t rcasures of tho Oricnt, de tion. For some reasoll the groat majority scribed by Mnrco Polo in ucb glowing of the early maps exaggerated Walusccmiil colors. As oon as it was realized that ler's smaU error by letting the coast tilt ColumblLS hlt.1 hit on something that nobody heavily toward the west, greatly decreasing had expected, tbe fir t question wu.~ how t.o its angle with the equator. The Lenox get around this obstacle. The Portuguese us THE XXth CENTURY bad discovered the southeastern pll88age to during tbe years 1734 to 1823 and that for the Pacific around Africa and India; Magellan 326 years all attempts to travel from Europe the southwcstern passage around South to the Orient by the nortbern sea route America. Why should there not be northern around Asia came to nought until Norden· passages, a northeastern one around the skjOld finally accomplished tho feat in the north of Europe and Allia" and a northwestern years 1~78/79. one lI.round the north of America'! The AMERASIA desire to find nort,hern passages WIlS partic ularly strong among the English and J 1Iat not 80 to his contemporaries. It is and eastern Asia ill such close prox. qUito likely that the majority of thinking imity thlLt he believed them to be onl'. people of that time who had heurd anything Everything seemed to fit into this theory at aU about the discoveries during the yean~ the voyagell of Columbus, Ve8pucci, Magellan, foUowing upon 1492 had in their minds a and others, as well as the account.s of Marco conception far more similar to SchoneI' thllJl Polo and Coms. Only ono thing did not to WaldBeemtHler. For this there were mauy tally: if Schoner's theory were correct, bow 1'88800s: could Marco Polo have sailed IlOme from (1) The survivors of Magellan's expedi. Cathay? One of Schoner's followers (Ko. 21) ing(~niously tion had returned with very faulty ideas in solved this question vory by the matter of longitudes. One of their drawing lL canal through the land bridge accounts stated that the Strait of Magellan between Asia and South America. But most of the mapmakers who accepted Scho 1JlL8 separated by 106° of longitude from the Philippines (in realit,y WOO). This calcula· ner's Amel'llsian conception (Nos. 29,43, 50, ;)5) were not worried on that score. After tion was accepted by SchoneI', thero being no other authorities on the subject at that all, Marco Polo might have been lying. For time. some time Schoner's thpory pushcd all others into the background. (2) SchoneI' had received false infomla tion about the geography of Mexico. It In 1542 and 1543 Spanish expeditions was wrong inasmuch as it placed Mcxico's starting from Mexico followed the coal'lt Pacific coast much too far west, about 80° northward to a point abont 42.30° north. west of the Strait of Magellan (ill reality: They found no sign of a hmd bridge to Asia, 30°). Putting together these figures of the but neither did tbey prove that there was width of the Pacific and the location of tho no land bridge further north. So Gastaldo, Mexican west coast, SchoneI' could not but beginning with his map of 1546, simply arrivo at the conclll!'~iOIl that the I)hilippines extended the ocean farther to the north were only about 26° of longitude froIII tbo but otherwise continued the Amern:,;ian Mexican west coast (in reality: 130°) ami conception. His sea III between Asia and that the Ladrones (Marianas) were just off America was now no longer on the twentieth this coast. but on the fortieth northern parallel (FIG. 7). Gastaldo's map of 1548 breaks the record in (3) Tho news about the great weah,h which Cortes had found in Mexico caused the matter of land bridges. He links SchoneI' and many others to ll8.'lume that America not only with Asia but--via Grecn the Spaniards had reached tho Asiatic land-also with Europe. As he bas no countries praised by Marco Polo. 1'erm Australi.s , bis earth con ist of one continent only (FlO. 8). In the Gastaldo (4) There was no evidence of wat-er version, Schoner's Anwrasian theory was north of tho line Mexico/Philippines, followed by nlllllY maplllllk. as no European had as yet tmveled PI'S. (Nos. 59, 63, 68, 84.) "/ -//,~ there. Magellan had not been // '// /.'/, f.JJwl But finally the land bridgo fa.rther north than the fi f / / // / '/ I~~/· between Asia and Amcrica. tecnth pamllel northern lati II f}HJ I ~ r' disappeared, disrupted by the . <\I •. ,. ';----" tuae. Idl... Iff!" if",w. / ~ gl'lLdUll1 recognition of tho full /\tE;' . , Po. ",' Ii' ... ., impact of ~lagcllan'll voyago (5) Balboa had called the Itiit. - ~. , . ami ddeat.ed by the con ocean South Sca, not West r't~ ~... ~ ~ ") Sea. ])id this not indicate tinuous failure of all attempt.s \-..~ J\.4 $ to find the wealth of Marco thlLt a belt of land connected ~\\\-\' "'~ ~' \ \ Polo's China in North Amer the Isthmus of Panallla wit.h \ ...\. . \. \. ~ \ " Asia? '\. ..\.\. ,"\. ,,"'- ica. .,,- ~r+.;. ,,-. " (6) Columbus's own brother, "" - ~ NOHTIfWEST PASSAGE B1Lrtolomeo, on his sketch map It is a characteristic of most of 150;3, had brought South FlO. 7-J.\coPO Caswldo (1546) olaborated Scho human boings that thcy do not America into the immediate vi like incompleteness. Thero cinity of A:lilL. ncr"s HArnenLSian" the ory by p!l~cing tho is a certain horror vacwi in By piecing together aU that 6(U1ffi botween Amorica ma.n which makes him fill in and Asil\ farther to tho he knew-and a.ll that be could nortll, 8Omowhero in gaps ill his knowledge with know-Schoner found Mexico northern Cllliforru8 his imagination. The geog- 150 THE XXth OENTURY varying, by Orteliu8 in 1570 (FlO. 19) and • . long list of maps. (Nos. 70, 77, 80, 85-88, 96.) Thus, as in the Co.&) of the nortbeaa pllSSage, we again find the curiou8 fact thM the majority of mapmakers believed in & northern passage although all attempts to find one by practical navigation proved nothing but an endless cbain of disappoint ments. Ever since the continental charact« of America hud been sensed. the pages of lustory were fil1cd with the names of th08G who made Much attempts. Some of them thought they had actually found it. There FIO.8-l.n his map of 1548. Jncopo Gostahlo cunnected 1111 (uur continents are 80 many islands, 80111lds, and bays -ho did 1I0t have II Term" ulJlralis between North America lUld the Pole tha~ by land, milking t.ho earth ono great most "oyagors returned-if they returned contillent at all-with hopeful stories: they bad a17~ reacLlCd the Pacific! Many books wore raphers of Europe had absolutely no written to provo that a northwest passago knowledge about tho outline of the was possible. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, for northern coast of North America; in example, used this argumont: if there wero fact, they could not he. vo any knowledge a land bridge between Asia and America, of it, a' the first voya~os along that the Tartars would have gone to America; coa..,t were not aceompliMhed till the since no Tartars were found in Amorica, nineteentb century. Yet most mapmukcrs there could bo no land bridge. A similar insisted on drawing it on their' maps. Wald· argument had been advanced by Sanuto in seemiiller had done so too but, by drawing J5S8: thore nre horses in Asia. But the Me~icans 1\ traight line, he bad at least indicated that were afraid of Cortcs's horses; henco he did not know anything abollt that coast. America and Asia have no land connection. Others, however, took the figments of their imaginationM for facts, and entered ela.boratc Of coast lines and bays on their maps (Cor example, Nos. 28 and 4U). These mpn U.'I well as the followers of WaldsecmiiUer 'howed nothing but water north of Americu. But tll'y were lioon overshadowed by another school which believed in 11 narrow strait leading between America ami some arctic contine::nt from tho Atlantic to tbe Pacific, similar to the strait drawn on many maps betwecn South America und the antarctic continent. This school was under tho influence of the fertile brain of Mercator. He developed the two chief FJO. 9-00rhnrd Mercator's idea of tho allUro of the T'u.cific (IGJR). 'fo tho vllriations on tbe theme of the nortbwestern north of America I,e aho\\'a land which at.rait. The first (1538) was that the land ho beliovod to be part of Asia. To mako north oC America was a part of Asia reaching his conception clearer wo '"we changL' .mary was overland throngh C.anada they could not satisfy the curiosity of ~xander Mackenzie, 1793). And when in their contemporaries. On the.':le maps the tbe twentieth century Amundsen (1903/ coasts of North America were drawn not G5) finally succoc.ued in navigating north from high-flying imagination and combina ~ America, this had a purely scientific tion but according to facts or what their and no commercial significance. makers took for facts. (Nos. 39, 41, 42, 45, 71, 79, 92a, 93a, 97, 100, 102, 105, 108, A northwest passage from the Atlantic to 1I5, 123, 125, 127, 129.) ihe Pacifio presupposes not only that there ill water north of America but also that Wh.i1e in the sixteenth century the Mer· there is water between America and Asia. cator school with its imaginary coast was In this respect we have 1;0 far met wit.h two fill' ahead in popularity, in the seventeenth IChools, that of Wnldseemuller (Fw. 1) llnd ccntury this second, nonco~ll1ittal group that of Sohoner·Gllstaldo (Fros. (I and 7). conquered the field. The DIany disappoint. nwaS only one more step to sever the latters' ments in the search for a strait had damp. land bridge completely and to replace it by a enet! the ardor of the clLrtographers. The Itrait. This step, perhaps made already by first step toward the solution of the north Gastaldo himself, is to be found on the map west pas&lge puzzle was made by the Bering of Zaltieri (1566, FIG. 10), which may have voyage in 1741 from Kamchatka to Alaska, been copied from a lost IUllp by Gastaldo. which found its scientific reproduction on The Zalticri map not only sbows the st.rait; the map of the St. Petersburg Academy of it even has a Ilamo for it 'trait of Anian. Sciences (li58). This map, however, was Muoh ha.s been written abollt the origin of stiJl inclined to consider the Aleutian Islands this name; most likely it was a corrupt.ion as parts of an American penil18ula protTIlding Alld misunderst.a.ncling of n word used by fill' to tbe west. The second step was made Maroo Polo. For us the int.cresting thing is by tbe last Cook expedition (lnG/SO). But that both tbe strnit and the name made the puzzle was actually only solved in the 'All unusuul hit with the rnapmakt,rs of an nineteenth ccntury in the course of explora· entire century. They are containen i.n one tions sucb 08 those of Parry, Bcechcy, way or othor in a large number of maps lip }1'ranklin, and othors. to 1783. (Nos. (j2, M, Uti, 69, 70, 72.74, 77, SO, 82, 8;j·88, no, 93b·96, 98, 101, IJ3, THE PAOIFIC COA T OF NORTII AlItEJUCA 140.) HU\rillg soen how the shape of Central But., lest we faU into the error of believing America emerged and how the northern the trait of Anian to be an early reproduc. Ulystery was treated, we now have to fill in tion of the Bering Strait, we IIIURt stress the t.ho gap botween the two. A correct reo fact that Zalt ieri and his followers put the production of North America's Pacific coast south rn ent r811Ce of the St·rait at about 40° is to he found rell.lti,·ely late. Well into the northern lat.itude, while that of tho Bering second IlalI of the soventccnt.h century thie Strnit is about ~WO further to coast is incorl'(,'CtIy drawn on the north. and t hilt they did the great majority of maps. Dot have the 81ight<-_~t knowl· The reason for this is simplo. edgo of tho long ellostwa.nl The tremendous oxpansivo extension of northel1st-crn A 'ia energy of the' Spanish people on the one hand and the long had spent it- elf in Central· westwllrd extension of Alaska and South America, the West 011 the other. Indies and the Philippines. Be ides, there was no powerful The ._chools we havo men· magnet drawing the Span. tioned so far wcrp gratluu.l.ly iards from their bases in outtlist.anccd by ma.pmakcrs l\'fexieo into North America. who resisted the tcmptation Early reports about the easy of drawing coasts from im· MAR Del ZUR wealth of these arells were agination. An carly rep· soon found to be completely resentative of thiH group is FlO. IO-The St.roit. of Anial1 baselcss. (The discovery of Ribera (FlO. 4) The l1lap:-l between America lUld Asia California's gold riches was belonging to this group are which WIl.8 to haunt a long list of maps-was introduced only made in 1848.) By tho not nearly IL'l exciting as into carl,ogrophy by tlte map middle of the eigbteenth cen· toosc mentioned before, and of Bolognito Z&1ftcri in 1666 tury the Spaniards had hardly 162 THE XXth CENTURY expanded northward beyond the areas occupied in the first ru 11 of their discoveries, and they held no permanent acttlement.~ be yond the peninsula of Lower California. There was little knowledge ll.bout the course of the coast further to the north, and little intercst in it. Only Drake had followed the coast ., .....,... ·I·..~.-:. to about 48° northern latitude. A decisive ~ :.; change in tbis attitude WlUl wrought by the ~::j. -~':::::. comjng of the Russians to America in the .' wake of Bering's voyage. In 1769 the Spanish authorities w('re warned of the .ZURj :::'~\ danger of Russian encroa{'hments. Now tho "'_"'l'9.. ~.' 'f.' ." .. - Spanillrds took up the exploration and colonization of t be coast in carnest. In Iii6 San Francisco was foundcd. By 17MO the FIG. II-Vesconte de Maiollo's map of coast WIUI known up to the sixt,ieth parallcl, 1527 shows the Verrazano conception of North America, ,..itJ, its WOl't cosat that is, as far lUI Alaska, whose coast was tUnling at a sharp angle toward the meanwhile being approach(~d by the Russians northel\.8t. South An'orica's Pacifio who founded Sitka in 1799. Thus reliable COl\.8t is drawn 88 an almo8t straight maps based on facts, not on fancy, could line. The stnlit nanning ill a north, south direction through Centrol Ameri· not· be expected before the end of the eight ca W88 soon abandoned by mapmakerll, eenth century. How did the various map as ita nonexistence had boon proved makers and their schools treat thjs coast up . by the mariners till then? Waldaccmiiller (FlO. 1) admitted his igno Ribero's mup of 1529 (FlO. 4) and is followed rance of details by dmwing an absolutely by Nos. 31, 38, 39,41,42,45,57,79,92&, straight line running exactly from north to and 103, In this group we would alao south, or parallel to the meridian. In include Gastaldo for giving a rather good reality the general direction of the con.o;t picture of the coast, bad he not-with the from Sitka to Cape Corrientes in Mexico possible execption of his map of 1556 runs at an angle of 28° to the meridian. spoiled his and his school's record by' hia Most of Waldseemiillcr's followers stuck to adherence to the Amerasilln conception. his exampic. The entire Mercator school Two mistakes crept into the maps of the which we discussed in connection with the cautious group. The.first was the tendency northwest passage drew its own fanciful to draw the west coast beyond Lower west COMt but., on the whole, also had the Calilornia more or less parallel to the equator. coast run along the meridian. This error is found in HondiuR (1630). He A school which drew an entirely different took it from Mercator, who had made it on coast line took its inspiration from tlle Vcr his map of 1/)69, perbapH owing to an er· razano voyage. In 1524 Giovanni da Ver roneous interpretation of the account of tho razano, in the service of the King of France, CQronado expedjtion (1540/41) in the work had sailed along the east coast of North of Gomura, und from Ortelius (FlO. 19). America in search of a route to Asia. .It Hondius's example was followed in Nos, 105 seems that somewhere between 35° and 40° and 113, down to 1783 in Vaugondy's map, northern Intit,ude he thought he saw an The second mistake pictured Lower Cali. expansc of water on the other side of a fornia not Ill> the peninsula it is but as an narrow ne('k of land. This led a number of island. This error survived through a long mapmakers to belie\'e that at "hili point list of lUaps. (FIG. 12 and Nos. 99·101, North America narrowed down to a thin 108, Ill, 112, 115, IlG, 118, 120, 123, 124.) isthmus and that the water on the other Up to the end of the sC\'cntcenth century, side was the Pacific. This is the conception the mapmakers of the cautious group hn.d on which Mlliollo based his map of 1527 not dared go beyond t he northern end of (FIG. II). (AL 0 Nos. 26, 28, 78.) Lower California. In his map of 1700, :Far closer to thc truth than any of the Delisle carried the coast to 42!0 northern schools mentioned !'l0 far came the cautious latitude, and in li22 to ·H'o. 'l'he outlines group of mapmakers who only drew as milch of the complete coast, including t.hat of as they knew. This group starts with Alaska, are found on the map of tbo 'St. THE FACE OF THE PACn'IO J53 Pe&enburg Acadl'm) of Sciences laml. He linked southeastern Asia (1758) and No. 13i. Yet e\'en the by land, which he called Terrel Jelatively enlightened eighteent h Incognita, with the west coast of eeotury produced a numLer uf Central Africa., thus making the maps of this coast which were a Indian Ocean a "mediterranean" relaptlO into Ula pmaking by fancy, sea. (FlO. 14). eumples bciJlg the lUap of San8011 (1'105), which puts t he south 'oast During the Middle Agl's the of Alaska 10° too far south awl Greek' concept of the spherical IItows a. northwl'st pa."Sage through shape of the earth and of l\ southl'rIl "ellst~rn continent was rejecrod by the Canada. and UII ocean" in FlO. 12-Abrahnm what is t.odav the northwestern Coos ( 1624) shows teachings of the Church. "There ClOl1ler of the bSA; the maps NOll. the peninsula of is no reason," St. Augustine 132, 135, and 13S, which greatly Lowor California wrote in his celebrated De Ci'l!itate 68 lUl island. Tllis Dei, "for giving credence to that embellished the "eastern oceun"; custom survived and the maps Nos. 134 and 139, in many maps up fabulous hypothesis of Ulen who aU of the French school. to the eighteenth walk a part of the earth opposite century to our own, Wh08e feet are in a position contrary to ours." Ho a.lso emphasized that the Scriptures said Any gcographical discussion concerning nothing about antipodes and finally that &be Pacific coast of the American continent there was no historical testimony as to could onJy Rtart after the dil:lcoveries of the existence of such regions. This Columbus; but tho Cltrtographic history of last statement was undoubtedly correct, as &be other llhorcs of t.he Pacific gOCR far back the Greeks had based their conception of a into antiquity. Among geographical puzzles southern continent not on experience but one of the most intriguing was that of the merely on the work of their brains. Not all IOUthern continent-the Terra A'lIstralis, 8 churchmen. howe\'er, rejecrod the sphericity puzzle which caused cartographers as much of the earth. St. Isidore of Seville and the excitemcnt and as many headuches as the Irish priest Virgilius both conceded the problem of the northwest passage. possibility of antipodes. But while, by an The concoption of a southern continent irony of fate, there are today no churches was originally uased on Greek cosmograph in the antipodes dedicated to these two, ical theory. Onco the Greeks hull proved there are some dedicated to St. Augustine, that the earth was a sphere and not a flat dis.k, the very man who refuted their existence. they began to speculate on the oxistence of The medieval conception of the earth is a continent in the southern hemisphere. shown in the round or oval maps which rep Two classical geographers in particular in resent<.'<1 it as a disk, curious mixtures of fluenced thc thought of later students in Bible interpretations, Arab influence, and this reo pect. Pomponius Mela (FIG. 13) geographical features taken from the an· representcd what wc might call the "wet" cicnt8. In the latter part of the l\oUddle theory. He believed that Ages they became more realill the southern hemisphere con tic. Tho maps of Marino eist.ed. chiefly of ocean ill Sanuto and Petrus Vesconte which, surroundcd by water, in the first q uurtcr of the there was n continent.; this fourteenth century (FIG. 15) continent had Ceylon-thc are among the best of their Taprobane of the ancient-s time and were frequently for'its northeasternmost ex copied and gradually im trenlity, and at a very eu.rly pro\'ed upon. These maps stage it was ca.lled Terra Aus follow Mela's "wet" theory, tralis (suuthl'rrI land). Ptol FlO. 13--PomponiuEl Mela with an ocean arouud the emy on the other hand, (middlo of the first contury inhabited world, Lut without A.D.) believed that. ono the great gl'ographer of De.:a" us surrounded t.lle his southern continent. On Alexandria who worked about inllabited world lUld that the other hand, Ptolemy's a century later, represent.ed there WWI a large cont,inont maps came into vogue again the "dry" theory, wh~h sup on tllo souUmrtl hemi and were often reproduced. "phere, the nort hll88tern posed the southern hem.i most point of which W88 His Geographia, SbOWUlg the sphere to con8ist largely of Taprobllllc (Ceylon) Terra Inrogni14 in the south, 154 TIlE XXtb OENTURY great voyages of discovery which carried the Portuguese around Africa to the Indian Ocean shattered Ptolemy's "dry" theory, proving that the Indian Ocean wa.'J not a landlocked sea and finding no trace of the southern continent. Yet the Terra InrognillJ remained on many maps, only moving further to the south. FlO. 14-ClaudiUB Ptolemy (middle of the Behaim's globe of 1492 (FlO. 16) was an second century A.D.) shows the world effort to reconcile Ptolemy's teachings with between the seventieth northern and the newly acquired knowledge. Behaim the twentieth southern parallel. With the exception of the western side, he broke up the central pa.rt of the Terra In· had Ills map end with land in all direc· cognita, replacing it by some islands but tions, so that the Indian Ocean appears still leaving its western and eastern portions as a landlocked sea. His India is too which reached out from southern Africa and small, his Ceylon (Taprobane) too large. Noxt toward the eo.st he had Houtheastern Asia like two arms stretched tho Malay Peninsula (wbich he called f,oward each othcr. the Golden Chersonese); then the Gulf of Siam (called ltla.gltttS Sillll8); and An entirely new development began with finally today's French Indo.China, Schoner's globe of 1515 (FIG. 17). In deal· which he linked by land with Central ing with the southwest passage, we have Africa already seen how he came to draw a southern continent on it. His continent enclosed an became practically a best-seUer and had a antarctic sea like a huge, not quite closed total of forty-eight editions aU over Europe ring with its opening south of Java, and between the years 1472 and 1624. A com was caUed by Schoner Brasil,ie Regia, the bination of both types was the map (of un land of brazilwood. In his map of 1520 he oertain date) of the codex in the Venice further developed. his theory with some Library which, although a disk, showed minor changes, and on the map of 1524 Ptolemy's southern land bridge. -(FlO. 6) he inscribed on the continent the Marco Polo's account of his travels gave words "the southern laud recent,ly discovered 0. new impetus to the supporters of the but not yet fully known." From now on southern land theory. In describing the the southern continent became a standard countries between Chino. and India, Marco feature. With the exception of Waldo Polo spoke of Chamba (Cochin China) and seemiiUcr and his school and some other Java thc Great (Java). He then describcd maps (Nos. 35 and 48), most mapmakers a number of other places, giving the dis agreed on the existence of a Terra A1/.stralis, tances to them. While we know now thll,t differing only with regard to its size and he measured the distances to these places sha.pc. If there were no southern con from Chamba, he was for a long time mis tinent, they argued, the northern hemisphere understood by his learned readers, who with its vast land masses would be heavier believed the distances to be than the southern one and measured from Java. This the world would turn upside misunderstanding led to the down. As Asia, Europe, and belief that, 1,200 milcs to the Africa are for the most part south of Java, there was a to the north of the equator, great and rich country caUed there must be a continent Locach (later corrupted into south of the equator so large Beach) whcre brazilwood grew that with the southern parts and gold was to be fOlLnd, of Africa and America. it and still further south the would form a weight equal to island of Java the Less. TIllS that of tho northern countries. interpretation took the geog raphers to some fabulous FlO. 15-Potrua Vesconte's From Schoner's map of 1515 countl'ies far into the southern disk map of 1320 is a rela· onward, the southern con· hemisphere, while in reality tively advanced examplo of tinent grew lustily till about Marco was only speaking medieval cosmography. Ita 1640. During this period it most accurate part is the about Siam (Locach) and Med.it.orranean area and passed through two stages. Sumatra (Javathe Less). The Ambia The first was initiated by THE FACE OF THE PACIFIC 166 to the south. On the maps of the Finaeus group the Pacific coast of the Terra Austral-is followed approximately the thirtieth southern parallel, but southeast of Java it had a deer) gulf, where the break had been in the ring like southem continent of Schoner (1515, FIG. 17). Of the two bulges created by the gulf, the western one was now called Brasil'ie Regia and the eastern one Regia Patulis. This latter name derived from the name of a O. >0 town, Patala, near the month of FIG. 16-i\1artin Behaim's fomous globe of 1492 the Indus, about the southeasternmost displays the conception of t,he most advanced point reached by Alexander the Great. Occidental cosmographers on tbe ova of tho dis Standing as it then did Itt the edge covery of America. In I,his reproducl.iou the of the known world, Reg-io Palalis globe projection has beon changed to Mercator's projection, in which tile meridiwls run pilI·n.Uel came to mean since Pliny us much instead of rneeting at the two p.ole8. The angle as "the furthest," thus later being has been uuded by us. Tho elUlI·ern Illld wcstern applied to part of the Bout,hern con ends overlllp tinent. By now the mapwakers had convillced themselves so thoroughly FiDaeUB in 1531 (FIG. 18, followed bv Nos. of the existence of the Terra A ust'mlis that 33,34, 4:3, 46, 49, 50, and 55). Thes~ maps Mercator wrotE' on-his map of 1538: "That retained Ptolemy's southern continent whose there are lands here, is certain, but how existence no one had disproved, although wo.ny and in which limitB, is uncertain." Do. Gama had broken a holo in its south western and Ma.geUan in its southoastern corner. In fact, :Mngellan's voyage seemed FlO. I~On Finaeus's map of 1531 tilt! 1'eN'u Al/atra/is has grown to respect. able proportions. "Ve have simplified the projection used OD tbe origino.l mop The originator of tho second stage in the growth of the southern continent and the FIG. 17-This reproduction of part of out.standing representa.tive of tho largest JOhUJUlCS Schoner's globe of 1515 type of Terra A1tstrah"s was Mercator, with showR that he drew lL strait to the his map of 1569. It was taken oyer by Bouth of :;;outh Americll, although not fu.r enough to the south, four years very many maps, among them Ortclius's of before Magellan discovered tho st,mit 1570 (F'lC. 19) as well as Nos. 70, 74, 77, which bears his llume. SC'I,oner's 82·8S, 90, 93b, 94, 96-98, and 105. soulhern continent encloseu tho South Polo like 1\ wiele ring of 10n,1 open Mercator and Ortelius (whose map we townru the southwestern l'ucil1c reproduce as it is more clearly drawn) depicted practically overything us 'l'erra to ha.vo furnished addit-ionnl confirmation of Aust-ralis which was not proved to be wat·er; a Terra A llstra{'is, for had not Magellan seen but by omitting names and details of outline land Oil his left when passillg round the they admitcd t,hat they did not know much southern tip of America? It is also quite about this continent. They left a neck of possible that the Portuguese, while trading water between Terra. AU8tralis and New in Indonesia" had heard of some large country GULnf'a, whieh latter had been visited by the 156 THE XXth CENTURY EIO. I(I-Ou tho map of Auraham Onolius of 1570 the Terra AU..~lra.z.i8 hus I1t,tuined its Jilrg "Mt sizo. Part of it.s coast facing the Pacific roscmbles tho coasts of Austmlia. To South Amflricn O.·telius gave a big boil in southern FIG. 21l-0utllllo sketch of Austmlia and Chile. J'lpan is ut approximately the right Tasmaniu. The heavily drawn parts plnce, but its shape is stiU quit,e wrong of Australia's and 'fasmllni,,'s coasts were discovered by Dutch explorel"8 bet,ween 1605 and 1644; tho rest much PortugUe .. Dutch discoveries did not essentially Behaim's conception wa adopted bv eClotradict the ')' rra A uslralis conception; it V,ruldseemiillcr. His gore, (FIG. 2) how th'c WUDot blasted until in H.i42 Tasnmn traveled game elephant·s..trunk /lnd largo islands. The iD a wide circle aroulHI "New Holland," B ·haim-\oVuJdseellliiller conception wus later &bus pro\'ing it. to be a contine-nt anu not copied wit h mj nor ch nrro" on a large n uIIIher inked to a 'Terra A 118/ralis. Among the of mnps. (~u.. ·Hi, S·IO. 13·J(j, 23, 24, 27, earli I, to give an idea of Australia were the 30 -l0.) eautiou Iy drawn map of Cololl1 (about One school branched ofJ with the, 'chaneI' lM2)nawcllus~os, 110, 115,117. An gll)bl" of Ij:! til' .Am ra"ia n school. \rith attempt to reconstruct l.he ea"t COllst. was it t.l1O elephant's trunk dislIppcared. sineo made by Callandcr (17U(\ins), j list prior to sout heasterrt Agin wa", linked to Cent.ral k'a voyage. Hilt it tllrned out to b(' at and :O;outh .·\merica. The .lIar del Z/" wa. fAult. The corn'ct rcproduction did not bl'lie\'ed to be identical with Ptolemv's come tillnfter t.he R('COIHl phase of Austrnlill.'s MnYl/'I/s 8il/118 (FIll. 14). ,'choner drew discovery (17Im/7U), when Cook explorcd this globe when the firilt result of the New Zcala.ml lind Australia's cast COllst. Portu)!'u St' \'o~'ages to Imlone8io. Ilnd of leaving only t.lle remaindcr of t he south Magcllan's voyage had become known. consI, to later explorers. 'J'!ltwks to Sllhonel"s quick work, we find on Yet the bclief in the great ,outlH'rI1 his map name,; such as those of tbe ~r lucca.. contin nt survin·d c\'('n aft,er Tasman', (;ilolo, Timor, Brunei (Borneo), somo of the and Cook': voyages. "To put nn eno to l'hilippulp blnndg, ulIll the Ladrones (Maria. all div'n;ity of opinion about u IIlutter so IillS) , the Intll:r too f II' to the south. unous ami important" us the T/'rra ..lU8. Anotht>r sehool branched otT with Thorne'. trolis was the mnin objcct of Cook's sccond mllp (15:.?7); it di.soh· d a large part of thl' (1772/74). voyago Aftllr stopping at ew elrphunt's t I'U nk into a n 11111 bel' of large Zealand, Cook sailed u. far south as he islund·. (:'\0:<. 37. :-11. :)2.) could. He mude a compl('tc circle around tho 'outhern hemisphere at about 55° to And, of cuur,;c, thpre was again t.he group 65° south(>rI1 lat it.ude and thereby sailed of imlepemlcnt lUll plUnkl'I'S who uuly in· through region wher the Terra "-Illslrali,~ duded thut for which tl1('re was som basi. was formerly bdic\'cd to be ancl where he To it belon :\luioLlo (15:!'i'), one of th first found nothing tHat wat'cr, a few barren is to ::;I~ow the Philippincs; Hibero (I;,):!!l), who lands and llntarctie ice. Only ufter the re· IiI'ew Sumatra, the north coast of .J IInt, the 8ult of this \'(),\'n~e becamo lulown diu t.h :\lalav Peninsula, and sOlUe of the Molueca alluring']' rra Al/8/ralis disappear for good and 'Philippine I8Iuml:;; Cabot (15-1-4), who from maps. put ·t.he Lndrones in the right place and ga\'e rnany of t!lI'U! t heir correct nllllle ; Gastaldo (I:jtil), with many details in the Banda S a; Bcrteli (15G,'»), with n large We have seen that by the time of Behaim number of j"lanu numes. From t.llCn on (FlO. IU) two arm' reaching out frolll Africa I ndonesia and soutlwastcl'n Asia were drawn and ,outhclI.',tel'll Asia and a number of more or less correcth·. rsland b\' j::;land, ialllnds Wl'ro left of Ptolemy's Term Incognitll. the picturr of t his ll1a7.~ of island,; ,,:us pieced Wo arc nnly interested hem in the arm uf together. Oil ~'Iercll t or ("jfm) we lind Kew southea.-;tcrn A.·ill, which resemblos an cle· GUill(,U, on Ortelillg (J;'j~!.l) the Solomon plllUlt'· t funk, ancl in t.hc iRhtncls to the oast (diseo\'ered in );jll7). Particularly good i,; and sout hllll-5t of it. As to t,heir knowledge the map of Liuschotcn (159!J), his hid error of these islands, the ca.rtogra.phers depended being that ho put the'Ladrone. too far to principally on Mureo Polo', words and on the south. their own imagination. So they dn'\\' islunus 1'nE PACIFIC CO.-\ST OF ASIA in IIny sha po t.hat suggest cd itself to thom and lullf·It'd t.hern with names from l\Iarco Pt olelllY I ft the quest ion open as to Polo sll('h as Janl the Greater (for eith I' whnt lay Ix'yonu China (FIG. 14). Ther Borneo or JU\'lI), Janl the Legs (Sumatru), wa~ land where his map ended. .\Iclu, on Pentulll (Bintlln~), ~lulrlilll' p'laillyu), Nt" the other hand, t.lrew an east coa t for Asia CU\'emn (XicobuN), Angllana (:\ndumans), which ran approximutely from north to Seilan (Ce.vlon). To the north they drew south as 11 prolongation of the ea.-st co\.St of ome of the 7,-I5!1 islands of which Marco India (Fr<:. 1:3). The medie\'al disk map Polo had. poken. fol1owed hi example cxc<'pt for adding the 1118 THE XXth OENTURY Malay Penjnsula-and Pa,radise (on the ward on the maps of the leading geographers. eastern rinl of the earth). Behaim's coast Since this essay is concerned with the evolu (FIO. 16) ran due north along the shores tion of the Occidental map of the Pacific, of Chamba (Cochin China). At,. about 22° we shall not deal here with cartography of· northern latitude, it turned Mst at a right purely Oriental origin. The Yellow Sea is, angle, which is not bad.(Haiphong is actua.lly found on Mercator (1569, and No. 64), on 21°). After runnillg eastward for about alt,hough a little too far to the north; the' 30° longitude (in reality it is only 15°), it peninsula of Korea on Plancius (1594 and turns northwest. Nos. U2a and 97), although too narrow and While so far the job is quite a good one, in a wrong direction. Many maps between the drawing now becomes totally wrong, 1595 and 1660 made Korea an island. (Nos. and it is with the portion from here to the 89, 91, 9311, 112, 114.) There is a certain East Cape that we shall be concerned. parallelism in the cartographic: history of Behainl's coast runs at an a.ngle of al10ut Korea and California. Both were generally 65° to the equator up to 66° northern latitude represented correctly as peninsulas in the-. and then tID'ns west. In other words, his sixteenth and wrongly as islands in the ooast line runs from about Amoy to Turu seventeenth century. Sakhalin (Karafuto), khansk on the Lower Yenisei, and all the the Sea of Okhotsk, and Kamchatka are on huge land masses to tho en.~t of tlus line, Halley (1700); the l\bnchu Empire up to· including large parts of North. China and the Amur River in the Jesuit Atlas (1717);. Siberia, are not to be found on his globe. the Gulf of Anadyr 011 Strahlellberg (1730); This conception was adopted by Waldsee the Kuril Islands on Laurent (about 1750); muller and followed by his entire school. and the northeasternmost extremity of Asia While Behaim and Waldseemiillcr had on Delisle (1731) and Kyrilov (1734). drawn the coast incorrect.Iy in a north NIPPON western instead of in a northeastern direc tion, another group came nearer to the Ma.rco Polo acquainted the west with the truth by drawing the coast stmight from existence of the island empire of "Zipangu," Bouth to north. (Nos. 16, 17, 26, 28, 34.) which he had not visited hinlself but about The group wlueh at a very early stage which he had heard that it was an island of gave the coast its almost con-ect shape did gold and pearls, lying toward the east in the tills, curiously enough, by way of an error. high seas, 1,500 mill~s distant from the The first to fall for it was Contarini (1506, continent. In his work on the cartography FIG. 21). He extended northeastern Asia of Japan, COlmt Telekl points out that BO far to the east that it rca.chcd the im Marco Polo was right if one understands his mediate vicinity of Scandinavia. We lind "1,500 miles" as I ,500 Chinese li and cOllnts his conception, a.Ithoug~ with 150me altera them froIU Quinsai (Hangchow), where tion, on a number of maps. (Nos. 4, 37, 52.) Kublai Khan's forces had gathered against Japan. (The southern end of Kyushu is Flo. 21-Cio· almost exactly due east from Hangchow.) vanni M. Con. But whatever Marco Polo may have had in tarini (15()(j) mind when he made his statement-it was gave northeast. eru Asia an ox misunderstood. As a rule, we do not find tent which Japan on the medieval disk maps as they brought it closo were limited In space, although Fra Mauro to Scandinavia. (1459) managed to squeeze it in, barely off Of Amel'icn. he showed only the coast. Its real appearance on a western part of Sout.h Amer· map was made by Japan on the famous ica'l; northeastern map of Toseanelli (1474) and on Beha-im's coast. Cuba and globe. Both had understood Marco Polo Japun (Zipangu) are close together. The to say that one large island was located inscription on the 1,500 miles east of the China coast; hence CORSI, of South China they gave this island the shape of a large ~.. is a trarudation of tho rectangle running from north to south be .. inscription On the orlglllai. It shows that Conta.rini beheved Colwnbus tween about 5° and 28° northern latitude. actually to hove reached the Orient If or about half a century almost all map makers followed the Toscanelli-Behainl con As actual knowledge of the coast increased ception in one way or another. Contarini its correct features gradually extended north~ (1506) placed the island closer to America '" THE FACE OF THE PACIFIC 159 to Asia. So did WaldseemiiUer and his (1595) is remarkably correct lU! fRr as the . Ruysch (1508) even merged Japan three main island, are concerned, except for -.J Haiti (known as Espanola in those underestimating the northward extension of ..,.) into one. His example was of great Honshu (FlO. 22). iIIluence, and on many maps JlI.pun as such The northernmost of the greltt Ja,pallese "'ppearcd in favor of Haiti. The Amer· islands, Hokkaido (or Yezo, a:s it was t.hell .-.0 achool went its own way again and called) had one of tbc mo:st curioll,'! fates in ~ Japan, as did some maplllakers who cartographic history and led to It terrific tid Dot belong to the Amerasian school confusion in the minds of the Illapmakers. ...,., Nos. 22, 3i), most of them being those The first report a.bout this i: lund was "cot who drew nortlleastern Asia. and north to Europe by a Jcsrnt in 1566. Later on it western America so close together that no was linked with baseless rumors of islandB .,.ee was left for Japan. rich in gold and silver ncar Japan, and A new situation arose with the voyage of Ortelius (1589, .FIO. 3), showed the !sll\. de Jfagellan, who hud sailed across the Pacific Plata, tho "silver island," north of Ja.paD. without hitting anywhere upon Zipnngll (Nos. 104 and 106 left it there but called it IDd who, instead, had found the island Yezo.) Spanish and Dutch expeditions were poops of the Ladrones (Marianas) and the sent out to find the wonderful llilands. In Philippines. When. in 1542, the first Por· the foggy north Pacific it wa;; \'cry difficult tuguese landed in Japan, the identity of t,he t,o follow coast Lines and c:st.abli"h correct lapan which they found with the Zipangu positions. So Yezo started out on its long of Marco Polo was soon realized. Cahot wanderings. Gra~f (about J(j;j()) made it a flM4) pushed Japan furt,her to the north huge picco of land and probably a. part of and closer to Asia (between tho Ladrones America; Witson (1692) part of tho Asiatic IIld China) and gave the island a north· ma.inland; :Sanson (about 17(5) part of an eastern trend instead of drawing it parallel arctic continent; Strahlenbcrg (1730) and to the meridian. Descelliers (1546) put the Bellin (li35) part of Kamchatka, and somo iJJand still closer to the China coast but mapmakcr!l c\'on put one Y L''l.O in Asia and eontinued to gi\'e it the general outline one in America. After thcso \'O)'llgCS aLI indicated by Toseanelli. The first to gi\'e around the northern Pacific, Yezo finally Japan approxjmately its right location on returned to it.s more or les!'! correct location the map was Homem (1558). But it did -but not yot its correct shape-Oil Delisle not stay there. and on some maps mov('{l (li31) and Kyrilov (1734). Bf'ring's \'oy· again to halfway between Asia and America. ages cleltrcd lip the matter and also redllced (No. 86.) Mercator (1569) gave Japan both some other fancies such Ill:l Gama Land, $he correct loca,tion and direction but .stiLl State Land, and Compagnie. Land, whjch adhered to the old idea of a single i land. turned out to be small i lands in the Kuril Ortelius on hiH mup Asitle Nova DelJcr;pfiQ chain. The 81. Petersburg Acadt'my of (1570), and Dourado (15S?), broke up Japan Science map of li;j8 gi\'e~ what is on the into several islands in which, with some whole a correct picture of tho northwest imagination, one can recognize the three Pacitlc. main islands of Honshu, KYl1shu, n,nd '1'111:: PACIFIC ISLAN 1)S Shikoku. Ortf·Jjus·S special map of Japan We have dealt in this artie·le with the evolution of the main featllre.>J of t.he Pacific map, omitting to ,trace the appearance of the coulltless i lands and islnnd groups. Most of them became known relatively late, as the early navigators ht~ppencd to choose courses which allowed them t.o sce ollly very few of the thousands of islands. Of those that were discovered. many did not find their way onto map"' for II iong time, among them the Carolines (Iat,er larsltall Fro. 22-Abraham Ortel.ius·s map of Islands). which had been diRcovered in 1526. Japan of 151li>. It shoWl! the three In his P~ripltl8, Nordenskjold explains the main i.sl/Ulds with "Meaco" (K)'oto) at approximately the correct placo reasons: but groatly underestimate8 tho north· That such i>llnnds, disco\'crCll as t!I"y were by em extension of Japan's main island chance, wero nover definitely entered 011 mop.. or 160 THE XXth CENTURY charts. was owing t<> t,he uncertainty whieh there bine tllern into new conceptions of the was, even in the eighteenth eentur~', in deciding world as a whole. As men who were no' tho geographical. co-ordinates of an island lying out of sight of /tDY known lu.nd. It Wf\.5 therefore involved in the ri\7aIJ'ies of Spain and Por nlmost impossible when making the definite ffi/tpS, tugal, thcy had no call to keep their ideu or what wus called the "Padron general" of I,he Hecret. \Vith their primitive printing estab map of the world, to register such isolated ouser"u lishments t.hey produced maps and globel t,iona. After having plnced those islands dis· covered by chance sometimes in one spot some· of our earth whieh influcnceu the thi.nkil,lg times in another. 80 l1!l to ffillke the lust sailing of many g~nerations and ill turn inspired reports agree wit.h t he still ements of previous the explorers to new adventures. Not all nlll.riners, the dillicult.y wns tinnily solved by ex of their thinking brought thcsc cosmogra. cluding from the map almost all the newly dis· covered i,;lllnds tl180t were far out in the Pacific. pher;;; closer to reality-we havc only tu reo The chart of I,his ocelln therefore becUJne almost as member Schoner's Amera.sian conception. blwlk and de\'oid of no.mes us tho map of tile Yet their maps were momentous landmarks intorior of lVri('l~ at I.ho commeu('oment of tho ninet,conth century. ih the e\'olution of the Pacific map', results \ of great erudition and Lold-somet.imes too Ma.nv Pacific islands were red iscovpred voId-reasoning. and n:~mod in tho s('cond half of the eight In the second half of the sixteenth oentury eent,h ccntury, during the voyages of ex the center of gravit,y in cartography once ploration ma.de by Byron, Carteret, Wallis, mor'e seemed to shift southward, in the llougainviUe, and Cook. After Captain days when Agnese and Gastaklo labored in Cook's three great voyages (1768/80) there Venice and the Homem family in Lisbon. were no major white spots Icft on t,he Pacific But after ]:370 it stayed for good in the lllap; and when, on January 11;, 177S, Cook north. By now two nations from northern sighted the Hawaiian Islands, all featureR of Europe, the English and the Dutch, were the Pacific, with a few minor exceptiollli, har! also venturing out on the high seas; and become known. while the English produced relatively little THE MEX BERlXD THE MAPS in the way of mapmaking, the Netherll.lJlds became its new center. The Dutch and the At the end of this article we give a list .Flemish obtained their scientific inspiration of SOUle maps and globes which are of from southern Germany. Mercator was a particular intercst fl'om the point of vicw pupil of Apianus, and the Orteliui:l (Ortel) of Pacific cartography. The r('ader who family ea.me h'om AugsvlII'g. But the Neth· lets his eyes wander over those columns erlanders Aliency the Dutch cartographers eventually Apart from the nations mcntioned, rep eboked their..market., and people were ready resentatives of various other countries par lor 8Omet,bing new. The center of ma,p ticipated in the work of cartugrl;tphy, for .airing shifted to France, at that time at oxample, H,u8sians :lnd Scandinavians with abe height of her European career. The regard to the l1orthel'll Pacific. And three brothers Dcljslc had III uch to do with while some nations have been leading, we ibis shift n.s wcll as Sanson with his grandson c:a·u readily say that the evolution of the Vaugondy, D'AII\'ille, and the two Buachcs. Pacific map from nonexistence in thl' fifteenth Finally. to use thc words of the Encyclopaedia century to near perfectioD by the eml of tbfl Bril~lllliw, "l:l'rmany since the middle of eightecnt,h ccntmy, bas becn tbc fruit of the 19th cent ur.'" hal; hecorne tho head'],uar the collective efforts of the whole of I':urope ters of cientj(ic cartography." io the field of exploration and thought. Landmarks i~ the History of the Pacific Map List, of some maps or globos. 150j·li83. which oro of pnrticulnr iut.orest in I I,,~ Rtlldy of tloe hiRtory of tloo l"";ifi,, r/lap. Tloe I'enl namcs uf thuso Lnup· IIwkel" whu hnv.J hccomo known under lito l"tilliz<:t1 \'orRion oi Iheir n[tllleR nre ntldecl in pnrenlhellis. No account Ino< heen laken of the Inany coutrovorsies regllrding dnt~s and makers' names of Inllny of thpRA mill's. I he ,nost generally fl(,peplotl dates and names being given. "w.rn." stulILls for world mal'. "hem." 101' hemisphcre, ....cd." for rectangular, I·S. IW;-M Irlin Wnl,I....~'miiJlcr. roct. w.m: 2 hem.; gon:. GO, 57. lr.a8--rH~n TTomclI\, ~l1thC3Sh'rl1 A!'iila, America ... U.OS--.Julmrlll HUrBCh. W,III. ' ~7a. 150l-Jn,ropu GH~taldo, !'4(JlILhl'nJ~t4~rll A:..ia. I). Ir, ,(H.·tlll~1 IA'nux s.::lul)C :).~, 15Hl-tUrolatnn Bll.~:('1I1. ~ hem. 6. loll}-(;lare'"lu~ (J]einrid. \'on ~(ol1Js). ovol w.m. f,('. If,fo'J-f"nllnp",1a (Gt'or~jo >:ll llN. 171o-Chntclalne, recto w.rn. }~: J:l1~=1~I~Jjf,~~~mz 'r.e~~CMtcrn Aai& 125. J722--{llllllaume .Dellsle, America 109. 165o-Cl\8l1e de draM, North PaC!lIIe 126. 1723-- 'Radio and tJJl.adness Dr. O. E. Pfister, a Swiss psychiatrist, has been studying the effect of radio broadcasts on the insane. Par~noiac schizophrenes, he has fOlUld, are attracted by the incorporeal, invisible transmission of voices by the radio; they often use expressions taken from the radio: they speak of "built-in microphones" which transmit their t,houghts, of "radio thought interference," "loudspeakers in t,he head," etc. Broadcasting studios frequently receive letters demanding high indemnities for nUegcd insults or persecution. Even physical damage is sometime" ascribed to the radio. Then there are the paranoiac prophets and world saviors, who seem to have a special predilection for the radio. They all want to use the microphone to proclaim their more or less religious prophecies and plans for improving the world. Another type of-usually female-paranoiac keeps on writ ing to the studios about the marriage proposals or love declarations • made to them over the radio by speakers or singers. Many of the letters received by the studios reveal serious mental deficiencies)n persolls living outside of asylums. It appears that these insane reveal their hallucinations to the radio before the peo ple of their surroundings have become aware of them. Dr. Pfister suggests that psychiatrists, when examining patients, ask them what t.hey think of the ntdio, since an informal conversation on this sub ject may easily uncover paranoiac symptoms in the patient. tJJl.an at WorK In a Chicago COllrt Robert M. HoffD18Jl Jr. said his business partner had operated branch offices in New York, Philadelphia, Boston and San Francisco chiefly in the hope of finding a prett.y stenographer to marry. CCick[isn In Frankfort, Ky., a divorce WIl8 awarded to Charles R. Barnett, who charged that his wife had refused to kiss him because his mustache tickled. gratitude In Cedar Grove, N.J., Private Dominic Donadio gave his newborn son a middle name: Furlough.