A GIS-Based Study of Sites for Decentralized Composting and Waste Sorting Stations in Kumasi, Ghana

Examensarbete i Hållbar Utveckling 45

A GIS-based Study of Sites for Decentralized Composting and Waste Sorting Stations in Kumasi, Ghana

Hanna Öberg

INSTITUTIONEN FÖR GEOVETENSKAPER

A GIS-based study of sites for decentralized composting and waste sorting stations in Kumasi, Ghana.

Author: Hanna Öberg Supervisor: Cecilia Sundberg, department of Energy and Technology, SLU

Acknowledgement

In your hand you are holding a Master thesis written for the master degree in Sustainable Development at Uppsala University and the Swedish Agricultural University (SLU). The thesis is part of the project “Integrated Waste Management in Western Africa” (IWWA) funded by the EU with eighteen partners in different European and African countries. This thesis discusses organic waste management in developing countries and Geographic Information System (GIS). Funding for the thesis was obtained from SIDA through the scholarship Minor Field Study, administrated by SLU.

I would like to dedicate my sincere gratitude to people who have helped me during my work with this thesis. I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Cecilia Sundberg at SLU for all her help and valuable comments. She has been a great source of inspiration and her knowledge in the subject has been invaluable. Just as much I would like to thank my supervisor in Kumasi, Dr. Moses Mensah, at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST). From KNUST I would also like to thank Dr. John Ayer.

At the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly (KMA) I would like to dedicate my gratitude to Mrs. Augustina Adjei Boateng for investing her time in this project by giving valuable information about waste management in Kumasi. I would also like to thank Mr. Marfo for his assistance during my fieldwork. Sven Smars at SLU and Karin Högdahl at Uppsala University have assisted by lending me equipment for my fieldwork.

Last but not least I would like to thank my dear friends in Ghana. Maxwell Appiah for his assistance during my fieldwork and his help with GIS. I am forever grateful to Amanda, Jennifer and Akyya for their hospitality and friendship during my stay. Ghana would not have been the same without you!

Abstract

Developing countries are facing a great challenge to collect, treat and dispose their waste in a more sustainable way. Today, most of the produced waste ends up on landfills, where they pose a great threat to the environment and human health. Kumasi, the second largest city in Ghana, faces the same issues as other cities in developing countries; waste management is run poorly and most waste ends up on the cities largest landfill, Dompoase, which will be full in a few years time. Issues such as low financial resources, bad urban planning and a growing population aggravate the implementation of a more sustainable development.

Since most solid waste in developing countries is organic, composting is a good option towards a more sustainable waste management. There are numerous amounts of articles stating that decentralized composting is the best option for developed countries. Decentralized compost facilities are less costly to install and maintain, they require less technology and decrease the cost of waste transportation. Transportation poses a large expense when it comes to waste management in developing countries. There is an advantage in integrating a more sustainable waste management in to the existing waste infrastructure since cities often are densely built up and there is a shortage of land. Therefore this thesis has investigated the possibilities of having waste sorting stations and decentralized compost facilities at public dumping sites in the Bantama area, one of ten sub-metros in Kumasi.

Based on literature and observations during field visits in the Bantama area, a classification scheme was developed. The classification scheme was designed to simplify identification and differentiation of the sites. It contains thirteen criteria to consider when planning for organic waste sorting stations and decentralized compost facilities. Suitable sites for sorting stations and decentralized compost facilities were selected by a SQL analyzes in a Geographic Information System (GIS). The analyzes was based on the classification scheme. The result shows that of twenty-one public dumping sites, seven were suitable as sorting stations and two sites were suitable for a decentralized compost facility.

The expectation is that in due time and with infrastructure improvements, more than only seven communal sites can become sorting stations. When it comes to sites for composting the result reveals an issue in many cities – there is just not enough land to build as many decentralized facilities as would be necessary to recycle all organic waste. However, due to the advantages of having decentralized facilities, the recommendation is that Kumasi should start with a decentralized approach and as finance and technological skills exists the organic waste management can extend to also include larger facilities.

Further this thesis shows the advantage of having decentralized composting when it comes to transportation costs. A transport analyzes was done in a GIS, which showed the difference in transportation distances between having decentralized and centralized composting. The result showed that waste recycled close to its source, i.e. having decentralized waste management, is transported shorter distance compared to having centralized composting and thus saving on cost for transportation.

Keywords: Sustainable waste management, developing countries, organic waste, decentralized composting, sorting stations, waste transportation, GIS.

Sammanfattning

Utvecklingsländer står inför en stor utmaning att med hållbara metoder samla in, behandla och kasta sitt avfall. Idag hamnar större delen av allt insamlat avfall på deponier där de utgör fara för miljö och människors hälsa. Kumasi, som är den näst största staden i Ghana, är inget undantag utan står inför samma utmaningar som många andra städer i utvecklingsländer; avfallshanteringen är illa skött och största delen av stadens avfall hamnar på deponin Dompoase, vilken kommer vara full inom några år. Orsaker som låga finansiella resurser, brist på stadsplanering och en snabbt växande befolkning försvårar implementeringen av en effektivare och mer hållbar avfallshantering.

Eftersom största delen av hushålls- och marknadsavfall i utvecklingsländer är organiskt, utgör kompostering en bra början till en mer hållbar avfallshantering. Många av de artiklar som berör ämnet anser att decentraliserad kompostering är det bästa alternativet för utvecklingsländer. De kostar mindre att implementera och underhålla, de är mindre teknologiska och kostnader för avfallstransporter minskar. Transportering av avfall utgör en stor del av avfallsbudgeten i utvecklingsländer och så även i Ghana. Det är en fördel att integrera en hållbar avfallshantering i den existerande avfallsinfrastrukturen, eftersom städerna oftast är tätbebyggda och det således är svårt att undvara nytt land för avfallshantering. Därför är fokus för denna uppsats att undersöka möjligheten att ha sorteringsstationer för organiskt avfall samt decentraliserade komposteringsanläggningar vid existerande allmänna sopstationer i stadsdelen Bantama, en av tio stadsdelar i Kumasi.

Baserat på litteratur och observationer under fältstudier i Bantama skapades först ett klassificerings- schema. Klassificeringsschemat underlättar identifikation och differentiering av de allmänna sopstationerna. Det innehåller tretton olika kriterier att ta hänsyn till när man planerar för sorteringsstationer och kompostanläggningar. Passande områden valdes ut genom en SQL analys i geografiskt informationssystem (GIS). Analysen baserades på klassificeringsschemat. Resultaten visar att av tjugoen allmänna sopstationer var sju stycken lämpade för att ha sopsortering och två var lämpade för att ha en decentraliserad komposteringsanläggning.

Förhoppningen är att med tiden och med behövliga infrastrukturförbättringar kan fler än sju allmänna sopstationer utgöra sorteringsstationer. Vad gäller områden för komposterings- anläggningar visar resultaten på en svårighet, som inte bara berör Kumasi utan många andra städer – det finns inte tillräckligt med landyta i städerna för att bygga så många decentraliserade anläggningar som skulle behövas för att återvinna all organiskt avfall. Trots detta så är rekommendationen att Kumasi borde börja med ett decentraliserat system på grund av dess fördelar. När finansiering samt tekniska kunskaper finns kan den organiska avfallshanteringen öka i omfång till att även inkludera större komposteringsanläggningar.

Vidare så visar denna uppsats på fördelarna med att ha decentraliserad kompostering utifrån ett transportperspektiv. En transportanalys gjordes i ett GIS och resultatet visade skillnaden i transportavstånd mellan att ha decentraliserad och centraliserad kompostering. Genom att återvinna avfall nära källan, med andra ord ha ett decentraliserat system, transporteras avfallet kortare avstånd jämfört med att ha ett centraliserat system. Således sparar man in på transportkostnader.

Nyckelord: hållbar avfallshantering, utvecklingsländer, organiskt avfall, decentraliserad kompostering, sorteringsstationer, avfallstransporter, GIS.

Abbreviations

SWM – Solid Waste Management

KMA – Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly

WMD – Waste Management Department

GIS – Geographic Information System

GHG – Green House Gases

IWMI – International Waste Management Institute

AWS – Abandoned Waste Site

KNUST - Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology

MDG – Millennium Development Goals

Table of content

1. Introduction 1. 1.1 Aim 2.

2. Background 3. 2.1 Kumasi and sub-metro Bantama 3. 2.2 Solid waste management 4. 2.2.1 Municipal solid waste management in Kumasi 4. 2.2.2 Sanitation planning 7. 2.3 Transport and waste management 7. 2.4 Sorting of the material 8. 2.5 Organic waste management in Ghana 8. 2.5.1 Previous experiences in Ghana 9. 2.5.2 What are the conditions for composting in Kumasi? 9. 2.5.3 Decentralized composting 10. 2.6 Geographic information system 11.

3. Method and material 12. 3.1 Data collection 12. 3.1.1 Literature studies 12. 3.1.2 Field studies 12. 3.2 Creating the classification scheme 13. 3.3 Geographic information system analyzes 13. 3.3.1 SQL-analyzes 14. 3.3.2 Network analyzes 14.

4. Results 14. 4.1 Classification scheme 14. 4.2 Defining the study sites 16. 4.3 Geographic information system analyzes 17. 4.3.1 Selecting the criteria and SQL analyzes 17. 4.3.2 Network analyzes 23.

5. Discussion of results 24. 5.1 Classification scheme 24. 5.2 Using GIS as a tool 24. 5.3 Sorting stations 25. 5.4 Decentralized compost 25. 5.5 Network analyzes 26. 5.6 Lessons learnt from previous projects 27. 5.7 Recommendations for implementation and identified questions for further studies 27.

6. Conclusion 28. References 30.

APPENDIX 1 33.

APPENDIX 2 34.

APPENDIX 3 37.

1. Introduction

Humans have always produced waste and as the human society has developed, the amount of waste has increased. Countries today are facing a great challenge to collect, treat and dispose their waste in a sustainable way. Waste management differs greatly between developed and developing countries as well as between urban and rural areas. Urban areas face a more urgent problem to manage the large amount of waste produced in a limited space. Compared to many developed countries with a developed collection service and recycling industry, developing countries have a less developed waste management and besides some informal recycling industries most waste ends up on landfills. Due to lack of resources and ability to implement a sustainable waste management, waste management is difficult to manage in developing countries.

An unsustainable solid waste management poses a large threat to the environment. Landfills contribute to global warming by releasing greenhouse gases (GHG) as well as polluting soil and water. Five percent of the total GHG emissions come from landfills (IPCC, 2006). Further, an unsustainable waste management also poses a threat to human health and is aesthetically unpleasant. However, waste does not have to be a problem, it can also be a potential resource.

To face the current and future problems in waste management developing countries have to implement more recycling and make waste management transports more efficient. Waste transportation is often a major part of the waste management budget. Since a large fraction of household waste in developing countries is organic implementation of composting is a good start towards a more sustainable waste management. Organic waste can be composted and used as fertilizers on farmland and provide benefits such as; minimizing the amount of waste on landfills, return nutrients to the soil and reduce the use of chemical fertilizer. There are numerous amounts of articles stating that decentralized composting is the best option for developed countries (Zurbrugg, C, I, Maqsood, & Enayetullah, 2005), (Hoornweg, Thomas, & Otten, 1999), (Rothenberger & Enayetullah, 2006). Decentralized composting recycles the waste near the source leading to less waste transportation costs. Further, smaller decentralized composting requires less technology compared to large centralized facilities and therefore the starting and operational costs are less (Rothenberger & Enayetullah, 2006).

However, even with the benefits decentralized composting can provide, there are obstacles. Cities in developing countries are often crowded and expand quickly. Therefore finding suitable land has shown to be an issue (Zurbrugg, C, I, Maqsood, & Enayetullah, 2005). This could be resolved by, as far as possible, integrate composting and the necessary sorting of waste into the already existing waste management infrastructure.

Ghana is a typical example of a developing country with an unsustainable waste management and limited means to implement one. Ghana also aspires to become a middle-income country by 2020 (NESSAP, 2009) and with greater wealth comes more waste. Kumasi, Ghana’s second largest city, faces great challenges in future waste management since the city’s largest landfill, Dompoase, will be full in a few years time and there are difficulties in finding land for a new landfill. The country has set goals to implement a more sustainable waste management in their Environmental Sanitation Policy. The target is that by 2013 20% of the household community, public levels and commercial areas should be provided with services and facilities for primary separation of solid wastes. Today, due to

1 lack of resources the managing of waste in Kumasi is poorly implemented and sanitation is difficult to manage.

Based on the above, this thesis aims to determine the possibilities for decentralized composting in Kumasi. Questions asked are; is there land for composting and can composting be integrated in to the existing waste management infrastructure? Will decentralized composting minimize transportation costs? What are the limitations to implement decentralized composting? How can sorting be implemented in to the existing waste management and can this lead to recycling of not only organic material? Based on these questions the aim and objectives were formed.

This thesis will focus on household- and market waste disposed at transfer stations. The analyzes was limited to Bantama sub-metro. The tool Geographic Information System (GIS) was used for the required analyzes. The expectation of this study is that it will be extended to other sub-metros in Kumasi and also to other cities in Ghana and other developing countries. The target groups are therefore other students who have the opportunity to extend this research and the thesis also aims to stakeholders in Ghana and other developing countries.

1.1 Aim

The aim of this study was to make an assessment of sites for waste sorting stations and decentralized compost facilities in Kumasi, Ghana. The study was conducted as a preliminary study to facilitate the implementation of a sustainable waste management by suggesting suitable public dumping sites and abandoned waste dumping sites for sorting and composting.

The objectives of the study were:

• Objective I, to create a classification scheme for sorting stations and decentralized composting sites applicable to cities in developing countries. • Objective II, to identify abandoned waste dumping sites and public dumping sites in Bantama sub-metro and categorize them according to the classification scheme using GIS. • Objective III, to produce digitalized maps showing suitable sites for sorting stations and decentralized compost facilities. • Objective IIII, to perform a network analyzes comparing driving distances between having decentralized and centralized compost facilities.

2. Background

2. 1 Kumasi and sub-metro Bantama

Ghana is situated in the bay of Guinea of West Africa (figure 1) in the area once known as the Gold Coast. Kumasi is, following the capital Accra, the second largest city in Ghana with a population of 2 million (KMA, 2010). Kumasi is a fast growing city with a population growth rate of 5.3% (KMAa, 2011). It is the capital of the Ashanti region, once a great kingdom. Today, the King of Ashanti has no political power but is still influential and in control of the land in the region through dozens of sub- chiefs (Korboe D 1995). Their cultural and historical heritage still plays an important role in everyday life of the citizens and in the urban development. Kumasi has a strategic location in the middle of the country combining the north and the south road networks. It is therefore an important trading centre with the central market being one of the largest markets in West Africa. At the household level informal trading is the main source of income. The climate is classified as sub-equatorial with two rainy seasons from March to July and from September to October. Annual rainfall is 1350 mm. The natural vegetation is rainforest. Temperatures vary between 21.5 and 30.7⁰C with only little variation during the year.

Figure 1. Map of Ghana (Wikipedia, 2007) and Africa (usaid, 2011).

Bantama, one of ten sub-metros in Kumasi, is situated North East of Kumasi with a population of 306,248. Bantama has a total of 22,548 households and the largest part of the population is under the age of twenty-nine (KMA, 2010). Bantama can be described as a typical area in Kumasi (Mrs Adjei Boateng 2011 pers. comm) with dense residential areas and narrow dirt roads. The population in Bantama mainly get their income from trading.

Figure 2, 3 & 4. Bantama area (author’s photos).

2.2 Solid waste management

The Basel convention defines the word waste as: “Wastes are substances or objects which are disposed or are intended to be disposed or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national laws.” (Baker et al 2004 p. 5). Shortly the definition of waste is any unwanted or useless material. However, waste does not have to be useless, a sustainable waste management can recover resources from unwanted materials.

A solid waste management system contains of collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal and monitoring of waste materials. A sustainable waste management reduces the effect on health, the environment and the aesthetics. Important factors to consider when planning waste management are economical, environmental, cultural and health factors. Compared to many developed countries with a well-developed collection service and a sustainable waste management focusing on the protection of environment and health, developing countries are behind. As wealth increases in developing countries more waste is produced and there is a need for a well functioning sustainable waste management.

Landfilling, last in the waste hierarchy, poses a large threat to the environment due to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Five percent of the total global greenhouse gas emissions come from waste management, methane (CH4) being the largest source coming from anaerobic digestion of organic material in landfills. CH4 has a 21 times higher global warming potential than carbon dioxide (CO2) and also affects the degradation of the ozone layer (IPCC, 2006).

Landfilling is the most common used waste management worldwide and also in Ghana. Concerns about the health and environmental issues related to landfills have gotten stakeholders to find more sustainable ways to waste management. In modern waste planning resource recovery and “closing the loop” by reusing materials and returning nutrients are important factors.

2.2.1 Municipal Solid Waste Management in Kumasi

The Waste Management Department (WMD) of the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly (KMA), is in charge of waste management in Kumasi and should as far as possible be self-financing. Most operational activities are privatized and the WMD is responsible for the overall management. Policy- making is a governmental responsibility (Abdul-Nassir Saleh, 2002). There are a number of different companies dealing with waste management in Kumasi including Zoomlion (the largest one in Ghana)

MeskWorld, Sak-M, Wastegroup and ABC. In Bantama sub-metro the company MeskWorld handles the operational activities.

Waste management in Kumasi is insufficient, leading to an unclean and unhealthy environment. About 17% of the solid household waste generated in the city is dumped illegally, burned or buried by households, only 2% of the population has door-to-door collection. The largest fraction of the household waste, 81%, is taken to public dumping sites (KMA, 2011). These public dumping sites are referred to as communal sites and the terminology communal sites will therefore be used in this paper. The communal sites are transfer stations run by the KMA, WMD where locals dispose their waste for a minor fee. There are 155 communal sites in Kumasi. The pay-as-you-dump fee is 20 pesewas (0.09 Euro) per head load. The measurement “a head load” is usually one day’s waste from one household. A household collects their waste during a day and brings it, carrying on the head, to a communal site the next morning. Waste is collected and transported from the communal sites to a landfill every day or every other day (Mrs Adjei Boateng 2011 pers. comm).

Figure 5. Illegally dumped waste in Bantama area (author’s photo)

Today, most of the waste from communal sites is transported to Dompoase landfill located in the outskirts, south of Kumasi. Dompoase landfill is an engineered landfill meaning that the landfill is constructed to prevent environmental impact from the waste. It was constructed in 2003 and has an expected lifetime of 15 years (Wikner, 2009). Kumasi is a fast growing city and there are difficulties in finding land for a new landfill site. Bantama area has a landfill, much smaller in size than Dompoase, called Amanfrom. Amanfrom is used when waste is collected in a close radius to the location of the landfill and also during the rainy season when the unloading platform at Dompoase is too muddy. To not put too much pressure on the platform more waste is then transported to Amanfrom (Mrs Adjei Boateng 2011 pers. comm).

Figure 6. The Dompoase landfill in Kumasi (author’s photo)

The waste composition in Kumasi varies with the season. The average percentage of the household waste composition in Kumasi is shown in figure 7.

Wood 2%

Inert materials 21% Oragnic material 40% Texles 7% Metals 2% Paper and cardboard Plascs 7% Glass/boles 20% 1%

Figure 7. Average household waste composition in Kumasi (Mensah M, Acheampong I, 2011).

A large fraction of the household waste in Kumasi is organic which makes recycling of organic waste a good option towards a more sustainable waste management. Recycling of organic waste will decrease the amount of waste at Dompoase, decrease GHG emissions and return nutrients to the soil.

2.2.2 Sanitation planning

In 2010 the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development published a new sanitation policy; “The Environmental Sanitation Policy”. The main focus of the new policy is to meet the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) target year of 2015 as well as to review the limitations of the old one from 1999. Since then it is slightly refocused in order to be forward looking and prepared for a changing lifestyle that comes with greater wealth.

The overall goal of the Environmental Sanitation Policy is to “develop a clear and nationally accepted vision of environmental sanitation as an essential social service and a major determinant for improving health and quality of life in Ghana.” (NESSAP, 2009 p. 13). The current state on Solid Waste Management (SWM) in Ghana is that there has been an increase in waste as well as a change in the type of waste, from biodegradable food-wrapping such as leaves to paper, to thin-film plastics and now also more dense styro-foam and plastics. Many of the current waste dumping sites, especially the ones in the larger cities, are causing bad smell as well as opposing a health hazard to people living around these areas (NESSAP, 2009). Further the sanitation policy declares that waste management in Ghana supports the waste hierarchy: reduction, re-use, recycling and recovery. The target is that by 2013 20% of the household community, public levels and commercial areas should be provided with services and facilities for primary separation of solid wastes. By 2015 this figure should be 25% and by 2035 90% (NESSAP, 2009). The potential for integrating recycling stations at communal waste dumping sites will be examined. It is expected that smaller recycling stations will in time meet the target of one major recycling station and also reduce the cost of transportation. When it comes to composting in particular the aim is to install windrow composting plants and the target is to compost 50% of biodegradable organic fraction of the municipal waste that will be source separated (15% by 2015). It is expected that within the planning period a minimum of four mechanized compost plants will be installed in metro areas (NESSAP, 2009).

Windrow composting is when organic waste is piled in long rows along triangular aerators. The rows need to be turned to improve porosity and oxygen content. It requires an area of 800 - 1000 m2 and has the capacity to serve a number of 2000 households and receive 4 tons of waste every day (Drechsel & Zurbrugg, 2006). Included in the area is not only the space required for the actual composting process but also space for office, parking area etc. The area can be scaled up or down depending on local conditions (Rothenberger & Enayetullah, 2006).

Today, most of the KMA’s budget goes to operation and maintenance of existing systems which limit the possibilities to work in the direction of a more sustainable waste management (Dahlman, 2009).

2.3 Transport and waste management

A large fraction of the waste management budget in developing countries goes to transportation. Therefore an important focus is to keep costs of transportation low when planning for a sustainable waste management. Having a decentralized approach to recycling of organic material would target this (UNESCAP), (Rothenberger & Enayetullah, 2006). It is one of the advantages with a decentralized system since waste is reused close to where it is generated (Zurbrugg, C, I, Maqsood, & Enayetullah, 2005). Cofie explains that in order to save as much as possible on waste transportation cost, composting should take place within the city-boundaries (Cofie, Dreschel, Agbottah, & van Veenhuizen, 2009). However, this might not be possible due to other issues such as availability of

7 land but should be kept in mind when planning for compost facilities. There is also the possibility of having non-motorized vehicles for shorter transportation distances (UN-HABITAT, 2010). Another aspect of transportation to consider is the distance in transportation for farmers interested in buying the finished compost product. There is a risk that less of the product will be sold if the transportation costs are too high for the farmer.

2.4 Sorting of organic waste

A transfer station is a site where waste is temporary disposed. Skitt explains the term as: “A place where waste from collection vehicles is aggregated and organized before being transported to disposal sites or treatment facilities.” (Skitt, 1992). In literature, the term transfer station is used both for sites where waste is sorted and for sites where waste is only aggregated, without being sorted. Since this paper will discuss sites for sorting of waste the term sorting stations will be used instead of transfer stations.

Sorting is a crucial part of the composting process. A well managed sorting secures a good supply of fresh organic waste to compost facilities and the product produced will be of high quality and free from heavy metals. Sorting can either be done by citizens at household level or done by workers at designated sorting stations. This thesis will look into whether the communal sites in Kumasi can function as sorting stations. The idea is to have two containers at the sorting stations, one for mixed household waste and one for pure organic waste. Further there should be room for a table where sorting will occur. Having sorting at the communal sites are favorable since a more sustainable waste management will be integrated in to the existing waste management infrastructure. It is favorable since the land is already designated to waste management and locals are accustomed to bring their waste to these sites. It will also provide employment opportunities where waste pickers can be involved in the process. Waste pickers are people from marginalized groups who get their income from separating useful material at landfills to sell or use (Wilson, Velis, & Cheeseman, 2006). There is an advantage with hiring waste pickers to work at sorting stations since they are already familiar with waste sorting and recycling. Further, a job would provide them with a more steady income and hopefully a healthier working environment.

2.5 Organic waste management in Ghana

Organic- or biodegradable waste is waste from plant or animal sources. There are two ways to process organic waste: with the presence of oxygen by composting (aerobic) or without oxygen by biogasification (anaerobic). Composting is the most common biological treatment world-wide (McDougall et al 2001 p. 248). When dealing with organic waste in developing countries compost is seen as a preference compared to anaerobic digestion since it is a more simple process requiring less technological resources (Hoornweg, Thomas, & Otten, 1999). It has benefits such as minimizing the amount of waste on landfill, return nutrients to the soil, reduce the use of chemical fertilizer and can be started with little capital and operational cost. With composting, large amount of waste produces an odorless and stackable product as well as decreases the volume compared to the volume of the input material. A study from SLU shows that Kumasi can reduce their GHG emissions by 19.000 –

21.000 tons CO2 every year by composting its organic household waste (Boström, 2010).

2.5.1 Previous compost experiences in Ghana

Ghana has had compost facilities and the most well known facilities are Buobai in Kumasi and James town and Teshi-Nungua in Accra. All three facilities were windrow compost plants, James Town was designed to produce 200 tons per year and Teshi-Nungua to produce 38.000 tons per year while the one in Kumasi was designed to produce 37 tons per year (Drechsel et al, b, 2004). Facilities of this size are referred to as centralized compost facilities. The quality of the compost produced in Kumasi proved to be well with a high content of nutrients and free from toxics and heavy metals (Cofie, Dreschel, Agbottah, & van Veenhuizen, 2009). Unfortunately none of the compost facilities are currently in use. The experiences from the projects in Ghana as well as examples from other West African countries show that the reasons for failure where too low revenues as well as that cost of transportation and maintenance were too high. Further, there was a problem in selling the product; at James town and Buobai producers were not able to sell the product and at Teshi-Nungua the product was sold but did not manage to cover the high operation and maintenance cost (Drechsel et al, b, 2004). Mrs. Adjei Boateng says that some of the reasons Buobai failed was: when donor founding ran out there was a problem finding new funding and the project ended. The plant was also not popular with the local community who didn’t want a compost facility in their “backyard”. The facility still remains on the ground without any current usage (Mrs Adjei Boateng 2011 pers. comm).

2.5.2 What are the conditions for composting in Kumasi?

Fifty-five percent of the total household waste is organic (figure 7). In a year the total amount of organic waste produced in Kumasi is 64.000 tons from households and 60.000 tons from markets. When including other sources of waste available for composting such as: sawdust, industry and livestock manure, Kumasi has a total of 230.000 – 250.000 tons available for composting every year (table 2). Based on these figures it is clear that there is no shortage of fresh supply for composting in Kumasi (Dreschsel et al, a , 2004).

Table 1. Total amount of waste and organic waste produced in Kumasi (Drechsel et al, a , 2004).

The benefits of using compost as fertilizer are many. It improves the soil structure, adds nutrient and trace materials, lightens heavy soils and gives better infiltration of air and water (UNESCAP). Three groups of buyers have been identified in Ghana; urban farming systems, peri-urban farming systems and real estate developers and landscape designers. Estimations done by the International Waste Management Institute (IWMI) shows that around 11.000 tons of compost could be absorbed every year by different farming systems (Drechsel et al, c, 2004). Backyard farming in urban areas is common in Kumasi. Nearly two thirds of households practice backyard farming. Urban and peri- urban farming accounts for 60% of the total food consumption in the city (Dahlman, 2009).

Today, most farmers use poultry manure as fertilizer and a few combine it with chemical fertilizers (Drechsel et al, c, 2004). Kumasi has more than 300 registered poultry farms. They pose a large competition and limit the potential market to compost. Compost is not officially accepted as a fertilizer by many of the farmers in Ghana (Zurbrugg, et al. 2004). However, farms producing goods for export have more pressure to keep a higher standard and are more interested in soil input with a high quality such as compost fertilizer (Drechsel et al, b, 2004).

As explained above supply of fresh material is not an issue for Kumasi. The challenges are rather socio-economic issues such as the gap between farmer’s willingness to pay and estimated compost price. Therefore composting can so far only be sustainable with subsidies (Cofie, Dreschel, Agbottah, & van Veenhuizen, 2009).

2.5.3 Decentralized composting

There are numerous amounts of articles stating that decentralized composting is the best option for developed countries (Zurbrugg, C, I, Maqsood, & Enayetullah, 2005), (Hoornweg, Thomas, & Otten, 1999), (Rothenberger & Enayetullah, 2006) etc. Decentralized composting is the composting of waste in limited quantities located near urban residential areas. Sizes can vary from small backyard composting installations to plants processing 3 to 10 tons of organic waste daily. Decentralized facilities are less technology dependent and there is a less risk of failure compared to centralized facilities (Rothenberger & Enayetullah, 2006). They are also cheaper to construct and since they are less technology dependent they require less operational costs. Along with lower starting cost and operational costs there is a cost efficiency in transportation by reusing waste close to where it is generated (Rothenberger & Enayetullah, 2006), (Zurbrugg, Drechsel, Patel, & Sharatchandra, 2004). Decentralized composts are also more labor intensive and will create employment opportunities and a source of income for locals. Even if the recommendation is that a decentralized approach is the most sustainable for developing countries there are obstacles and decentralized compost facilities are also prone to some of the problems as centralized ones. Another issue with decentralized composting is finding suitable land (Zurbrugg, Drechsel, Patel, & Sharatchandra, 2004), (Drechsel et al, d, 2004). Most cities in developing countries are facing a population growth and expansion of the city boundaries, which makes it more difficult to find suitable land (Zurbrugg, C, I, Maqsood, & Enayetullah, 2005). This is also the situation in Kumasi. If possible, there is an advantage in using already designated waste management sites for composting (Drechsel et al, b, 2004).

At the time of writing Zoomlion is currently planning for a compost facility in Kumasi. The facility would be large, producing 200-400 tons a day (Rockson 2011pers. comm). However, the compost plant has not been constructed yet and this figure is very uncertain. However, it is clear that the

facility is planned to be a lot larger than the decentralized ones discussed in this paper. The plant will be located in the south of the city.

Ghana’s Environmental sanitation policy states that the goal is to install windrow composting as part of their organic waste management (NESSAP). The previous compost facility in Kumasi, Boubai, was windrow composting, thus the knowledge of such a facility exists.

While doing the literature study there has not been any sources claiming that centralized compost facilities are more suitable for developing countries. Large-scale composting plants previously operating in urban areas in developing countries have proved to be uneconomical (Dulac, 2001). These compost stations have failed due to various numbers of reasons such as: poverty, demographic growth, economic fluctuations and fiscal austerity (Drechsel et al, b, 2004). The differences between centralized and decentralized can be seen in the table below.

Large-scale centralized composting system Decentralized composting system Depend on highly mechanized technology. Simple technology and labor intense. Large investments for advanced machineries. Low capital cost and locally available materials. High operation and maintenance costs and a high degree Comparatively less maintenance costs and low level skills of specialized skills to operate and maintain. required. Having the residents separate their own waste reduces the volume of solid waste for disposal, increases the value of Less interaction and involvement of the residents. recyclables and enhances the environmental awareness of the community. Transportation cost is high as all waste needs to be Reduces the cost of transportation. transported to disposal facilities located far from the city. Quality of compost is poor due to large quantity of Quality of compost is good because waste is efficiently unseparated waste with high risk of contamination. separated twice and risks for contamination are minimized.

Table 2. Large-scale centralized vs. Decentralized composting (UNESCAP).

2.6 Geographic Information System

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computerized system that can store, analyze and display geographically referenced information combined with database information. It has the ability to relate different information in a spatial context. GIS is used in a number of different fields, for example; archeology, urban planning, remote sensing, land surveying and natural resource planning. Geographically referenced information, i.e. identified according to a location on the globe, can be stored as raster- or vector images. Raster images are stored as pixels in rows and columns with each cell storing a single value. Vector data is stored as points (ex. houses, wells), lines (ex. roads, rivers) or as polygons (ex. landuse, city boundary). Database information is stored as attribute tables connected to the map-layers (the raster- or vector images). Differently combined data can reveal relationships, patterns and trends to the user that is difficult to associate in any other way. As an example map layers showing topography, rivers and houses can be combined and analyzed to see which houses in a residential area that might be exposed to flooding. GIS helps the user to display data in a way that is easily understood by people from different fields, education and language. There are a numerous amount of tools helping to analyze the data. Below follows a description of tools used for the analyzes in this thesis.

Structured query language (SQL) is a standardized language used to select, retrieve and modify data stored in a relation database (ESRI, 2011). It is the most used standard among databases. In GIS, SQL is used to retrieve information from an attribute table. SQL was used for selecting suitable sites for sorting stations and decentralized compost sites.

A network analyzes can be used to find the most optimal route between two or more points. A network can be defined as “a set of geographic locations interconnected in a system by a number of routes” (Lo & Yeung, 2007, p. 389). It is a system of lines topologically structured meaning that all lines are interlinked without any fractures on the lines. A network can be roads, underground, a river system or electrical wiring, to mention a few. Examples of analyzes on road networks can be finding the shortest route between two or more points, fleet routing, travel directions, closest facility, service area etc. In order to perform a network analyzes a basic requirement is to have information in the attribute table about the length of each line segment. Other information valuable for network analyzes can be speed limits, one-way streets, traffic congestions and prohibited turns (Eklundh, 2000), (Lo & Yeung, 2007). In GIS the user specifies the rules for the network (distance, speed-limit etc.) and the locations of two or more points. It is in between these points where the result will be calculated. In this thesis network analyzes is used to find the shortest route between suggested sorting stations and the suggested decentralized composting site as well as between suggested sorting stations and the suggested centralized compost facility.

3. Method and material

3.1 Data collection

3.1.1. Literature studies

In order to get some basic understanding of the topic as well as the geographical area to be studied, some basic information were obtained from literature. The literature, both international and Ghanaian, came from a variety of different sources such as published articles and reports, internet, the national environmental sanitation strategy and action plan and MSc and BSc thesis from KNUST library. Personal contact with KMA’s WMD and The Statistical Office were also sources of information.

3.1.2. Field studies

Necessary data was collected during field visits in Kumasi. Three months in Ghana also gave a general understanding of prevailing waste management condition in the country as well as an understanding of Ghanaian culture and customs.

The field work took place in Bantama sub-metro. Mrs. Adjei Boateng, research and development officer at the WMD, chose Bantama since it is the sub-metro with the most communal- and abandoned sites. Data from the communal sites was collected in December, during the dry season. A first visit to the sites gave information about the location of the sites. The locations of the communal sites in Bantama area have not previously been marked in a map. Contact was initiated through personal contact with the WMD. All necessary data for the analyzes was collected during a second visit to the sites. The geographic location and area was collected with a GPS, in the coordinate system

WGS84. Other information was collected through observation and conversations with caretakers alternatively with locals in the area. Personal contacts with employees at the KMA WMD and students at KNUST gave opportunity and assistance for the field studies.

During field visits in Bantama area, in December 2010, a total number of twenty-five sites were visited. Two of the sites were landfills, two were abandoned waste sites and the rest were communal sites. The two landfills, Dompoase (located outside of Bantama) and Amanfrom were visited in order to get a perception of the current waste management in Kumasi and also to collect the coordinates for a network analyzes. They were not included in the SQL analyzes of suitable areas for sorting stations or composting plants.

3.2 Creating the classification scheme

A classification scheme was designed to simplify identification and differentiation of the sites. The following criteria were considered when designing the classification scheme:

• The classification scheme should be applicable to both decentralized compost facilities and sorting stations. • It should be easy for other users to understand and apply. • It should be applicable to other areas in Ghana and other cities in developing countries.

There are several different categories to consider when planning for a decentralized compost facility and sorting station; availability of raw materials, waste management on site, competitors, customers, the condition of roads for delivery and pickup, water supply, closeness to wetland or river, closeness to residential areas, other activities on the site, ground surface, area, staff and overall impression. Some criteria in the classification scheme are based on literature studies, mainly the UN report “Decentralized composting for cities of low- and middle income countries”. It is a user’s manual for anyone interested in turning organic waste into a resource by implementing decentralized composting. The manual describes the entire process in whole from stakeholder, target community, data collection, financing, design, constructing and maintaining compost to marketing. It states what to focus on during a field visit to designated composting sites. Sorting stations are not mentioned much in the literature and there is no specific description of criteria to consider when planning for a sorting station. When visiting the sites and getting familiar with the prevailing conditions, more categories were added to the scheme. These are not based on findings in the literature but on personal observations and knowledge about Kumasi.

3.3 Geographic Information System analyzes

The software ArcGIS 9.3 was used for the analyzes in this thesis. The following data was used in the analyzes and the presentation:

• Line layer of the road network from Accra Starter Kit, 2009. • Polygon layer of landuse and city boundary from Accra Starter Kit, 2009. • Point layer of communal sites, coordinates from the field visits, 2010. • Point layer of the planned centralized compost facility, coordinates from Zoomlion, 2010.

3.3.1 SQL-analyzes

The SQL analyzes, based on the classification scheme, was done with the tool: “select by attributes” that selects and retrieves any information the user requires. This way the program finds suitable sites for sorting and composting. The shape file “communal site’s”, containing information based on field observations, was used in the analyzes.

3.3.2 Network analyzes

A network analyzes was performed to find the shortest route between two points. In ArcGIS the extension Network Analyszes was used to perform the calculation. The user specifies two or more points and the program will find the shortest route in between the points. The analyzes was performed on the road network layer of Kumasi from Accra Starter Kit (IWMI, 2009). The layer contains information about the distance of each line segment. Point layers showing the locations of suggested sorting stations and suggested sites for compost facilities (from the previous analyzes) gave the locations of the start- and stop points in the analyzes. In between these points the shortest distance was calculated.

A first editing of the layer was needed due to fractures in the network. The editing tool; create 2- point line features was used to connect fractured line segments. Using the extension tool network analyzes performed the network analyzes and the rule set to distance.

4. Results

4.1 Classification scheme

Below follows a more detailed description of the different criteria included in the classification scheme.

A given criteria for both composting and sorting is to have raw material in order to ensure a frequent delivery of fresh waste. For marketing reasons it is of importance to have knowledge about possible customers and competitors. Delivery and pick-up of waste and the produced compost product requires large vehicles, hence the roads to and from the site have an important role in sustainable waste management and is therefore included in the scheme. (Rothenberger & Enayetullah, 2006). Having water supply near is a prerequisite for composting but not a necessity for sorting. However, it plays an important role in keeping the urban environment clean (see section 4.3.1 SQL) and is therefore considered as a valid criterion for both composting and sorting. With the input of water during composting, drainage will occur which can lead to water logging and contamination of nearby water and wetlands. The size of the site is crucial and therefore an important criteria in the classification scheme. Sorting stations require a smaller area than a composting facility. Other important factors to consider are the surrounding area of the site as well as other activities on the site. Whether it is densely populated or not or used for any other activities can be crucial for the results (Rothenberger & Enayetullah, 2006).

Current waste management on site or whether it is staffed or not is important criterion for stakeholders. The current state of the sites determines how much time for preparatory work is

14 needed. These criteria can quickly change but were included in order to get a clear overall impression of the different sites.

Based on this information the classification scheme was designed (table 3, below). The classification scheme gives thirteen criteria to observe during field visits. Level I contain general information applicable in any city in a developing country while Level II can easily be adjusted to prevailing conditions in other cities.

LEVEL I LEVEL II Availability of raw materials Yes

No Waste management on site Communal site with container Communal site without container Abandoned site Competitors Yes No Customers Yes No Roads for delivery and pickup Good condition all year Good condition part of the year No good condition Water supply Pipewater Well No Close to wetland or river Yes No Residential High density residential Low density residential Under construction Other (ex. businesses, market, school) Other activities on the site Yes No Ground surface Located on a slight slope Located on a flat area Area (m2)

Staffed Yes No Overall impression Very clean Clean Dirty Very dirty

Table 3. Classification scheme for sorting stations and decentralized compost sites.

4.2 Defining the study sites

Three different categories of waste management sites where visited during the field visits: landfills, abandoned waste dumping sites and communal sites (with and without container). This section gives a description of the abandoned waste dumping sites and the communal sites based on the field observations. The landfills are described in section 2.2.1 in the background. The location of the sites can be seen in Appendix 1 and collected field data in Appendix 3.

Abandoned waste dumping sites

As the name says the abandoned waste sites are previous dumping sites. Two sites were visited during the field work. They are named Abandoned waste site 1 (AWS 1) and Abandoned waste site 2 (AWS 2) in this thesis. The waste once dumped is now covered with a layer of sand but is still visible in some parts, while in other parts grass had started to grow. On these two fairly large areas, AWS 1 is 10178 m2 and AWS 2 is 1977 m2, household waste has been dumped without any environmental safety precaution and hazardous material will leak in to the ground for many years ahead. The sites are located in the outskirts of Kumasi, one close to Amanfrom landfill, away from any densely populated areas. However, during the field visit there were constructions going on close to both sites. The roads leading up to the sites were of gravel. The roads to AWS 2 are very narrow and impossible for a waste truck to pass while the road to AWS 1 is broad but gets muddy during the rainy season, according to locals asked during field visit. However, this is the same road leading to Amanfrom landfill and according to Mrs. Adjei Boateng, Amanfrom landfill is used during rainy season (Mrs Adjei Boateng 2011 pers. comm) and the roads can therefore not be too bad for waste trucks to pass.

Figure 8 & 9. Abandoned waste dumping site 1 and 2 (author’s photo).

Communal sites

As mentioned earlier, communal sites are transfer stations where citizens deliver their household waste. Communal sites located close to markets also have a supply of market waste. At the communal sites waste is collected in containers, alternatively on the ground when containers are absent. Standard of the communal sites vary and many of them are unclean and run poorly. At the time of the field visit many of the sites where lacking a container to collect the waste in, leading to large piles of waste on the ground. The KMA WMD is responsible to keep the sites clean. Mrs. Adjei

Boateng working at the WMD explains that the municipality has ordered containers for the sites currently missing one (Mrs Adjei Boateng 2011 pers comm). Based on observations during field visits it seems like waste has been left at the ground for a long time. Mrs. Adjei Boateng explains that when waste piles up on the ground the waste disposal workers will have to use another vehicle than the one they collect containers with. If there is no access to the needed vehicle, the waste remains on the ground (Mrs Adjei Boateng 2011 pers. comm). Many of the sites have a caretaker whose main tasks are to keep the site clean and collect a waste disposal fee.

Figure 10, 11 & 12. Communal sites in Kumasi. Top left Ampabame, right Abrepo Pentecost and bottom left the school Kumasi girls school (author’s photos).

4.3 Geographic information system analyzes

4.3.1 Selecting the criteria and SQL analyzes

Two SQL questions were done: one for sorting station and one for compost facility. The SQL statements are based on the results from the classification scheme (table 3) and suitable sites were selected. This section gives a background on how the criterions for the SQL’s were selected, the two SQL questions as well as the results.

Sorting stations

The site should preferably be in use and a place where citizens are accustomed to dispose their waste, hence a communal site. As previously mentioned, availability of raw materials is a prerequisite. However, the assumption is that there is raw material available in Kumasi (see section 2.5.2) and it is therefore not included in the SQL-analyzes. Neither is costumer or competition included in the analyzes since they are only valid for composting and not for sorting stations. To

17 facilitate transport a criteria is that the roads to and from the site should be in good condition the year around, especially during the rainy season. Water is not necessary for sorting but the recommendation is to have water supply close to the site since bad odor and rodents are often an issue when dealing with waste. Washing the sites daily to keep them clean will lead to a better urban environment (UN-HABITAT, 2010). Due to this fact having water supply close to the site is considered important enough to include in the analyzes. However, the small amount of water needed to keep the site clean is not considered as a threat to nearby water bodies neither causes any water logging and the criteria “close to wetland or river” and “ground surface” are therefore not included in the SQL. Sorting stations require an area of minimum of 260 m2 (UN-HABITAT, 2010), there should be room for a minimum of two containers and a place for sorting. If the site is kept clean it can be located in any residential area. Whether the site is staffed or not, the overall impression or other activities at the site does not determine whether the site is suitable for a sorting station or not. This information can also change in a short period of time. These criteria are therefore not included in the SQL analyzes. However, the information can be of value for stakeholders implementing any form of facility.

According to these criteria the SQL question is:

("Waste management on site" = 'Communal site with container' OR "Waste management on site" = 'Communal site without container') AND ("Roads" = 'Good condition all year round') AND ("H2O_supply" = 'Pipewater' OR "H2O_supply" = 'Well') AND ("Area" >=260)

The result of the SQL-analyzes gave seven suitable sites that met all the criteria. Results can be seen in table 4 and figure 13. A more detailed description of the sites can be read in Appendix 2. The communal site Amanfrom should not be confused with the landfill Amanfrom. The suggested sorting stations are well spread around Bantama area. This is a positive result since more citizens will have near access to a sorting station.

IWMI gives the recommendation to have sorting stations close to markets specifically for Kumasi (Drechsel et al, a , 2004). The results show that Race Course, located close to the market area in Bantama, is a suitable sorting station. Having a sorting station located close to a market would give a large supply of organic waste to a compost facility. To see if there are any shortcomings to whether the suggested sites are suitable are not, a closer look at information and photos collected during field visits was required. This showed that both Amanfrom and North dump are also areas were the locals play football. North dump is big enough for a sorting station and a football field while Amanfrom is not. Further, this also showed that when expanding the SQL to also include “roads in good condition part of the year” Sefa Boakye and Bohyen are also good alternatives for sorting stations. They are both of the right size and have water supply near. Improvements of the roads would make them suitable for sorting stations. The site Gulf Park meet all the criteria except for area but the site is only slightly smaller than 260 m2 and can therefore be considered as a good alternative. See table 5.

Name Race Chief North Adoato Ohwim Anomangye Amanfrom Course Owusu Dump new site WM on site CS with CS with CS with CS with CS with CS with CS with container container container container container container container Roads Good all Good all Good all Good all Good all Good all Good all year year year year year year year H2O supply Pipewater Pipewater Well Pipewater Pipewater Pipewater Pipewater Waterbody No No No No Yes No No Residential Other, High High High Low High High market density density density density density density Other Yes Yes No No Yes No Yes activities Surface A slight A slight A slight A slight A slight A slight A slight slope slope slope slope slope slope slope Area (m2) 322 1226 1591 536 296 613 1848 Staffed Yes Yes Yes no data No Yes Yes Impression Very Dirty Clean Clean Very dirty Dirty Dirty clean Table 4. Suggested sorting stations in Bantama area.

Name Gulf Park Sefa Boakye Bohyen WM on site CS with container CS with container CS with container Roads Good all year Good part of the year Good part of the year H2O supply Pipewater Well Pipewater

Waterbody No No No Residential High density High density High density Buffer zone Yes No No Other activities No Yes Yes Surface A slight slope A flat area A slight slope

Area 224 2005 536 Staffed Yes no data Yes Impression Clean Dirty Very clean

Table 5. Possible sorting stations after suggested improvements.

Decentralized compost

As mentioned in the previous section there is a large supply of raw material in Kumasi and it is therefore not included in the analyzes. The location of competitors and buyers are important factors to consider when planning for a compost facility (Rothenberger & Enayetullah, 2006). The literature study shows that Kumasi has both buyers and competition (see section 2.5.2). Since the visited sites are located within or close to the city boundary it is assumed that both buyers and competition is close and is therefore not included in the SQL. To facilitate transport a criteria is that the roads to and from the site should be in good condition all year around. Current waste management on site is not considered important and is therefore not included in the SQL. Due to previous experience as well as based on findings in literature compost facilities should not be located in a high residential area meaning that all sites located in a high residential area are excluded. Water is a prerequisite for composting and since run-off water from a compost facility can lead to contamination of nearby water bodies the site should not be located close to any wetlands or rivers. Due to the risk of water logging the facility should preferably be on a slight slope. For a compost plant the area should be a minimum of 770m2 or 810m2 depending on the types of plant. Windrow composting plants require an area of about 810m2 while box technique requires an area of 770m2. The area for the actual compost process only requires 650-690 m2 but when including space for storage, buffer zone, vehicle parking and other facilities the area required is larger. 810 m2 is used as a minimum in the analyzes since Ghana, according to the environmental sanitation plan, wants to install windrow composting. Whether the site is staffed, the overall impression or other activities on the site does not determine whether the site is suitable for a sorting station or not. This information can also change in a short period of time. These criteria are therefore not included in the SQL analyzes. However, the information can be of value for stakeholders implementing any form of facility.

According to these criteria the SQL-analyzes were:

("Roads" = 'Good condition all year round') AND ("H2O_supply" = 'Pipewater' OR "H2O_supply" = 'Well') AND ("Close to wetland or river" = 'No') AND ("Residential" = 'Low density residential' OR "Residential" = 'Under construction' OR "Residential" = 'Other') AND ("Ground surface" = 'Located on a slight slope') AND ("Area" >=810)

The SQL analyzes gave the result that none of the suggested sites met the criteria for decentralized composting. A review of the results showed that the criteria “roads” and “area” clashed and mainly determined the outcome. The sites that did meet both of these criteria are situated in a high density residential area and did not meet the criteria “residential”. The two criteria “residential” and “area” cannot be adjusted nor be considered less important. Due to previous experience with the compost facility in Kumasi, where authorities got chased out by the community, the facility should not be in a highly density residential area, there is also nothing that can be done to make the area less densely populated. As mentioned above areas for composting does not necessarily have to be as large as 810 m2. However areas under 650m2 are not large enough for composting and all sites with a smaller area than that are therefore excluded. What can be fixed are the roads. A new search was therefore made.

The result was; Race course I, AWS 1 and AWS 2. One is a communal site and two are abandoned sites. The roads close to the communal site Race course I and AWS 2 are in no good condition. The

20 road leading up to the AWS 2 can be excluded because the road is just too bad and too narrow for a waste truck to pass. At the time of the field visit there were also some construction work going on at the site. The road close to AWS 1 is in good condition part of the year. Race course I and AWS 1 could both be suitable for a compost facility, see table 6. However, since neither of them were selected in the SQL analyzes they are not optimal, which is discussed below.

AWS 1 is situated close to Amanfrom landfill. It is a large site situated in a low density area. However, there was construction going on close to the site at the time of the field visit. The site does not meet the criteria “ground surface”, “water supply” and “roads”. During a construction process a flat area can be rebuilt with a slope. There is no water supply but with the ongoing constructions there is a chance that water supply will come in the future. If not, water access has to be arranged before constructing a compost facility. When asking locals about the roads the reply was that the road is in no good condition during the rainy season. However, as mentioned before the road is used even during the rainy season, since it is the same road leading to Amanfrom landfill (see section 2.2.1).

Race course I is a large site currently lacking a container and full of waste. Large efforts to clean the site would be required. It is situated close to the market, which is both negative and positive. Negative in the sense that it might spread bad odor that can influence the market environment. A suggestion is to check the wind direction, if the compost is situated downwind from the market the market will not be affected as much. Positive is that it is close to a large supply of raw material which can lower transportation costs and also because the market is an area to sell the finished product. Further the site does not meet the criteria “close to a wetland or a river”. The site is situated near a small river that, at the time of field visit, was polluted by waste. Precautions to collect the run-off water so it doesn’t pollute the river further are necessary. Today, the site is full of garbage that pollutes the stream. Changes, such as cleaning of the site and the stream, before placing a decentralized compost facility there might give the locals a more positive impression of having a compost facility close to the market.

Name Race Course I Abandoned site 1 WM on site Communal site with container Abandoned site Roads No good condition Good part of the year H2O supply Pipewater No Waterbody Yes No Residential Other, market Under construction Other activities No No Surface A slight slope A flat area Area 2237 10178 Staffed Yes No Impression Very dirty Clean

Table 6. Suggested sites for decentralized compost facility.

A compost facility of 800 m2 can compost around three tons of waste per day and process waste from 1300 households (Drechsel & Zurbrugg, 2006). In Bantama sub-metro there are a total number of 22.548 (KMA, 2011) households meaning that one compost facility can only support 6-9 % percent

21 of the households. Kumasi produces 124,000 tons of organic household- and market waste every year. Daily this is 340 tons. In order to compost all organic household- and market waste Kumasi would require more than 100 decentralized compost facilities.

Figure 13. Map of communal sites in Bantama area and suggested sorting stations and decentralized compost sites based on the SQL analyzes.

4.3.2 Network analyzes

Details about waste transport in Kumasi were obtained via e-mail conversation with Mrs. Adjei Boateng. The following is a description of the driving routines from communal sites to the landfill. The figure below describes this routine. Note that the location of the communal sites and the landfill in the figure is not based on the real locations of the sites but merely an explanation of the driving routines.

Waste trucks start off either from the WMD or from the private entrepreneur’s offices, depending on the situation. This location and driving distance is unknown and is therefore not included in the analyzes (see dashed line figure 14). The waste trucks start with an empty container and drop it off at the first communal site where a full container is picked up. This container is brought to Dompoase where the waste is unloaded. The waste truck then moves out with the emptied container to the next communal site, where they pick up the next full container and drive back to Dompoase and so on (Mrs Adjei Boateng 2011 pers. comm). It is not known how many trucks drive each day and how many communal sites each truck visits in one tour. However, when only measuring distance this is not of importance. The dashed lines in the figure below symbolize the driving distance to and from the start- and end point. If only one waste truck drives this distance the distance is only driven once. However, if more than one waste truck drives the route this distance will double with each truck and will oppose a larger margin of error. The explanation above is based on the driving routines between communal sites and Dompoase (see solid red and green lines in the figure below).

Figure 14. Simplified explanation of waste transportation in Kumasi (author’s own figure).

Two network analyzes were performed, between the suggested sorting stations and the suggested decentralized compost facility (AWS 1) as well as between the suggested sorting stations and the planned centralised compost facility in the south (see section 2.5.3). The distances of the network analyzes is calculated on the shortest route between two points (sorting station and compost facility). It is based on hypothetical driving routes between the suggested sorting stations and the

23 suggested compost facilities. AWS 2 was chosen as the decentralized compost site before Race course I in the analyzes because it is situated in a less densely populated area.

The results show that driving to and from all of the suggested sorting stations in Bantama area to the suggested decentralized compost facility is a distance of 128 km while driving from the suggested sorting stations to the suggested centralized station is a distance of 338 km. The difference is 210 km, which will be accumulated to a substantial difference over one year.

5. Discussion of results

5.1 Classification scheme

The classification scheme included criteria giving a good overview of the situation at each site. It was easy to use and the information needed was easy to collect.

An expectation is that the method developed in this thesis will be used to find suitable sorting stations and sites for decentralized composting in all sub-metros in Kumasi. Due to time restraints not all 155 communal sites could be visited during the time of the field visits in Kumasi.

An advantage with the method is that many of the criterion does not require any field equipment but can be categorized merely by observations. Only the measurement of the area requires some kind of equipment as well as if the sites are to be digitalized a GPS receiver is required. Today, many mobile phones are equipped with GPS. Information concerning the condition of the roads during the rainy season was gained by asking the caretaker or locals close to the site. This could pose a source of error since locals can have different perceptions of what is bad condition and what is not. Drivers of waste trucks might have more accurate information concerning this.

5.2 Using GIS as a tool

GIS is a good tool for finding and mapping suitable sorting stations and sites for decentralized compost facilities. Its main advantage is that the location of the sites can be combined with data gathered during field visits. Further, it is an advantage that the user can easily select sites based on necessary information with a SQL statement and the information can easily be updated when conditions changes. However, GIS is not extensively used at the KMA today, maybe not at all. A suggestion is to extend the collaboration between the WMD and the Geomatics department at KNUST in order to facilitate usage of GIS more extensively. Introducing GIS to KMA does not have to be costly, today there are many different GIS software available on the market in all price ranges. ArcGIS Explorer Desktop, Google Earth and GRASS GIS are examples of free online software that can be used for no cost.

GIS is an optimal tool for a network analyzes such as the one presented in this paper. The result shows that having decentralized compost facilities is an advantage for Kumasi from a transportation perspective. If there is more information available about the road network stakeholders can calculate the optimal route based on speed limits and traffic congestions, calculate the optimal number of waste trucks needed as well as the optimal routing for them.

When working with GIS it is rarely shortcomings of the computer program itself that are the main sources of error but rather the information added to the program. When doing the analyzes, some shortcomings of the transportation layer was that only the major roads were shown. Most likely there are some minor roads not shown in the layer. The attribute layer lacked information on whether some streets are one-way streets that also could have altered the outcome of the result.

5.3 Sorting stations

A criterion was that a sorting station should be located at a communal site where locals are already accustomed to bring their waste. Instead of suggesting sorting stations according to a classification scheme why not just add an extra container and make them all sorting stations so all household- and market waste in the area can be sorted? Clearly having only seven sorting stations (see section 4.3.1) of twenty-one communal sites is not enough for the Bantama area. The expectation is that the sorting stations will not spread bad odor or be aesthetically unpleasant which requires cleaning of the site before implementation as well as making sure that the roads are in good condition. This will give citizens a more positive perception of waste management. The future expectation is to sort more waste than only the organic hence, the area of the site cannot be too small. Another aspect to consider is the health environment for workers. It is important to have in mind that sustainable waste management also includes a safe working environment. The conclusion is that it is better to start with a few sorting stations that are well organized and from there gain knowledge to later expansion rather than just turn all communal sites in to sorting stations. Another aspect is that of compost facilities. Currently there aren’t any working facilities in Kumasi. Implementing compost facilities will take time and until the compost market has the capacity to receive large amount of organic waste there is not much need for many sorting stations. In the mean-time necessary improvements to meet the criterion of sorting station can be undertaken at other communal sites. I believe that in time nearly all twenty-one communal sites can function as sorting stations. The sites excluded from the SQL analyzes were excluded due to bad road conditions, no water supply and a few of them had an area that was too small.

A sustainable waste management includes sorting of more than only the organic material. Especially important is sorting of hazardous materials so these can be disposed of in a way that is safe for both environment and public health. Implementation of sorting of organic material is a good start because it is a large fraction of the total disposed waste, as discussed in the background. It is also a waste group easily identified and easy to separate from other household- and market waste. In the future emphasis should be put on expanding the usage of sorting stations to include sorting of other material and recycle them via any existing informal waste recycling that might exist in Kumasi. Recycling can also generate an income to cover for the cost of maintenance.

5.4 Decentralized compost

The difficulty in finding sites for decentralized compost facilities shows a problematic issue that Kumasi is facing. In Kumasi, there is a great need for sustainable waste management and there is no doubt that composting is a good step towards this. However, there is a problem in finding suitable sites, especially since dealing with all of the organic waste produced from households and markets in Kumasi would require a large number of decentralized compost facilities (see section 4.3.1). This thesis has merely focused on one sub-metro in Kumasi but personal observations as well as Bantama being referred to as “a typical area in Kumasi”(Mrs Adjei Boateng, 2011) gives the assumption that

25 finding suitable areas will be an issue also for other sub-metros. A suggestion is to go beyond the city limits to find suitable sites. The city is constantly growing and areas that are now peri-urban will likely be within the city boundaries within time. City planning should make room for long-term waste management so issues regarding space for composting will be easier in the future. Suggested improvements such as water supply and road construction will also lead to improvements of the overall infrastructure that goes beyond waste management.

Further the city should have in mind to implement larger compost facilities than what is considered decentralized, but still small enough to not require too much complicated technology. Constructing facilities outside the city boundaries hopefully gives the opportunity to later on make additional building extension to a decentralized facility. The downside with having the facilities outside the current city boundary is that transportation will be longer, leading to higher transportation costs, which is shown in the network analyzes. As the city and the population grow the traffic congestions are also likely to be worsened.

With this said, even if these facilities will not manage to deal with all the organic waste produced in Kumasi one have to remember that the route towards a sustainable waste management is long and a constantly evolving process. Forty years ago Sweden initiated its first environmental legislation. Since then Sweden has gone from disposing most of its waste on landfills to recycling and incinerating most of the waste. Advantage of implementing composting and sorting is to increase awareness of sustainable waste management among citizens and to gradually expand recycling.

Communal sites at schools were visited during the field visits. They have not been selected in the SQL analyzes due to their small sizes. I would like to encourage having small composts on these sites for education purposes where students can be taught sustainable waste management and the concept closing the loop. Organic waste produced at the schools can be recycled via composts at the school ground and the compost produced can be used directly on the green areas on campus.

5.5 Network analyzes

Fuel prices have increased in Ghana and with threatening oil peak will likely continue to do so. Since a large portion of the waste management financing goes to transportation (see section 2.3) Kumasi should put emphasis on making transport more efficient. The network analyzes showed that transportation costs are less when recycling the organic waste closer to the waste source.

The analyzes only calculated the shortest distance between two points. It is not known whether this is the actual route the waste drivers would choose. Kumasi has, like many other cities, problems with traffic congestion. When driving from the north of Kumasi to the south, one would have to cross the center of Kumasi where the congestion is the worst (author’s own observation). The assumption is therefore that it is more likely for waste trucks to choose a longer path and drive around the centre of Kumasi rather than drive through the city centre. If this is the case, this would add on to the calculated distance between the suggested sorting stations in the north and the centralized facility in the south.

The transport analyzes shows a great difference in distances between the decentralized compost, located close to the waste source, compared to the planned centralized facility. Clearly the difference would have been smaller if the comparison between having decentralized or centralized had been done in a different sub-metro located west, east or south of Kumasi. The result also gives an

26 indication of where there is a larger gain in transportation cost and therefore a more suitable area for a decentralized facility. Another factor that is not included in the analyzes is the transportation for farmers who would be buying the compost. Having many facilities spread out in Kumasi is from the farmer’s perspective better than having one large facility. The farmers can then choose the composting facility closest to their own farm and save transport costs. Since Kumasi has extensive urban farming other vehicles than motorized vehicles could be used to transport compost from decentralized compost facilities.

Constructing a larger facility in the south does not have to exclude constructing decentralized compost facilities. Since AWS 1 is located in the out-skirts on Bantama there is space for a future expansion and a larger facility. However, with a fast growing city such as Kumasi the question is for how long.

As mentioned in the background there is more than only the shortest route that can be calculated in a network analyzes. The road network layer used in this analyzes only contained information about the length of each road segment. Therefore no other analyzes than closest distance was possible. For further analyzes an upgrading of network data have to be considered. Information about one-way streets, speed limits, traffic congestions and an inventory of the minor roads have to be collected and registered. This would require a large amount of work and collaboration with the university is a recommendation. There is another road network file of Kumasi available containing all the minor roads including pedestrian streets. However, this layer did not cover the entire area that the analyzes was supposed to be based on and therefore not used.

5.6 Lessons learnt from previous projects

Previous composting projects in Ghana have not been successfully. The main reason seems to be that the facilities were too technically demanding and the cost of keep them running were too high. Lesson learned is that Ghana does not currently have the capacity and the knowledge for these types of compost facilities. However, even with these conclusions, I don’t think this should exclude future plans for large-scale compost facilities in the future.

This thesis have shown that it will be difficult for Kumasi to deal with all the organic waste produced by only having decentralized facilities. A decentralized approach should be in focus in the short-term until enough finance and technical skills exists. A good start is to learn about the composting and sorting process as well as to create a market for the compost produced before considering large scale projects. An important lesson from the Buobai facility in Kumasi could not be found in the literature but were gained through discussion with the WMD and it is that the community living close to the plant did not want a waste treatment plant close to their land. This shows the importance of first educate locals about the advantages of having a sustainable waste management.

5.7 Recommendations for implementation and identified questions for further studies

At first it is important to have a structured finance plan to implement the changes suggested in this thesis. If there are no funding for sorting stations and composting, unfortunately they cannot be realized.

Preparatory work before implementing any changes is important. In order for locals to get a more positive perception of waste, authorities need to clean up the sites designated for sorting stations as

27 well as making necessary construction and material has to be in place. The workers need to be educated on the process of composting and sorting as well as how to keep the sites clean to prevent bad odor and rodents. Also the locals should be informed. Even if they are not the one doing the sorting it is a good opportunity to spread knowledge about the importance of sustainable waste management.

Based on this, identified questions for further studies are:

• Doing the same analyzes in other sub-metros in Kumasi according to the methodology in this thesis. • Gather and register network data for a more thorough network analyzes. • Investigate the financial aspect. What are the expenses for implementing sorting stations, compost facilities, staff, transportation etc and what are the expected incomes? Where can funding come from? • A study of the citizens’ perception of waste. A focus on the research should preferably be on how to best perform a waste campaign. What are the best ways to reach out to people? What type of information will they listening to and from whom? How can locals from different social classes get a positive view on sustainable waste management? • An inventory of all the informal recycling businesses Kumasi has today. How can they cooperate with the formal waste management system? Can sorting of more than the organic waste be done at the sorting stations? • Investigate the role of the waste pickers and how they can be integrated in a sustainable waste management? What are the health aspects that need to be considered and how can they have a safer working environment if integrated in the formal waste management system?

6. Conclusions

• The developed classification scheme works as a guideline when planning for sorting stations or decentralized composting in Kumasi and can also be used in other cities in developed countries. Information needed is collected through personal observation and requires a minimum of field equipment. • GIS is a good tool for finding and mapping suitable sorting stations and sites for decentralized compost facilities as well as for waste transportation planning. • The developed classification scheme combined with GIS systemizes information collected during field visits and gives an idea of the development potential for each site. • Communal sites are suitable for sorting stations. The results show that seven sites match the criterions for sorting stations. However, further analyzes showed that the number of sorting stations could increase with improvements of infrastructure. • The communal sites were not optimal for decentralized compost facilities, due to several factors. With some infrastructure improvements the results showed that there are two sites in the Bantama that could be suitable for sorting. However, dealing with all organic household waste produced in Kumasi requires more than two compost facilities and the suggestion is to start small and in the long-term plan for larger compost facilities.

• Decentralized compost facilities are the best choice for a city such as Kumasi for many reasons. However, due to difficulties in finding available land the suggestion is to investigate the possibilities of finding suitable sites further away from the city boundary. • The network analyzes showed the advantage of decentralized composting in terms of waste transportation. Having recycling facilities close to the waste source minimizes transportation costs.

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APPENDIX 1

Figure 14. Locations of communal sites in Bantama area.

APPENDIX 2 – Suggested sorting stations

Race course is located next to a market and close to residential areas meaning that a large amount of organic waste is generated in the area. It is a very lively area with lots of people in motion. At the time of the field visit cars were parked in the area. However, it was not a designated parking space. There are two openings to the site but only one suitable for a waste truck to pass. There are walls surrounding the site and it also has a public toilet facility and pipe water. At the time of the field visit the site was clean, had a container and a caretaker working at the site. The area is 322 m2

Chief Owusu is a large site surrounded by walls and located in a residential area. The walls shield the site from the surrounding area. At the time of the field visit there were some waste on the ground that was sorted in to piles, one with tires, one with TV’s and some with other waste. There is also a public toilet facility located at the site, pipe water, a container and a caretaker working at the site. The roads close to the site are asphalt roads and in good condition even during rainy season. The area is 1226 m2

North dump is located in a residential area with a well nearby supplying water. Most of the area is surrounded by walls and easily accessible for waste trucks with an asphalt road leading up to the site. The area has plenty of space for a sorting station but a large part of the area is functioning as a football field for locals. It is not clear whether the entire area belongs to KMA or just a small part of it. However, turning the local football field into a sorting station might not be popular among the neighborhood. There is a caretaker working at the site. The area is 1591 m2 (including the football field).

Adoato new site, located up on a hill, is close to residential areas but compared to the other sites did not have residential building right next to the site but smaller shop. The site is clean surrounded by a few trees, pipe water and is easily accessible for a waste truck, roads were of asphalt. The area is 536 m2.

Ohwim was, at the time of the field visit, full of waste on the ground and will require lots of preparatory work. It is also a smaller area compared to the other sites and located next to a larger asphalt road. Residential housing where not located next to the site but nearby enough to secure a supply of fresh organic waste. The site is located on a slight slope leading down to a river. The site has a container, a public toilet facility, pipe water but no caretaker currently working there. The area is 296 m2.

Anomangye is located in a residential area and had a large pile of waste on the ground at the time of the field visit. The area is located close to a residential area and the roads are in good condition. The site has a container, public toilet facility and a caretaker working at the site. The area is 613 m2.

Amanfrom is a large site located close to residential areas but the buildings are not as close to the site as in other sites. Part of the site functions as a football field but there is enough space for both a sorting station and a football field. It has a container, caretaker, pipe water and a public toilet facility at the site. However, at the time of the field visit the site had a large pile of waste on the ground. The area is 1848 m2 (including the football field).

APPENDIX 3 – Field data

Name Gulf Park Race Course Chief Owusu North Dump Sefa Boakye Adoato new site Adoato Ampabame y 740974,752 741228,708 740806,542 741194,219 741524,107 742068,247 741673,551 742682,174 x 651291,616 651158,247 651111,517 648682,013 650685,742 648856,493 650080,989 649608,368

WM on site CS w. container CS w. container CS w. container CS w. container CS w. container CS w. container CS w. container CS w. container

Roads Good all year Good all year Good all year Good all year Good part of the year Good all year Good part of the year Good part of the year

Water supply Pipewater Pipewater Pipewater Well Well Pipewater No No

Waterbody No No No No No No No No

Residential High density Other, market High density High density High density High density Under construction High density

Other activities No Yes Yes No Yes No No Yes

Ground surface A slight slope A slight slope A slight slope A slight slope A flat area A slight slope A flat area A flat area

Area 224 322 1226 1591 2005 536 289 1088

Staffed Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Impression Very clean/ Clean Very clean Dirty Clean Dirty Clean Clean/Dirty Very clean

Name Bohyen Abrepo Town Abrepo Pentecost Kumasi girls Abandoned site I Abandoned site II Ohwim Atafoa y 742904,338 743423,108 743178,151 744035,975 747729,068 746904,2 746258,232 744363,612 x 649307,435 648966,997 648352,3 647994,363 646598,838 644838,021 646530,995 648518,546

WM on site CS with container CS with container CS without container CS with container Abandoned site Abandoned site CS with container CS without container

Roads Good part of the year No good No good Good all year Good part of the No good Good all year Good all year year

Water supply Pipewater Pipewater Pipewater No No No Pipewater

Waterbody No No Yes No No Yes Yes

Residential High density High density Low density Other, school Under Under construction Low density Low density construction

Other activities Yes Yes No No No No Yes No

Ground surface A slight slope A slight slope A slight slope A slight slope A flat area A slight slope A slight slope A slight slope

Area 536 178 422 22 10178 1977 296 120

Staffed Yes Yes Yes No No No No No

Impression Very clean Clean Very dirty Very dirty Clean Clean Very dirty Very dirty

Name Mpatasie Anomangye Wesley college Prempeh College Amanfrom Race Course I Race Course II

y 744239,973 743956,273 742138,04 741236,242 746935,879 741599,23 741520,086

x 647787,457 649835,145 652088,009 649888,736 645650,381 651190,379 651227,449

WM on site CS without container CS with container CS with container CS with container CS with container CS with container CS without container

Roads No good Good all year Good all year Good all year Good all year No good No good

Water supply Pipewater Pipewater Pipewater Pipewater Pipewater Pipewater

Waterbody No No No No No Yes Yes

Residential High density High density Other, school Other, school High density Other, market High density

Other activities Yes No No No Yes No No

Ground surface A flat area A slight slope A slight slope A slight slope A slight slope A slight slope A flat area

Area 360 613 62 581 1848 2237 400

Staffed Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes No

Impression Very dirty Dirty Dirty Very dirty Dirty Very dirty Very dirty

Table 7: Field data collected during field visits to communal sites and abandoned waste sites in Bantama.