Missouri

Missouri

The Heart of the Nation

William E. Parrish, Lawrence O. Christensen, and Brad D. Lookingbill

Fourth Edition This edition first published 2020 © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Edition History Forum Press (1e, 1980) H. Davidson (2e, 1992) Wiley‐Blackwell (3e, 2012) All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. The right of William E. Parrish, Lawrence O. Christensen, and Brad D. Lookingbill to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law. Registered Office John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA Editorial Office 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Parrish, William E. (William Earl), 1931– author. | Christensen, Lawrence O., author. | Lookingbill, Brad D., 1969– author. Title: Missouri : the heart of the nation / William E. Parrish, Lawrence O. Christensen, Brad D. Lookingbill. Description: Fourth edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, [2019] | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Identifiers: LCCN 2019003174 (print) | LCCN 2019003434 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119165897 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119165903 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119165828 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119165859 (paperback) Subjects: LCSH: Missouri–History. Classification: LCC F466 (ebook) | LCC F466 .P27 2019 (print) | DDC 977.8–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019003174 Cover Design: Wiley Cover Image: © michaklootwijk/iStock.com Set in 10/12pt Warnock by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India Printed in the United States of America

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Contents

Preface to the Fourth Edition ix About the Companion Website xiii

1 Native Ground 1

2 A Confluence of Empires 23

3 The Missouri Borderlands 43

4 Statehood and Beyond 63

5 The Age of Benton 85

6 Slavery in Missouri 109

7 A Developing State 129

8 Turmoil on the Border 149

9 The Civil War 171

10 Radical Rule 195

11 The Gilded Age 219

12 Angry Farmers and Urban Reformers 241

13 Missouriana 261

14 Out of the Mud 283 vi Contents

15 The Pendergast Era 305

16 Better Government in Missouri 327

17 A Bellwether State 351

18 Into the New Millennium 373

Appendix 395 List of Illustrations 399 Index 405

ix

Preface to the Fourth Edition

The history of Missouri is rich and diverse. The state formed at the ­crossroads of America. It has played a pivotal role in much of the nation’s history, particularly in the development of the American West. The writ- ers have endeavored to present the story of Missouri and its people in a clear and concise manner. From colonization to the present, the history of the state has been a story of Missourians and their attempts to relate to their environment and changing circumstances. The writers hope that they have captured herein the full impact of the events that have made Missouri into the “Heart of the Nation” today. What we have tried to provide is an overview arranged generally in chronological sequence but with topical emphasis. It is impossible to go into numerous details in a book of this sort, which is a panorama of poli- tics, economics, and society. For those who wish to pursue various aspects of Missouri history further, the writers have provided sugges- tions for reading at the end of each chapter. The revisions in this edition allude to recent scholarship. Missouri’s past is a goldmine for historians, and it is good to see the digging that is occurring. The most thorough account of the state from its beginnings to 2003 is A History of Missouri in six volumes, of which William E. Parrish is the General Editor. Published by the University of Missouri Press, the revised editions were issued between 1999 and 2004. They contain extensive bibliographies beyond what we can furnish here and are cited in the sug- gestions for reading as appropriate. An important supplement is the Dictionary of Missouri Biography, which was edited by Lawrence O. Christensen, William E. Foley, Gary R. Kremer, and Kenneth H. Winn. The University of Missouri Press ­published this reference work in 1999. Therein one will find brief ­biographies of the most significant Missourians in all walks of life. Other works of state history remain valuable: John C. Fisher, Catfish, Fiddles, Mules, and More: Missouri’s State Symbols (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2003); David D. March, The History of Missouri, four x Preface to the Fourth Edition

volumes (Chicago: Lewis Publishing Company, 1967); Sean McLachlan, Missouri: An Illustrated History (New York: Hippocrene Books, 2008); Duane C. Meyer, The Heritage of Missouri (St. Louis: State Publishing Company, 1963); Marian M. Ohman, A History of Missouri’s Counties, County Seats, and Court House Squares (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1983); Milton D. Rafferty, Historical Atlas of Missouri (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982); Floyd C. Shoemaker, ed., Missouri and Missourians, Land of Contrasts and People of Achievements, five volumes (Chicago: Lewis Publishing Company, 1943); Margot Ford McMillen, Paris, Tightwad, and Peculiar: Missouri Place Names (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1994); and Clair Willcox, ed., Images of Missouri (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2003). Missouri is fortunate to have two excellent historical libraries, the State Historical Society of Missouri at Columbia and the Missouri Historical Society at St. Louis. The back issues of their respective publications, the Missouri Historical Review and Gateway Heritage, formerly The Bulletin, are a treasure trove of lore on all aspects of the state’s history. The Missouri State Archives in Jefferson City is the official repository for state records of permanent and historical value. Opening in 2014, the Museum of Missouri Military History at the Ike Skelton Training Site pays tribute to the state’s service members. Missouri has many local his- torical societies, some with museums, libraries, and publications. Several libraries have special corners dedicated to the “Show‐Me State.” Students would do well to acquaint themselves with primary sources where they are available in their communities. The heritage of Missouri is visible not only at the state level but also at the grassroots of its towns and counties. Students can find fascinating things to study right at their front door if they but look for them. We wish to thank the staff of the State Historical Society of Missouri for their help in the selection of the pictures and maps that are used herein. We also wish to express our appreciation to the following for their past assistance: Thomas W. Carneal, the late Carl H. Chapman, William E. Foley, James W. Goodrich, Alan R. Havig, Gary R. Kremer, B. B. Lightfoot, David D. March, Patrick E. McLear, Franklin D. Mitchell, the late George P. Rawick, Robert W. Richmond, and J. Christopher Schnell. With the help of a capable staff, Laura R. Jolley aided immensely in acquiring images for the fourth edition. Andrea A. Hunter and the experts at the Osage Nation Historic Preservation Office reviewed and refined key sections from the first chapter. Terry B. Smith offered sugges- tions for revisions to the last chapter. William E. Parrish would like to thank the University of Missouri Press for permission to use materials from some of his previous books and the Johns Hopkins University Press for permission to use excerpts from his chapter “Reconstruction Politics Preface to the Fourth Edition xi in Missouri, 1865–1870,” in Richard O. Curry, ed., Radicalism, Racism, and Party Realignment: The Border States During Reconstruction (1969). We gratefully acknowledge the late Lewis E. Atherton, an esteemed men- tor and revered scholar, for his devotion to the preservation of state and local history. Most of all, we offer special thanks to HelenSue Parrish, Maxine Christensen, and Deidra Lookingbill for their assistance through- out this and other enterprises.

xiii

About the Companion Website

This book is accompanied by a companion website: www.wiley.com/go/parrish/missouri4e

The website includes a student study guide.

1

1

Native Ground

When Mark Twain’s unforgettable character, Tom Sawyer, scolded Huckleberry Finn for thinking that Illinois was green and Indiana pink because each appeared that way on a map, Huck demanded, “What’s a map for? Ain’t it to learn you facts?” Although the illiterate Huck could not read a map, he knew its purpose. The map of the United States can teach numerous important geographic facts, many of which will increase one’s understanding of Missouri history.

­Mid‐America

Between the Appalachian Mountains in the east and the Rocky Mountains in the west is mid‐America. The continental interior contains a variety of physiographic factors such as a great inland water system formed by the Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri Rivers and their 250 tributaries. These river basins give mid‐America its essential geographic unity. Situated in the west north‐central part of mid‐America, the state of Missouri lies somewhat east of the geographical center of the United States. Between 36° and 40° 35′ north latitude and 89° and 95° 42′ west longitude, Missouri’s total area of 69,686 mi2 makes it nineteenth in size among the states. It is one of only two states bordered by eight other states: Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee on the east; Arkansas on the south; Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska on the west; and Iowa on the north. East of Missouri are interior lowlands, dissected plateaus, and coastal plains. The Great Lakes of North America form a large drainage basin and connect to the Atlantic Ocean through the St. Lawrence River. Another major feature of this area is the Appalachian Highlands, which extend north–south for nearly 1500 mi from the island of Newfoundland

Missouri: The Heart of the Nation, Fourth Edition. William E. Parrish, Lawrence O. Christensen, and Brad D. Lookingbill. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/parrish/missouri4e Figure 1.1 Map of United States with Missouri. ­The Mississipp Rihee 3 into the state of Alabama. The mountain range is considered the geo- graphical divide between the Atlantic seaboard and the American heart- land. No other phrase so accurately denotes the place of Missouri in the United States as the one inspired by the great arch that rises above the Mississippi River at St. Louis – the “Gateway to the West.” West of Missouri appear more diverse landscapes. Encompassing over half the land area of the United States, the American West begins with the Great Plains and continues north to the Canadian border, south to the Rio Grande, and west across the Rocky Mountains. The prairies stretch broadly to the foot of the Rocky Mountains, which extend north– south for more than 3000 mi from British Columbia into New Mexico. Beyond the “backbone” of the continent are rivers, plateaus, mesas, basins, deserts, mountains, canyons, forests, and grasslands. Not too distant looms the coastline of the Pacific Ocean.

­The Mississippi River

The Mississippi River forms all but 20 mi of the eastern boundary that shapes the state of Missouri. It flows 2350 mi through the continent from Lake Itasca to the Gulf of Mexico. The upper Mississippi travels through a great valley with high ground and prominent bluffs on both banks. The bluff tops between Louisiana and Clarksville in northeast Missouri are among the highest along the river. When it reaches Cape Girardeau, the river widens, emerging from the wooded terrain and limestone cliffs to shape the Mississippi flood plains that stretch to the Gulf. The Mississippi acquired its name from the Algonquin term “Misi‐ ziibi,” which means the Great River. People often translated it with the reverent phrase “Father of Waters.” Awed by its size, various indigenous populations depended upon the waterway for survival. Its changing cur- rents, sand bars, ice, flooding in low‐lying areas, submerged debris, and driftwood have made the river dangerous to both travelers and inhabit- ants. Explorers and traders walked its banks in search of wealth. Generations of farmers attempted to cultivate the fertile lands along the river bottom. As the Mississippi has evolved over the ages, it has always been an important force in the history of the continent. From 1763 to 1783, the Mississippi divided the empires of Great Britain and Spain in North America. It became the western boundary of the newly established United States, yet it remained a trade route for many Natives and strangers alike. Questions over its navigation and the use of the Port of New Orleans for American products led to controversy between the United States and Spain, and later France, eventually result- ing in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Before the Civil War, enslaved 4 1 NatMihe Ground

African Americans saw “upriver” as the way to freedom, while to be sold “downriver” meant bondage and the loss of hope. During the Civil War, Union forces fought to control the natural highway and to divide the slaveholding states. In time this strategy was decisive in the collapse of the Confederacy. Influenced by their river experiences, many artists, authors, folklorists, composers, and musicians have greatly enriched the cultural history of the American people. The Missourian known popu- larly as Mark Twain grew up on the Mississippi’s banks at Hannibal, piloted a steamboat to earn a living, and used it as a setting for three of his best‐known books. He described it as “the crookedest river in the world, since in one part of its journey it used up one thousand three miles to cover the same ground that the crow would fly over in six hundred and sixty five.”

­The Missouri River

The state’s most distinctive geographical feature is the Missouri River. From its headwaters high in the northern Rockies to its confluence with the Mississippi, it flows 2714 mi, making it the longest river in the United States. Joined by northern and southern tributaries as it moves across Montana and North Dakota, it increases in volume and current. Running through rocky areas, which serve as a natural filter, the water remains clear. Once it washes into the grassy plains of the Dakotas, however, it begins to assume a muddy color. Following a course prede- termined by large polar ice masses during the Ice Age, it continues in a southerly direction until it joins the Kansas River at Kansas City. There it bends and meanders 577 mi across the state to join the Mississippi 17 mi above St. Louis. During the seventeenth century, Algonquin‐speakers usually called the river “Pekitanoui.” Though later dropped from usage, it means “muddy waters.” When Father Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet encountered the rushing water for the first time in 1673, they observed that the river was “all muddy.” One of the most difficult tasks for newcomers was navi- gating the charging current, which moved sandbars and eroded banks. Illini guides for early French visitors referred to the indigenous towns near the river as “mishoori” or “wemihsoori.” Their reference to “Mi‐`zor‐ä” suggests an Algonquin term for people with “dugout canoes” or “wooden canoes.” The Missouri’s major tributaries in the state are the Little Platte, Grand, and Chariton Rivers to the north and the Lamine, Osage, and Gasconade Rivers to the south. Although relatively short, these tributaries provide considerably more water than the plains tributaries and cause the river to ­TheL ay oftThef and 5

widen and to pick up current speed. Because the Missouri fluctuates in its current more than the Mississippi, it frequently has changed its chan- nel while washing away shorelines, farms, and even towns. Missourians often call the river “Big Muddy,” and to this day they say unceremoniously that it is “too thick to drink and too thin to plow.” The brownish coloration of the water is due to the great amount of silt and solid matter carried by the Missouri. It is estimated that the river dumps 500 million tons of solid matter into the Mississippi annually. Present‐day ecological concerns dictate that more should be done to reduce the stream pollution and to conserve the wildlife once so abun- dant along its shores. The river meanders from bluff to bluff across the state, inspiring commonplace references to the “Wide Missouri.”

­The Lay of the Land

During the Ice Age thousands of years ago, great mountains of ice ground into the terrain that would make the state of Missouri and then receded, leaving behind a land composed of four physiographic regions. North of the Missouri River is the Glacial Plains. Here the glaciers left behind roll- ing hills, gentle valleys, some rock formations of limestone and sand- stone, and prairie earth similar to that of Iowa and Illinois. In addition to the glaciers, powerful winds carried a sediment known as loess and deposited it across the land, adding to the uniform texture and fertility of the soil. This region provides some of the state’s most productive farmland. South and southeast of the Missouri River is the Ozark Plateau or Highlands, which extend from Illinois into southern Missouri, Arkansas, Kansas, and Oklahoma. Located a few hundred miles southeast of the center of the United States, the Ozarks is a land of rocky hills, deep val- leys, knobs, cliffs, tablelands, springs, and forests. The elevation ranges from 1200 to 1700 ft above sea level. Taum Sauk Mountain in Iron County, rising 1772 ft above sea level, is the highest point in the state. It may have been named for a term used by Algonquin‐speakers to suggest “big” or “outlet.” Others claim that the name refers to a legendary chief, Sauk‐Ton‐Qua. The soil of the Ozarks is not as fertile as that of the Glacial Plains because of a compact siliceous rock called chert, but trees abound on the undulant surface. The name Ozarks is from aux arcs, a French abbreviation indicating “to the Arkansas Post” – an outpost established on the Arkansas River when the French first arrived in the Mississippi Valley. Wild rivers such as the Meramec, Black, White, Big Niangua, and Current run through the region, creating places of rugged beauty. The headwaters of some of 6 1 NatMihe Ground

Figure 1.2 Lake of the Ozarks Sunset, State Historical Society of Missouri.

these rivers are freshwater springs, from many of which flow over a mil- lion gallons a day. Big Springs in Carter County has a daily measured flow of 840 million gallons. Saline springs and salt licks are numerous in the region. During the twentieth century, the building of the Bagnell Dam across the Osage River formed a serpentine reservoir called the Lake of the Ozarks. Fishing spots and tourist resorts eventually sprouted along the 1300 mi of shoreline. Many Missourians today believe that the region’s waterways, forests, caves, springs, and scenic landscapes are among the state’s most precious resources. In the western part of the state are the Osage Plains, a triangular area extending from a point in Pettis County southwesterly and turning into the Great Plains. The twisting Osage River is formed by the confluence of the Little Osage and the Marais des Cygnes Rivers, which places its head- waters in Kansas. Whereas the brown or gray soils in the watersheds are mostly comprised of a sandy clay, the environment remains conducive to the growing of grasses and hay. The raising of livestock represents one of the major industries in this region. The southeastern lowlands, popularly known as the Bootheel, is simi- lar to the Mississippi Delta. Bounded on the east by the Mississippi River and on the west by the St. Francis River, it juts 35 mi into the northeast tip of Arkansas. Although unglaciated, flat, and poorly drained, the soil is rich and productive. After a network of drainage canals were dug in the ­TheL ay oftThef and 7 swampy bottoms during the twentieth century, cotton and soybeans became the major crops. Between 230 and 350 ft above sea level, the low- est point in the state is where the St. Francis River meets the southern state line of the heel. Seismologists believe that the geographic unrest of these lowlands have long made earthquakes frequent near New Madrid. Missouri has a cool temperate climate. Summers are generally hot and sultry, especially along the Mississippi River, with July, the hottest month, averaging 77° Fahrenheit (25 °C). Winters can be long and rigorous, with January, the coldest month, averaging 30° Fahrenheit (−1 °C). Annual average temperatures are 50° Fahrenheit (10 °C) in the northwest and 60° Fahrenheit (15 °C) in the southeast. The annual rainfall averages 30–35 in. in the north and 40–45 in. in the south, although it reaches 48 in. in the southern lowlands. An annual average of 21 in. of snow falls in the north, but only 16 in. falls in the southern lowlands. Sudden drops and rises in temperatures occur in the interior whenever cold Arctic air meets head‐ on with the warm air from the Gulf of Mexico. Lead, iron, and zinc attracted early settlers from Europe and the United States to this land. The Irish Wilderness, so‐called because of Irish immi- grants entering Oregon County in the nineteenth century, is one of the richest stores of zinc in the world. Other minerals found in the state are coal, copper, barite, uranium, and cobalt. Sand and gravel are extracted from the streams and rivers; limestone is used in the making of cement; clay is mined and used in the making of firebrick; what little oil there is tends to be heavy and is used primarily in the blacktopping of roads. Missouri abounds with a great variety of flora and fauna. Botanists have discovered and classified 2400 different species of ferns and flow- ering plants in the state. A member of the great rose family, the white hawthorn blossom is the official state floral emblem. It has been esti- mated that two‐thirds of Missouri was covered with forests before intensive cutting modified the landscape in the nineteenth century. Nevertheless, timber still covers between 60% and 80% of some Ozark counties. Among the trees found in the state are different species of oak, linden, hickory, sweet gum, walnut, catalpa, cottonwood, hornbeam, ash, sugar maple, papaw, southern buckhorn, pine, red bud, and dog- wood. Sprouting tiny clusters with four white petals, the flowering dog- wood is the official state tree. Among the birds native to the state are the cardinal, mourning dove, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, bullfinch, red‐ wing blackbird, crow, hawk, blue jay, woodpecker, brown thrush, robin, wren, and passenger pigeon. Commonly seen in Missouri from early spring until late fall, the bluebird is the official state bird. Although many examples of large game have disappeared, the red fox, otter, deer, squir- rel, rabbit, skunk, raccoon, opossum, coyote, and black bear persist and, in some cases, are increasing in population as a result of wildlife 8 1 NatMihe Ground

conservation practices in the twentieth century. Introduced by settlers in the nineteenth century, the mule is the official state animal. Missouri is a good place for many different species to live.

­Paleo‐Indians

Stories of origin explain the way human beings came into existence. Native American storytellers, for example, recall how their ancestors became the first people to live on the continent and made it home long before the Europeans mistakenly called them Indians. Preserved over the span of time, a myth expresses the deep, broadly shared ideas that bind together a community. Sioux writer and activist Vine Deloria Jr. has claimed that these sacred narratives tell tribal groups everything they need to know about their origins. Because written records exist for only a small fraction of the ages, ­historians must weigh evidence that is partial and fragmentary. The meticulous work of scientific excavation has unearthed artifacts such as stone weapons, pottery shards, bone tools, and other remains, which shed light on the human presence in the world. Archeology enhances the study of the past by finding, sifting, charting, and comparing the residue of material culture, thus yielding information about the subsistence ­patterns at a particular site. Most archeologists insist that small bands of hunters and gatherers gradually trekked from Siberia to Alaska across a vast land bridge called Beringia, which no longer exists. The peopling of North America also may have included the use of small, skin‐covered boats for ­navigating along the coastline. As the earth’s temperatures warmed over time, the end of the last Ice Age allowed the first people to spread throughout the hemisphere. Between 40,000 and 12,000 years ago, they pushed into the continental interior. The men usually hunted big game, while the women gathered edible plants near campsites. The musk oxen, mammoth, mastodon, and other large animals that roamed inland gradually became extinct due to climate change and excessive killing. Seldom remaining in one location for too long, the Paleo‐ Indians appeared in Missouri as early as 9250 bce. The Paleo‐Indians tended to be nomadic or non‐sedentary, but they were not people without culture. Camping close to fresh water, they fash- ioned knives, scrapers, and choppers from stone. Named for a town in New Mexico, the Clovis cultures used spears tipped with large points. However, “Clovis man” may have been in Missouri before appearing in New Mexico. A stone weapon discovered at the Mastodon State Historic Site south of St. Louis resembles one found at Clovis. The Dalton phase, ­The Archai heerio 9 which lasted until 7900 bce, is characterized by longer and thinner ser- rated points. Given its versatility as a projectile, saw, or drill, the Dalton point found in Missouri has been dubbed “America’s first Swiss army knife.” Although subject to debate, the migration route of the hunters and gatherers may have run north to southeast into the V‐shaped area formed by the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers. Archeological finds scattered throughout the interior suggest that the Paleo‐Indians spread their activ- ities to the headwaters of the Ohio River, south along the Mississippi, and west to the prairies and plains.

­The Archaic Period

The Archaic Period revealed significant adaptations among Missouri’s inhabitants after 7500 bce. Staying in one location for longer periods of time, they sought out caves and overhanging rocks as natural shelters. They also used animal skins to make small huts later called wikiups. Although hunting continued to provide much of their main food, they became less nomadic and more sedentary. They foraged for wild roots, berries, nuts, and fruits. They made new weapons for the hunt and better tools for the preparation of the food that they gathered. By refining their technologies for hunting and gathering, they made several articles more useful over time. The bone needle, for example, enabled them to make animal skins fit tighter. As the size of the tribal groups grew, social organ- ization became more complicated. Archeological evidence indicates the emergence of ceremonies and rites associated with the mysteries of nature and death. Archaic Indians began to bury their dead in mounds on bluffs above camps. Cremation and inhumation occurred at times. Evidently, the bodies were exposed until the flesh had decomposed. The bones of the deceased were bundled up and buried with stone or bone tools, which indicted not only personal possessions but also social differentiation. Archeological sites that reflect the significant transitions of the Archaic Period can be found throughout Missouri. Located in Montgomery County, Graham Cave provided artifacts that show how inhabitants for- aged as well as hunted, thereby increasing and diversifying their food supply. Many adapted effectively to their environment and climate, while the population base expanded the scale and scope of activities. Flat axe‐ shaped stones appeared along with bone and shell tools. Carved stone weights tied to atlatls, or spear throwers, enabled a hunter to hurl a spear at a higher velocity for a greater distance. Archeological sites in the low- lands of southeastern Missouri yielded an abundance of implements such as pestles, mortars, manos, grinding slabs, cupstones, and 10 1 NatMihe Ground

Figure 1.3 Graham Cave Point, Museum of Anthropology, University of Missouri.

hammerstones. The Jakie Shelter in Barry County, a village area and burial site near Troy in Lincoln County, and several diggings around Sedalia in Pettis County, supplied a variety of polished and ground arti- cles that provide more evidence about Archaic Period lifestyles. The Archaic Period lasted until 600 bce.

­The Woodland Period

The chief development of the Woodland Period was the invention of pot- tery, a craft of firing clay pots and jars that made it possible for people to store food and water. This meant that Missouri’s inhabitants could spend more time in one place and remain sedentary through the seasons. If they could not find natural shelters on the spot, they constructed perma- nent dwellings using the materials close at hand. It is believed that they attempted to branch out into larger areas and to trade with other groups. By 250 bce the early Woodland Indians were decorating vessels with abstract designs and animal motifs. Midway through the Woodland Period, the Hopewell culture began to spread into Missouri. So named because archeologists excavated impor- tant artifacts of these people on the Hopewell farm in Ohio, this culture ­The Mississipp heerio 11 greatly influenced the lifestyles of the people with whom it came into contact. Using hoes made from the shoulder blades of deer, they culti- vated crops such as corn. They molded pottery in different forms and sizes, covering it with interesting designs and patterns. They made clay pipes and watertight bowls. They built large earthworks and mounds, which served as the focal point for village activities. Often animal‐shaped, these distinctive mounds were used for astronomical celebrations and burial rites. Communal events featured “bigmen,” who wielded power, possessed knowledge, and controlled trade. The Hopewell manufactured tools and weapons from different kinds of materials such as mica, sea- shells, and copper, which attest to the advantages of extensive trading networks across North America. Appearing quite suddenly in Missouri, the Hopewell settled near the mouth of the Lamine River and along the Missouri River to the Kansas River. Their culture is evidenced in the weapons, tools, mounds, and fragments of pottery at the village sites that they left behind. In Van Meter State Park in Saline County, an earthwork called the “Old Fort” indicated that a vigorous cohort of settlers became active in the central part of the state. Toward the end of the Woodland Period, small but isolated villages began to develop in most geographical areas of Missouri. Multiple towns were organized near fields and streams, and bows and arrows appeared as weaponry. Adapting to environmental conditions and building on the remnants of the Hopewell culture, these tribal groups revealed techno- logical and organizational characteristics that distinguished them from others. At a time of apparent population dispersal, the Woodland Period lasted until 900 ce.

­The Mississippi Period

As the Woodland Period merged into the Mississippi Period, a large Indian town developed in the Cahokia–St. Louis area. It grew rapidly from 1050 ce to 1200 ce. Its culture spread up and down the Mississippi River and into the hinterlands. Archeological evidence shows its impact in southeastern Missouri, as far west as Kansas City, and even to the very western edge of Oklahoma. The rise of this new culture and its influence on other groups marked a new chapter in the history of Missouri. The Mississippi culture made the river central to the way of life. People hunted its water‐dwelling animals, collected its mussels, fished its waters, and traveled its course to trade with others. The remains from their gar- dens, however, indicate that they probably grew as much food as they hunted. With agriculture as a primary occupation, they raised corn, Figure 1.4 Van Meter State Park Map, Missouri Department of Natural Resources. Photo: Missouri State Parks. ­The Oneota Cutuehe 13 beans, squash, pumpkins, sunflowers, gourds, and other plants. Their pottery, highly decorated and shaped into a variety of forms, represented a major trade item. In making tools, weapons, and art objects, they used different materials such as flint, stone, bone, antlers, copper, clay, cloth, and wood. They were early miners as well, extracting flint and chalcedony from spots along the Meramec River. Using large dugout canoes, they traded extensively and interacted with various groups. Due to the absence of a writing system, no one knows what the towns- people called themselves in the Mississippi Period. Their buildings and homes were a square or rectangular wood frame with a thatched roof covering. Each fortified town contained a large flat‐topped temple mound, where the inhabitants practiced their religious ceremonies. Because of the numerous mounds in and around the riverine area, St. Louis would be nicknamed the “Mound City.” Examples of the religious sym- bolism among the Mississippians can be found in petroglyphs carved on rocks in Washington County. There one can see carvings of snakes, birds, fish, arrows, and weeping eyes at Washington State Park. Before its decline, at least 20,000 people lived in Cahokia on the east bank of the Mississippi. They built more than a hundred mounds, the largest of which stood 100 ft high. The location of a dwelling atop a plat- form mound elevated prominent leaders. Cahokia’s expansion caused soil erosion, water pollution, and social conflict, as the town collapsed by 1400 ce. The name Cahokia derives from an unrelated tribe that lived in the vicinity when the first European explorers reached the area early in the sixteenth century.

­The Oneota Culture

Named by archeologists for an Algonquin term that identified the Upper Iowa River, the Oneota culture manifested itself in Missouri. Some believe that it was the cultural base from which various Macro‐Siouan groupings developed, although others disagree. The Oneota appeared on the upper Mississippi River around 900 ce, but did not spread into Missouri until 1350 ce. The general characteristics of the Oneota were not unlike those of the townspeople in the Cahokia–St. Louis area. Trash sites excavated by archeologists show piles of animal bones that attest to their hunting skills. It is believed that they searched for large game over great distances. As localized farmers, they grew corn, squash, and beans. The wild fruit, berries, and nuts that they gathered added variety to their diet. Excelling in the shaping of bone tools, they made handles from antlers and needles and beads from the bones of smaller animals. Ornaments, spoons, and 14 1 NatMihe Ground

jewelry were fashioned from shells, some of which they acquired from trading partners as far away as the Gulf of Mexico. They dug large pits, where they cached food and valuables and which they later filled with trash. Their religious symbolism resembled elements demonstrated else- where along the Mississippi, which suggests a continuity of religious practices and beliefs between cultures. Their stone technology was typi- fied by knives, arrowheads, and drills. They made catlinite pipes and smoked tobacco. The influence of the Oneota culture extended beyond Missouri into southern Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, and Illinois. Their influence can be traced visibly by their distinctive pottery. Near the mouth of the Grand River in Saline County, the Utz archeological site has furnished considerable information about this culture and its impact on later tribal groups.

­Osage

The most powerful tribal group in the early history of Missouri were referred to as the Wah‐Zha‐Zhe, which actually derived from a name for one of their moiety divisions, “The Water People.” The tribal group as a whole originally called themselves Ni‐U‐Ko’n‐Ska, meaning “Children of the Middle Waters.” Later, the Europeans referred to them as the Osage Indians. The Osage language is part of the Dhegiha–Siouan family, which also includes the Kaw, Ponca, Omaha, and Quapaw. A long time ago, they lived along the Ohio River as one people. Around 400–500 ce, the com- bined group migrated down the Ohio to the confluence with the Mississippi River. Some began to split off after 900 ce, as others occupied and developed communities in the lush river valleys. The Osage name for Cahokia is Ni‐U‐Ko’n‐Ska Dsi, meaning “Home of the Children of the Middle Waters.” The ancestral Osage were the last remaining Dhegiha group at Cahokia. Approximately 1350 ce, the ancestral Osage migrated up the Missouri River. They hunted across the Ozark Plateau to the Arkansas River and into the Great Plains after migrating from the Ohio Valley. The Osage say that their ancient ancestors once lived in the sky. The Sun is their grandfather, while the Moon is their grandmother. They speak of descending from the “above world” and landing in the “middle world.” The Great Elk helped them to survive in times of confusion and disarray. Dangers arose from the “below world,” which could set human beings adrift. Only by death, say the Osage, could a creature escape the snares of the earth.