Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz Faculty of Social Science, Media and Sport Institute of Sport Science Department of Sporteconomics & Sportsociology Johann-Joachim-Becher-Weg 31 55099 Mainz, Germany Working Paper Series Mainzer Papers on Sport Economics & Management No 14: The Legacy of the Olympic Games from 1896 - 2016 - A Systematic Review of Academic Publications November 2017 ANJA SCHEU (corresponding author) & HOLGER PREUSS Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz Institute of Sport Science Johann-Joachim-Becher-Weg 31 55099 Mainz, Germany Email: [email protected] Executive Summary AIM AND METHOD The purpose of this review is to report the findings of a systematic review of literature on the legacy of Olympic Games from 1896 to 2016. The review focuses on the lega- cies for each Games edition as well as on the measurement of legacies. The search process yielded 863 articles. Exclusion criteria were developed and applied. Finally, the review protocol revealed a total of 204 articles included in the analysis. RESULTS In the first instance, general results are reported to identify trends by Games editions, methods and facets of legacy. The analysis reveals a significant increase of literature dealing with the legacy of Olympic Games, with a majority of non-empirical articles. Consequently, these articles describe the legacies, but the legacy was not measured. Empirical articles mostly draw from qualitative interviews followed by quantitative sur- veys. Legacies describing or evaluating structural changes in terms of urban develop- ment are addressed most often in the literature. The second largest share deals with structural changes in terms of beliefs and behavior. This mainly includes studies ex- amining the effect of the Olympic Games on the image of the nation/city as well as on physical activity. The areas of skills, knowledge and networks, policy and governance and intellectual property remain under-researched. After illustrating the general results, a content analysis was used to synthesize the results for each Games edition with regard to the six facets of legacy. For each Olympic Games edition, a narrative synthesis with regard to different stakeholder perspectives was conducted. However, most of the studies take a general perspective and do not differentiate by stakeholder interests. Within the synthesis, methods of data collection and causality – whether the effect is a result of the Olympic Games – were assessed. For most of the Olympic Games editions, structural changes in terms of city develop- ment are reported. In most cases the real value of the legacies remains uncertain since studies only describe what was built/achieved by the Olympic Games, and do not eval- uate the subsequent use/utility. The same applies to legacies in policy and govern- ance, intellectual property or skills, knowledge and networks. Even if the studies used an empirical approach, the legacies are often only described (e.g. by interviewees) but not measured. I MEASURING LEGACIES Very few studies succeed in really measuring legacy. Many studies try to measure legacy by using a top-down approach. That is not appropriate for reliable measure- ment, as such an approach cannot distinguish between effects caused by the Olympic Games or by other (non-Games) agents. The evaluation framework for the London 2012 Games (DCMS, 2009) offers a promising approach, but the framework was not applied for most of the evaluation of the London legacies. However, some general recommendations could be retrieved from this framework. For measuring and evaluating infrastructural legacies, new objective indicators could be revealed. For the other facets of legacy, promising strategies and recommendations were developed. CAUSALITY Very few studies reflected the importance of considering causality. Thus, it often re- mains uncertain whether the legacy investigated was really caused by staging the Olympic Games. To overcome this, it is proposed to develop an evaluation framework based on program theory by means of logic chains. Logic chains can be used to show the expected causal links between the inputs, outputs and outcomes. The application of logic chains in practice is missing. II Table of contents Executive Summary……………………………………………………………………….….I List of abbreviations…………………………………………………………………………VI List of figures………………………………………………………………………………..VII List of tables…………………………………………………………………………………VII 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................1 1.1 Content of analysis ........................................................................................ 1 1.2 Content and structure of the report ................................................................ 2 2 Theoretical Background ....................................................................................3 2.1 Definition of legacy ........................................................................................ 3 2.2 The legacy analytical scheme ....................................................................... 4 3 Method.................................................................................................................6 3.1 Article selection ............................................................................................. 6 3.2 Analysis ......................................................................................................... 8 3.3 Limitations ..................................................................................................... 8 4 Results ................................................................................................................9 4.1 General results .............................................................................................. 9 4.1.1 Games editions ....................................................................................... 9 4.1.2 Methods used to study Olympic Games legacy .................................... 10 4.1.3 Analysis of article contents and facets of legacy ................................... 11 4.1.4 Analysis of facets for each Games edition ............................................ 11 4.1.5 Results from systematic reviews and long-term studies ....................... 12 4.2 Conceptualization of Olympic Games legacies ........................................... 14 4.2.1 Summer Olympic Games ...................................................................... 15 4.2.1.1 Rio de Janeiro 2016 ....................................................................... 15 4.2.1.2 London 2012 .................................................................................. 17 4.2.1.3 Beijing 2008 .................................................................................... 25 4.2.1.4 Athens 2004 ................................................................................... 31 III 4.2.1.5 Sydney 2000 .................................................................................. 35 4.2.1.6 Atlanta 1996 ................................................................................... 39 4.2.1.7 Barcelona 1992 .............................................................................. 41 4.2.1.8 Seoul 1988 ..................................................................................... 44 4.2.1.9 Los Angeles 1984 ........................................................................... 46 4.2.1.10 Moscow 1980 ................................................................................ 48 4.2.1.11 Montreal 1976 ................................................................................ 48 4.2.1.12 Munich 1972 .................................................................................. 49 4.2.1.13 Mexico City 1968 ........................................................................... 50 4.2.1.14 Tokyo 1964 .................................................................................... 52 4.2.1.15 Rome 1960 .................................................................................... 53 4.2.1.16 Melbourne 1956 ............................................................................. 54 4.2.1.17 Berlin 1936 .................................................................................... 55 4.2.1.18 Los Angeles 1932 .......................................................................... 55 4.2.1.19 London 1908 .................................................................................. 56 4.2.1.20 Further Games............................................................................... 57 4.2.2 Winter Games ....................................................................................... 57 4.2.2.1 Sochi 2014 ..................................................................................... 57 4.2.2.2 Vancouver 2010 ............................................................................. 60 4.2.2.3 Turin 2006 ...................................................................................... 64 4.2.2.4 Salt Lake City 2002 ........................................................................ 66 4.2.2.5 Nagano 1998 .................................................................................. 68 4.2.2.6 Lillehammer 1994 ........................................................................... 70 4.2.2.7 Albertville 1992 ............................................................................... 71 4.2.2.8 Calgary 1988 .................................................................................