occur. The lack of attention to a specific frameworkductive and dysfunctional behaviors, creating opportu- designed for a particular client group and the interac-nities for positive therapeutic change within clients. tion that exists between therapeutic issues diminishesWhile other forms of therapy (e.g., psychotherapy, the therapeutic value of the activity. family therapy) follow similar steps in the creation and The purpose of this article is to address these prob-use of metaphors (e.g., de Shazer, 1982; Haley, 1988; lems by: (1) providing a brief overview of the use ofMinuchin, 1981), properly constructed therapeutic therapeutic metaphor with adventure experiences,adventure (2) experiences possess inherent qualities that Enhancing Metaphor Developmentpresenting an actual example in that appropriatelybuild on these steps and create strong potential for the demonstrates the process of framing a therapeuticdevelopment of highly successful metaphors. Two of adventure experience, (3) analyzing the specific factorsthese qualities are: (1) the ability of appropriate adven- Adventure Therapy Programsthat lead to the successful implementation of therapeu-ture experiences to produce client motivated responses tic metaphors, and (4) outlining a seven step approachto therapeutic issues rather than relying on externally that provides a practical framework for creating iso-based motivation for change, and (2) the fact that most by Michael A. Gass morphic adventure experiences for therapeutic popula-adventure experiences are oriented toward successful tions. endings. One rapidly growing area of experiential learningWhile all three types of positive transfer can occur The concept of how adventure therapy and the use has been the use of therapeutic adventure programs.from adventure experiences, therapeutic programs gen- of therapeutic isomorphs create change can be illustrat- These programs have the ability to create empoweringerally place a great deal of emphasis on positive Overview of the ed through the structure of a goldline rope (see Figure experiences, often achieving therapeutic levels ofmetaphoric transfer. Metaphoric transfer is facilitated Use of Therapeutic Metaphor1). In this diagram, the white colored strand represents change that would be difficult to reach without suchby appropriately "framing" or structuring each experi- The use of metaphoric structures has been outlinedthe therapeutic needs of the client, the gray strand rep- interventions.i However, it is becoming increasinglyence to directly assist clients with integrating function- by a number of therapists outside of the field of adven-resents their present dysfunctional behavior, and the evident that adventure therapists must tailor experi-al changes into their lives. Appropriate framing can ture therapy. Probably the individual credited mostblack strand represents an appropriate metaphoric ences to the specific needs of participant groups to fos-enhance the therapeutic value of the adventure experi- often with the development of therapeutic metaphoradventure is experience. While all three strands have ter growth and insure the successful integrationence, of enabling it to be more prescriptive and specific Milton Erickson. In his work, Erickson (1980; Haley,somewhat different structures, their initial patterns are therapeutic changes into participants' lives (e.g.,in its application and use. The proper structuring of 1973) found that using metaphors instead of directisomorphic because of their similarities. Durgin & McEwen, 1991; Ewert, 1990). One critical ele-metaphoric adventure activities for therapeutic pur- therapeutic suggestions reduced clients' defenses to ment in achieving this integration is the process ofposes often holds the key to creating valid therapeutic functional change and enhanced therapeutic interven-Therapeutic Client Dysfunctional transferring clients' learning and insights gained dur-experiences and lasting change for clients. tions. De Shazer (1982) and Minuchin (1981) also stat- Adventure Behavior Behavior ing the adventure program into functional therapeuticIn the attempt to incorporate the concept of ed that when metaphors contained linking "iso- IsomorphsIsomorphs Isomorphs changes in their actual life situations. This process metaphoricis transfer into therapeutic adventure experi- morphs" (i.e., possessed "equivalent structures") to called the transfer of learning and occurs on one of ences, it is possible that many professionals have over- therapeutic issues, they offered powerful vehicles for three levels: (1) specific transfer, (2) non-specific trans-looked several critical concepts in their efforts to use therapeutic change. Isomorphism, a concept initially fer, (3) and metaphoric transfer (Gass, 1985). this therapeutic approach. Framing is often used to go developed by scientists and mathematicians Specific transfer occurs when the actual productsover the standard logistics and rules of the activity, (Hofstadter, 1979), occurs when two complex struc- of learning (e.g., skills such as canoeing, belaying,inform clients of the new terms they will be using (e.g., tures of different situations can be mapped on to one reading) are generalized to habits and associationsbelaying, so spotting, debriefing), remind clients of their another so that similar features can be linked together. that use of these skills is applicable to other learningtherapeutic goals, or motivate them to complete the Once the connection of these features is made, the sim- situations. Non-specific transfer occurs when the spe-physical tasks that are ahead. These framing tech- ilarity of roles they play in their respective structures cific processes of learning are generalized into atti-niques are generally presented in a similar manner for create a medium for change. This medium provides tudes and principles for future use by the learner (e.g.,all groups. One current example of framing adventure possible connections for the transfer of valuable infor- cooperation, environmental awareness). Metaphoricexperiences can be found in Schoel, Prouty, & mation learned in one environment for future use in transfer occurs when parallel processes in one learningRadcliffe (1988) with the "visualization" technique: another. Figure 1 - The interconnectedness of therapeutic isomorphs situation become analogous to learning in another dif-You have climbed up to the Hickory Jump. You see the Bacon (1983, 1987) has provided a valuable bridge ferent, yet similar situation. While the transfer of learn- trapeze. You see the arms of the group held out to catch for the use of metaphors in the development of thera-Note that as the adventure experience produces ing can be positive, negative, or non-existent betweenyou. You feel the butterflies in your stomach. You are peutic adventure experiences. In creating such experi-successful change with clients, the strand of client learning environments (Hunter, 1986), one of the cen- focused on the trapeze. You are coiling your legs to ences, he states that four key components must occurbehavior follows the success-oriented strand of the tral purposes of adventure programs is to develop ajump. You are jumping out with all your effort. You in order for the metaphor to be effective. The metaphoradventure experience and not the dysfunctional behav- positive transfer of learning to the future lives of feel your hands get a hold of the bar. You are feeling must: (i) be compelling enough to hold the individu-ior that is creating difficulty for the client. While it is clients. Without positive transfer, programs have little the group congratulate you, hold you, and let you al's attention (i.e., it must be related with appropriatenearly impossible to create exactly identical isomor- or no long-term value for participants. down. (pp. 91-92) intensity), (2) have a different successful ending/reso-phic structures between the adventure experience and This introduction, and others similar to it, are lution from the corresponding real-life experience,client (3) needs (see Figure 1), the closer the adventure examples of how many programs prepare clients to be isomorphic, (4) be related in enough detail that it experience mirrors the pattern of client treatment, the address therapeutic issues. While these techniques can facilitate a student's "transderivational search"more isomorphic and therapeutically relevant the Michael Gass, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor and themay be quite valuable in motivating clients to partici- (i.e., a process by which the client can attach personaladventure experience becomes in reaching treatment Coordinator of Outdoor Education in the Departmentpate and successfully complete initiatives like the meaning to the experience). Bacon states that whenobjectives. of Physical Education at the University of New"Hickory Leap," they may overlook several critical these four conditions are met, adventure experiencesCritical to this view is the belief that with the use Hampshire, Durham, NH, 03824, USA. concepts that are necessary for therapeutic change to provide more successful resolutions to formally unpro-of appropriate isomorphs, behavior is primarily 6 The Journal of Experiential Education Volume 14, No. 2 / August 1991 7 changed within the context of the adventure activityIn this example, the title, introduction, logistics, After delivering this introduction, instructors dis-In the beginning of the debriefing, clients are rather than through analogies created by reflectiveframework, and associated debriefing of the initiative tribute clients throughout the maze and tell them notinformed that the exits were not opened until someone techniques conducted after the experience (e.g.,have been changed to create stronger therapeutic iso-to move until the "go ahead" is given. When all of theasked for help. The clients that called for help are debriefing). Both activity and reflection are importantmorphs for clients with substance abuse problems. The clients have been placed in the maze, they are told toasked to describe how this assisted them in finding for therapeutic change to occur, but it is the strands therapeuticof goals of this initiative, presented in this search for an exit. In this initiative, however, the exitstheir exit. They are also asked to elaborate on why isomorphic connections within the adventure experi-manner for this population, emphasize: 1) the ability to remain closed until each person asks for "help." Thethey asked for help and what it felt like to receive ence that make metaphoric transfer possible and "pull"ask for help, 2) the ability to set appropriate boundariesexit only opens up for the person asking for help. assistance. The objective of including this dynamic in client behavior toward more functional change.around issues of recovery in order to maintain absti- After clients ask for help, they are informed thatthe initiative is to enhance the isomorph of people Debriefing, while serving an important function,nence, and (3) the elimination of dysfunctional behav-they have created a pathway from their addictive pro-with substance abuse issues asking for help, particu- becomes more of a reinforcement of behavior changesiors that undermine the ability to maintain abstinence cess and they are ready to make an important decisionlarly when feeling lost or "blinded" by their addic- that occurred in the activity rather than the primary(e.g., placing the needs of others ahead of the need to medium for producing new functional behaviors.stay sober).3 tions. Framing metaphors before the experience repre-A sample introduction by a therapist focusing on The "choice" decision is meant to be isomorphic sents quite a different approach from the processingthe particular isomorphs of this activity for this client with a critical boundary issue for these clients, since procedures followed by many therapists currently con-group could proceed in the following manner (Note: their recovery process must be considered first in any ducting adventure experiences. For example, Kjol &All participants place their blindfolds on prior to this Weber (1990, pp. 19-20) argue for the commondescription): The ability, as well as willingness, approach of "debriefing after" (or "Outward BoundThe next activity is called the "Path to Recovery." It's Plus" model; Bacon, 1987), emphasizing that "what called that because a number of the obstacles you'll to adapt the presentation and structure makes adventure-based counseling stand out as a solid encounter are very similar to obstacles many of you are of adventure experiences allows the treatment tool is the processing that occurs after the currently encountering in your addictions. Our addic- ride" (i.e., the experience). The use of metaphors withtions often blind us in our path to a substance-free therapists to create appropriate adventure experiences differs from this approach inlifestyle, and we often fail because we don't remember isomorphs that make critical that it recognizes the experience as the actual mediumto live by principles that will allow us to free ourselves differences for specific client needs. that creates therapeutic change. The framing done from abusive substances. before the activity provides the critical conditions forAfter my description of this activity, we will place you change to occur in the experience. on the road to recovery by putting your hand on a rope. Simon Priest This rope leads you along a path of indeterminable decision. Stepping out of the maze is isomorphic to a While some adventure therapy programs havelength. Along your journey to recovery, you will meet a for themselves. If clients choose to step out, they arehealthy personal decision. Choosing to go back in is begun to use framing techniques to produce therapeu-variety of other people going in different directions. asked to remove their blindfolds and step aside toisomorphic to a dangerous decision, one where they tic change, the difficulties presented earlier in the Some of these people will be in a great hurry, showing observe others in the maze from a designated "absti-may never have the opportunity to achieve an exit to "Hickory Leap" activity point to problems in creatinga lot of confidence. Others will be tentative, moving nence area." It is important for these clients to remainabstinence again. truly appropriate metaphoric transfer. The most diffi- cautiously. Some will seem to know the right direction, in the abstinence area and silently observe the rest of Sometimes people (e.g., adolescents) state that they cult tasks in creating metaphoric transfer in adventurewhereas others will seem lost. Don't let go of the rope, the process. If clients choose to go back into the maze,stayed in the maze because "stepping out" would be programs generally lie in: (1) constructing therapeuticbecause if you do, you will lose the path and we will their blindfold remains on and their exit closes and"boring." This is a key issue to emphasize in the metaphors that are isomorphic to client needs, (2) have to ask you to sit down until the initiative is over. remains closed until they ask for help again. If clientsdebriefing since abstinence may seem less exciting framing experiences in a manner that can be interpret-The goal of your journey is to reach one of the exits to become grouped near an exit, each person is informedthan "being in the game." This "exciting" game, how- ed and integrated into clients' perspectives, and (3)abstinence. There are several exits in this maze, and as you.reach one of these exits, I'll be there to ask you to that they must make their own decision independentlyever, possesses tragic consequences for many sub- using appropriate debriefing techniques after the expe- make an important choice. The choice will be: (1) from others. stance abusers. Some other important metaphors to rience to reinforce change. The following illustration iswhether you wish to choose to step out of the maze. If The initiative is usually stopped after thirty min-discuss may include: designed to depict how therapeutic adventure pro-you make this decision, I'll ask you to remove your utes even though some clients may still be in the maze, grams can overcome these obstacles. blindfold and sit quietly in the abstinence area until usually because they keep going back in to rescue oth-• To "let go" of the rope is to lose a chance to this initiative is over; or (2) you may choose to go back achieve abstinence into the maze to help others. If you choose to go back ers. At this point, the clients still in the maze are asked into the maze, you run the risk that this particular exit to quietly remove their blindfolds and come and join • The feelings of abstainers observing others "lost" An Illustration of may be shut when you return and you will have to find the rest of the group in a circle. in the maze of abusive substances Using Therapeutic Metaphorsanother exit. • Metaphorical techniques participants used to "find The following description is an example of how an If at any time during this activity you would like to Analysis & Integration of the Activity an exit" to abstinence (e.g., the struggle of adventure experience has been structured to create receive help, all you need to do is ask for it and guid- Different issues arise within each group during thesearching) therapeutic change for substance abusers through ance will be provided. Otherwise we would like every- debriefing of the exercise, but it is usually advisable• Interaction with others searching for abstinence in metaphoric transfer.2 Traditionally, this "Maze" activi-one not to speak throughout this initiative until it is for the therapist to begin the process by asking peoplethe maze ty is conducted by creating a maze of rope connectedcompleted. to relate their experience in the initiative to their expe-• The inability to communicate while searching for in and around a group of trees at the waist level of par- Remember the rules of the initiative: follow the safety rience in trying to reach or maintain sobriety. Givenabstinence ticipants (Rohnke, 1989, pp. 103-104; Webster, 1989, p.rules we've provided, no speaking unless you want the treatment orientation and objectives described •ear- The role of hospitals/treatment centers in "placing" 34). Individuals are blindfolded, introduced to the ini- help, I will be waiting for you at the exit of the maze lier, discussions generally focus around: (1) how ask- clients on the road to abstinence and the role of the tiative through a description of their task (i.e., finding and ask you to make your decision. After approximate- ing for help assisted people in this initiative, (2) peo-client to follow the path and make choices their way to an exit while blindfolded), and led by ly 30 minutes, I will ask those of you still in the maze ple's choices at the exits, and (3) what "failing to hold instructors to various points in the Maze. to remove your blindfolds for a small break. on" to the rope represented. 8 The Journal of Experiential Education Volume 14, No. 2 / August 1991 9 lined in Figure 2, point to how the specific needs of iors that could undermine the recovery process and theship between the three objectives. As seen in the illus- clients and the resulting treatment objectives should ability to maintain abstinence (e.g., placing the needstration, the therapeutic objective of "asking for help" is It is importantAnalysis to note of that Isomorphs the goals for this partic-change the way each initiative is presented and struc- of others ahead of maintaining one's own abstinence).more important in relation to the other two isomorphs ular activity are meant to be isomorphic for clientstured. The first two objectives possess positive focuses forand the adventure experience is conducted to repre- focusing on the first and second steps of the AA pro- The ability, as well as willingness, to adapt the recovery while the last one involves avoiding a nega-sent this interaction (i.e., clients cannot address the cess (e.g., Alcoholics Anonymous, 1976). If the needspresentation and structure of adventure experiences tive and dysfunctional issue. For this particular stageissues of the second and third treatment objectives of clients were different (e.g., focusing on ninth orallows therapists to create appropriate isomorphs that of treatment, it is important to recognize the order ofuntil they address the therapeutic issues of the first twelfth step issues), the initiative would obviously makebe critical differences for specific client needs. The these three objectives and their relationship betweenobjective). It is the relative content and interactive rela- Hickory Leap example presented earlier illustrates that one another. tionship between the isomorphs in metaphoric transfer structured differently. Therapists with other orienta- without the proper fram- Figure 3 displays the hierarchy, content, and rela-that creates a tighter "weave" of the connection ing of the appropriate iso- between the treatment objectives and the therapeutic Figure 2 morphs, there often fails adventure experience. Examples of some of the critical differences in the presentations of the traditional "Maze"to be a strong metaphoric It is the relative content and interactive adventure activity and the "Path to Recovery" activity used hwit persons with substance abuseconnection between the problems. adventure experience and relationship between the isomorphs in Seven Steps to Traditional Revised Path to the therapeutic needs of metaphoric transfer that creates a tighter Creating Isomorphic Experiences Concepts Maze Activity Recovery Activity the client. This failure "weave" of the connection between theGiven the need to adapt adventure experiences to inhibits the likelihood of treatment objectives and the therapeutictarget specific therapeutic issues and populations as Verbally asking ...is generally downplayed...is the most importantpositive changes occur- illustrated in the Path to Recovery initiative, a seven for help... if not given a negativeobjective for participantsring throughto metaphoric adventUre experience.step model has been developed for creating appropri- consequence. accomplish. Participantstransfer are as depicted in the ate metaphoric experiences. The seven steps in this not allowed to continue goldlinein rope analogy. tionship of the three treatment objectives. In this illus-model include: initiative if this is not One reason why tration, the three therapeutic objectives (white bars) 1. State and rank goals - State and rank the specif- accomplished. metaphoric transfer often are isomorphically matched with three componentsic and of focused goals of the therapeutic intervention Choosing to go back ...is often rewarded as positive,...is a dysfunctional failsand is that therapists the therapeutic adventure experience (black bars).based on the needs of the client. into the Maze... healthy, altruistic, and self-detrimental attribute whenusing adventure experi- Two of these goals represent "positive" content in2. Select metaphoric adventure experience - sacrificing behavior thatconsidered in relation toences do not consider the the therapeutic intervention (i.e., those isomorphs Selectrep- an adventure experience that possesses astrong commonly serves as amaintaining sobriety.positive or negative "con- resenting healthy behaviors for the client) while themetaphoric relationship to the goals of therapy. pivotal point for group tent" of treatment objec- third represents a predominately negative behavior3. Identify successful resolution to the therapeutic success. tives (the objective may (i.e., those isomorphs representing dysfunctionalissue - Show how the experience will have a different be to encourage or dis- behaviors for the client). Along with viewing the con-successful resolution from the corresponding real life courage particular behav- tent of each goal, attention is focused on the relationexperience.- tions or theoretical structures for treating substanceiors). Interventions need to mirror these qualities in 4. Strengthen isomorphic framework -Adapt the abuse issues would obviously frame their isomorphsorder to be isomorphic. For example, implementing framework (e.g., title, introduction, rules, process, etc.) differently based on the treatment objectives. Itis criti-the "Maze" activity in its traditional manner for this Figure 3 of the adventure experience so that it becomes even cal for therapists using this technique to be clear onparticular population fails to pay attention to this con- Therapeutic mi the objectives of therapy or the use of therapeuticcept by giving the request for help a negative conse- Objectives • Asking for Setting Behaviors more metaphoric and the participant can develop asso- adventure experiences becomes a "hit or miss" strategyquence and the result is an actual contraindication ofActivity Help Healthy Underminingciations to the concepts and complexity of the experi- for intervention. the desired treatment objectives (see Figure 2). Objectives Boundaries Recoveryence. Make sure that the isomorphs creating the The creation of therapeutic isomorphs can also It is also important to recognize that more than one metaphoric process possess the appropriate content vary based on the characteristics of the therapeutictherapeutic objective often exists in treatment, espe- (e.g., positive or negative focuses) and relationships population. This example has been used successfullycially when the multiple diagnoses and resulting com- between one another. with a variety of client groups, including adolescentsplexity of some therapeutic issues are considered. 5. Review client motivation - Double check to as well as adults, men and women, and clients fromAdventure therapists must also consider the relation- make sure that the structured metaphor is compelling Afro-American, Anglo, or Latino cultures. Individualsship that exists between multiple treatment objectives enough to hold the individual's attention without possessing various interpretive frameworks require dif-and the resulting series of isomorphic connections. POSITIVE being too overwhelming. ferent therapeutic introductions and adventure experi-These relationships are just as important to consider in 6. Conduct experience with revisions - Conduct ences to produce equally beneficial results. Just as this framing therapeutic adventure experiences as is the CONTENT the adventure experience, making adjustments to high- article points to the need for adventure therapistsproper to identification of each individual treatment light isomorphic connections (e.g., appropriate refram- tailor experiences to specific therapeutic goals, it is objective. 1 1 ing). equally important to consider each client's backgroundThe need to address the content and relationship 7. Debrief - Use debriefing techniques following in the assessment and prescription of therapeutic inter-of multiple treatment objectives can be observed in the PtEGATNIE the experience to reinforce positive behavior changes, ventions. Path to Recovery initiative (see Figure 3). In this initia- CONTENT reframe potentially negative interpretations of the The "Path to Recovery" initiative is conductedtive, the three treatment objectives focused on issues experience, and focus on the integration of functional quite differently from the way the "Maze" activity isof: (1) asking for help, (2) making healthy choices for a change into the client's lifestyle. traditionally presented. Some of these differences,functional out- recovery process, and (3) avoiding behav- To show the actual use of this model, Figure 4 10 The Journal of Experiential Education Volume 14, No. 2 / August 1991 11 Bacon, S., & Kimball, R. (1989). The wilderness challenge model. In R. grams has grown, so has the need to develop greaterD. Lyman (Ed.), Residential and inpatient treatment of children and sophistication in prescribing specific practices for par-adolescents. NY: Plenum Press. ticular populations. Positive change can be achieved Figure 4 more often by using methods that address the specificde Sharer, S. (1982). Patterns of brief family therapy. New York: Application of the seven step process for creating metaphoric transfer to the Path to Recovery activity needs of the population rather than through the blan- Guilford Press. ket application of any adventure experience to anyDurgin, C. H., & McEwen, D. (1991). Troubled young people after the (a) Ability to ask for help Create abstinence area therapeutic issue. Creating the change through adventure program. Journal of Experiential Education, 14 (1), 31- 1. State and rank goals(b) Set healthy boundaries where clients can still be metaphoric transfer of learning by addressing isomor-35. around recovery issues present near individuals phic connections is one critical method which merits (c) Eliminate specific "using" Erickson, M. H. (1980). The collected papers of Milton H. Erickson on dysfunctional behaviors Create other relevant attention. hypnosis. Ernest L. Rossi (Ed.). New York: Irvington. (e.g., rescuing, enabling) analogies Notes Ewert, A. (1990). Research update: Revisiting the concept of 2. Select isomorphicThe "Maze" activity 5. Review client Use an appropriate 1. For further references and readings in the area of self-esteem through outdoor experiential activities. Journal of (Rohnke, 1989) motivation progression of activities adventure therapy, the reader is encouraged to exploreExperiential Education, 13 (2), 56. experience that lead up to this activity 3. Identify successful(a) Asking for assistance Review level of group the following resources: Bacon and Kimball, 1989;Gass, M. (1985). Programming the transfer of learning in adventure resolution to the(b) Choosing behaviors that development Gass, 1991; Gillis & Bonney, 1986; Schoel, Prouty, andeducation. Journal of Experiential Education, 10 (3), 18-24. therapeutic issuesplace abstinence first Insure clients feel relatively Radcliffe, 1986; and Tobler, 1986. (c) Avoiding rescuing and comfortable when blindfolded Gass, M. (1991). Therapeutic applications of adventure programming. enabling behaviors Review verbal framework to 2. It is important to recognize that as initiatives andBoulder, CO: Association for Experiential Education. insure its isomorphic 4. Strengthen (a) Create description that is connection between adventure ropes course elements are adapted for specific educa-Gillis, H. L., & Bonney, W. C. (1986). Group counseling with couples or isomorphic framework analogous to the current experience and treatment tional or therapeutic uses, the field must not forget the families: Adding adventure activities. Journal for Specialists in state and needs of client objectives debt it owes to the originators of these activities (e.g.,Group Work, 11 (4), 213-219. (b) Make exit from Maze Rohnke, 1989) who made such powerful mediums pos- dependent upon each 6. Conduct experience(a)Make necessary safety with sible. These activities are not adapted to minimize theHaley, J. (1973). Uncommon therapy: The psychiatric techniques of person's ability to ask for revisions adjustments Milton Erickson. New York: W. W. Norton and Company. help (b)Provide appropriate reframing creative work these pioneers have accomplished, but to (c) Revise choice decision to build even greater bridges for educational and thera-Haley, J. (1988). Problem-solving therapy. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass mirror client's choice to peutic change. Publishers. abstinence or continual7. Debrief (a) Center discussion around "blinding" addiction treatment objectives 3. This activity is used most appropriately afterHofstadter, a D. (1979). Godel, Escher, Bach: An eternal golden braid. process (b) Use debriefing to punctuate series of progressive activities that allow participantsNew York: Basic Books. (d) Make choice decision isomorphic connections to look at such powerful issues in a safe manner. For mirror negative conse- example, it should be used with groups who have: (1)Hunter, M. (1986). Teach for transfer. El Segundo, CA: TIP Publications. quences of rescuing or worked together for an appropriate period of time, (2)Kjol, R., & Weber, J. (1990). The 4th fire: Adventure-based counseling enabling behaviors already established a sense of group identity, (3) mem- with juvenile sex offenders. Journal of Experiential Education, 13 bers that can feel relatively comfortable and safe when (3), 18-22. blindfolded, and (4) experienced previous adventureMinuchin, S. (1981). Family therapy techniques. Cambridge, MA: illustrates how the planning of the Path to Recoveryeven further for those clients who have difficulty activities involving issues of trust, support, risk, and Harvard University Press. initiative used each of these steps to reach its treat-expressing their growth verbally in a debriefing. challenge. To introduce an initiative with this much ment objectives. Adventure therapists are encouragedThe approach presented in this paper also slightly confrontation to unprepared clients would contraindi-Rohnke, K. (1989). Cowstails and Cobras IL Hamilton, MA: Project to use this type of checklist as a guideline for creatingdiffers from the metaphorical approach outlined by cate treatment and be unethical. Adventure, Inc., 103-104. appropriate interventions. Erickson (1980) and Bacon (1983, 1987) in that it con- Schoel, J., Prouty, D., & Radcliff, P. (1988). Islands of healing: A guide nects the debriefing process to the actual adventure to adventure based counseling. Hamilton, MA: Project Adventure, experience and does not see debriefing as a separate Inc. Conclusion experiential change process. Debriefing is used as a References One important benefit of using isomorphic frame-means to punctuate isomorphic connections and Alcoholics Anonymous. (1976). NY: Alcoholics Anonymous WorldTobler, N. S. (1986). Meta-analysis of 143 drug prevention programs. works in therapeutic adventure experiences is thatreframe negative interpretations, not as a separate Services, Inc. Quantitative outcome results of program participants compared to a change primarily occurs during the activity and not course experience. It also differs from these approach- Bacon, S. (1983). The conscious use of metaphor in Outward Bound. control or comparison group. Journal of Drug Issues, 16, 537-568. after through connections made during a facilitatedes in that it recognizes the need to identify the content Denver, CO: Colorado Outward Bound School. Webster, S. (1989). Safety standards for ropes course elements and debriefing session. This approach is quite differentof the isomorphs and the relationship that exists Bacon, S. (1987). The evolution of the Outward Bound process. initiatives. Hamilton, MA: Project Adventure, p. 34. from the "debriefing after" approach to processing betweencur- therapeutic objectives, particularly when Greenwich, CT: Outward Bound, Inc. (ERIC Reproduction Service rently used by many therapeutic adventure programs.working with complex therapeutic issues. No. Ed 295 780). Debriefing following the metaphoric experienceIsomorphic frameworks can also be applied to becomes more of a reaffirmation and reinforcementother typesof of adventure programs with different objec- behavior changes that occurred in the activity, rathertives (e.g., education, organizational development, and than the primary medium for producing new function-service learning programs). Further investigation of al behaviors. The experience of behavior change dur-this concept with these populations is needed. ing the activity may also enhance learning and transferAs the number of applications of adventure pro- 12 The Journal of Experiential Education Volume 14, No. 2 / August 1991 13