DOI 10.4010/2016.901 ISSN 2321 3361 © 2016 IJESC

Research Article Volume 6 Issue No. 4

The Geology and the Earliest Evidences of Man in Abdul Adil Paray

Abstract: The object of the present study is to give in brief outline the geology of the Kashmir and to understand the earliest prehistoric colonization of Man in the region through archaeology. The accumulation of data from the geology and archaeology and the recent study of the Neolithic sites in the region warrant a new overview of the presence of early man in Kashmir. This paper attempts a synthesis of these data while recommending a further systematic work and methodological developments in this area. Here it has been tried to highlight that the earliest artifacts related to early man in Kashmir and the number of Paleolithic and the Neolithic sites are situated in the southern Kashmir region. Geologically, had undergone many changes in geological times, which is obvious from the stratigraphic profile of Kashmir, and southern Kashmir has witnessed the earliest colonization by early man as earliest tools of Lower Paleolithic period belong to Lower Pleistocene date.

Introduction Hypothesis The age of the earth based on evidence from radiometric age The distribution, pattern and number of Paleolithic and dating of meteorite material is 4.54 ± 0.05 billion years. The Neolithic sites located in south Kashmir, the geological radioactivity has revealed that the oldest rocks on the earth’s formation of the Valley with respect to South-Kashmir, the surface goes back to some 4,030 million years, they thus cultural sequence obtained in the area so for, material belong to the Archean age in ‘Geological Time’ (Table 1). remains found there by surface collections and during There is a consensus among the geologists that the excavation etc. show that south-Kashmir was earliest “Continental drift” and plate tectonics of the earth have prehistoric colonized region and the hub of activities of early played an important role, at different geological ages, to give man in Kashmir. Lidder Valley and Gufkral were earlier the earth its present shape. is supposed to have sites and nucleus of Paleolithic and Neolithic sites belonged to a supercontinent called ‘Gondwanaland’ situated respectively found in their close vicinity. Keeping in view in the southern hemisphere. After the end of Jurassic period the geology of the area, the formation of Pir Panjal and (144 MY BP) the various parts of supercontinent known as Karewas, and the drainage of primaeval lake and formation Tectonic Plates are supposed to have started to pull apart due of river Jhelum and presence of lower Paleolithic artifacts to tectonic motions. In the Miocene epoch, the Indian sub- suggest that man lived in the area earlier than any other part continent in the Indian Ocean drifted up to join the Eurasian of Kashmir. continent. It resulted in the collision, which gave rise to the geological formation of the . Kashmir also Geology of the Region under Study appeared in the present day world map during the later Many geologists, paleobotonists, geochronologists, and stages of the Himalayan upheaval with geological and paleontologists have studied the geological changes of morphological changes. In addition, one of the important Kashmir, who believe that the valley was once a vast lake in changes was the rise of the around 4 MY BP which lacustrine mud deposits were accumulated. These on the south-west which blocked the original drainage of the intermontane valley-fill sediments are called as Karewas; the Himalayan network and resulted in a vast lake without any term for flat–topped plateaus locally known as Wudars. They outlet for water. This fact is supported by the literary, believed that the Karewas originated in two different ages, legendary and mythological traditions also. one series younger in age than the other and the terms lower Karewas for the tilted and Upper Karewas for the horizontal beds were used to differentiate them.

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EON ERA PERIOD/SYSTEM BEGINNING OF AGE (EPOCH/SERIES) (million years ago) Archean - - 4,000 Proterozoic Pre-Cambrian - 2,500 Phanerozoic Paleozoic Cambrian 570 Ordovician 505 Silurian 438 Devonian 408 Carboniferous Lower 360 Upper 320 Permian 286 Mesozoic Triassic 248 Jurassic 213 Cretaceous Lower 144 Upper 98 Cenozoic Tertiary Paleocene 65 Eocene Oligocene 55 Miocene 38 Pliocene 25 5 Quarternary Pleistocene 1.8

Holocene 0.01 TABLE 1 Geological Ages

It was in 1935, Hellmut de Terra and T.T. Paterson did a origin and shrinkage of the lake and formation of two detailed study of Karewas. About the formation of Karewas, Karewa groups, separated by the moraines of second they found that the basic layer of the karewas is formed of glaciation. terminal moraines during the first phase of Pleistocene glaciation, which in turn are resting over the Palaeozoic and D.N. Wadia, another renowned geologist, has attested the Triassic basement rock. They estimated that the karewas observations of de Terra and Paterson, however, modified have grown between the lower and the middle Pleistocene the time span that was taken for the formation of karewas. epoch, between the end of first Glacial and the end of second He observed that it was during the entire period of Interglacial stage. They have also estimated, Kashmir Pleistocene epoch that the Karewas were formed. The Lower experienced four very cold climatic situations called glacial Karewas developed in the Lower Pleistocene and the Upper stages during the Pleistocene epoch, and three alternate Karewas accumulated in the remaining part of Pleistocene. warm climatic conditions in between them called interglacial Wadia has given the geological formations of Kashmir and stages. According to them, these were responsible for the their ages as given in the table 3.

International Journal of Engineering Science and Computing, April 2016 3900 http://ijesc.org/ Table 2. Geological Formations of Kashmir and their Ages

Formations Age Terraces, Alluvia, Karewas, Siwaliks Plio-Pleistocene Murree Series Miocene Nummulitics of PirPanjal and Outer Hills Oligocene/Eocene Sikkim Series and BurzilVolcanics Cretaceous Megalodon limestone; Jurassic of and Bal Tal Jurassic Trias Triassic Panjal Traps; Zewan series, Lower Gondwanas Permian Upper Tanawalas of PirPanjals; Agglomerate Slates Upper Carboniferous Fanestella Series Middle Carboniferous Syringothyris limestone Lower Carboniferous Muth Quartzite Devonian Silurian of Liddar and Sindh Silurian Hundawar and Liddar Ordovician U. Cambrian of Hundawar Upper Cambrian L. Cambrian of ShamshAbri Lower Cambrian Dogra Slate Cambrian Salkhala Series Algonkian Gneisses and granulites Archaean

To sort out the problems and issues raised by the earlier micropalaeontology, the palynology, the invertebrate and explorers and geologists, more work was carried out under vertebrate paleontology, the chronology of other events, etc., the Multidisciplinary Kashmir Palaeoclimatic Research new techniques were employed. D.K Bhatt, a field geologist Project from 1980-1989. Besides the physical and classical and the member of the project has given the stratigraphiy, techniques to study the sedimentology, geomorphology, the produced in the Table 4)

Table 3 (Bottom to top)

Age Siwalik Stratigraphy Karewa Stratigraphy Holocene Post Siwalik Post Karewa Upper

Middle Boulder Conglomerate Nagum* Formation

Lower Pinjore

Pleistocene Hirpur** Formation

Late Upper Siwalik Tatrot

Early DhokPathan

Karewa Group Karewa

Pliocene Middle Siwalik Basement Rock Source: Dr. D. K. Bhatt, 1992, New Delhi, Table 1, p. 49

*Nagum Formation is composed of Loess and Upper Karewa. **Hirpur Formation is Lower Karewa.

International Journal of Engineering Science and Computing, April 2016 3901 http://ijesc.org/ Denotes unconformity parts: Lower Karewas, spanning a period from circa 4 MY The researches carried out under the Kashmir Palaeoclimatic to c.300,000 BP, the Upper Karewas which cover a period of Project (1980-89), have shown that the Kashmir basin turned 300,000 to 85,000 years BP, and the top most member of into a vast lake due to the tectonic upheaval of the Pir Panjal wind-borne loess deposits dating from circa 85,000 years to range, around 4 million years BP, and there was the rise of today. So for the Lower Karewa sedimentation is concerned, about 1700 to 3000 meters in the south and south-west of the basal Karewa sedimentary rocks are constituted of dark Kashmir. It was around 200,000 years BP, another major coloured mudstones, which are rich in organic content, but tectonic upheaval took place in Pir Panjal range that resulted the sandstones are very less. The sequence is overlain by a in the rise in its height, the basin or Lake Floor tilted towards thick stratified conglomerate consisting, rounded clasts of the north, and northeast exposed all the sediments volcanic rocks, quartzite and limestone. The matrix is sandy accumulated on the south and south-west. Then the exposed but inter beds of sandstone are rare and one conspicuous sediments called Karewas, were overlaid by a new mud dominated event. This conglomerate is succeeded by deposition and accumulation of wind-borne loess. Hereafter sandstone-mudstone couplets. The sand rock is poorly the lake continued to exist but in a shifted position and the consolidated, green and contains abundant volcanic rock sediments on the north and north-west continued being fragments and the associated mudstones are rich in accumulated and were exposed around 85,000 years BP, vertebrate bones, gastropods and biological debris. The when the lake drained out through the gorge. This upper Karewa sedimentary rocks consists of conglomerate gave rise to the present day river channel of Jhelum and the and breccia, sand-mud alterations, mud rich in plant debris, wind-borne loess continued to accumulate on all exposed non-stratified silt and loess with associated palaeosols and Karewa tops until the end of glaciations approaching to pedogenic carbonate layers. Three distinct sand rock beds Holocene. with intervening thinly mudstones and occurrence of several Therefore, it is clear from investigations that the Pliocene- syn-sedimentary depositional layers and bouma sequences Pleistocene accumulations can be categorized into three are also present.

Map 1. Geological map of showing different lithological formation in the Valley. After Wadia (1970)

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Map 2. Karewa distribution map of Kashmir valley. After Wadia (1970)

Earliest Evidences of Man in Kashmir Central Asia, and the Manavas were the Aryans from the Kashmir is an ancient land where the man lived right since Punjab. The Pisachas never remained in peace with the the prehistoric times. Despite its geographical isolation, Nagas - the original occupants of the Kashmira, since they Kashmir has been a melting pot of different nations and had to gratify the Pisachas with food gifts off and on. When cultures. Its enchanting beauty, trade, religion and other the selection was to be made among the Pisachas and cultural currents attracted the people resulting in the Manavas, the Nagas preferred the Manavas to the Pisachas migration of nomads of prehistoric periods, Harappans, to throw them back to the borders of the valley. However, Mauriyans, Sakas, Kushanas, Hunas, Sayyids, Mughals, with the passage of time, they allowed Pisachas to live in Sikhs, etc. which resulted in the close contacts with peace with the help of Manavas and slowly but surely all the its neighbors- Gandhara, Iran, Western Turkistan, republics three lived permanently in the Valley. Besides, there was a of Central Asia, Tibet, China, etc. In this part of the chapter, close intercourse of the people with the people of the an attempt is made to present a brief survey of history of adjacent regions resulted in the amalgamation of customs, Kashmir in the light of available literary and archaeological rituals and traditions. Many of these customs and ceremonies sources, beginning with the emergence of early man in are even now a part of social life of Saraswat Brahmins in Kashmir. the valley.

Literary traditions give us accurate information about the Archaeological evidences and scientific investigations land formation of the Valley, corroborated largely by substantiate the fact that man lived right from the Paleolithic archaeological findings and scientific investigations, as we times onwards in the Valley. De Terra and Patterson were learned while discussing geology of the valley. Therefore, it the first to find a well fossilized tusk fragment on the way to would be worthwhile to refer once again to the legend as shrine of Baba Rafi-u-Din on a hill, half-fossilized limbs of given in the Nilmata Purana and Kalhana’s bovids (antelope and Bos) and one femur bone containing (The Stream of Kings) for discussing the origin of the people marks of artificial cutting, and flake implements in the in the valley. About the original inhabitants of the Kashmir, brown clay near Pampur and Kargil. This made them to say it is mentioned in the known literary works; Nagas were the that they belonged to Palaeolithic Period. Prof. H.D. original settlers followed by the Pisachas and then came the Sankalia assisted by S.L. Shali and others took up the field Manavas. The Nagas lived during the summer months and work in Lidder valley in in 1969-71 and recovered the Pisachas occupied it in the winter season. Nagas were the a massive flake and a crude Hand-axe from well stratified offsprings of sage , Pisachas were the nomads deposits dating to second glacial and second interglacial whose original home was far away in the desert regions of respectively. R.V. Joshi of the Prehistory Branch of

International Journal of Engineering Science and Computing, April 2016 3903 http://ijesc.org/ Archaeological Survey of India and others recovered nine , Borus in , Kaneer , and Aripathan more tools from deposits attributed to second through third in Budgam. Further explorations yielded more sites like Glacial Periods. Sankalia and his team also found a patinated Gopas Udar, Kriri Chak, Kuladur, Mukam Udar, Raiteng, tool, six choppers, and three scrapersin the area, categorized Tapribal, Wanigom, Yohteng, Pinglish, Balpora, Romu, as Palaeolithic tools. Similar tools were also picked up Shahpend Habshahsahib, Tsodur, Hayatpora khansahib and around Prang and Waswan in the Sindh valley near Koshund. Of all these sites only two, Burzoham and Gufkral and on the hill slopes of . Then the have been exposed archaeologically, the former extensively explanatory survey yielded Palaeoliths (Blade and burin and the latter partially. industry) from Balapora () and upper reaches of Sukhnag near having upper Palaeolithic affilation. Neolithic culture of Kashmir is represented by Burzuhom At Sombur, () more than 100 artifacts were and Gufkral sites. As for as the features of Neolithic culture collected in which core technique in fabrication was used. of Kashmir are concerned, we have found Dwelling pits, Under Palaeoclimatic Research Project new Palaeolithic ground tools, ceramics of different shapes and sizes, burials, sites were explored which included Kulladur, Bhatchak, contacts with outer world etc. It portrays a well-stratified Tapribal, Hiun in , Khansahab and Neolithic society capable of fixed settlement. The Neolithic Habsahab in Budgam, represented by backed knives, culture of the Kashmir for several reasons is different from elongated parallel sided double scrappers and waisted tools. that of the rest of the Neolithic . Increasing Grinders and pounders are a part of this industry. Some of size of Neolithic settlements in the valley, highly organized the tools have a clear Neolithic affinity and are associated economy, effective handling of raw material, emphasis on with the typical Neolithic industry. The Palaeoclimatic the control of environment, cultural contacts with people of research have indicated that 20000-18000 B.P. was of other regions despite limited means of communication and at climatic betterment in the valley and favorable for human the same time maintaining their skill and standard of settlements as indicated by Upper Palaeolithic sites from workmanship make it unique, as compared to other Neolithic Sombur and other areas. cultures of India.

Evidence regarding the presence of Mesolithic man are so Neolithic Period was succeeded by megalithic period in for scanty, but Paleolithic Culture was followed at places by Kashmir. Neolithic culture does not bear any affinity with Mesolithic Culture having a new breed of microlithic tools such of the structures in rest of Indian sub-continent. The that were mostly hafted for hunting to give an advantage to Megaliths of Kashmir are represented by Menhir type of the man. That culture was followed by an advanced standing stones. These upright stones are found in groups prehistoric stage termed as Neolithic culture, when the man and in some cases located alone. The interesting observation used the tools and implements more varied in form, and is that at most of the places these are overlying Neolithic made more skillfully, practiced agriculture, domesticated settlements as at Burzahom, Gufkral, Hariparigom, Begund, animals and manufactured pottery. The origin of Kashmir Brah Waztal, Trakpur, Pampur, Dadsar etc. Neolithic , according to A.K. Sharma, was somewhere in Central-Asia and started in the valley before circa 2920 BC Conclusion and continued up to 1700 BC around which time a new wave Geologically, it is proved that due to the rise of the Pir of people entered the valley with the knowledge of Panjals around four million years ago uplifted and folded the Megalithic building, rice and iron. It has been asserted by lake sediments and shifted the lake to the Himalayan flank. 5000 years B.P. climatic conditions became warmer and The rise of the range continued till the final drain out of the people in large numbers with sophisticated and effective Primaeval lake around 85,000 years B.P. The point here is hunting techniques entered into the valley. They were not that the Karewas in the Southern Part of Kashmir were first only hunters but producers too. Man thus entered into the exposed and became the abode of early man. As the earliest Neolithic age the remains of which are spread far and wide Paleolithic tools in Asia were recovered in the Lidder Valley in the valley. The Neolithic Culture in the Kashmir Valley is and Sombur of South Kashmir region also justify that the represented by more than three dozen sites, all located on the Neolithic people of the region were their successors and elevated flats of the karewas of wind-borne silt called loess, hence these Neolithic sites are earliest in the valley. near streams and lakes. These include Burzahom, Nunar, Baimlun in Wangathnallah, ten sites from to The Neolithic sites are mainly located in the areas of high including Begagund, Gofkral, Hariparigam, elevation between 1550 to 1650 meters above sea level, on Jayadevi Udar, Thajiwor, Olichibag, Pampore ,Panzgam, and the Karewas, which suggest that the water was not fully Sempur. Also, Damodar Udar, Kanayalwan, Brah and drained out of the valley or the land could have been Waztal, Dadsar, , Petha Gantamulla and swampy, hence inefficient for the cultivation and the Kanishkapora, Khor and , Dillion, Parihaspora, and Neolithians might have done their cultivation on the Karewa Turkepora in Baramulla. In the Sindh valley near the beds or terrace cultivation. It is substantiated by the confluence of Krankindi and the river Sindh, a Burzahom distribution pattern of the sites which show a preference for type settlement was found near village Kijpora, Haribous in the elevated areas for both settlements and the terrace

International Journal of Engineering Science and Computing, April 2016 3904 http://ijesc.org/ farming as is done presently on these Karewas. All the sites indicates some sort of movement of the new comers in the are located close to the water sources, which might have valley. So they could have brought new traits with them, been utilized for drinking water, farming, and fishing and which also show that Neolithic period was succeeded by the may be for transportation. In other words, all the sites are Megalithic period with different features and some past mainly located on the banks of river Jhelum and other continuity. In order to know more about this cultural stage it streams. And all the sites are near the hills with the is necessary to excavate sites, collect and analyze material availability of rocks as raw material for tool manufacturing culture of the period. and forests for food gathering, hunting and cattle rearing. The distribution of Neolithic settlement pattern and material The occurrence of the Neolithic pottery on the surface of the culture in South Kashmir encourages speculation about the sites in the region of South Kashmir, indicate the site wider nature of Neolithic culture in Kashmir. Inferences formation process and possible use of associated tools in the about the past behavior certainly depend on accurate region. The number of sites demarcates the region as a descriptions of the materials on which they are based, and potential area for the domestication of both plants and additional attempts to enlarge our knowledge of the data animals. Unfortunately, all the sites are unexcavated except base are essential. But these sites are still waiting for the Gufkral, so much less is known of the subsistence, archaeologists dig and then material culture can be environment and ecological transformations of these excavated and investigated so that many issues can be Neolithic Sites. Making subsistence mode of the Gufkral as responded. Many empirical and theoretical problems are yet the base of our evidence we can say that the people who unresolved about the Neolithic culture of Kashmir. There are lived in other Neolithic sites near it were agriculturalists and much more exciting avenues of research well worth pursuing animal herders. The distance between the sites from one or regarding the Neolithic culture of Kashmir in general and of other ranges from one to ten kilometers except Balpora, south Kashmir in particular. which suggests that there were demographic changes and increase in the population. All the sites are near or around References and Bibliography the Gufkral, with almost same pottery types, points towards 1. Indian Archaeology-A Review, Archaeological the fact that the people migrated from Gufkral to the other Survey of India, New Delhi, Volumes, 1960-61 to nearby places. 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