An Integrated Method to Assess Consumer
Motivation in Difficult Market Niches:
A Case of the Premium Car Segment in Russia
vorgelegt von Master of Science in Economics Marina Shcheglova aus Nowosibirsk, Russland
Von der Fakultät VII ─ Wirtschaft und Management der Technischen Universität Berlin zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades
Doktor der Wirtschaftswissenschaften Dr. rer. oec.
genehmigte Dissertation
Promotionsausschuss:
Vorsitzender: Prof. Dr. Hans G. Gemünden Berichter: Prof. Dr. Volker Trommsdorff Berichter: Prof. Dr. Frank Jacob
Tag der wissenschaftlichen Aussprache: 21. September 2009
Berlin 2009 D 83 Content List of figures...... V List of tables...... VI List of abbreviations ...... VII
INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1. Research problem...... 1 2. Research objectives...... 2 3. Thesis structure...... 4
I. THEORY...... 7 1. Motives and consumer motivation...... 7 1.1. Definition of the concepts of motivation and motive ...... 7 1.2. Motivation research in consumer behavior...... 11 1.2.1. Origin of consumer motivation research ...... 11 1.2.2. Contemporary directions and applied methods in motivation research ...... 12 1.2.3. Common limitations of contemporary motivation theories...... 14 1.3. Motives in consumer behavior...... 15 1.3.1. Goal oriented nature of consumer motives...... 15 1.3.2. Hierarchical network of consumer motives ...... 16 1.4. Summary...... 17 2. Consumer motivational sphere ...... 19 2.1. Theoretical backgrounds for modeling consumer motivational sphere...... 20 2.1.1. Cognitive structures...... 20 2.1.2. Means end chain theory...... 23 2.2. Conceptualization of the consumer motivational sphere ...... 28 2.3. Summary...... 33 3. Premium car market ...... 35 3.1. The notion of ‘premium’ in the car market ...... 35 3.1.1. The meaning of the term ‘premium’...... 35 3.1.2. Premium, luxury and volume car brands ...... 36 3.2. Consumer behavior in the premium car market ...... 39 3.2.1. Types of consumer buying behavior...... 40 3.2.2. Perceived product value...... 44 3.2.3. Reasons for purchasing premium cars ...... 46 3.3. The role of society in consumer behavior...... 47 3.3.1. Consumer society ...... 47 3.3.2. A person within the social environment ...... 48 3.3.3. Social status...... 49 3.3.4. Symbols generated by premium brands ...... 51 3.3.5. Aspirational brands ...... 52 3.4. Summary...... 54
II II. METHODOLOGY ...... 56 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology ...... 56 4.1. Introduction to methodology...... 56 4.2. Personal construct theory ...... 58 4.3. Repertory grid technique: basic description ...... 62 4.3.1. Topic ...... 63 4.3.2. Elements...... 64 4.3.3. Constructs...... 68 4.3.4. Scaling methods...... 70 4.4. Application of the repertory grid technique in marketing and other fields ...... 72 4.4.1. Application experience ...... 72 4.4.2. Criticism of the applicability of the repertory grid ...... 76 4.4.3. Criticism solution ...... 77 4.5. Repertory grid technique: elicitation procedure...... 80 4.5.1. Knowledge elicitation phase: element selection...... 81 4.5.2. Knowledge elicitation phase: construct elicitation ...... 83 4.5.2.1. Construct elicitation approaches...... 84 4.5.2.2. Construct specification ...... 89 4.5.2.3. Elicited and supplied constructs...... 91 4.5.3. Rating grid or element comparison phase ...... 93 4.5.4. Eliciting personal values...... 96 4.5.4.1. Capturing personal values: laddering up technique ...... 96 4.5.4.2. Prioritizing personal values: resistance to change technique...... 97 4.6. Analysis of a repertory grid...... 100 4.6.1. Qualitative methods for repertory grid analysis...... 102 4.6.1.1. Frequency counts...... 102 4.6.1.2. Content analysis...... 103 4.6.1.3. Honey’s content analysis ...... 107 4.6.2. Quantitative methods for repertory grid analysis...... 115 4.6.2.1. Hierarchical cluster analysis ...... 117 4.6.2.2. Principal component analysis ...... 121 4.6.2.3. Synergy of principal component and hierarchical cluster analysis...... 128 4.7. Reliability and validity of the repertory grid...... 130 4.8. Summary...... 134 5. Modeling the consumer motivational sphere...... 141 5.1. Product characteristics...... 143 5.2. Product attributes...... 145 5.3. Specific expected consequences...... 147 5.4. Abstract expected consequences ...... 150 5.5. Values ...... 153 5.6. Situational and environmental incentives ...... 154 5.7. Summary and conclusion...... 156
III III. FIELD RESEARCH ...... 161 6. Research design...... 161 6.1. Research objectives...... 161 6.2. Research design ...... 162 6.2.1. Structure of the sample ...... 162 6.2.2. Survey instrument: repertory grid design...... 166 7. Analysis of repertory grids ...... 177 7.1. Preparation of data...... 177 7.2. Content analysis...... 177 7.2.1. The generic content analysis procedure...... 177 7.2.2. Honey’s content analysis...... 182 7.3. Analysis of relationships within a single grid ...... 187 7.3.1. Preparation and input of data into the software package ...... 188 7.3.2. Systematization of elicited meanings...... 189 7.3.3. Systematization of elements perceptions ...... 202 7.4. Segmentation based on the comparison of the findings from the single grids analyses...... 209 7.5. Multi grid analysis ...... 218 7.6. Additional analysis and findings for managerial implications...... 228 7.6.1. Segmentation according to aims for purchasing an auto ...... 228 7.6.2. Stereotypes of car attribute perceptions ...... 233 7.7. Summary...... 235
CONCLUSION ...... 240 1. Theoretical contribution...... 240 2. Methodological contribution ...... 242 3. Practical contribution and implication ...... 245 4. Limitations...... 250 5. Potential for future research...... 252 References ...... 254 Appendix ...... 271 Appendix 1: Car classification ...... 271 Appendix 2: Minkowski metric...... 272 Appendix 3: Repertory grid form and questionnaire developed for interviews .... 273 Appendix 4: Categorized elicited constructs ...... 281 Appendix 5: Customers’ values and most preferred car attributes...... 289 Appendix 6: Brands of cars named for element categories...... 290
IV
List of figures
Figure 1: Means end chain original structure...... 24 Figure 2: Consumer cognitive structure by Olson and Reynolds ...... 24 Figure 3: Consumer motivational sphere...... 29 Figure 4: Public coverage by premium and luxury brands...... 38 Figure 5: Components of product utility by Vershofen ...... 42 Figure 6: Components of total product value ...... 44 Figure 7: Reasons for purchasing premium brand products...... 46 Figure 8: Aspirational brands audience ...... 53 Figure 9: The assumptive structure of the personal construct theory ...... 60 Figure 10: Display of elicited repertory grid ...... 118 Figure 11: Graphic plot (dendrogram) of HCA of the grid ...... 119 Figure 12: Graphic plot of PCA of the grid ...... 123 Figure 13: Element perception on different dimensions...... 127 Figure 14: Synergy effect of PCA and HCA...... 129 Figure 15: Consumer motivational sphere...... 141 Figure 16: The CMS schema extended with sources ...... 142 Figure 17: Display of the 14 th repertory grid...... 188 Figure 18: Graphic plot of a PCA of the 14 th grid ...... 190 Figure 19: HCA: Component 1 including constructs 5, 9, 10 ...... 193 Figure 20: HCA: Component 2 including constructs 5, 9, 10 ...... 194 Figure 21: Relationships between elements...... 203 Figure 22: HCA producing element and construct dendrograms ...... 204 Figure 23: HCA conducted within the first PCA dimension...... 205 Figure 24: HCA conducted within the second PCA dimension ...... 205 Figure 25: HCA of the collective grid ...... 225 Figure 26: PCA of the collective grid...... 226 Figure 27: Relationships between elements...... 226 Figure 28: Aims of purchasing the current or next auto ...... 229
V
List of tables
Table 1: The repertory grid elicitation form ...... 63 Table 2: Scaling methods used in repertory grid based research...... 71 Table 3: An example of an elicited repertory grid ...... 81 Table 4: An example of a ladder derived from one construct...... 97 Table 5: Subsequent comparison of personal values ...... 99 Table 6: Frequency of value preferences over other ones and a value hierarchy .. 100 Table 7: Relationship between two constructs about six elements...... 109 Table 8: Relationship between two constructs showing a reversal...... 110 Table 9: Repertory grid using Honey’s technique ...... 114 Table 10: Links between constructs ...... 119 Table 11: Links between elements ...... 120 Table 12: Element sort after cluster rearrangement ...... 120 Table 13: Construct sort after cluster rearrangement ...... 120 Table 14: Percentage of variance accounted for by each component ...... 123 Table 15: Ratings given on constructs of the same product attribute...... 146 Table 16: Personal estimation of welfare...... 166 Table 17: Category based questions for eliciting a set of elements...... 169 Table 18: Repertory grid record of the 14 th respondent ...... 176 Table 19: Content analysis procedure ...... 179 Table 20: Homogeneity and the importance of the derived meanings...... 181 Table 21: Honey’s technique calculations...... 183 Table 22: Intervals for H I L indices...... 184 Table 23: Honey’s content analysis of all grids...... 185 Table 24: Correspondence between category poles and construct poles...... 189 Table 25: Percentage of variance accounted for by each component...... 189 Table 26: Construct loadings on each component...... 191 Table 27: Links in the dendrogram of Figure 19 ...... 193 Table 28: Links in the dendrogram of Figure 20 ...... 194 Table 29: Individual structure of construct meanings...... 196 Table 30: Individual schema of a consumer motivational sphere ...... 201 Table 31: Links between adjacent elements in the dendrogram of Figure 22...... 204 Table 32: Interrelationships between element perceptions...... 207 Table 33: Customer segmentation...... 214 Table 34: Collective construct ‘comfortable – uncomfortable’...... 220 Table 35: Constructs of the collective grid ...... 220 Table 36: Collective RG with average ratings...... 221 Table 37: Fundamental core perceptual dimensions based on construct loadings. 222 Table 38: Correlation matrix of collective constructs ...... 223 Table 39: Correlation matrix of element categories ...... 225 Table 40: Common customer abstract consequences...... 230 Table 41: Stereotypes of car attribute perceptions among the respondents...... 235 VI
List of abbreviations
CMS Consumer Motivational Sphere dim. dimension e.g. exempli gratia (for example) et al. et alii (and others) etc. et cetera (and so forth) HCA Hierarchical Cluster Analysis i.e. id est (in other words) M match MEC Means End Chain p. page PCA Principal Component Analysis PCP Personal Construct Psychology PCS Product Construct System PCT Personal Construct Theory PSS Percentage Similarity Score RG Repertory Grid RGT Repertory Grid Technique SDI Subjective Discretionary Income SUV Sport Utility Vehicle var. variance
VII Introduction
“I don’t know anything more interesting in life, than motives of human actions.” Maxim Gorky Introduction
1. Research problem
Understanding consumer purchasing behavior is one of the major challenges for companies to succeed in highly competitive and overloaded markets. To understand the reasons for actual purchase, retention, failure, recommendation and other essentials of consumer behavior, marketers need to explore psychological dynamics that determine consumer behavior. With increased competition, diversity of assortment and importance of social factors, consumer behavior becomes more complex and differentiated being influenced by very different aspects of consumers’ knowledge, cognitive representations and external environmental incentives. People choose products according to the lifestyle they aspire to, often acting irrationally, and value things that are rather distant from a single product but have a strong impact on the preference and final choice for a certain product or brand. Therefore, the challenge is to figure out which processes, factors and incentives, among everything that a consumer experiences and is surrounded with, define particular consumer behavior within a given situation and circumstance. Marketers need to understand the principal motivation behind product consumption in order to precisely target current and potential customers.
Motivation refers to the processes that cause people to behave as they do. From a marketing research perspective the study of motivation represents a search for principles that can help in understanding why people initiate, choose or persist in specific actions and in specific circumstances. Motivation research targets motives for specific behavior and tries to analyze them.
The concept of consumer motivation represents a long lasting debate between researchers who are trying to create commonly agreed upon and adopted definition, however, to this date there is still no consensus regarding the definition and measurement of consumer motivation. There are certain limitations and lack of consensus in contemporary consumer motivation research which provide an inducement for this dissertation.
Most concepts of consumer motivation suggest universal sets or categories of motives, needs or goals which can be applied to any type of product, consumer and 1 Introduction pattern of behavior. The major disadvantage of these sets is that they appear unable to account for specific actions and to recognize the situational variability of consumer behavior.
Most theory based concepts of consumer motivation do not provide certain supportive methodology which would enable samples to be drawn in investigations of consumers and their attitudes towards particular products, brands or product categories.
The concept of consumers' motives based on the hierarchical nature of their interrelations distinguishes between too specific motives, middle range motives and too general motives. It is assumed that too specific motives explain a very specific purchasing behavior and often cannot be approximated either on other products or within a group of people. One the other hand, too general motives are rather distal determinants which do not explain by themselves much about consumers’ particular buying motivation. Therefore, it is important to obtain the full sequence of motives where motives in the middle range can be defined and measured so that they allow us to approximate and to find commonalities within a group of people while, however, not being too general to be interpreted in terms of product features and perceptions.
In consumer research a long standing dispute between qualitative and quantitative approaches to motivation research resulted in attempts to develop a compromise approach, however, the true synthesis of motivation research with quantitative practice has remained obscure.
These limitations and research dilemmas cause the major disadvantage of most analysis of motives which are conducted as purely atheoretical predictive exercises resulting in an ad hoc inductive explanation. Therefore, a theoretical model of motivation and causality underpinning an active guidance for assessment algorithms is required.
2. Research objectives
The goal of this dissertation is to contribute to the understanding of the consumer motivation which explains the psychological dynamics determining consumer behavior. Considering limitations and the potential for contribution described above, the general objective of this thesis is to propose a logical construction conceptualization of consumer’s cognitive structure of knowledge and perceptions 2 Introduction which defines his motivated consuming behavior and to provide a methodological guidance for its practical implementation. As recognized by researchers, it is a key factor in attaining a useful understanding of customer behavior because such cognitive structures bear a major influence on behavior as they are essential in explaining information processing behavior and, in turn, explicit behaviors like purchasing choices that are functions of those cognitive processes.
The theoretical objective of this thesis is to provide a concept of a consumer motivational sphere built on existing theoretical statements, assumptions and propositions. It is based on the notion that motivated behavior is goal directed and that the reasons for choosing a particular goal are represented in a hierarchical network of motives.
In order to make the concept applicable in practical investigations of consumers, two methodological objectives of the thesis are defined. The first objective is to suggest and describe an appropriate interpretive research framework for exploring relationships in the content and structure of consumers’ subjective meaning systems. The second objective is to develop a methodology for estimating how customers‘ preferences are influenced by motives and external factors which would be supportive and congruent with the theoretical conceptualization of consumer motivational sphere and would integrate both qualitative and quantitative approaches. A significant peculiarity of the proposed methodology is that it aims at the exploration and aggregation of personal meanings expressed in a person’s own language and comparative estimates. Furthermore, the focus is put on the definition and assessment of ‘motives of the middle range’ in which a special interest of marketing theory is shown.
The practical objective of the dissertation is to demonstrate the applicability of the suggested methodology and to provide some recommendations for its practical implication. To achieve this goal, an exploratory research study of customers’ motivation mechanism and preferences was conducted on the Russian automotive market with the focus on consumers of premium cars. Thus, a special focus of the study is put on motivation research of difficult groups of consumers characterized by often irrational and, therefore, behavior that is difficult both to access as well as to predict.
3 Introduction
3. Thesis structure
The dissertation consists of three major parts.
The theoretical part is devoted to the development of the concept of a consumer motivational sphere that further serves as a theoretical framework for which an assessment methodology is proposed. The theoretical part consists of three chapters.
The first chapter contains a review about theoretical conceptions of consumer motivation and motives as described in literature. This chapter presents definitions, consumer motivation research experience and its contemporary state and the nature of motives in consumer behavior.
The second chapter is devoted to the conceptualization of the consumer motivational sphere based on the existing theoretical statements and propositions. At first, this chapter provides an overview of the theoretical background for the concept and then presents a schematic model of the consumer motivational sphere.
The third chapter describes the peculiarities of consumer behavior in the markets of premium products in general and on the premium car market in particular. It focuses on the consumer behaviors influenced by the social environment and describes concepts which consider such factors as prestige, social status, social perception, etc. and their role in a consumer’s decision making process and perceived product value.
The methodological part provides a thorough description of a qualitative technique of structured interviewing named ‘repertory grid’ based on the personal construct psychology and describes the proposed methodology for the assessment of the consumer motivational sphere. This part consists of two chapters.
The first chapter presents the repertory grid technique, which provides an interpretive research framework. The format of the data gathered by means of the repertory grid technique and its further analysis enables the disclosure of each component of the schematic model suggested in the theoretical part of the work. This chapter thoroughly describes a procedure of repertory grid elicitation, considering its numerous variations, and presents different methods for analyzing the data.
4 Introduction
The second chapter describes a methodology developed to derive each level of the consumer motivational sphere from the data elicited by means of the repertory grid technique. The suggested methodology represents an integrated method based on qualitative and quantitative approaches which is aimed at the investigation of the individual construing system.
The empirical part of the thesis is devoted to the field research that is conducted and presented in order to demonstrate the applicability of the suggested methodology. This part consists of two chapters.
The first chapter describes the objectives, peculiarities, circumstances and a sample of the conducted survey and, based on that, the repertory grid form appropriate for this research is designed.
The second chapter presents analysis of the data. A single grid analysis demonstrates disclosure and construction of an individual consumer motivational sphere from a single grid. Customer segmentation is performed based on all of the grid analysis conducted by analogy. Afterwards, multi grid analysis based on the collective grid is conducted and inferences are presented.
The empirical study conducted with an application of suggested interviewing techniques and analysis methods was requested by a major German car manufacturer. All findings that have been made during the study and presented to the company could not be presented in this dissertation due to either secondary relevance to the scientific aspect of the dissertation and proposed methodology or the confidentiality restrictions imposed by the company. Therefore, the empirical part of the work is mainly concentrated on the demonstration of the proposed methodology, however, several additional inferences made for managerial implication are included.
All chapters (except the sixth chapter which describes objectives and the sample of the empirical study) are provided with a summary listing the main issues discussed in the context. The dissertation ends with a discussion of its theoretical, methodological and practical contributions, limitations and potential for future research.
Throughout the context of this dissertation pronouns referred to a person, an individual, a consumer, a respondent, etc. or referred to an indefinite antecedent,
5 Introduction such as ‘one’ or ‘anybody’, are written in male sex form. This form stands for both male and female where, for example, ‘he’ implies ‘he or she’. According to English grammar such writing is applied when a phrase refers to a person of unknown or unspecified sex. The issue of political correctness should not be addressed to this work considering the female sex of its author.
6 1. Motives and consumer motivation
I. Theory
1. Motives and consumer motivation
Since many decades marketers try to understand why customers act or react as they do. This question is one of the major questions the theory of consumer behavior pursues to explore and disclose. There are a lot of questions researchers have to ask themselves when trying to understand certain purchasing behaviors. Why customers prefer certain brands or products, why do they often act irrationally, why some consumers aspire to a certain lifestyle which others reject and why they value not only an assortment and quality of products but also a distinctive purchasing experience, etc. (Kroeber Riel et al., 2009, p. 167). Marketers need to understand the principal motivation behind each product consumption to accurately target current and potential customers.
This chapter provides an overview of theoretical conceptions of consumer motives and motivation. In section 1.1 definitions of motivation and motives are presented followed by a description of the nature of motives. Section 1.2 is aimed at providing an overview of the motivation research, its history and contemporary agreements and limitations found in the literature. The last section of the chapter describes motives within the theory of consumer behavior. It is focussed on the notion and the nature of consumer motives rather than on general motives of human behavior. Considering agreements and limitations described in the literature, the chapter ends with a discussion of the direction in which consumer motives will be further considered and used in this work.
1.1. Definition of the concepts of motivation and motive
Motivation refers to the processes that cause people to behave as they do. The concept of motivation is aimed at explaining reasons for a certain behavior. From marketing research perspective to understand motivation is to understand why consumers do what they do. Study of motivation represents search for principles that can help in understanding why people initiate, choose or persist in specific actions and in specific circumstances. Motivation research targets motives for specific behavior and tries to analyze it. Especially important next to the basic, physical motives are social motives (Mook, 1987, p. 4).
7 1. Motives and consumer motivation
Motivation is a goal oriented driving process which consists of two major components namely emotional component and cognitive component (Kroeber Riel et al., 2009, p. 177). The emotional component represents a trigger for the action, whereas the cognitive component defines the direction and the way the action is to be realized.
Often instincts are considered separately as part of motivation construct which can trigger and influence the behavior. Instincts are inborn and, therefore, not learned behavior patterns which are activated by basic, inner stimuli and automatically result in certain actions. Thus, instincts are biologically preprogrammed and can be also understood as physiological deficiency, e.g., hunger, which activates a certain behavior to liquidate this deficiency (Puca and Langens, 2008, p. 194).
Therefore, motivation appears from an interaction between affective and cognitive processes which results in the goal definition and a certain way of acting (Kroeber Riel et al., 2009, p. 169).
Notion of motivation and motive are closely interrelated. The term ‘motive’ is often used as identification of an outlasting, latent disposition, whereas the notion of motivation refers to the process of actualization of motives (Kroeber Riel et al., 2009, p. 170).
Motives identify qualities of people which they can be more or less aware of, to respond emotionally to the goals related to a certain topic such as, for example, affiliation, power or achievement. Motivation describes the state of purposeful behavior which can be characterized by such parameters as direction, intensity and duration (Puca and Langens, 2008, p. 224).
Trommsdorff (2009, p. 32) also defines motives as latent states which, in case of actualization, drive the behavior with a certain intensity and in a certain direction. The actualization can be resulted by deficiency or by external incentives. Thus, motives can be seen on a wide range between ‘extremely uncontrolled, emotional’ to ‘extremely controlled, rational’.
In the literature motives are classified in two directions, first, according to their origin and necessity and, second, according to their extent of consciousness.
Regarding their origin and necessity, motives are subdivided into primary and secondary motives (Kroeber Riel et al., 2009, p. 170):
8 1. Motives and consumer motivation
• Primary motives are coursed by inborn needs such as hunger or thirst which each person has to satisfy in order to exist. Thus, instincts refer to the primary motives.
• Secondary motives are acquired during socialization processes. These motives arise as a result of learning through interacting with other people and society and adapting to the different situations and circumstances. Secondary motives are aimed at satisfying needs that are not vital and indispensable to life but essential for individual esteem and importance to self and to the society.
Maslow (1954) proposed the most popular but, at the same time, controversial and debatable pyramid of needs in attempt to classify motives. He emphasized five levels of needs where each level refers either to the primary or “deficiency” needs or to the secondary or “growth” needs. It is argued that as soon as the needs of a lower level are satisfied the next level of needs is activated (Kroeber Riel et al., 2009, p. 170).
Second classification of motives distinguishes between conscious and unconscious motives.
• Conscious motives refer to the individual’s conscious functioning. Consciousness is associated with an individual experience gained from both outside and inner worlds and, thus, associated with own identity (Kiefer, 2008, p. 156). Conscious processes bear on the individual attention or the capability to notice and reflect events in the individual’s mind (Kroeber Riel et al., 2009, p. 171). Motive that precedes the action is conscious if the person is aware of the cause of this action.
The informational environments that the brain has to handle are too complex and appear beyond the capacity of consciousness. Therefore, especially frequently performed actions and behaviors become automatic being guided to a large degree by unconscious motives.
• Unconscious motives refer to the individual’s unconscious processing. Unconsciousness implies the individual’s capability to very quickly derive meanings from different signs in the environment. However, the main difference with conscious formulation of meanings is that the individual has no
9 1. Motives and consumer motivation
or very incomplete insight of how this happens. Although, once formed, these meanings become rather authoritative and guide individual’s behavior without him being entirely aware of it or choosing that this should happen (Sohlberg, 2006, p. 151). The motive is unconscious if it activates behavior without individual’s realization of its cause.
People cannot be conscious about everything what they do and how they do. However, much of automatic, unconscious processing can become conscious by an effort of recall or attention. For example, if to ask a person who goes every day to the same store and automatically buys the same milk why he chooses this milk, he might immediately answer that he likes its taste, however, if he takes time to recall the whole process and to think about actual reason for the purchase, he might understand that he also chooses this milk because in its advertising the person who got the milk looked very healthy, good and happy. That is why the person unconsciously stored the image of the person from the advertising and tried to associate himself with this image by purchasing the promoted milk. This example also illustrates how advertising can influence consumer behavior even without consumer’s awareness of it. The behavior remains automatic and unconscious until the person does not need to pay attention to what is guiding his behavior (Sohlberg, 2006, p. 151).
Motives, as results of inner processes, can be unconscious and influence the behavior outside of awareness, however, they can often be made conscious by individual own reflection or by means of certain questioning techniques, especially those, which apply indirect questioning approaches (Kroeber Riel et al., 2009, p. 175; Trommsdorff, 2009, p. 108; Jacob, 2009, p. 64).
The notion of motives should be distinguished from notions of needs and wants which are often used as synonyms for each other.
Concept of needs exists on a different theoretical level than concept of motives. Needs are, indeed, the elicitors for motives, characterizing a level of deprivation. Motives are already explained, i.e. they are goal oriented, while needs are not. Thus, with a real sensation of deprivation a need attains a grade of motive possessed of its defined direction (Trommsdorff, 2009, p. 108).
10 1. Motives and consumer motivation
Wants are also often used in the context without any difference to motives. Wants are on the same theoretical level as needs. While needs explaining what is really needed, wants are equally to wishes or desires. They explain what people wish to achieve or to obtain. Wants (wishes or desires) represent specific implementation of a goal that motivates consumer to buy a particular product (Lass, 2002, p. 593).
1.2. Motivation research in consumer behavior
1.2.1. Origin of consumer motivation research
Ernest Dichter, considered by many a founding father of motivation research (Haugtvedt et al., 2008, p. 20), was a successful market researcher who began to develop the theory of a “dynamic psychology”, which later became the conceptual basis of motivation research. Thereby, Dichter and his colleagues, psychologists, brought a discovery from two perspectives. “On the one hand, Dichter began to conceptualize the human soul as a hidden “realm of desires”, full of taboos and secrets. On the other hand, Dichter discovered the “soul of the products”, which was also structured as a space of complexes and taboos” (Gries, 2005).
Dichter was the first who employed one on one format of in depth interviews based on the indirect questioning, as opposed to the direct approach typically used in early quantitative research. He also applied projective techniques borrowed from the clinical psychology. The questioning was stressed on revealing the conditions surrounding different purchase and consumption occasions and on finding the evidence of a symbolic expression of hidden motivations (Pincus, 2004).
Dichter sought clues into consumer motivation by questioning selected individuals who would be proactive in providing insights into product usage. This information he used to provide a “psychological inventory” of basic motives for specific product purchases (Dichter, 1964 cited in Haugtvedt et al., 2008, p. 19). The purchasing motives he proclaimed were derived from application of psychoanalytic theories and methods to study consumer behavior (Trommsdorff, 2009, p. 109; Pincus, 2004). Thus, for many different products he identified the most dominant purchasing motives. He meant that this information about certain products would help marketers and advertisers develop messages that would directly address the consumer motives.
11 1. Motives and consumer motivation
Dichter’s work caused the initial split in consumer research between qualitative motivation research and more typical quantitative research which, since then, have competed against each other, resulting in attempts to develop a compromise approach, however, true synthesis of motivation research with quantitative practice has remained obscure (Pincus, 2004).
1.2.2. Contemporary directions and applied methods in motivation research
In the literature two basic directions of motivation research can be emphasized which compete against each other to be a better concept of motivation explanation.
The first direction is psychological motivation research on cognition . This type of research is stressed on the cognitive component of the motive construct and, thus, on the conscious reasonable goal oriented consumer behavior (Kroeber Riel et al., 2009, p. 176). Consumers’ attention and mechanisms of information selection as well as perceptive processes are studied. The motivation is considered as being based on a subjective perception of means goal (end) coherence and subjective expected and desired quality of the goal achievement.
One of the most well known theories consistent with cognitive motivation is called “means end chain theory” which studies subjective conscious processes of goal definition and desirable or expected ways of its reaching within the given situation. Therefore, the derived motivation is restricted within the conscious drivers and incentives aimed at an achievement of goals resulted in gained experience and desires.
Researchers who work in the cognitive oriented direction mostly use so called laddering technique to reveal and explain causes of action (e.g., Botschen et al., 1999; Lin, 2002; Reynolds and Gutman, 1988; Reynolds and Whitlark, 1995; Huber et al., 2004; Grunert and Grunert, 1995; Wansink, 2003; Valette Florence and Rapacchi, 1991). This technique is based on the questioning procedure where a respondent is urged to express perceived linkages between his individual goals and means to reach these goals (or ‘ends’). Laddering technique and the underpinning means end chain theory are discussed further in this work as a part of the suggested methodology related to the cognitive and conscious oriented exploration of the consumer behavior.
12 1. Motives and consumer motivation
The second research direction is psychological motivation research on emotions . Advocates of this direction argue that the behavior is not always caused by a cognitively realized goal orientation but in the foreground can be influenced and defined by inner driving forces that activate the behavior (DeCharms and Shea, 1976 cited in Kroeber Riel et al., 2009, p. 177). This kind of research is focused on the investigation of emotions and instincts that activate and direct actions often without a cognitive awareness of their causes.
Methods widely used in emotions oriented research are adopted from the psychoanalytical theory, clinical social psychology and cultural anthropology. Most widely used methods are Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and one of its modifications Rorschach Test (Kroeber Riel et al., 2009, p. 179). These methods as well as their further modifications represent projective techniques which use pictures, stories, cartoons, photos, collages, etc. to reach respondent’s unconscious and reveal reserved aspects of personality such as motives, needs, desires, attitudes, etc. (see Gröppel Klein and Königstorfer, 2007 for more about projective methods). The respondent is assessed according to his projects onto the indefinite and uncertain images or stories, the way he interprets them and associates with self or ideal self. Thus, respondent creates his stories, i.e., interpretations which must be further carefully analyzed to uncover underlying meanings and patterns of reaction.
Projective methods attracted much criticism regarding findings validity and reliability and it is suggested that a combination of different types of methods should be applied in order to overcome this criticism (see Kroeber Riel et al., 2009, pp. 179 183 for more detail).
Motivation research on cognition refers to a considerable extent to the quantitative type of research often aimed at empirical testing of hypotheses, whereas motivation research on emotions is a qualitative research which explores the behavior on a deep psychological level (Trommsdorff, 2009, p. 110). Thus, Dichter’s work gave the first basis for psychological motivation research on emotions and caused the first rivalry between two research directions.
Overall, the definition of motivation based on consistence of both emotional and cognitive components where motives differ on the driving intensity of each
13 1. Motives and consumer motivation component requires research methods and underpinning theories which would comprise exploration of both cognitive and emotional driving forces.
1.2.3. Common limitations of contemporary motivation theories
Research activity in the area of motivation as an explicit focus for marketing research has got cyclic intensity having declined significantly after the fisrt half of the twentieth century (Trommsdorff, 2009, p. 107; Paulssen, 1999; Fennell, 1975). Although it has gained interest in the last decades and a lot of researchers and authors proposed their concepts of understanding and explaining the construct of consumer motivation (e.g., Berkman and Gilson, 1986; Rossiter and Percy, 1991; Fennell, 1978), there is still no common agreement on this construct reached. Moreover, the theory of consumer motivation lacks methodological approaches based on its underpinning theory explaining the impact of motivational mechanism on the purchasing behavior.
Bagozzi, in his article (2003), overviews motivation theories which propose within their own framework different sets of motives that drive human behavior. The list comprises theories of such authors as Murray (1938), Maslow (1954), Alderfer (1972) and McClelland (1987) who suggested categories of motives (Murray) and needs (Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland) as well as more recent approaches to categorization of general goals and evaluating them on different dimensions provided by Ford and Nichols (1987) and Novacek and Lazarus (1990) (see Bagozzi, 2003 for more detail). In the field of marketing research authors also suggest categories or types of motives aimed at explaining consumer behavior (e.g., Rossiter and Percy, 1991; Fennell, 1978; Trommsdorff, 2009, p. 114; Vigneron and Johnson, 1999). Thus, the author points out that to date most concepts of consumer motivation suggest universal sets or categories of motives, needs or goals which can be applied to any type of products, consumers and patterns of behavior. These sets are not so general as goals of highest levels which stand for values and, therefore, can be applied to a particular purchasing behavior.
However, despite differences among their content these sets are all similar in sense of being given a priori and specifying rather general motives that are presumed to apply universally across contexts. This defines their major disadvantage which is their inability to account for specific actions and to recognize the situational variability of consumer behavior. Therefore, they appear helpless in deciding on particular strategies aimed at influencing a specific behavior.
14 1. Motives and consumer motivation
Finally, even if a researcher agrees with a particular concept and tends to apply its definition and categorization of consumer motives, as already mentioned, most concepts do not provide certain supportive methodology which would enable to sample it in a certain investigation of consumers and their attitudes towards particular products, brands or product categories (Bagozzi, 2003).
1.3. Motives in consumer behavior
1.3.1. Goal oriented nature of consumer motives
Since many decades marketers try to explore and answer the question why consumers often behave differently in the same situations. However, the question is too general to be explored and clearly answered so that it will cover all aspects of motivation study aroused from its different perspectives. Up to date no universal answer is found and it is reasonable, in attempts to understand consumer motivation, to specify some of its aspects and define the direction in which and purpose for which this question is to be answered (Trommsdorff, 2009, p. 107).
The direction of motivation study conducted in this work is based on the often cited statement provided by James (1980): “The pursuance of future ends and the choice of means for their attainment are the mark and criterion of the presence of mentality in a phenomenon” (cited in Austin and Vancouver, 1996). This statement declares a purposive and goal oriented view of human behavior (Paulssen, 1999).
According to Bagozzi (2003) “one of the first ways to specify motives is to identify which goals are more important to people as ends for their own sake”. General goals provide a basis for action, however, being rather distal determinants. At the same time the reasons for choosing a particular goal are represented in a hierarchical network of motives. Therefore, to be able to more accurately predict particular action or behavior a consideration of more precise, context specific motives is required (Mowday and Sutton, 1993 cited in Bagozzi, 2003).
The concept of direction in this context defines the notion of motivated behavior as a goal directed and further in this work goal directed action or behavior is understood identically to the motivated action or behavior (Heckhausen et al., 1985, p. 6). According to Heckhausen and colleagues (1985, p. 7): “motivation consists of the anticipation of possible actions expected to lead to an outcome that will have certain consequences, which will possibly bring the person closer to a superordinate goal”.
15 1. Motives and consumer motivation
1.3.2. Hierarchical network of consumer motives
Trommsdorff (2009, p. 108) proposes hierarchical relationship between consumer motives according to their level of abstraction. He argues that for a practical use further differentiation of the motive concept is reasonable. It will allow a formation of at least rough motive classes identified already with regard to specified products, product categories or consumers.
On top of his hierarchy, Trommsdorff positions ‘too general’ motives such as, for example, self actualization. These motives are too general to explain a consumer preference towards specific product or brand, for example, how the consumer discriminates between Mercedes and Porsche and why he prefers one to another. Therefore, too general motives on their own are quite useless for marketing interests and purposes.
On the other hand, on the bottom of the motive hierarchy ‘too specific’ motives are disposed. These motives explain very specific purchasing behavior which usually can be related only to a particular product or brand, for example, “Mercedes buying motive” which explains why Mercedes customer purchases Mercedes and this motive cannot be used for other products.
To overcome this dilemma, market researchers need to solve two tasks (Trommsdorff, 2009, p. 109).
First of all, “motives of the middle range” which will balance between too specific and too general motives need to be defined and investigated. Motives have to be sought that can explain consumer behavior in a broader sense, i.e., enable revelation of behavior patterns. These motives should be goal oriented, emotional and cognitive controlled, relative universally and theoretically reasonable drivers of consumer behavior. It is also important that motives of the middle range are meaningful for different target groups and can explain consumer behavior regarding different products. That is, even if motives are identified during a research conducted for a particular product or product category, the level of motive abstraction should, on the one hand, be sufficient to apply them towards other product categories and, on the other hand, still be associated with the consumer behavior regarding a certain class(es) of products. It is hard to define motives that will not be too general and, at the same time, will be applicable to the consumption of all products a person
16 1. Motives and consumer motivation purchases because different types of products are considered or purchased due to different drivers depending on the extent of involvement, product intended application, extent of conspicuity, etc.
As a second task, a measurement instrument needs to be developed to support researchers in solving actual problems. Motives cannot simply be educed by inferences made about consumers’ behavior. In this way hundreds of motives would be produced without any specific validity. Different criteria or systemized approaches are needed to methodize motives.
1.4. Summary
♦ The study of motivation represents a search for principles that can help in understanding why people initiate, choose or persist in specific actions and in specific circumstances.
♦ Motivation appears from an interaction between affective and cognitive processes which results in a person’s goal definition and a certain way of acting .
♦ Motives represent latent states which, in case of actualization, drive the behavior with a certain intensity and in a certain direction.
♦ Motives identify an outlasting, latent disposition , whereas motivation reflects the process of actualization of motives.
♦ Motives, as results of inner processes, can be unconscious and influence the behavior outside of awareness, however, they can often be made conscious by individual own reflection or by means of indirect questioning approaches.
♦ In consumer research a long standing dispute between qualitative and quantitative approaches to motivation research resulted in attempts to develop a compromise approach, however, the true synthesis of motivation research with quantitative practice has remained obscure.
♦ Most developed concepts of consumer motivation do not provide certain supportive methodology which would enable to sample it in a particular consumer investigation.
17 1. Motives and consumer motivation
♦ Most concepts of consumer motivation suggest universal sets or categories of motives , needs or goals which appear unable to account for specific actions and to recognize the situational variability of consumer behavior.
♦ The major disadvantage of most ‘motives’ analysis is that they are conducted as purely atheoretical predictive exercises resulting in an ad hoc inductive explanation. A theoretical model of motivation and causality underpinning an active guidance for statistical algorithms is required.
♦ Motivated behavior is goal directed where reasons for choosing a particular goal are represented in a hierarchical network of motives .
♦ Goals represent motives at their highest level of abstraction. They are too general to explain consumer preference towards a specific product or brand. However, too specific motives which explain very specific purchasing behavior cannot be approximated on other brands or products even within the same product category.
♦ To overcome the dilemma between too specific and too general motives two tasks need to be solved:
“motives of the middle range” which will balance between too specific and too general motives need to be defined and investigated;
a measurement instrument which would provide some criteria or systemized approach needs to be developed to support researchers in actual problems.
♦ In order to investigate consumer motives for implementation within the practical marketing objectives a conceptualization of consumer motivational sphere providing a certain representation of consumer knowledge structure is required which would be:
a theory based conception of content and structure of consumer’s mental representations and their interrelations;
construed with respect to a methodology underpinning theoretical assumptions and, thereby, allowing for further practical application by marketers and researchers.
18 2. Consumer motivational sphere
2. Consumer motivational sphere
The goal of this chapter is to propose a conceptualization of consumer motivational sphere based on the existing theoretical statements and propositions which will further be evolved with the methodological approach. Following a brief introduction, section 2.1 provides an overview of the theoretical background underpinning the proposed conceptualization. In section 2.2 a model of consumer motivational sphere is conceptualized.
Exploration of consumer motivation is a key to understanding the psychological dynamics that determine actual purchase, retention, failure, recommendation and other essentials of consumer behavior. The major disadvantage of most ‘motives’ analysis is that they are conducted as purely atheoretical predictive exercises resulting in an ad hoc inductive explanation. In order to explain causal linkages that motivate consumer behavior a deductive approach in which the stated causal theory would be tested is necessary. It means that a researcher must begin with a theoretical model of motivation and causality which can provide an active guidance for statistical algorithms (Pincus, 2004).
The purpose of this study is to propose a logic construction conceptualization for consumer’s cognitive structure of knowledge and perceptions and to provide a methodological guidance for its practical implementation. As recognized by researchers it is a key factor in attaining a useful understanding of customer behavior. Such cognitive structures bring to bear a major influence on behavior as they are essential in explaining the information processing behavior and, in turn, the explicit behavior like purchase choice, that is a function of those cognitive processes (Olson and Reynolds, 1983, p. 77).
In the marketing literature discussions about knowledge structures or cognitive structures are being held by researchers for a long time. There are numerous studies devoted, for instance, to product perceptions, brand attitudes, brand images, etc. but all of them, at the end, refer to kinds of knowledge about products and brands. When this knowledge is to be interrelated, associated and organized it can be considered as a structure of knowledge or a cognitive structure (Olson and Reynolds, 1983, p. 78).
19 2. Consumer motivational sphere
Person’s knowledge structure is captured in person’s schemas. Schemas are “learned, internalized patterns of thought feeling that mediate both the interpretation of on going experience and the reconstruction of memories” (Strauss, 1992).
Bagozzi (2003), in his article, discusses schemas as an appropriate framework for thinking about motives within which they can be hierarchically organized. He argues that: “a person’s focal goal in any situation is explained by his superordinate motives and is achieved through implementation of subordinate goals”. Although his study was conducted in the context of human motivation in working settings, some of its notions and assumptions can be taken over in the marketing research.
2.1. Theoretical backgrounds for modeling consumer motivational sphere
2.1.1. Cognitive structures
In economic theory most models are built on assumptions such as the consumer rationality which implies utility maximizing behavior and the perfect information. To explain consumer behavior the models use relative prices and disposable income/budget as explanatory variables and consider other influences such as social, cultural or quality perception as latent or unobservable variables (Zanoli and Naspetti, 2002).
In marketing, however, most consumer behavior analysis deal with consumer perceptions, preferences and the way preferences are represented and structured in the consumer’s mind. Marketing approaches to consumer behavior can be distinguished as cognitive versus behavioral (Zanoli and Naspetti, 2002).
The behavioral approaches tend to explain consumer behavior through observation assuming that our environment is what causes us to behave differently. Cognitive approaches look at thinking processes and other unobservable activities with the belief that such processes affect the way in which consumers behave. Thus, behavioral approaches focus on the consumer visible or observable behavior which depends on the external stimuli without trying to understand the internal processes that create it, whereas cognitive approaches are focused on how consumers think and construe their mental representations, studying consumer product knowledge, memory, perception, involvement, motivation and other mental and emotional processes which define consumer behavior (Zanoli and Naspetti, 2002; Foxall,
20 2. Consumer motivational sphere
1998). In its turn, analysis of thinking processes does not imply an ignorance of external influences such as environmental or social characteristics. It is rather assumed that a person perceives external influences and information and processes it mentally acquiring his own construction of world perception. Both approaches are widely accepted and used in consumer behavior analysis being complemented and adjusted (Peter and Olson, 1990, p. 27).
This study is concentrated on the cognitive approach and focus on knowledge, meanings and beliefs that consumers develop from their experience and store in their memories.
The general concept of cognition implies that the human cognitive system has two major functions. The first function is to make sense of, interpret or understand significant aspects of people’s experience in their environment. To do so, the cognitive system creates symbolic or cognitive representations which represent the subjective meanings reflecting each person’s individual interpretation of the stimuli in question. Thus, the second function of the cognitive system is to use these cognitive representations or meanings to carry out cognitive tasks such as identifying objectives and goals, developing and evaluating alternative courses of action to meet those goals, choosing a particular course of action and carrying out the behaviors. Cognition processes comprise mental processes of understanding, learning, remembering, evaluating, interpreting, deciding, and planning (Peter and Olson, 1990, p. 45).
Not all cognitive processes are conscious. Consumers often are unaware of their cognitive processes. However, consumers are often aware of the cognitive meanings produced by those processes, although still being unable to reason the actions or perceived meaning (Peter and Olson, 1990, p. 48). For example, a person has a cognitive meaning or representation of his behavior: “I eat a lot of apples” or of a symbolic meaning: “this style of watches is appropriate for older people” but he actually cannot explain or does not realize why he eats so much apples or why he thinks that way about that watches. That is why consumer behavior represents, in essence, a consequence of consumption relevant cognitive structure (Grunert and Grunert, 1995).
21 2. Consumer motivational sphere
Cognitive structures described by authors in different disciplines including marketing and psychology differ fundamentally depending on the general basis for taxonomy of cognitive representations. That means it is necessary to define the foundation for distinguishing between cognitive representations, i.e., on which basis they differ and what brings them to a certain level of the taxonomy. In this study the cognitive representations are discriminated and put to a schema according to their level of abstraction.
Gutman and Reynolds (1979) used as a basis to decide on the level of abstraction of a certain mental representation its relationship to self. That is, the stronger and more direct the association between representation and one’s self concept the higher is the level of abstraction (Olson and Reynolds, 1983, p. 80).
Another presentation of concept of abstraction was suggested by Geistfeld, Sproles, and Badenhop (1977) and Cohen (1979). It states that representations that are relatively direct reflections of physical features of the product (for example, color) may be considered as concrete or low in abstraction. Representations that are reflections of several concrete features (for example, style) involve higher order meanings and are more abstract (Olson and Reynolds, 1983, p. 80). Product features at some higher levels of abstraction are usually represented by functional and psychosocial consequences of product use. In turn, a positive outcome brought by functional or psychosocial consequences is called benefits or desirable consequences , otherwise they bring undesirable consequences .
At this point of the concept closer linkages referred to self as also proposed by Gutman and Reynolds (1979) can be recognized. At the highest level of abstraction the product can be represented in terms of values that may be reached by its purchase and use. Such values are very abstract and have much to do with individual ideas and image of self. Although values stand in the hierarchy associated with a product, they are several levels away from any physical referent (Olson and Reynolds, 1983, p. 80).
The taxonomy proposed in this study orders representations hierarchically such as product characteristics, attributes, consequences and values based on levels of abstraction connected through means end linkages. It is built on the assumptions of means end chain (MEC) theory and some of its modifications and on the concept of
22 2. Consumer motivational sphere consumers’ motives proposed by Trommsdorff (2009) described earlier in this chapter.
The proposed taxonomy is, therefore, based on the concepts which are already known and have proved to be solid by applications in many marketing as well as other context studies. For example, Bagozzi and his colleagues (2003) in their study of hierarchical representation of motives in human goal setting used means end relationships to disclose superordinate motives for striving for a personal goal. Similar approach has been used to generate hierarchies of causal attributions (e.g., Antaki, 1989), goals (e.g., Antaki, 1988; Bagozzi and Dabholkar, 1994; Pieters et al., 1995), and values (e.g. Bagozzi and Dabholkar, 2000), however, “no studies have investigated hierarchical schemas for motives” (cited in Bagozzi et al., 2003).
Within the marketing context MEC was typically applied to analyze and interpret consumers’ product and brand perceptions. Thus, MEC is being more broadly viewed as representing the relationship between self and products (Walker and Olson, 1991; Walker et al., 1987). Next section is devoted to the application of MEC in marketing research.
2.1.2. Means end chain theory
The means end chain theory was originally developed in order to relate consumers’ product knowledge to their self knowledge (Gutman, 1982; Olson and Reynolds, 1983, p. 80). In a broader sense it is assumed that knowledge structure represents a hierarchy where concrete thoughts are linked to more abstract thoughts in a sequence progressing from means to ends .
Gutman (1982) defines MEC as: “Means are objects (products) or activities in which people engage (running, reading). Ends are valued states of being such as happiness, security, and accomplishment. A means end chain is a model that seeks to explain how a product or service selection facilitates the achievement of desired end states.”
In sense of product consumption, MEC represents a simple knowledge structure that links product attributes to the consequences produced by these attributes (Gutman, 1982). This approach is based on the assumption that consumers see products as means to important ends. That means that product characteristics can produce personal consequences which are self relevant and important for a person. And thus,
23 2. Consumer motivational sphere the person perceives a product with its certain characteristics as instrumental in achieving important for him consequences or values (Mulvey et al., 1994). Personal values are the end consequences produced by the product attributes. They are mental representations of important life goals that consumers are trying to achieve. Values are more abstract than functional or psychological consequences and its achievement tends to be quite subjective and intangible personal experience (Peter and Olson, 1990, p. 75). Figure 1 illustrates MEC originally consisting of three levels of abstraction.
Attributes Consequences Values
Figure 1: Means end chain original structure
In general, MEC represents consumer’s cognitive structure interrelating consumer’s knowledge about a product which is in turn defined as a bundle of salient attributes and benefits and consumer’s self knowledge which consist of personal psychological and social consequences and values (Mulvey et al., 1994). Thus, the means end approach assumes that products are purchased and used not for themselves or their characteristics but for meanings they produce in minds of consumers (Reynolds and Gutman, 1988). Although products being selected for fairly concrete features such as their characteristics and attributes and for the benefits which they are capable of providing, they are perceived subconsciously as aimed at and associated with the achievement of personal values (e.g., Solomon, 2004, p. 133).
A number of extensions of the original conception of MEC have received a solid attention of researchers and being used in conduction of rather fine analysis of the types of mental representations. One of such extensions was suggested by Olson and Reynolds (1983, p. 81). They have made finer distinctions in terms of abstraction by dichotomizing each of three levels of Figure 1 (see Figure 2).
Concrete Abstract Functional Psychosocial Instrumental Terminal attributes attributes con con values values sequences sequences
Figure 2: Consumer cognitive structure by Olson and Reynolds
The extended model suggests that each basic level of abstraction can be subdivided leading to distinct categories of abstraction: attributes into concrete and abstract,
24 2. Consumer motivational sphere consequences into functional and psychosocial, and personal values into instrumental and terminal.
Attributes are at the lowest level in the chain. Both concrete and abstract attributes are relatively concrete meanings that represent physical or perceptible characteristics in a product (Gengler et al., 1999). Concrete attributes are defined as the directly perceptible physical characteristics of a product, for example color, size, and weight (Vriens and Hofstede, 2000), while abstract characteristics refer to relatively intangible characteristics (e.g., style and image) or perceived value (Botschen et al., 1999). Botschen, Thelen and Pieters (1999) define attributes as characteristics of products which may be preferred or sought by consumers, however, they do not explain per se for what reasons the product is or might be bought. They also subdivide attributes into concrete and abstract emphasizing that they both give additional information about the product itself but do not provide discovering of any underlying reasons why the product is selected or purchased.
Consequences have more abstract meanings which reflect perceived benefits or perceived risks associated with attributes (Gengler et al., 1999). Peter and Olson (1990, p. 73) define consequences as specific events that happen to a consumer when the product is bought and used. This definition seems to reflect a common understanding of consequences more accurately unlike definition provided by Lin (2002) which states that consequences are what the customer feels after consuming the product. Vriens and Hofstede (2000) define consequences as characteristics that are less directly perceptible in a product or brand and represent the result of various attributes combinations and the product use by the customer.
In this study it is agreed that consequences may represent emotions, feelings, evaluations, events (Peter and Olson, 1990, p. 74), and in some situations behaviors (Valette Florence and Rapacchi, 1991) experienced by consumers. It is assumed that differentiation between attributes and consequences lies not in “what” is expressed by a customer but rather “what kind of information” is underlying in expression. Adapted definitions for attributes and consequences and distinction between them are those proposed by Botschen and his colleagues (1999). According to them, while attributes give additional information about the product itself, consequences explain why people are looking for certain attributes: “for customers it
25 2. Consumer motivational sphere is not the product’s attributes which count, but the problem solution the benefit sought – which they derive from a certain combination of attributes”.
It is important to distinguish between positive and negative consequences. Positive consequences or benefits represent the desirable consequences which are the advantages consumers enjoy from the usage or consumption of products (Gutman, 1982) and when selecting a certain product or brand they are looking for and expecting to receive these benefits. Negative consequences or perceived risks represent the undesirable consequences which consumer seeks to avoid when purchasing and consuming a product (Peter and Olson, 1990, p. 74).
Some marketers consider consumers as thinking about products as bundles of benefits. That is, in their researches the intermediary MEC consists of benefits subdivided into two levels of abstraction not taking into account perceived risks (e.g., Young and Feigin, 1975). In general, consideration of negative consequences in marketing research depends on the purpose of the research. For example, for an efficient product positioning, advertising and distribution it is preferred to develop benefit segmentation, that is, to divide consumers into homogeneous segments based on their interest in particular product benefits (Peter and Olson, 1990, p. 74; Botschen et al., 1999). To further appeal to segments by their benefits sought, this approach is based on the assumption of MEC theory stating that consumer behavior is driven by the ‘true’ benefits sought which cause the desire of preference for certain attributes (Botschen et al., 1999). However, for example, for a successful new product development and launch it is also important to elicit and analyze consumers’ perceived risks when they select the product. It can help product developers to focus on the characteristics which cause negative consequences and to introduce possible improvements (Herm and Gall, 2008).
Olson and Reynolds (1983, p. 81) differentiate consequences on functional and psychosocial levels. Functional consequences are less abstract outcomes of product use that act directly on the consumer from the time the product is consumed (Peter and Olson, 1990, p. 73; Valette Florence and Rapacchi, 1991). They include the immediate physiological, physical, tangible, performance outcomes of using or consuming the product, for example, a car gets a certain number of miles per gallon or an ink pen writes smoothly without skipping (Peter and Olson, 1990, p. 74).
26 2. Consumer motivational sphere
The term ‘psychosocial consequences’ comprises two types of an outcome psychological consequences and social consequences (Peter and Olson, 1990, p. 74). Psychological consequences are less tangible and more personal outcomes of a product use which reflect how the usage of product makes a person feel; for example, wearing clothes of a certain brand might make a person feel more attractive or stylish. Psychosocial consequences also include intangible social consequences which a customer might be aware of, such as “my partners will respect me if I buy this auto” or “people from my surrounding will consider me as smart and successful if I buy this house”.
Personal values are at the most abstract level in the chain representing beliefs and relatively stable cognitions that have a strong emotional impact (Vriens and Hofstede, 2000). Rokeach (1973) suggested subdividing of values into instrumental and terminal values. Instrumental values are defined as cognitive representations of preferred modes of behavior which lead to an achievement of terminal values. Terminal values, in turn, represent final preferred states of existence, i.e., they are mental representations of the most fundamental goals and end states that consumers seek in life. As an example for terminal values can be self achievement, prosperity, happiness, whereas for instrumental values some authors give examples such as having a good time, being independent, being resourceful and ambitious (Peter and Olson, 1990, p. 75; Veludo de Oliveira et al., 2006).
Although the authors propose 6 level chain, they emphasize that not all the links have to be presented in every case. For example, a consumer may be aware of a product, but yet not knowing its performance consequences of certain attributes or the valued end state the attribute can help to reach and, thus, the person can possess little abstract meaning for this product attribute (Olson and Reynolds, 1983, p. 81). In such case certain levels of abstraction in the scheme might be missing or the person may express untruly meanings just to satisfy the researcher or pretending being aware of what he is talking about. Both cases are damaging for the findings, especially when a group of individuals is analyzed and the data is to be aggregated to find similarities and differences in representations.
Another problem with such a complex MEC is that it might be difficult to differentiate, for example, psychosocial consequences and some instrumental values. Peter and Olson (1990, p. 79) argue that making such fine distinctions is actually seldom
27 2. Consumer motivational sphere necessary and original three level means end structure is sufficient for many marketing purposes.
It is also pointed that not every MEC leads to an instrumental or terminal value. The end of the chain can be a consequence at any level of abstraction (Peter and Olson, 1990, p. 80). When product attributes have no associations with consequences or values, for example, if a person doesn’t know what the attribute is good for or if he is aware of the consequence but it is not important for him this might have a small impact on his purchasing decision.
Therefore, at first, it is important to identify the importance of each product feature for a consumer to produce veritable, not artificial chains linking product characteristics to values.
In marketing research methods such as repertory grid technique and laddering are commonly applied to perform MEC analysis. However, the repertory grid technique is mostly used only to elicit relevant product characteristics as means from which ends are further revealed through the laddering technique (Jacob, 2009, p. 64). This approach does not use the full potential of the repertory grid technique thus diminishing the richness of analysis (Marsden and Littler, 2000a). As a result, the produced outcome does not show, for example, the difference between characteristics’ importance and the role of each particular product characteristic or attribute in consumer’s purchase decision. This analysis identifies product perception structures, however, it is rather limited in prediction of consumer purchase decision (Jacob, 2009, p. 68).
In this dissertation the potential of the repertory grid technique is discussed in the methodological part in order to show how analysis and findings can be enriched by this versatile tool.
2.2. Conceptualization of the consumer motivational sphere
In this study the general conception of MEC and its original structure consisting of three major levels of abstraction is adhered. Further extensions are proposed building on the existing theoretical assumptions and propositions found in the literature. At the end, the suggested taxonomy is aimed at providing a certain representation of consumer knowledge structure which, on the one hand, is a theory based conception of content and structure of consumers mental representations and 28 2. Consumer motivational sphere their interrelations and, on the other hand, is construed with respect to the methodology underpinning theoretical assumptions and, thereby, allowing for further practical application by marketers and researchers. The extensions and modifications are made with an attempt to overcome some limitations of traditional approaches in construing and measuring consumers’ cognitive structures and to suggest a congruent methodology which gives an insight to other aspects of consumers’ mind than being traditionally explored.
Incorporating the results of the preceding discussion of structuring consumers’ mental representations the schema proposed in this work brings some extensions to the basic conceptualization. The following Figure 3 illustrates the proposed extended model.
Situational and Environmental incentives
Expected consequences Product (desirable/undesirable) Values
Product characteristics Product attributes Specific consequences Abstract consequences
"too specific motives" "motives of "too general motives" middle range"
MOTIVES
Figure 3: Consumer motivational sphere
The most apparent modification lies not in the consistence of components of the main structure but in the underlying meanings of each component. Three main substructures of the model can be emphasized.
The first substructure comprises first two levels of abstraction that refer to a product. Product characteristics which represent product physical characteristics are linked to product attributes representing product perceptible characteristics (Gengler et al., 1999). These two levels reflect features offered by a product which are in complex may offer a person benefits that he seeks for.
The second substructure of the chain consists of three main levels of abstraction which represent the subjective motivational cognitive structure related to a product purchasing decision (Trommsdorff, 2009, p. 104). These three levels reflect product related consequences and values. Consequences are subdivided according to level
29 2. Consumer motivational sphere of abstraction. At the bottom lay specific expected consequences which are very personal and hard to approximate in order to reach a common set of expected consequences. The third, highest level of abstraction reflects values which are also personal but already very general ends which themselves cannot show what is it expected from a product consumption that would bring a person or a group of people to the wished state of being. And in between, the meanings lay that express consequences on the level which, on the one hand, allows to approximate and to find commonalities within a group of people and, on the other hand, they are not too general and can be interpreted in terms of product features and perceptions.
Concerning the issue about positive and negative outcomes, both desirable and undesirable consequences are implied in the term ‘expected consequences’. Interviewing technique and assessment methodology further suggested in this work allow revealing both types of consequences followed by also disclosing consumer preferences which already indicate desirable outcomes. For this reason, in the general model the term expected consequences is used and it is, then, depends on the research objectives whether researcher considers undesirable states or he needs to consider just consumer preferences, i.e., desirable consequences.
The third substructure consists of only one component which is situational and environmental incentives which have a certain impact on the choice made by consumer. People consume products in a variety of situations and environments (Gutman, 1982; Yang et al., 2002) which certainly effect their attributes preferences and benefits they seek for. According to Clancey (1989), knowledge is a capacity to behave adaptively within an environment; it cannot be reduced to representations of behavior or the environment (cited in Shaw and Gaines, 2005). Numerous discussions in literature are devoted to the issue of situational and environmental incentives, their impact on the consumer behavior and how they should be considered and linked within the main cognitive structure of mental representations.
Gutman (1982) defines product use situation as “any situation that involves the use of a commercially available product or service”. He states that consumers learn over time which choices in given situations produce their desirable consequences and which do not. He also points that within the time spent by a consumer to adopt with regard to a given situation the importance of the consequences may adjust. That means that over time consumers learn in which types of situations which products
30 2. Consumer motivational sphere they would use. As an example, Gutman considers purchasing of hot dog which can be consumed during regular lunch, occasional lunch or at baseball game. Each usage situation would modify the importance of consequences the person seeks for. For example, if person eats hot dogs every single lunch he may look for the ones that contain less fat, salt, etc., or he may consider the preparation process and choose the one that he likes. But if a person buys it at a baseball game, what happens rarely, he probably would like to have it big and full of ketchup, mustard and mayonnaise to enjoy its taste. Thus usage situation produces a set of consequences for particular consumption situation.
Fennell (1978) also discusses the effect of situations in which consumers find themselves. She gives an example when three different consumers, motorists, ask for the power however each of them is willing to satisfy different wants by that and so the consequences of obtaining power differ. One may want power because his habitual driving pattern makes it necessary to be able to enter fast moving traffic, while second one wants to have a powerful car because it reflects his masculine self image. And third consumer might enjoy a sensory experience of driving a powerful machine. This example demonstrates the importance to understand the conditions that lead the consumer to ask for specific product attributes and consequently to expect particular benefits. These conditions can be found in consumers’ personality and their life situation. According to Fennell: “the person is viewed as a unique composite of genetic inheritance and past experience, now in a current set of life circumstances (family, job, circle of friends, avocational activities, geographic location) that are perceived through the filter of his or her individuality”. As long as person moves from one activity or state to another, the environmental stimuli interconnect with person systems forming an actual situational perception.
Walker and Olson (1991) discuss the importance of decision situation. They assume that personal self schema contains an enormous amount of information about oneself which is stored in personal long term memory and only a small portion of consumer’s self related knowledge is activated at any given time in his or her working memory. Only the activated self meanings can influence consumer’s cognitions and behaviors. Therefore, it is essential to identify factors that influence which self related ends are activated. One of important determinants of self in working memory is the decision situation. Thus, features and characteristics of situations largely determine what self meanings are accessed and, in turn, the abstractness and importance of
31 2. Consumer motivational sphere these meanings affect how relevant and important that situation is to the consumer and what product knowledge is activated (Walker and Olson, 1991; Kihlstrom and Cantor, 1984).
Fennell (1978), proposing her brand choice model, includes internal, relatively permanent personal aspects like genetic inheritance and past experience and external, relatively temporary life circumstances in the notion of product use situation. Therefore, she views consumer perception of product use situation as an activator for product purchase which also directs the choice among available brands. Later, by modeling variation in brand preference, Fennell and her colleagues distinguish between personal systems and environmental systems, arguing that intersection of these components “allocates an individual’s resources to a domain of action and direction of desired adjustment within that domain”. In turn, the result of such intersection produces motivating conditions that specify the kinds of attribute an individual finds valuable (Yang et al., 2002).
In this study, considering described concepts of situational aspect in consumers’ cognition and behavior, it is agreed that consumer’s “core” self which includes genetic inheritance and past experience as well as personal systems is relatively stable (Walker and Olson, 1991; Fennell, 1978) and generates basic desirable consequences. However, there are environmental systems and current life circumstances, as described by Fennell (1978), which person faces at a given time that may significantly affect the perception of desirable ends and choice criteria related to the product attributes. Environmental systems and current life circumstances are relatively temporary and unstable, i.e., they can be changed when person achieves another social level, moves to another place, changes family status or work, etc.
Building on ideas of Fennell (1978) and Walker and Olson (1991) it is assumed that the expected consequences having origin from “core” self are influenced by rather temporary situational and environmental incentives. Consumer expresses his meanings and perceptions already considering these incentives. Therefore, it is needed to identify where he points these incentives in order to understand better why and in which circumstances consumer prefers certain attributes and expects certain benefits.
32 2. Consumer motivational sphere
Overall, the proposed structure of consumer motivational sphere which links product related knowledge to person related knowledge serves as a basic framework within which an assessment methodology is to be proposed in this study. An integrated method for assessing each level of abstraction in consumer motivational sphere based on data gathered by means of repertory grid interviewing technique is suggested. Therefore, further in this work each level of abstraction will be discussed in terms of its disclosing. The suggested methodology underpinning this concept is proposed as an expansion of the traditional analysis of consumer knowledge structure in marketing research.
2.3. Summary
♦ The purpose of this study is to propose a logic conceptualization for consumer’s cognitive structure of knowledge and perceptions and to provide a methodological guidance for its practical implementation.
♦ A person’s knowledge structure is captured in person’s schemas which represent learned, internalized patterns of thought feeling that mediate both the interpretation of an on going experience and the reconstruction of memories. Schemas represent an appropriate framework for thinking about motives within which they can be hierarchically organized.
♦ Cognitive representations are discriminated and put to a schema according to their levels of abstraction .
♦ Representations such as product characteristics, attributes, consequences and values are ordered hierarchically based on levels of abstraction connected through means end linkages. The taxonomy is based on the assumptions of the means end chain theory , some of its modifications and on the concept of consumers’ motives suggesting three levels of motives: too specific motives, motives of the middle range and too general motives.
♦ Schema of consumer motivational sphere consists of three main substructures :
The first substructure comprises first two levels of abstraction which refer to the person’s product knowledge and links product characteristics with product attributes representing physical and perceptible characteristics of the product;
33 2. Consumer motivational sphere
The second substructure consists of three levels which refer to the person’s self knowledge:
• Specific expected consequences are very personal and hard to approximate in order to reach a common set of expected consequences.
• Abstract expected consequences allow to approximate and to find commonalities within a group of people, however, being not too general to be interpreted in terms of product features and perceptions.
• Values represent very general ends which themselves cannot show what is it expected from a product consumption that would bring a person or a group of people to the desired state of being.
The third substructure consists of only one component reflecting situational and environmental incentives which currently influence a consumer’s choice.
♦ Expected consequences have origin from the “core” self which is relatively stable including the genetic inheritance, past experience and personal systems but they are also influenced by rather temporary and unstable situational and environmental incentives .
♦ Product characteristics and attributes give additional information about the product itself, whereas consequences and values explain why people look for certain attributes, that is the problem solution or the benefit which they derive from a certain combination of attributes.
♦ The schema of consumer motivational sphere which links the product related knowledge with the person related knowledge serves as a basic framework within which the assessment methodology is to be proposed in this study.
34 3. Premium car market
3. Premium car market
This chapter is devoted to the peculiarities of consumer behavior in the markets of premium goods in general and in the premium car market. Although theoretical concepts of this chapter do not refer to the theoretical background of the elaboration of methodological approach suggested in this work, they still underpin the methodology in a sense that the method is best appropriate for exploration research of a relatively small sample. In turn, the sample represents customers whose consumer behavior is not obvious, often irrational in terms of commonly considered factors influencing purchasing decision and with its peculiarities which need to be disclosed.
This chapter presents concepts which consider such factors as social status, social perception and its role in the consumer decision process and perceived product value. Section 3.1 is devoted to the notion of ‘premium’ in general and in the car market. It also specifies differences between premium, luxury and volume car brands. In section 3.2 different types of consumer behavior in the premium car market are described. Also in this section product components which form a product utility and a product value in the premium markets are presented. The last section, 3.3, is devoted to the role of society in consumer behavior; it presents a man within the society and his social environment and discusses such aspects as social status, its symbolic expression and how products may reflect personal attitudes and aspirations, distinguish the person from others and emphasize personal status and belonging to certain social groups. In this chapter peculiarities of the consumer behavior in the Russian premium car market regarding some aspects are presented in order to give a clue on which base some research interpretations of the empirical part of the work are made.
3.1. The notion of ‘premium’ in the car market
3.1.1. The meaning of the term ‘premium’
At first, the general understanding of the term ‘premium’ needs to be discussed to further specify this notion towards automotive market.
The definition of the word ‘premium’ as an adjective in English language was first indicated in 1926, originally in reference to a grade of motor fuel (Harper, 2001). It qualifies an object “of exceptional quality or of greater value than others of its kind”,
35 3. Premium car market i.e., something superior. As an example, it can be spoken of a wine made of premium grapes and whose quality would be particularly high. From a purely mercantile point of view, this adjective would characterize an object of higher price or more expensive (Rundell and Fox, 2007, p. 1167).
The word ‘premium’ as a noun was first introduced in 1601 and referred to a “reward given for a specific act”. It came from the Latin praemium “reward, profit derived from booty” (Harper, 2001). Today the word has retained its meaning as a reward, a bonus but the criminal origin of its sense has evolved and definition of premium is “a sum of money or bonus paid in addition to a regular price, salary, or other amount” (Soukhanov et al., 2000). The increase of its price by means of a bonus places the premium product in the category of products with prices above the average of the market.
In the context of the relationship between a retailer and a customer it is said that customers who purchase a premium product are ready to spend more money on it than they would for a regular product in order to benefit from premium superiority.
3.1.2. Premium, luxury and volume car brands
This section is aimed at providing a clear difference between the notions of premium, luxury and volume car brands. At first, the distinction between premium and luxury car brands is discussed.
Premium and luxury car brands
According to the meaning of the term ‘premium’ described in the previous section, the first characteristic of a premium car brand is the price premium, defined as a positive price difference as compared with the market average. The price premium can also be defined as a positive difference in prices to the average price on the global market or on a specific market segment (Diez, 2001, p. 3).
The first characteristic does not help to make a clear distinction of the nature between premium and luxury brands as a luxury brand also works with a price premium and its products are sold at a price higher than the average price on the market segment. The difference between premium and luxury brands would then only consist in the amount of the price premium, i.e., the luxury brands’ products being more expensive than the premium brands’ ones.
36 3. Premium car market
An essential characteristic of a premium brand on the car market which distinguishes it from a luxury one is that premium brand has a focus on innovation through which it is also able to set trends and standards in the industry in terms of technology. This focal point is communicated through advertising and company performance and brings the brand a premium image (Rosengarten and Stürmer, 2005, p. 26).
Premium brands aim at being leaders on the car market as far as new technologies are concerned and care to have top quality products near technical perfection. This perfection is searched in all tangible functions and properties of a car. A premium car is a standard car which tends to represent the highest quality, especially oriented towards the functions which it is intended to fulfill (Diez, 2001, p. 11). These innovations can contribute, for instance, to a better security of passengers or to an improvement of the road holding of a car in difficult driving conditions. This, however, does not mean premium brands do not care about the aesthetics of a car and its features but the aesthetics is subordinated to the functionality.
On the contrary, luxury brands bet on sensational features and obtain their status either from their heritage related to the respect of brand tradition or from a very strong marketed image. Thus, the idiosyncrasy of luxury brands is the focus on the increase of sophistication related features which are outside of rationality rather than on the permanent improvement of features related to the primary function of a product (Rosengarten and Stürmer, 2005, p. 26). As an example, Rolls Royce does not exactly represent a model of technological and ergonomic perfection but its luxury image relies more on its aesthetics and the legendary history.
While luxury car brands rely mostly on the strength of image, premium brands can rely on two focal strengths: an image of a high class product and a high innovation potential (Figure 4). This enables premium brands to target more potential customers than luxury brands as they can resort to more sales arguments and of different natures (Rosengarten and Stürmer, 2005, p. 27). Today, though, when customers are relatively experienced and aware of the existing technologies the distinction between luxury and premium becomes vaguer as luxury brands cannot keep the competitiveness without advancing in the technological and functional perfection. However, the essential difference between the notions can be further supported as luxury brands may often adopt most recent but already developed technologies,
37 3. Premium car market whereas, premium brands concentrate on innovations in order to appeal to customers as providing leading and new technologies.
Figure 4: Public coverage by premium and luxury brands
When talking about luxury brands it is sometimes important to bear in mind that there is a certain difference between considerations of luxury on the European and American car markets. On the European market luxury is based on the refinement in car details and on the brand history, whereas on the American market perception of luxury is based on comfort and size of a vehicle (Rosengarten and Stürmer, 2005, p. 27).
This is explained by the peculiarity of the country which is the large territory and, therefore, long distances which influence auto exploitation and general car culture including perceptions and attitudes towards notions of premium and luxury.
In America large territory of the country and, therefore, long distances influence auto exploitation and general car culture. Consumers tend to buy big cars in terms of size to make long rides. Therefore, people put a lot of value on comfort and space in their cars.
As a result, car classifications used in Europe and North America differ especially regarding entry level luxury segment (see Appendix 1 for most commonly used car classifications). However, today, car classification is rather subjective because many vehicles either fall into multiple categories or do not fit well to any.
Peculiarities of Russian car market when compared with American and European are closer to the American in sense of territory and distances, variety of climate conditions as well as consumer attitudes towards size, space, comfort and consumer 38 3. Premium car market exploitation art implying often long rides. The Russian or, better to say, Soviet classification of cars applied to the Russian autos does not correspond to the contemporary foreign classifications. At the same time, there are no autos produced in Russia which are considered as premium or luxury. Some companies attempt to position their brands as of an upper class, however, technologies and design are still far from the world progress and, therefore, it will probably take long time until customers of premium and luxury autos will want to buy domestic cars.
Premium and volume car brands
The notion of premium referred to car brands also enables to differentiate premium car brands from volume car brands. As their name indicates, volume brands aim at selling as much products as possible in order to increase their revenue. Thus, they position themselves on the market with relatively low prices. To enable this they pursue low cost production process reducing in the first ranks research and development costs. That is, volume brands do not innovate as much as premium brands and benefit from innovations of the latter, for instance, by adopting them with a delay. However, today, the delay tends to reduce itself as evolution in the car market is becoming faster resulting in shortening of products’ life cycle. Doing that, volume brands cannot display a status of technological leadership. They also do not have the same care concerning quality of materials and precision of the finish. This constitutes the main distinctions between premium and volume brands. A common point, though, is their focus on the improvement of a car in its functional use (Rosengarten and Stürmer, 2005, p. 30).
3.2. Consumer behavior in the premium car market
In this section reasons for consumption of premium products with the focus on the consumer behavior in the premium car market is discussed. Further, in this study, the notion of premium will be used implying both premium and luxury cars in a sense that they both relate to the price premium car segment, possessing both quality and image components on a higher level comparing to the volume brands. Thus, purchasing behavior towards price premium cars is opposed to the purchasing behavior towards volume brand cars rather than purchasing behavior towards premium is opposed to the purchasing behavior towards luxury.
39 3. Premium car market
The aim is to disclose what actually attracts consumers in the premium segment in order to define the strengths of premium brands and how they can communicate on them. Specifically, it is aimed at showing that even if objective reasons play a significant role in the process of customer decision making, there is also a great role of subjective reasons, and notably a search for prestige, which can explain the preference of consumers for a premium brand rather than for a volume brand.
3.2.1. Types of consumer buying behavior
One of the principal categorization of consumer buying behavior, displayed in the literature is a categorization according to the degree of cognitive buyer involvement. It implies that decisions with a comparatively high degree of cognitive involvement can be distinguished from forms with comparatively low cognitive involvement (Assael 1995, p. 152 cited in Esch et al., 2003). This results in four types of consumer buying behavior (Esch et al., 2003).
1. Routine decision making implies buying decision with low cognitive and emotional involvement which is made neither with effort nor considering. It is a widely automatic process without assimilating much of external information. This decision has been solved before as a result of learning processes from repeated behavior. This type of decision is made towards frequently purchased, low involvement and relatively low cost items, for instance, newspapers, milk, snack foods, etc.
2. Limited decision making implies buying decision characterized by simplified cognitive processes. This decision is taken when consumer is familiar with a product category but not familiar with a brand or doesn’t show any clear preference for a certain brand. The customers are assumed to be emotionally low involved and hence as soon as an alternative satisfies the needs, the consumer terminates the decision making process and purchases this alternative, for example, clothes in case of unfamiliar brand.
3. Impulse buying behavior implies a decision making process in which customers are only little cognitively involved but usually show a high degree of emotional involvement. It occurs when consumers feel an unexpected, sudden and urgent need to buy. Thus, impulse purchases are unplanned and without an evaluation of need. They often occur in favorable situations with strong
40 3. Premium car market
stimuli like POS (place of sale) displays. This type of decision making usually relates to such categories of products as clothes and delicacies, however, it also depends on the level of income consumers dispose of.
4. Extensive decision making implies customer’s both cognitive and emotional high involvement. This decision making requires a comparatively long period of time for seeking wide information and deciding between alternatives which are thoroughly examined and evaluated. This type of behavior is followed during infrequent purchases of expensive products often with high risk degree such as housing, car, computer or education.
The type of occurring decision making process in concrete purchase depends on several factors which are: price of product, frequency of product purchases, consumer involvement and the perceived risk related to the purchase. However, in practice these four types of decision making do not usually occur in their pure form. Depending on situation and circumstances some combinations and overlaps are likely, and other factors may appear to be important. Even the purchase of the same product in different circumstances may elicit different types of buying behavior.
Basically, product consumption is aimed at satisfying certain consumer needs. In order to answer the question why consumers choose a particular product it is useful to turn to the concept of utility.
Concept of utility developed by Vershofen (1940) expresses an individualistic measure of need satisfaction (Vershofen, 1959 cited in Orth and Krska, 2002). Its main assumption states that total (product) utility is made of partial, i.e., attribute level utilities. In order to offer a proper product marketing managers need to know what partial utilities product attributes (e.g., design, price) and levels on which these attributes are performed contribute to an overall product utility (Orth and Krska, 2002).
Two types of partial utilities are recognized ‘basic’ and ‘additional’ (Figure 5). Basic (functional) utility of a product is derived from its physical chemical technical attributes, either concrete or abstract (Bauer, et al., 1998) and refers to the technical rational intended purpose. Additional utilities aimed at satisfaction of any need which exceeds the actual use purpose, they relate to a capacity to impart psychological added value on a person in oneself (Haury, 2007, p. 44). Essentially, additional
41 3. Premium car market utilities of a product are designed to satisfy the craving for social recognition of the owner. Cars relate to the type of products which are characterized as socially remarkable products for which sufficient performance of additional utilities is particularly important.
Product utility
Basic utilities Additional utilities Fulfillment of technical functionally Fulfillment of socio psychological intended use intended use
Edification utilities Esteem utilities Satisfaction of needs originated Satisfaction of needs originated from personal images from social interaction
Aesthetic needs Social affiliation integration
Self realization Social distinction
Well being Social recognition, prestige
Figure 5: Components of product utility by Vershofen
(own interpretation from Vershofen, 1940 cited in Haury, 2007, p. 92)
In its turn, additional utilities are sub divided into ‘edification’ and ‘esteem’ utilities. Edification utilities serve to provide personal emotional use images such as aesthetic, self realization and well being. Esteem utilities serve to satisfy more socially oriented emotional use images such as social affiliation and integration, social distinction, recognition and prestige. Product benefit perceived by consumers arises from the sum of all product utility components.
When considering premium products, the fulfillment of needs provided by additional utilities comes to the forefront and withdraws the competitive role of basic utilities. The progressive saturation of material basic needs causes an increase of the relative importance of social consumption motives such as striving for prestige and status. Therefore, needs for self esteem, recognition and respect represent important factors by the purchasing decision.
42 3. Premium car market
Following Vershofen’s distinction between components of product utility, Belz (1994) emphasizes two need categories which refer to the consumption of premium and luxury products: the need for prestige and the need for self esteem.
The need for prestige is based on the consumer crave to obtain own position within the society through owned products and visible consumer behavior. Here, the product fulfills a staging function demonstrating symbols of the position a consumer possesses or wants to possess. The need for prestige represents, therefore, a socially oriented need and is satisfied by a high esteem utility of the product.
The need for self esteem is based on personal aspiration to consume products which correspond to and underline own personality. The consumer prefers products by which means he can identify himself and which embody his values, becoming symbols of a life position or of an attitude to life which consumer the considers as his own. This need represents a personally oriented need of the consumer and is satisfied by a high edification utility of the product.
According to the given definitions premium and luxury cars are similar in terms of their higher price than on the volume brand cars which show comparable tangible functions. The difference between premium and luxury brands and products implies focus of premium brands on technological excellence, innovation and ability to set the trends and standards (Rosengarten and Stürmer, 2005, p. 26). However, this differentiation does not deny importance of emotional and image perception of premium brands. Moreover, premium in American classification refers to the entry level of luxury cars (see Appendix 1) and, therefore, more similarities can be expected in consumer behavior towards premium and luxury cars rather than differences. When considering luxury products the concept of utility focuses on the additional utilities which correspond to the fulfillment of socio psychological needs. Thus, the concept underestimates the possibility to appeal to a customer by technological achievements and innovations referred to the basic or functional utilities according to their definition applied in the concept. For this reason another approach to explore the perceived product value from the consumer standpoint is also considered in this work.
43 3. Premium car market
3.2.2. Perceived product value
According to the extent and the way a product can satisfy individual needs a consumer perceives the product more or less valuable. From consumer’s standpoint there are three elements that compose consumer’s overall perception of product value: the prime value, the labor value and the symbolic value (Karmasin, 1998, p. 249).
Symbolic Value
Psychographic value of the brand
Prime Value Labor Value
Technology and Production process material and country of origin
Figure 6: Components of total product value
• Prime value stands for the value of a product determined by its performed level of technology and materials used.
• Labor value reflects the value of a product resulting from its production process. In a narrow sense, an applied method of product production is considered. In a broader sense, the place where a product is made, especially a country of origin, also belongs to the labor value. Very often consumers have particular judgements about a product according to its place of production.
• Symbolic value consists in the emblematic signification of a product. Predominantly brands embody some signification and the value of a particular brand results from its anchoring in consumers’ minds.
On automotive market these three types of values, when being added or strengthened, allow to explain why consumers are ready to pay a higher price for the premium brand car rather than to buy a volume brand car if both are assumed to be comparable products in the sense that they fulfill the same tangible functions being both means of conveyance.
44 3. Premium car market
Considering prime value of a car, if the product affords innovative technologies that improve its attributes from the consumer’s standpoint then it increases the perceived value of the product. These technologies can, for instance, improve comfort, driving performance or reliability of the car. This is also true for the quality of the materials used in an auto design, i.e., the use of high class materials which can be perceived by the consumer can lead to an increase of the product value from the consumer’s point of view and, thus, increase his willingness to pay.
Labor value in automotive industry presents a significant component in overall perceived product value. The origin of a product is an important influencing factor for the value appeal, especially for products which production is perceived as complex by consumers. On the automotive market the so called “country of origin effect” represents an important issue that one must not underestimate (Hausruckinger and Helm, 1996). For example, often people considering cars produced by German or Japanese companies already have prejudicial view concerning its high level of quality. The same occurs regarding different product categories such as, for example, Swiss watches or Swiss banks, however, in some cases place of origin may impart negative value to a product. Another source that can also bring additional labor value is a method of production. In automotive industry it is a particular issue to explicitly denominate products which have benefit from a special care (e.g., handmade finish) in the production process which gives a more noble impression to the consumer and, thereby, produces a greater value.
The symbolic value of premium brands is stronger than the average, i.e., the one of volume brands and, moreover, the lower the potential for an increase of the prime and the labor value, the stronger the symbolic value is. Thus, in relatively simple product categories such as T shirts or sunglasses the premium price is essentially based on the symbolic value. On the contrary, on the automotive market there are certainly possibilities to increase product value due to technology, quality and production process. However, the strength of the symbolic value is also undisputed. An illustration of this is the consumers’ willingness to pay for almost identical cars in a sense of functionality, equipment, body structure, etc. sold under different brand names. This reflects the importance of the symbolic value for the general value appeal of autos (Diez, 2001, p. 8). The strength of the symbolic value is based on six factors: creative innovation, a clear brand code which enables the brand to
45 3. Premium car market differentiate, attractiveness, credibility through authenticity, mastery of the elite codes and continuity.
Overall, premium nature of premium brands and/or products is based on the above the average perception of prime, labor and symbolic values by consumers. Thus, the premium attribute is not an objective feature which comes with the product in itself but rather a subjective attitude perceived by consumers.
3.2.3. Reasons for purchasing premium cars
Another approach to explain consumer purchasing behavior in the premium car market described by Diez (2001, p. 14) distinguishes between two types of purchase reasons, on the one hand, reasons related to the product in itself and to the function it fulfills and, on the other hand, reasons based on the personal benefit in terms of image and self fulfillment which consumer pursues to obtain by owning the product.
Figure 7: Reasons for purchasing premium brand products
Reasons related to the product in itself and to the function it fulfills can be schematized as follows. Consumers who opt for a premium brand car want to have a qualitatively high class product and this because they want to make a profitable investment, reduce purchase risks or benefit from a technologically and aesthetically well executed product (or all of these reasons at the same time).
46 3. Premium car market
• Make a profitable investment:
Premium brand products are often considered as more reliable and more durable than volume products. And that is particularly true in the car market where premium brand cars definitely have, for instance, a higher residual value. Therefore, buying a premium brand car with a higher price is not seen as a waste but rather as a rational decision based on economic realities.
• Reduce purchase risks:
Purchase of a premium brand car can also be the sign of a search for security. In the opinion of lots of consumers buying a premium brand car prevents from technical qualitative risks as well as social risks as premium brands have originally a good reputation.
• Benefit from a technologically and aesthetically well executed product:
Premium brand products represent products which received a lot of care from the car makers during the development phase and, therefore, are sometimes seen by consumers as works of art and trigger enthusiasm.
Reasons based on the personal profit in terms of image and self fulfillment, comprise two main outcomes which consumer obtains with the product ownership. These outcomes include the pursuit of social prestige and the pursuit of a meaning of life. These social functions are seen as major purchase reasons in the premium car market. It corresponds to a consumer’s wish to assert himself in the society and not to mingle with the crowd.
3.3. The role of society in consumer behavior
3.3.1. Consumer society
Certain tendencies inherent in our modern society make it reasonable and meaningful to define our society as a consumer society. Firstly, with the world globalization the market has become saturated with a variety of products where people being a part of the economic process cannot avoid consumption activities (Feemers, 1992, p. 15).
47 3. Premium car market
Secondly, during the period of a dynamic movement between social classes an earlier accepted traditional system of status is no longer presented in most of the countries. Thus, the traditional symbols of status like titles, medals, uniforms, etc. are either lost or maintained rather formally without giving actual prestige value to the owner within the modern perception of the social status and prestige. With this tendency people miss the feeling of being certain and secure in their social status, whereas the human ambition, nevertheless, retains the desire for social classification where a person can fulfill his ambition to social appreciation and differentiation (Rinsche, 1961, p. 127; Kluth, 1957, p. 10). Thus, in the period of growing disposable income and reduction of traditional social boundaries, economic goods attained the quality of status symbols reflecting individual performance and success as well as being an instrument for satisfaction of a need for recognition (Rinsche, 1961, p. 129).
Also, the population agglomeration resulted in the relative anonymity of an individual within the society. For example, the professional performance of an individual is rarely visible outside the firm. Therefore, individual success and material prosperity of a person who is anonymous to the majority of his fellow men can be socially effective only if it becomes outwardly visible (Rinsche, 1961, p. 130).
For these reasons the act of purchase and consumption is no more neutral but a particular form of social behavior, especially regarding products which have public resonance, i.e., which have an added benefit of recognition next to their original intended function. This explains difficulties and the complexion of determination of consumers’ purchase reasons and motives which are originated from very different natures and not obviously rational.
A man as a social entity is influenced by his environment what defines the concept of socialization. Socialization is a process of a mutual influencing between a person and his fellow men, a process that leads to an acceptance and an adaptation of the social behavior patterns (Fichter, 1968, p. 23).
3.3.2. A person within the social environment
People are influenced, consciously or not, in their acts and decisions by their environment, that is, they live in relationship with other fellow men or belong to circles of people. For example, a person works in a team, can be a part of an association or a part of a social class. All these circles of people can be defined as groups which
48 3. Premium car market have an impact and influence on the life and behavior of a person who belongs to it. The groups differ from one another according to their size, stability, structure, level of organization, goals, function and the way they integrate new members (Feemers, 1992, p. 21). Groups bring together people who interact with one another and who share similarities on essential points. Inside a group there are norms and values which can be formal or informal but which influence and direct the behavior of the members. These norms are not motionless, they evolve with the time.
The groups to which a person refers are called reference groups. The norms established in the group very often include consumption norms. These norms enable to differentiate members of the group from people who do not belong to this group. Therefore, when a person wants to be associated with a group, he needs to present the same attributes as other members. This behavior represents the search for conformity which can bring the person the recognition of the group and assert his belonging to the group. The conformity has to be strong but not total so that the person keeps his individuality. Thus, consumption norms should be considered as a frame which indicates what kind of products corresponds to the group but the consumer remains a master of his decision and can demonstrate his individuality while respecting the norms of his group.
Another type of the influencing circles of groups is called aspiration groups. Aspiration group is a group to which a person wants to belong. As a result, the person orients his consumption towards the standards of that group, especially regarding visible goods. This represents a conspicuous consumption aimed at gaining the recognition of the society (Wiswede, 1995, p. 324; Beckmeier Feuerhahn, 1998, p. 133).
3.3.3. Social status
Social status, according to the theory of a social stratum, describes classified positions in the social hierarchy. The higher the associated appreciation and recognition of the person’s position by others, the higher his social status (Adlwarth, 1983, p. 36). Since the ‘internal’ characteristics of a person such as intellect, values, etc. are difficult to evaluate at first sight, the association of a person with a social status is based on the evaluation of exterior characteristics that are immediately visible and can be appreciated. Thus, criteria for a social status can be a family lineage, education, profession, income, standard of living, etc. In most of the
49 3. Premium car market developed countries the consistency of status demonstrates a high correlation between these characteristics of a person. In order to make these characteristics visible for everyone in the society, the person turns to symbols which stand for denotation of his social status or the status he strives for.
However, sometimes inconsistency of status may occur when people, for example, have a high income but have a lower standard of education or are regarded as having an inferior job. According to the theory of cognitive dissonance, these people try to compensate their incongruity of status by demonstrating strong and often overreaching consumer conspicuous behavior (Wiswede, 1973, p. 150). This kind of behavior explained by status inconsistency is very common in Russia, where the economic and political situation of the last decade of 20 th century gave a lot of opportunities for rapid enrichment of people who were rather ambitious and very risky than educated and professionally experienced. A lot of young people of that generation decided in favor of opened business opportunities rather than education what caused later a feeling of deficiency of intellectual capital.
Achievement of a high social status is accompanied by obtaining a prestige which is a person’s respect, reputation and recognition provided from his social environment (Schuster, 1994, p. 108). Prestige represents a strong social motive which stimulates the behavior aimed at gaining appreciation by other people (Trommsdorff, 2009, p. 117). Therefore, the motive of prestige influences consumer behavior regarding noticeable purchases which can be perceived by others.
The prestige value pertains to the products of a high quality or exclusive on account of their ‘prestige pricing’. Therefore, a person can be recognized and identified as a member of a certain (high) social class through the prestige value of products or property he possesses. Prestige value, especially provided by product exclusiveness, is to a large extent based on and associated with the product positioning. Products with prestige value stand for symbols of a social status and, therefore, their decisive characteristics are visibility and comparative and absolute higher price (Veblen, 1981, p. 24). By purchasing premium and luxury goods the consumer aspires to a higher status and prestige and tries, on the one hand, to distinguish himself from the lower class and, on the other hand, to belong to the upper class (Mason, 1981, p. 146).
50 3. Premium car market
After 1900 autos have become a typical example of a status symbol along with places for vacation, watches, wine, clothes, etc. Since autos are used in the public area, they can easily be perceived by others in the society, i.e., they represent a great heraldic product with a high social visibility (Diez, 2001, p. 17). Moreover, the auto’s brand name is an integrated component which can immediately be seen and perceived by observers.
3.3.4. Symbols generated by premium brands
As described above, together with the instrumental function premium brand autos have a social function which enables to provide the consumer, firstly, a social prestige and, secondly, a sense of life he aspires to.
Brands and, in particular, premium brands can become some kind of objects of devotion which then represent landmarks in the consumer’s life towards which the consumer orients his consumption behavior (Lucerna, 1999, p. 359). As soon as the person can afford this ‘object’ he becomes gratified and gets a sense of accomplishment in reaching or becoming closer to the way of life he wants to live.
Premium brands generate symbols through which a consumer obtains social prestige and acknowledgement of his social status. The symbolic meaning can reflect different aspects of an individual.
• Premium brands as a symbol of wealth and power:
According to their definition, premium brand products are products with prices above the average and, moreover, relatively high prices. Thus, especially regarding premium brand autos not everybody can afford them. For this reason premium brands work as a symbol of wealth and power. The disposal of resources is the classical basis of social prestige in the modern society which is typically hierarchically structured (Diez, 2001, p. 18).
• Premium brands as a symbol of taste and connoisseurship:
Other sources of social prestige are taste and connoisseurship. According to Bourdieu, it implies instead of standing out by the financial well being a demonstration to the society that one has a “cultural capital” (Bourdieu, 1982 cited in Diez, 2001, p. 20). The cultural capital is the ability of a person to stylize his life, to
51 3. Premium car market search for aesthetics in every part of his life even in the objects of the everyday life. Premium brand autos fully refer to the category of products that can provide aesthetics as their designers try to pay attention to every detail and to make of each auto a high class product in terms of quality and design. Connoisseurship results from taste and can be defined as an ability to differentiate high quality products from average products. This is a knowledge which only experienced consumers can usually have what gives them the ‘entrance ticket’ to a selected circle of people and, thereby, brings respect, recognition, i.e., social prestige.
• Premium brands as a symbol of a lifestyle opened to an experience:
Another source of prestige in the society is the quality of life. By seeking for this symbol people want to show others that they have a happy life full of success and, more important, full of experience and adventure. This is demonstrated by the ostentatious consumption of products with an ‘experience value’ (Schulze, 1992, p. 186). That is, premium brand products, especially autos, represent high class products with an orientation towards innovation and performance of features that have never been seen. Thereby, premium brand products stand for challenge and creativity and bring the consumer this ‘experience’ image resulting in the acquiring of social prestige.
3.3.5. Aspirational brands
In consumer marketing a brand or a product is premium, i.e., can command the price premium in the marketplace over a commodity (volume) brand until it refers to the category of aspirational brands (or products).
Aspirational brand (or product) means that a large part of its exposure audience wishes to own it but at present cannot afford it for economical reasons. The exposure audience includes the audience which wishes to own the brand but can never afford it and the target audience of the aspirational brand (Figure 8). In its turn, target audience comprises brand’s aspirational audience and consumption audience. Aspirational audience represents the part that cannot purchase the brand or the product today but thinks of itself as having a fair probability of at a certain point in the future being able to do so. Consumption audience represents the part that already can afford the brand (or the product) (o. V. 2008).
52 3. Premium car market
Figure 8: Aspirational brands audience
As a general rule, the smaller the size of the product's consumption audience compared to the exposure audience, the more the product satisfies the consumer’s need for conspicuous consumption, and the higher the premium that such a consumer is prepared to pay. Besides, the larger the ratio of aspirational to consumption consumers in the target audience, the higher the brand's price premium is. To keep the premium level of a brand high, the portion of consumption audience should not exceed 30% of the aspirational audience (o. V. 2008).
Becoming an aspirational brand is important to make it perceived differently from competitive offerings and, moreover, to acquire consumers’ loyalty which provides stronger resistance to change purchasing decisions towards competitive brands.
Overall, nowadays, instead of vertical differentiation between social classes, the society is prone to the horizontal differentiation between various lifestyles which are in a large extent reflected in the consumer behavior (Schuster, 1994, p.111). People use the perceived features of consumed products to demonstrate their personality and lifestyle and expect that the valued product characteristics are projected onto themselves (Adlwarth, 1983, p. 49). By purchasing premium and luxury goods people want to benefit from their functional and quality superiority as well as from social perception of goods which results in social prestige and self esteem.
Therefore, in order to be successful, premium brands need to provide their customers, on the one hand, with the high quality and innovative products and, on the other hand, with the social prestige. That means that the products must have a positive resonance among the society and people who own such products should be associated with the socially perceived attributes of the brand.
53 3. Premium car market
3.4. Summary
♦ Customer who purchases a premium product is ready to spend more money on it than he would for a regular product in order to benefit from its premium superiority .
♦ The progressive saturation of material basic needs causes an increase of the relative importance of social consumption motives such as striving for prestige and status.
♦ The total product utility is made of partial, i.e., attribute level utilities .
♦ There are two need categories which refer to the consumption of premium and luxury products: the need for prestige and need for self esteem .
♦ From consumer’s standpoint there are three elements that compose consumer’s overall perception of the product value :
Prime value stands for the value of a product determined by its performed level of technology and materials used.
Labor value reflects the value of a product resulting from its production process , applied method and place of production.
Symbolic value consists in the emblematic signification of a product emphasizing personal status.
♦ Premium attribute is not an objective feature which comes with the product in itself but rather a subjective attitude towards prime, labor and symbolic values perceived by consumers.
♦ Personal profit in terms of image and self fulfillment results in the pursuit of social prestige and pursuit of a meaning of life . These social functions are evaluated as major purchase reasons in the premium car market.
♦ The act of purchase and consumption is no more neutral but a particular form of the social behavior , especially regarding products which have public resonance , i.e., which have an added benefit of recognition next to their original intended function.
54 3. Premium car market
♦ Reference group is a group to which a person belongs. It establishes norms including consumption norms which enable to differentiate members of the group from others.
♦ Aspiration group is a group to which a person wants to belong. As a result, the person orients his consumption towards standards of this group, especially regarding visible goods. It represents a conspicuous consumption aimed at gaining recognition of the society.
♦ Together with the instrumental function premium brand autos have the social function which enables to provide a consumer, firstly, with the social prestige and, secondly, with the sense of life he aspires to .
♦ Premium brands generate symbols through which a consumer obtains the social prestige and acknowledgement of his social status.
♦ Premium brand or product refers to the category of aspirational brands or products which implies that a large part of its exposure audience wishes to own it but at present cannot afford it for economical reasons.
♦ To be successful, premium brands need to provide their customers with high quality and innovative products and with the social prestige .
55 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
II. Methodology
4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
This chapter presents a technique which provides an interpretive research framework which format of gathered data and its further analysis enables to disclose each component of the model suggested in the first part of the work. An introduction to methodology is followed by the personal construct theory underpinning the repertory grid technique. Afterwards, parts 4.3 and 4.4 provide a basic description of the technique and its origin and also discuss a solution for some criticism as a result of various experience of the technique application. Part 4.5 thoroughly describes a procedure of a grid elicitation considering its numerous variations. Next part provides different methods for analyzing the data elicited by the technique. It shows how both qualitative and quantitative approaches can be used. This part ends with the proposed way of application of existing methods so that a certain synergy effect can be reached in structuring and presenting the information. The last part 4.7 is devoted to the questions of reliability and validity of the repertory grid technique and to the results revealed by its application.
4.1. Introduction to methodology
Individual perception partiality, life stands and experience cause a diversity of perceptions of an investigated object. Therefore, a problem of describing this specific psychological reality – subjective picture of the world arises.
For uncovering subjective mental representations with respect to the theoretical conceptualization, first of all, a proper data collection technique is needed that enables to extract these underlying, conscious, subconscious and often unconscious meanings with a minimum of interviewer bias. Besides, a research of cognitions and underlying meanings requires the use of a methodological technique that would be able to capture respondents’ mental representations without a bias of predetermined questions on a questionnaire that may also influence and frame their responses. To really bring to the surface how people see, interpret and make sense of their worlds using their own “theories in use”, in their own language and within their own environment the research needs to go further beyond the supplied and predetermined questions of a survey instrument (Wright and Cheung, 2007). The
56 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology whole point, as expressed by Fennell (1985), is that: “at base, the marketer’s task is not to assess perceived value in objects that already exist but to identify the antecedents of perceived value so that valuable offerings can be fashioned, produced and made available for sale” (cited in Saegert and Fennell, 1991).
There are certain limitations in the application of a questionnaire survey. The problem of impropriety of using this traditional method for solving a whole number of problems facing researchers is not new. Yadov (1991), famous Russian scientist in sociology and psychology, emphasizes a list of reasons why a researcher has to refuse questionnaire survey in favor of methods related to the qualitative paradigm. One of his statements is that quantitative methods are good to prove already beforehand formulated hypotheses. But when a research concerns peoples’ conceptions about complex things and phenomena, their attitudes and motives and etc., the interpretation of responses based on offered beforehand formulated multiple choice questions won’t adequately reflect the whole variety of meanings projected in them. The researcher induces a respondent to use system of meanings, which can be partly or even fully not concurrent with the respondent’s one. It should be also taken into consideration that in different systems of conceptions and relations the same attitude or the same motive can have opposite meanings. This often causes misleading interpretations, “noisiness” of investigated components and future development forecast errors.
The repertory grid (RG) is a cognitive mapping instrument designed to capture dimensions and a structure of personal meanings. It is aimed at eliciting and describing the ways in which people give meanings to their experience in their own terms, in their own language. Its methodology allows a researcher to go deep into respondents’ theories in use to provide a new insight on how they think and perceive life experience and things around. The technique implies the qualitative approach for data collection designed so that gathered data is appropriate for both qualitative and quantitative analysis methods (Marsden and Littler, 2000a). Therefore, RG represents a versatile tool where an inquiry design and further applied analysis methods are very much determined by research objectives.
Studies conducted by means of RG are considered qualitative in a sense that they are aimed at eliciting and exploring personal meanings rather than to testify predetermined hypothesis about personal representations. Although theoretically the
57 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology qualitative approach represents an alternative to the quantitative one, in practical perspective more and more researchers recognize a significant potential of methods’ complementarity which synthesis can bring new insights into the exploration and explanation of consumer behavior and consumer motivation (Pincus, 2004). By using the RG technique in consumer research interpretations and findings can be made by an application of both qualitative and quantitative analysis methods, however, the qualitative paradigm on which the technique and the underlying theory are based needs to be borne in mind.
In this chapter, at first, personal construct theory on which basis the RG technique is grounded is presented. Afterwards, the RG technique and its consistent qualitative paradigm are thoroughly discussed.
4.2. Personal construct theory
George A. Kelly developed the repertory grid technique (RGT) (originally ‘The Rep Test’) as an instrument for elicitation of personal constructs. This technique is derived directly from Kelly's (1955) personal construct theory (PCT) (see, e.g., Fransella et al., 2004, p. 1). The PCT is considered to be a predecessor of the cognitive approach currently dominating the field of clinical and social psychology. Although difficult to classify, Mahoney's (1991; Mahoney and Gabriel, 1987) idea of considering PCT as a cognitive constructivist approach seems suitable (Neimeyer and Mahoney, 1995) because it would respect the phenomenological inclination (Rychlak, 1981) of Kelly's theory. This definition not only has the advantage of linking PCT to other cognitive approaches, but it also differentiates it from more rationalistic approaches, which may not be epistemologically compatible.
Kelly (1955) describes humans as “scientists” whose existence consists essentially of trying to predict and control events in their environment. A person, as well as a scientist, develops his individual set of concepts by continuously evaluating and revaluating own experience. Kelly calls this ‘construction system’ and says that individuals use it to classify the objects and events in their environment, to interpret them and to use their own interpretations for understanding, controlling and predicting the world around them.
People do not go through life without goal or direction, but are constantly and actively engaged in improving the cognitive system they use to make their predictions
58 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
(Meyer, 1997). People observe the results of their experiments (they live with the outcomes of their behavior), they modify their theory (i.e., they change their minds, and they change themselves), and so the cycle continues (after Fransella et al., 2004, p. 6). Thus people used to make sense of their material and social environments as Mick and Buhl (1992) point out: “Philosophers such as Merleau Ponty and Sartre and psychologists such as Allport and Kelly have observed that people structure their goals and means in an effort to create coherence in their lives”. In contrast to the dominant deterministic theories of consumer behavior, PCT maintains that a person’s understanding of the world is the result of an active, constructive process rather than a passive reaction to some external reality (Mahoney, 1988; Ross and Nisbett, 1991 cited in Marsden and Littler, 2000a).
PCT suggests that this understanding is achieved through the process of contrast and similarity, what Kelly (1955/1991, Vol.1, p. 51/1991) termed ‘construing’. As Eden and Jones (1984) explain: “We construe situations by seeking to differentiate them from others and see them as similar to others; it is only through such a process that we give meanings to events, that they have significance” .
One of the central assumptions of the theory is that reality and what people make of it is built up of contrasts rather than absolutes (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 11). Thus, Kelly emphasizes an important characteristic of process of individual meaning making: when we separate, name, argue, etc., we are always also aware of an opposite meaning to what is being actualized at the moment (also in Kelly, 1969).
Similarity and contrast in events or objects that are being observed by an individual stimulate a creation of his personal classification standards – constructs. By Kelly, construct represents a basic unit similar to the concept introduced before by Vygotsky (Vygotsky, 1989; Wertsch, 1985 cited in Shaw and Gaines, 1992). However, unlike Vygotsky’s notion of concept which reveals from objects some common characteristic, leaving the difference aside, in the notion of Kelly’s construct both generalization and difference are presented concurrently. By introducing a notion of construct, Kelly combines two mental functions – the function of generalization (i.e., determination of similarity, abstraction) and the function of contrasting or contraposition.
59 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
In order to fully understand and properly evaluate the RGT in consumer research it is important to examine the assumptions of the theory that underpins it.
Figure 9: The assumptive structure of the personal construct theory
Kelly expresses his PCT in the form of a fundamental postulate which is elaborated by means of eleven corollaries (Kelly, 1955/1991, Vol. 2, p. 4/1991) . The corollaries or clarifying statements extended the theory and added more elaboration to how the theory impacts and is used (Fisher and Savage, 1999). Figure 9 presents a summary of the assumptive structure of the PCT.
Kelly's Fundamental Postulate is that: A person's processes are psychologically channelized by the way in which he anticipates events (Kelly, 1955, p. 46).
A postulate represents an accepted basic assumption on which the rest of the theory is built. This language is very confusing on first encounter but Kelly selected every word accurately to fully reflect an underpinning nature of the concept (Atherton, 2007):
‘Person’ indicates that Kelly is referring to the individual person as a whole and not to any part or processes of the person.
With ‘processes’ Kelly indicates that a person is not an object that is temporary in a moving state, but is himself a form of motion always making efforts to understand and always acting on and in the world.
‘Psychologically’ indicates that it’s not about the brain, or culture, but the mind: it is quite clear about its level of analysis and its “range of convenience”.
60 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
By ‘channelized’ Kelly points that a person’s behavior takes place in a flexible and frequently altering network of rather than in a vacuum. This network is structured what, in turn, facilitates and restricts a person’s range of action.
‘Ways’ indicate that the channels are outcomes of an individual’s own deliberate choices and, thereby, are set up as means to ends.
With ‘he’ Kelly emphasizes that it is not an ideal or a perfect but rather an individually chosen way in which the person operates.
‘Anticipates’ denote that PCT is future oriented. The person is only a product of memory and learning to the extent he makes use of these in his construct system. He is a scientist in formulating hypotheses (his constructs) about the world he perceives, and testing them by acting on them.
By ‘events’ Kelly shows that a person seeks to anticipate real events. That is, person wants the future reality to be best or better performed.
• Construction Corollary: A person anticipates events by construing their replications
• Individuality Corollary: Persons differ from each other in their constructions of events
• Organization Corollary: Each person characteristically evolves for his convenience in anticipating events, a construction system embracing ordinal relationships between constructs
• Dichotomy Corollary: A person's construct system is composed of a finite number of dichotomous constructs
• Choice Corollary: A person chooses for himself that alternative in a dichotomized construct through which he anticipates the great possibility for the elaboration of his system.
• Range Corollary: A construct is convenient for the anticipation of a finite range of events only.
61 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
• Experience Corollary: A person's construction system varies and he successively construes the replications of events.
• Modulation Corollary: The variation in a person's construction system is limited by the permeability of the constructs within whose ranges of convenience the variants lie.
• Fragmentation Corollary: A person may successively employ a variety of construction subsystems which are inferentially incompatible with each other.
• Commonality Corollary: To the extent that one person employs a construction of experience which is similar to that employed by another, his processes are psychologically similar to those of the other person.
• Sociality Corollary: To the extent that one person construes the construction processes of another he may play a role in the social process involving the other person (Kelly, 1955, pp. 50 95).
A detailed explanation of each corollary is not included in this context (see Boeree, o. J. for detailed explanation of each statement). However, certain corollaries will be discussed further in chapter within the descriptions and statements made with respect or built on the corollaries.
4.3. Repertory grid technique: basic description
Grounded in the PCT, the RGT is a widely used method for studying personal and interpersonal systems of meanings and their organization (Neimeyer, 2002). ‘Grid’ is a generic term for a number of simple rating scale procedures. They are all used for arriving at straightforward descriptions of how a person views the world around him, or some smaller part of it, in his own terms (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 8). The RG is a qualitative technique that is often compared with the structured interviewing. Such type of an interview is often appropriate when the nature and extent of participant opinions on the researched topic are not known beforehand and cannot be quantified easily. The technique is no longer inextricably tied to Kelly’s theory of personal constructs and its use as an analytical tool does not require an acceptance of the model of man which Kelly proposed (Slater, 1976) However, the terms Kelly used have become standard (Dillon and McKnight, 1990).
62 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
The resulting form of the elicitation procedure in whole represents a set of rating scales printed one above the other, with the ratings arranged in rows and columns into a table or grid.
Elements Construct № Triad Construct emergent pole (1) Construct implicit pole (5) E1 E2 E3 E4 Em 1 E1, E3, E4 beautiful 2 4 5 1 1 unattractive design 2 E2, E4, Em for business purposes 3 1 4 1 5 for leisure time
n
Table 1: The repertory grid elicitation form
Every grid consists of four main components (Table 1):
• Topic;
• Elements;
• Constructs;
• Ratings.
The basic unit of description and analysis is called a construct . People construe things by means of constructs. To construe means to make sense of something; to have a personal understanding of it; to find meaning in it (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 10). Earlier used expressions ‘viewing the world’ and ‘ways of seeing’ mean construing.
Describing what is meant by a construct is more difficult than describing other components of RG because construct has properties and Kelly has offered several definitions of it as well as certain assumptions (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 15). For this reason, at first, other three components are described followed by a comprehensive description of the notion of construct.
4.3.1. Topic
A grid is always conducted about a particular topic with an intention of eliciting just those constructs which the person uses in making sense of that particular field of discourse, i.e., that particular piece of his experience.
By revealing the constructs a researcher discovers how person thinks and what meanings he usually distinguishes about a particular topic. The person can possess many more other constructs about his experience concerning other topics that
63 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology researcher is not dealing with. Therefore, by filling out a grid on particular topic, only the related part of a person’s repertoire can be discovered.
RGT allows to disclose and to understand participant’s private language including his jargons and some terms which he uses when talks on particular topic (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 12). When a number of grids of different people who are clustered in one group or segment based on a certain criteria is being analyzed, it is important to reveal common terms, words and phrases that have got entrenched into their language related to the investigated topic. It allows further to appeal to the group applying its own jargons and meanings and so making it easier for them to understand and perceive a message. This can be especially useful when conducting a market research with a purpose of revealing customers’ needs, motives and perceptions and then to use it in positioning and communication planning.
“A grid, then, is a highly focused technique, in which the topic must always be clearly specified in advance.” (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 13)
4.3.2. Elements
Kelly defined elements as ‘the things or events which are abstracted by a construct’ and are seen as one of the ‘formal aspects of a construct’ (Kelly, 1955/1991, Vol.1, p. 95/1991).
As formulated by Jankowicz (2004, p. 13), “an element is an example of, exemplar of, instance of, sampling of, or occurrence within, a particular topic”. By providing a set of elements related to a certain topic, researcher stimulates participant’s display of constructs which he uses to perceive the realm of discourse. Thus, a small sample of that person’s construing of the world can be studied. A researcher can investigate the system of constructs of an individual consciousness and get a notion of individual underlying (unconscious, nonverbalized) constructs. Besides, the researcher can investigate individual peculiarities in perception of elements, study the relationships between the elements within individual insight and build up a subjective semantic space of individual meanings associated with the elements (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 21).
Since elements represent objects of a particular topic, it becomes crucial to choose the right set of elements in doing a grid because elements that are chosen to present a given topic will influence the types of elicited constructs and consequently the
64 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology gained insight into the ‘language’ of the participant in that particular subject matter (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 13; Fransella et al., 2004, p. 21).
Depending on the topic to be explored by means of RGT, elements that are used can be almost anything. For instance, if marketers want to find out how people construe meanings about snack food the elements might be different types of snack food which fully represent the range of common snacks available or if marketers are interested in particular list of types, only these types can be represented as elements.
Originally, Kelly’s RGT was developed for use in clinical psychology as a technique for exploring individuals’ personal constructs about interpersonal relationships in the context of psychotherapy. He used interpersonal relationships as his context and developed role title list providing people as elements. However, the technique has been further applied extensively to the elicitation of personal constructs for many other purposes and a wide variety of elements have been used (Steed and McDonnell, 2003; Fransella et al., 2004, p. 19). Some other examples provided by Fransella and her colleagues (2004, p. 21) include photographs of people first used by Bannister (1962), feelings by Fransella and Adams (1966), situations by Fransella (1972), diseases by Orley and Leff (1972), rooms by Honikman (1976), shops by Hudson (1974), foreign countries by Lemon (1975), classes of Spirit in Ganda mythology by Orley (1976), brightly colored stand up models by Salmon (1976), architectural maps by Stringer (1974), an artist’s paintings, drawings of different motion phenomena in physics by Winer and Vázquez Abad (1997), and perceptions of different scents by Williams, Whittlestone and Martin (1992). R. Neimeyer (1985) and further R. Neimeyer and Stewart (1996) used different stages in life which the person construed as important elements in his ‘biographical grid’. Fransella (1978) used specially designed elements – a standard body shape altered by an artist to range from the extreme thinness of the person with anorexia nervosa to extreme obesity (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 21). There are many more other examples and they all prove the ability of repertory grid to analyze individual construing system about very different aspects of personal life and world around.
Three guiding principles that can help and should be considered when selecting the elements are (Stewart et al., 1981, p. 28):
65 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
• Elements should be as precise and specific as possible. Imprecise elements when being compared to produce a construct are likely to induce vagueness of contrast and, therefore, not enough clear construct.
• A nonuniform scatter over the elements area is acceptable, i.e., elements do not have to be evenly distributed over the available area.
• When one is interested in the boundary between the elements, both sides of the bordered area need to be covered by elements. For example, if researcher is interested in what consumer likes and dislikes in different types of snack food, elements which person does and does not like should be included.
Moreover, there are several criteria for choosing the right set of elements in a grid (Stewart et al., 1981, p. 29):
• Elements should be discrete. Most often elements are people, objects, events or activities – in other words, nouns or verbs. Nouns should be quite specific and indicate tangible things or subjects, e.g., specific objects or particular people. Abstract nouns such as “good person” or “leadership” should be avoided. Verb elements such as events and activities should be defined as close as possible in space and time. The verbs should be, if possible, converted into a verbal noun trying to express them as activities, each ending with ‘ ing’ since it is more user friendly and easier to handle while presenting the elements (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 29). For example, instead of “to read” it is better to offer “reading” or “to offer” should be replaced by “offering”. Loose descriptions that cannot be specified clearly, such as “thinking” or “negotiating” should also be avoided.
• It is also recommended to avoid adjectival and adverbial phrases as elements. It is better to stick to nouns and verbs or even verbal nouns. Another fault is to use features of elements as elements, but not elements themselves. It can be recognized if an ‘opposite’ can be produced to the element. It would show that things that are used as elements should really emerge during the construct elicitation phase (Stewart et al., 1981, p. 30).
• Elements should be within the range of convenience of the constructs to be used. It does not mean that the constructs are already known beforehand
66 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
when elements are being chosen, but that the context determines the range of elements which can be reasonably used. When participant discriminates people, events or objects by means of constructs, he applies these discriminations only to a limited number of people, events or objects. It is not needed to have old people in among the elements while conducting a grid about youth of today because they may appear to be outside the range of convenience of the youth of today type of construct (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 18).
• Elements should be homogeneous. Classes of elements should not be mixed, i.e., people should not be mixed with things or things with activities and etc. Yorke (1985) showed that heterogeneous elements are likely to result in range of convenience problems as well as in decreasing grid validity (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 19).
• Elements should not be subsets of other elements. That means one element must not comprise another and the whole set should consist of mutually exclusive items. It would prove impossible to work with an element set where one element describes the rest or at least some other elements, for example set that would include elements: ‘cats’, ‘dogs’, ‘budgerigars’, ‘Siamese’, and ‘German shepherd’ (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 30).
• Elements should not be evaluative. Some elements, especially events or activities, may contain an implicit evaluative nuance what can make it difficult to handle them during an interview (Stewart et al., 1981, p. 30). For instance, elements like ‘leading a team’, or ‘drinking alcoholic beverages’ may be attached with rather different meanings depending on the understanding what ‘leading’ implies or on the extent of alcohol consumption, i.e., whether it is a glass of wine during the meal or it is an alcohol addiction.
Described principles and criteria for selecting the elements do not sometimes have to be all followed. However, only an experienced interviewer, who has gained a good feeling and intuition for suitable and easily handled elements, should experiment with element set kind.
67 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
4.3.3. Constructs
A construct always represents a contrast and the contrast is needed to be spelled out before an interviewer can be sure of the meaning intended to the whole construct (Jankowicz, 2003). Among different formulations Kelly (1955/1991, Vol.1, p. 5/1991) defines construct as “a way in which two or more things are alike and thereby different from a third or more things”.
Constructs form the building blocks of our 'personality' and as such come in various shapes and sizes. According to the Organization corollary some constructs are more important than others. The most important constructs are those which are “core” to our sense of being. These are very resistant to change and include things like moral code, religious beliefs, etc. and cause significant psychological impact if they are threatened in any way (Fisher and Savage, 1999). The other constructs are called “peripheral” constructs and a change to them does not have such a strong impact.
Construct theory offers descriptive ways of categorizing constructs, firstly, according to the type of thinking a person uses to produce a construct and, secondly, according to the way constructs are interrelated within the construing system (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 12).
According to the type of thinking a person applies to produce a construct, three types of constructs can be defined:
• Pre emptive constructs – constructs that are applied in an all or nothing way. They provide very black and white type of thinking – if this is a table , then it is nothing else but just a table (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 12; Fisher and Savage, 1999). Thus, when a person provides pre emptive constructs he obliges himself to choose between one of its two poles (alternatives).
• Constellatory constructs – stereotyping constructs – if this is a table , it must be square, made of wood and located in the kitchen. In other words, the subordinate constructs are strongly associated with superordinate construct. Such constructs bring a lot of supplementary baggage with them, no matter whether it is right or wrong as individual perceptions of elements and construing system are considered.
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• Propositional constructs – the most open form of construct which carries no additional labels or implications. Use of propositional constructs allows people to construe the elements circumscribed by their constructions in various ways. Propositional construing represents the opposite of pre emptive and constellatory construing.
In terms of the extent to which constructs imply each other within a construing system, Kelly differentiates between ‘ tight ’ and ‘ loose ’ constructs. That is, given where a person rates an element on one construct, to what extent does that predict where he will place the same element on other constructs (Smith, 2000).
A loose construct is one which may or may not lead to the same behavior every time (Fisher and Savage, 1999). This makes a researcher unable to predict the construer’s actions consistently. On another hand, a tight construct leads to the same behavior.
According to Kelly (1955), a loose construct system leads to varying predictions, whereas, a tight construct system leads to unvarying predictions. People who provide tight construct system obtain firmly held views concerning considered elements. People mostly start off with loose constructs, trying things out for different characteristics, seeing what works and what doesn’t. As we move towards the new we tighten up our construing, narrowing down our experimentation and so we begin making clearer associations and developing more clearly the 'new' (Fisher and Savage, 1999). Thus, the essence of Kelly’s argument is that we loosen and then tighten and then loosen our thinking in a cyclic manner. Our aim is, first of all, to gain perspective and then become concrete enough to define our themed operationally and so regain a new perspective. As an example of loose and tight construct systems, in a very tight system an element perceived as ‘honest’ might also be perceived as ‘generous’, ‘kind’, ‘intelligent’ and so on. A looser system might allow the possibility that ‘honest’ people are considered as ‘unkind’ or ‘mean’ (Smith, 2000).
Bieri and colleagues (1966, p. 185) invented a notion of ‘cognitive complexity’ which is defined as “ the capacity to construe social behavior in a multidimensional way. A more cognitively complex person has available a more differentiated system of dimensions for perceiving others’ behavior than does a less cognitively complex
69 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology individual.” Thus, in terms of cognitive complexity the more loosely knitted constructs, the more cognitively complex the person’s construing system.
4.3.4. Scaling methods
George Kelly, physicist, mathematician and would be engineer, loved mathematics. He regarded mathematics as the “purest form of construing” (Hinkle, 1970 cited in Fransella et al., 2004, p. 1).
After constructs are elicited a question arises which contrast pole of each construct is being applied by the participant to which element and in what extent (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 54). “But we can look beyond words. We can study contexts The answers to questions such as these may give us an understanding of the interviewing of the client’s terminology and provide us with an understanding of his outlook which no dictionary can offer” (Kelly, 1955/1991, Vol.1, p. 189/1991).
Kelly offered a methodology for deriving a mathematical description of part of a person’s psychological space. His basic assumption was that a mathematical relationship between a person’s judgements reflects psychological assumptions underlying those judgements (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 54).
Mathematical relationships in this context actually represent the structural relationships between the constructs and the set of elements (Marsden and Littler, 2000a). To examine these relationships various scaling methods are suggested. Most common, accepted and discussed methods are (Feixas and Alvarez, 1996):
1. Dichotomous method;
2. Ordinal method;
3. Rating scale method (Table 2).
1. The dichotomous method implies placing all the elements on either one pole or the other of the construct.
In Kelly’s original grid form after having elicited the constructs, to complete the grid form the person is asked to place a tick under the name of each element to which the construct applies. The final form of grid then appears in the form of matrix which consists of a number of ticks and blanks. However, Kelly faced a problem with this
70 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology kind of grid. A person often would perceive hardly any other element as being characterized by one pole of the construct. At first, to overcome this difficulty Kelly suggested to simply eliminate those rows from the grid calculations. This conclusion didn’t appear to be satisfactory because of losing part of elicited context information and, so, other approaches to complete repertory grids were developed (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 55).
Dichotomous method (dichotomizing) Elements Construct emergent pole (+) Construct implicit pole ( ) E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 beautiful + + + + unattractive
Ordinal method (ranking) Elements Construct emergent pole (1) Construct implicit pole (6) E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 beautiful 3 6 5 2 4 1 unattractive
Rating scale method (rating) Elements Construct emergent pole (1) Construct implicit pole (5) E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 beautiful 5 5 3 4 2 4 unattractive
Table 2: Scaling methods used in repertory grid based research
2. The ordinal method implies ordering the elements from one pole of the construct to the other. This method emerged as an attempt to overcome difficulties presented in the dichotomous approach (Feixas and Alvarez, 1996).
It was suggested by Phillida Salmon and first described by Bannister (1963) to ask the person to rank the elements in terms of each personal construct. The task is to rank all the elements according to how each element is subsumed under the construct poles. Ranking grids proved to be very popular allowing different forms of analysis to be applicable such as simple arithmetic or Spearman’s rank order correlation. However, again they have been found too restrictive because they force the elements to be uniformly distributed across the construct, not allowing any form of lopsidedness, even if it is appropriate (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 59).
3. In the rating scale method “each element is assigned a value in a Likert type scale delimited by both poles of the constructs” (Feixas and Alvarez, 1996).
Finally, Bannister returned to Kelly’s original method but now using a longer scale then 2 point scale which Kelly used. In this grid each element is rated on a scale
71 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology defined by the two construct poles. It is this “rating” method which is much in use today (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 59).
Now grid allows to identify exactly what the person means when he uses certain terms in constructs. Thus by rating each element on each construct the person provides an exact picture of what he has got in mind about the elements and topic in general (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 14).
The length of the scale can be anything from Kelly’s 2 point scale (tick or blank) to 10 or even 16. Longer scales are seen as providing more scope for people to express their views and judgements therefore producing more comprehensive data. A commonly used length is the 5 point or 7 point scales as they also give the mid point. According to the conducted researches aimed to find out whether the length of scale might well affect grid measures, it doesn’t proved to matter greatly what length of scale is used (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 63).
The rating scale is most widely used and recommended by authors (Jankowicz, 2004; Marsden and Littler, 2000a; Björklund, 2005; Dillon and McKnight, 1990).
More detailed consideration of RG components will be described in 4.5. By now, it can be resumed that RG is “simply a set of rating scales which uses the individual’s own constructs as the subject matter on which ratings are carried out” (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 14). One could argue about this definition. There are more different ways of thinking and defining RG and it also confirms one of the fundamental assumptions made by Kelly which he called ‘constructive alternativism’ when he developed the Role Construct Repertory Test (Kelly’s original name of RG interviewing technique). By this he meant that people construe the same thing differently and also that a single person always has the option of construing the same thing in different ways on separate occasions. Therefore, it is also possible to accept a variety of different definitions of a repertory grid (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 15).
4.4. Application of the repertory grid technique in marketing and other fields
4.4.1. Application experience
Developed within the PCT, the RGT with its various modifications represents a widely used technique for studying personal and interpersonal systems of meanings. Because of its flexibility the technique was used for a broad variety of matters, 72 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology however, its most consistent area of application was probably in the clinical domain where grids were used to assess the properties of meaning systems of different groups of persons (e.g., those diagnosed as “thought disordered” or “agoraphobic”) and how these change over the course of treatment (Neimeyer, 2002).
Among other clinical and non clinical applications can be mentioned: studying neurotics by Ryle (1976); magistrates’ decision making by McKnight (1981); categorization analysis by Coltheart and Evans (1982); job analysis by Hassard (1988) and application to the domain of human computer interaction, particularly with respect to elicitation of knowledge in the development of expert systems (Shaw and Gaines, 1987). This list can be widely extended by names and topics.
Jankowicz (2004, p. 9) provides a comprehensive list of applications in which RG can be used, mentioning also that the list still doesn’t cover all the applications. His list is divided into application groups according to the fields where the repertory grid was used. Applications, in which its developmental and didactic implications are most profound (Ravenette, 1997 cited in Jankowicz, 2001), include educational, occupational and clinical applications. He also emphasizes a group of general applications which contains examples of using RGT mostly concerning interpersonal relationships and/or exploration of personal meanings and attitudes about different matters. One example of use which demonstrates the value of technique is in heightened risk field of bank commercial lending and venture capital investment decision making which are thoroughly discussed by Jankowicz (see his 2001 for more detail).
The RGT was also widely employed as a qualitative method in market research, consumer research and new product development in identifying those attributes of products which are not self evident (Frost and Braine, 1967; Hallsworth, 1988 listed in Marsden and Littler, 2000b; Jankowicz, 1990; Stewart et al., 1981; Jankowicz, 2001; Marsden and Littler, 2000a). RGT procedure enables researchers to investigate their products, markets and customers allowing to pursue different research purposes. Most widely pursued objectives in marketing research conducted by means of RGT are related to capturing market and product perception, i.e., learning what customers think about certain products, product categories or group of products in their own language. Some common objectives of market studies conducted by means of RGT include investigation of:
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How company’s product compares with others.
Customers draw their cognitive map by describing and rating the differences and similarities between company’s product and its competitors, what allows the researchers to:
• Define customer’s ideal product and ideal attributes;
• Assign priorities between attributes as well as between different brands;
• Experiment with different scenarios or product packages;
• Reveal whether customers’ view of the product and things they consider to be important are the same as with those of company’s staff responsible for product development, promotion and sale.
How customers experience a certain product.
Customers provide constructs which reflect their experience with a company’s product and its rivals allowing revelation of critical incidents and defining company’s competitive edge, especially in the markets with only a few highly competitive players.
Specification or design of a new product.
Obtaining customers’ cognitive maps of existing products or services and then experimenting with ‘what if’ scenarios allows to build a picture of the key features of a new product and to examine priorities and trade offs.
Customer perception tracking.
It can be useful to obtain a database of key customer perceptions in a particular sector or to track customer perceptions of products over time (o. V., 2007).
Positioning opportunities of new and existing products.
By identifying dimensions on which consumers evaluate products, marketers can elaborate the benefits and most important consumers’ attributes.
Development of accurate distribution strategies
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Understanding the different ways in which consumers search for products permits to develop more precise distribution strategies.
Development of communication strategies
Marketers can design communication programs based on the RGT findings which incorporate the consumers’ language and vocabulary and therefore increase the probability of mutual understanding. Besides the complexity levels of consumers’ construct systems can serve as an index to decide on the amount and type of information that should be presented in communication programs. It is also possible to link by means of communication strategies product benefits to the important beliefs and values held by consumers.
Segmentation
Commonalities in subjective meanings can provide a useful basis for identifying concrete segments of consumers (Marsden and Littler, 2000b).
Marsden and Littler (2000b) emphasize five basic components of the network of subjective meanings that consumers attach to their consumption experience which can be explored by means of RGT. Authors have termed these components as consumers’ product construct systems (PCSs) which include:
1. Consumption domains: how do customers categorize different products and services?
2. Decision rules: what search strategies and evaluative criteria are employed for each category?
3. Values: what core beliefs underpin different decision rules?
4. Construct complexity: how discriminating are consumer’s decision rules and values?
5. Construct commonalities: what are the similarities and differences in consumers’ PCSs and how are they mediated by their demographic backgrounds?
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Thus, RGT is not new to market research, however, despite a solid amount of market studies conducted within the application of RGT many studies failed to account for the diversity and richness of consumer experience because they did not employ the technique in its entirety and full capacity (Marsden and Littler, 2000b).
4.4.2. Criticism of the applicability of the repertory grid
Despite its relatively widespread use the RGT was constantly attracting much criticism. Among other issues, it was criticized for generating “utterly valueless” and “irrelevant” information from consumers (Sampson, 1972; Gordon and Langmaid, 1988 listed in Marsden and Littler, 2000b), for its “inherent complexity” and “slavish adherence” to the notion of bipolar constructs (Reynolds and Gutman, 1984; Frost, 1982), and for not being based on an “adequate theory” of human behavior (Grunert et al., 1995).
Thereby, at the beginning of 90s it was agreed that the RGT has “limited use” as a qualitative method in consumer research (Rice, 1993 cited in Marsden and Littler, 2000a). At that time, in response to this criticism, Chisnall (1992, p. 178) said: “Further consideration of construct theory in the marketing sphere is called for; the intellectual attractions of Kellian techniques need to be tested in some length before they can be expected to win support of practical researches” (cited in Marsden and Littler, 2000a).
Marsden and Littler (2000a) argue that the reason for a failure of the RGT to reach its full potential in the field of consumer research appeared from a “limited and somewhat confused way in which qualitative methods in general have traditionally been used and evaluated in the field” (confer Murray and Evers, 1989). The authors (Marsden and Littler, 2000b) emphasize four reasons why the RGT was not used to its full potential as a qualitative method in market research in general and in consumer research in particular:
1. In market research RGT was mostly confined to the exploratory stages because qualitative methods played a secondary role to quantitative methods (Hunt, 1994). Hence, the way in which the RGT can be applied throughout the market research process and how its findings can be reported on in their own right was not adequately addressed (Stewart, 1990).
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2. Kelly’s PCT which underpins and provides general guidelines for using and evaluating the RG was largely ignored (Chisnall, 1992). Instead, the RGT was incorporated into the theoretical framework of what is called the natural science, or onto the dominant “positivist” paradigm” what resulted in various operational and conceptual misunderstandings (Marsden and Littler, 2000b; Fransella et al., 1988).
3. Traditionally the RGT combines an integrated set of elicitation methods which include triading, laddering and pyramiding. However, these methods were rarely employed together in any systematic manner (Earl, 1986; Fransella et al., 1988). Therefore, the RGT was often criticized for incompleteness and inadequacy of its findings for developing marketing strategy (e.g., Frost, 1982; Gordon and Langmaid, 1988; Rice, 1993; Sampson, 1972 listed in Marsden and Littler, 2000b).
4. The RGT was used to explore various structural components of consumers’ subjective meaning systems where each component was often considered in isolation from one another. The nature of such meaning systems was assumed to be a simply quantitative sum of their component parts (i.e., 1+1=2) while later it was argued that the totality of consumers’ meaning systems is qualitatively different to any of their individual component parts (i.e., 1+1=3). In this sense, the findings constituted a rather fragmented body of knowledge in consumer research (Stewart, 1990).
In response to these limitations Marsden and Littler (2000a, 2000b) showed how the RGT and theory can be employed in market research as a qualitative method in its own right with its potential usefulness.
4.4.3. Criticism solution
According to Shrivastava (1985), evaluations of the research methods should be grounded in the assumptions of their underlying paradigm. Personal construct psychology (PCP) and, respectively, theory derives from the “interpretive/constructivist” paradigm which assumptions differ from positivist paradigm regarding the nature of consumer experience and its representation (Marsden, 1997 cited in Marsden and Littler, 2000a). The traditional positivist assumption such as the existence of an objective reality which is verifiable and
77 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology quantifiable is largely irrelevant to the underlying assumptions of the RGT (Marsden and Littler, 2000a; Highlen and Finley, 1996).
By resuming a solid number of statements and findings related to the PCT and RGT offered in literature, Marsden and Littler (2000a) provided detailed evidence that interpretive paradigm is the one the underlying assumptions of PCT and RGT methodology are consistent with. Hence, further development of the assumptions of interpretive paradigm is complemented and facilitated by assumptions of PCP by its emphasis on the process of meaning construction (construing), the structure of individual and shared meanings (hierarchical bipolar construct systems) and advocacy of pluralistic methods of investigation (RGT).
Originally, the interpretive paradigm emerged in consumer research in the early 1980s. It was an alternative to deterministic theories such as cognitive, behavioral and trait which obtained a growing criticism for depicting consumers as passive organisms simply responding to marketing incentives. Besides, it was also a response to the criticism of reductionistic methods of inquiry, i.e., quantitative associated with the positivist paradigm which was criticized for ignoring much of the complexity and richness of experience (Kassarjian, 1994; Dholakia and Arndt, 1985).
By examining the relationship between the assumptions of PCT and those of the interpretive paradigm researchers pointed that the PCT is consistent with the interpretive paradigm’s focus on exploring the psychological processes that people use to make sense of their material and social environments. Moreover, based on the process of construing which implies an achievement of understanding through a process of contrast and similarity, the PCT offers a more integral understanding of the process of meaning making (Neimeyer, 1993; Marsden and Littler, 2000a).
Another assumption of the PCT that contributes to the further development of interpretive paradigm is that subjective meanings take the form of bipolar constructs which are organized into a system of superordinate and subordinate relationships (Earl, 1986; Droge and Calantone, 1984). The elicitation methods including triading, laddering up and laddering down or pyramiding which in complex produce hierarchically organized constructs, when used together are capable of eliciting a wide range of meanings from participants at different levels of psychological abstraction, from which fairly holistic representation of consumer experience can be
78 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology produced (Marsden and Littler, 2000b). Therefore, not only content but also structure of meanings is considered within PCT which offers a concrete analytical basis for exploring nature and form of subjective meaning systems (Zinkin and Biswas, 1988).
Interpretive paradigm was criticized for being “solipsistic” because of its focus on the individual’s subjective consciousness. While some authors argue that interpretations are highly individualistic and cannot be generally agreed and that any given situation is going to be interpreted differently by each individual because all people have got different experiences, the PCT avoids the blame of solipsism by clarifying the conceptual basis for examining the commonalities between individuals’ subjective meaning systems (Droge and Calantone, 1984). It assumes the possible similarity between individuals not in their gained experience but in the way people construe their experiences (Neimeyer, 1993). Duck (1994, p. 125) maintains that people can similarly construe their interpretive maps of the world around though having different experiences. He points out: “psychological similarity is founded on the similar construction of experience where experience is considered as subjective interpretation, but not on similarity of experience itself where experience is equated with events”.
PCT and RGT as interpretive theory and method correspondently are limited in application for understanding the social context of construing at a macro level of abstraction and, thus, inadequate for understanding the ideological dimensions of subjectivity. However, their usefulness for exploring the micro processes of meaning construction, interconnection and organization is undoubted (Burkitt, 1991 cited in Marsden and Littler, 2000a).
Another advantage of PCT which contributes to the development of interpretive paradigm is a capability of RGT to incorporate both qualitative and quantitative approaches. It is demonstrated that RGT allows to interleave concept formation, data collection and qualitative dimensions of analysis throughout the entire research process. As mentioned before, in consumer research the RGT was often employed within the dominant positivist paradigm what caused much confusion. The RGT was applied in the preliminary stages of research prior to the forming of standardized questionnaires (e.g., Hallsworth, 1988) and it resulted in suspicion of either deceiving of data contributors or in producing an alienating distance instead of maintaining the close interpersonal relationship.
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Since the RGT is diametrically opposed to such objective research strategies it is suggested to consider the RGT as a ‘participatory exercise’ where researchers and participants talk ‘with’ but not ‘to’ one another (Fewtrell and O’Connor, 1995). Interpretive paradigm suggests that researchers should consider the meaning of phenomena from the consumer’s perspective and this is maintained in the RGT by focusing on the language as the medium of psychological inquiry (Ozanne and Anderson, 1989).
The RGT avoids the criticism of an adherence to “incommensurable thesis” which means mutual exclusiveness of different theories and methods such as, for instance, qualitative and quantitative (Heath, 1992; Kavanagh, 1994). The potential of supplement of different methods has been increasingly recognized and RGT has become more attractive for incorporating the virtues of both approaches.
Overall, it is proved that RGT and PCT offer a potentially useful approach to conducting qualitative market research. However, it is also concluded that “their full implications for marketing strategy will only be fully realized along with their further elaboration and refinement at both the theoretical and methodological methods” (Marsden and Littler, 2000b).
4.5. Repertory grid technique: elicitation procedure
Kelly developed the RGT as a way by which individual’s construction systems can be uncovered and enables a researcher to obtain a mental map of how a participant views the world.
The technique represents a content free procedure for exploring and forming personal constructs. The assumption underlying the technique is that people can represent their experiences, i.e., the situations with which they are faced, by placing alternative constructions upon them. A grid conversation encourages a person to make it clear what for him distinguished one experience from another (Steed and McDonnell, 2003).
The grid is not so much a test but rather a methodology involving highly flexible techniques and variable applications. What all applications have in common is their seeking to understand how people impose meaning in their worlds (Solas, 1991). The grid can be used for various purposes but only one purpose at a time can prevail. A researcher must first decide on the topic according to his purpose for doing
80 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology a grid. An example of a completed RG is shown in Table 3. Subsequent sections describe elicitation of a grid and its components by various procedures.
Topic: Computers I might buy for my work Elements: 4 different computers and 1 generalized image of 'my ideal' computer Constructs: 7 constructs elicited from the buyer and 1 construct supplied by the interviewer Ratings: on a 5 point scale
emergent pole (1) PC Mac G3 iMac G4 eMac Ideal implicit pole (5) Looks boxy and 'standard' 1 2 5 4 5 The looks are to die for Large range of software 1 2 4 2 1 Smaller range of software Slow performer 1 3 5 2 5 Fast Easy to set up 5 1 1 2 1 Difficult to set up Good build quality 5 2 1 3 1 Flimsy build Easy to upgrade 2 3 1 1 1 Upgrade is a dealer job Difficult to move 1 1 4 5 5 Transportable Appropriate for my work 5 4 1 2 1 Doesn't fit properly
Table 3: An example of an elicited repertory grid
The procedure of RG elicitation basically consists of two main phases: knowledge elicitation phase and rating grid or element comparison phase . In turn, knowledge elicitation phase comprises two stages: element selection and then construct elicitation (Marsden and Littler, 2000a).
4.5.1. Knowledge elicitation phase: element selection
Representing the topic which is an inquiry focus a research, the first stage in applying the RGT is to choose a set of elements which are consistent with the objectives of the research and the targeted (sub)system of constructs to be elicited from participants (Stewart et al., 1981, p. 32).
There are 3 strategies for element selection (Stewart et al., 1981, p. 32):
1. Interviewer provides all or some part of the elements.
Interviewer chooses the elements based on his own knowledge, experience and reason for doing the grid. This strategy can be used when interviewer needs certain elements to be presented in a grid to perceive individual meanings and judgements specifically about them. However, if it happens that the participant is not familiar with provided elements, the value of the interview will be reduced. Another problem may appear when part of the elements is provided by the interviewer. In this case, the respondent may consider them as more important or
81 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology interesting for the interviewer what may result in bias of his judgements (Stewart et al., 1981, p. 32). Supplying elements may also run the risk of omitting elements which are important to the interviewee (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 30).
However, very often it can be valuable to work with supplied elements when only one or two are provided as additional to elicited ones. This permits a comparison of how the interviewee construes elements he has provided with these key elements. The most common key elements of this kind are ‘self’ and ‘ideal self’. By making the interviewee rating himself on the constructs, it can be revealed where his personal actual and desirable images are among the elements being construed.
The ‘self’ or the ‘ideal self’ elements do not need to be related to the individual person’s actual self, current or ideal. If a person is considering different jobs elements could usefully include “my current job” and “my ideal job”. A customer choosing between different autos as elements could have ‘my current auto’ and ‘my ideal auto’ as elements (Jankowicz, 2001). Therefore, ‘self’ elements represent individual perceptions and images of what respondent actually has or wants when talking about things, events or people enclosed in the elements set. Although being provided, ‘self’ elements avoid the problem of unfamiliarity of elements to the respondent. Usage of such key elements permits to significantly extend the findings from further analyses. For instance, ratings of the ‘ideal’ element allow to discover which element is closest to the ideal and which construct poles are preferable (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 58).
2. Respondent generates the list of elements himself.
Once the interviewer explained to the respondent what class of elements is wanted and on which matter, the respondent names the elements himself what ensures that the topic is represented from respondent’s point of view. The disadvantage of this strategy is that participant’s responses will have a definite bias with regard to those elements he personally values little, Thus he may omit elements and, hence, issues that the interviewer is interested in (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 11; Stewart et al., 1981, p. 33).
3. Interviewer elicits elements.
The interviewer provides general categories which cover the range of the topic and formulates questions based on the categories, answers to which appear as
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elements. On the one hand, the respondent names the elements himself and, hence, is familiar with them. On the other hand, the interviewer by providing the categories and directing the choice by his questions reveals elements that are interesting for him from the light of the respondent’s prism.
This strategy has a significant advantage of enabling to offer the same categories of elements to a sample of respondents. Although each of them will be considering different named instances, the existence of common categories helps in analyzing the grids as a set (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 32) and, therefore, allows comparison of perceptions and meanings within the group of people.
In Kelly’s generalised variant of his original Role Construct Repertory Test the third strategy with elicited element form was applied. He used twenty four standard categories that he found useful in his clinical work (Stewart et al., 1981, p. 35).
Once the suitable set of elements is defined it is time to specify the constructs.
4.5.2. Knowledge elicitation phase: construct elicitation
Constructs represent individual scales that a person uses when thinking about the elements, where poles of a construct represent scale limits. There are many ways for eliciting constructs depending on purpose of the research, the nature of elements, the amount of respondents and type of analysis to be applied further. A comprehensive review of different approaches of construct elicitation is presented by Epting, Probert and Pittman (1993).
A construct is a way in which some things are construed as being alike and yet different from others. Therefore, it is essential in the nature of the construct that it is bipolar (Steed and McDonnell, 2003). The bipolar form implies a construct to be composed of two poles, emergent or similarity pole and implicit or differentiation pole. The poles present a pair of contrast descriptors in their own right, rather than of a phrase and its dictionary opposite. When an assertion and its bare, grammatical negative are stated it cannot be considered as a construct because it does not actually provide an indication of what is meant by the similarity pole (Jankowicz, 2001). Therefore, it is essential for investigator to reveal both ends of the construct equally clear, what usually means avoiding attaching a simple negation to the similarity pole (Stewart et al., 1981, p. 16).
The researcher has to decide first whether to provide a list of previously determined constructs or to elicit them directly from respondent. Although both options can be 83 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology performed in RGT, the fundamental definition of the RG assume that researcher aims at eliciting the respondent’s own constructs which reflect own meanings (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 56). This represents probably the greatest value of the technique and should be pursued when applying RGT to benefit from its full capacity.
Rarely appears to be enough to use only suggested or supplied constructs. For example, if the researcher provides the constructs for the study, then it is likely that his interest lies in discovering commonalities between the ways people evaluate elements on certain dimensions. Even in such case of supplying constructs, authors still recommend carrying out a series of pilot studies involving free elicitation of constructs in order to facilitate the selection of the most representative ones (see Neimeyer, 1993 for review). Further, in 4.5.2.3, the issue about reasonability for partly supplying constructs for particular objective is discussed. Here the context is stressed on the basic procedure of construct elicitation.
4.5.2.1. Construct elicitation approaches
Two approaches to construct elicitation are common in the personal construct literature: dyadic elicitation and triadic elicitation (Caputi and Reddy, 1999).
The dyadic elicitation implies consideration of two elements at a time. The interviewee is asked to specify how the two elements are alike or different in some particular way. If the two elements are perceived to be similar, the contrasting pole is determined by considering remaining elements from the elements set, identifying an element which is different from the considered pair and describing the difference (Caputi and Reddy, 1999).
In triadic elicitation the interviewee is presented with three elements from the elements set at a time. He is then asked to specify some important way in which two of the three elements are alike and thereby different from the third. A word or phrase may be used to represent first the similarity which forms an emergent pole. The respondent then generates a contrast, i.e., implicit pole by stating the difference of two elements from the third one (Caputi and Reddy, 1999). Therefore, the construct elicited appears to be strongly determined by the particular triad.
Grids employing dyadic elicitation tend to provide lower ordination scores, more functionally independent constructs, and lower level of cognitive complexity than grids using triadic elicitation (Caputi and Keynes, 2001).
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By using dyadic approach the elicited grids do not reflect the full complexity and variety of constructs potentially available. This approach works well where the basic triadic procedure is too difficult and confusing for the interviewee, as in working with children under 10 to 12 years of age (Salmon, 1976), individuals with learning difficulties (Barton, Walton and Rowe, 1976) and the deaf (Baillie Grohman, 1975). However, if the triadic procedure can be used adequately, it is suggested to do so (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 53; Fransella et al., 2004, p. 28).
The implicit pole of the construct can also be elicited in two different ways: with an opposite method or with a difference method. Each method can be used in both, dyadic and triadic elicitation approaches.
In difference method the contrast pole appears from the comparison of two similar elements with the third element of the triad or, in case of dyadic elicitation, from comparison of two elements if they appear to be different for respondent or from comparison of similar elements with one of the remaining elements in a set. Anyway, in difference method contrast pole emerges by discovering the difference between the elements.
In opposite method contrast pole is elicited by asking the opposite of the word or phrase expressed in the initially elicited emergent pole (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 28).
• Triadic difference : implies presenting three elements at a time and asking “How are two alike in some way, but different from the third?”
• Triadic opposite : implies presenting three elements at a time and asking “How are two alike in some way?” followed by “What is the opposite of that?”
• Dyadic difference : presenting two elements and asking “How are these two alike or different?” If a difference is given, this is taken to be a contrast pole of the construct. If a similarity is given, the person is asked to find among remaining elements one that would represent a difference.
• Dyadic opposite : presenting two elements and asking “How are these two alike or different?” If a difference is reported, this specifies the two poles of the construct. If a similarity is reported, the person is asked for the opposite of that similarity (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 30).
Kelly’s original method utilized a triadic difference elicitation procedure. This method produces constructs that are less functionally independent and more meaningful in
85 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology that they are better able to discriminate among discussed elements. The construct sets revealed by this method are more cognitively complex (Caputi and Reddy, 1999).
Hagans, Neimeyer and Goodholm (2000) pointed out that when using the triadic opposite method the contrast pole may not directly apply to any of the elements in the grid but the similarity pole was elicited under condition of presence of the third element. Therefore, “the third element may well play a part in the verbal label elicited”. However, an important consideration, further provided by Hagans and his colleagues (Hagans et al., 2000) is that asking for the ‘opposite’ of the elicited similarity pole produces more extreme ratings, i.e. more highly polarized constructs than if a person states how the third element in the triad is different from other two. For example, if the opposite to beautiful is not so attractive the person can give an extreme rating, e.g., ‘5’ regarding the car he is not really attracted to. But if the opposite is ugly the rating could only be ‘3’. Providing opposites may produce construct poles that are too negative to be applied to the elements. The consequence is that a greater number of elements are assigned to a single pole of the construct, thereby decreasing differentiation of elements along constructs and provoking an artificial deflation of differentiation measures (Hagans et al., 2000).
Another important consideration with regard to both the triadic and dyadic opposite methods is that their instructions to produce an ‘opposite’ allow the possibility that the third element or at least one element in the full element set is not applicable to the construct and may fall outside the range of convenience of the construct. In contrast, both triadic and dyadic difference methods require that the contrast pole is developed from, and therefore applicable to, at least one element in the grid (Hagans et al., 2000).
Based on obtained evidence (see Hagans et al., 2000; Caputi and Reddy, 1999) it is not yet possible to advocate on behalf of any one preferred form of repertory grid procedure. However, researchers need to be aware that application of opposite methods of personal construct elicitation may cause development of a greater number of positive emergent poles, more extreme, negative contrast poles, and significantly lower levels of construct system differentiation.
According to Hagans, Neimeyer and Goodholm (2000), the triadic difference method represents traditional, most frequently used method for construct elicitation applied within the RGT.
86 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
Kelly offered six assumptions that underlie his original Role Construct Repertory Test but which are equally applicable to subsequent grid modifications and to construct elicitation in general (cited in Fransella et al., 2004, p. 23):
• The elicited constructs should be permeable . This means that each elicited construct can be applied by the respondent to all other elements from the set besides the three ones from which the construct was elicited.
• Pre existing constructs should be elicited. It is assumed that there is a certain remaining degree of permanence in the constructs elicited and it rarely happens when respondent produces a new (for himself) meaning and, therefore, construct during the process of elicitation.
• The verbal labels attached to the constructs should be communicable. The interviewer should have some reasonably accurate idea of what the respondent intends.
Other three assumptions were made regarding using people as elements. However, essential ideas should be suitable for other grids.
• The construct should represent the respondent’s understanding regardless of the judgement whether it is right or wrong from other people’s point of view.
• The constructs elicited should be explicitly bipolar. By stating what a thing or a person is, respondent is also saying that which it or he is not.
• People should not dissociate themselves entirely from the elements or from the constructs elicited. They must be able to see themselves somewhere along the construct dimensions.
Although the last assumption relates only to the case when people are used as elements, it can be resumed that respondents should not provide objectivism but rather subjectivism by seeing themselves and their personal perceptions and attitudes related to the discussed subject matter.
The following description of RG elicitation procedure is focused on the approaches and methods that are most appropriate with respect to the current research objectives and, therefore, applied in this work. Description of further numerous modifications of grid usage depending on its objectives and field of research can be found in literature (e.g., Fransella et al., 2004; Jankowicz, 2004).
87 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
In the context of this study Kelly’s original triadic difference method of elicitation is applied. To make sense from similarity and contrast bearing in mind that constructs are dichotomous an interviewee needs to consider three elements at a time and so provide two contrasting or dichotomous poles of a construct.
Practically, it is proved to be easier and friendlier to think and compare elements when each element is written on a separate card. Respondent is presented with appropriate three cards at a time, laid out in a triangle to provide one construct. Many people find it helpful to think about the constructs if they have something tangible to move around on a table (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 33; Eden and Jones, 1984).
Respondents are expected to produce one construct per triad. However, sometimes a person may produce several constructs from one triad by reorganizing the three elements in different contrasts (Dillon and McKnight, 1990). This need should not be discouraged. Although the process normally continues by offering further selected triads, this process is, indeed, designed to help articulation and provide the analyst with a sense of order rather than being a rigid method (Eden and Jones, 1984).
The amount and sequence of selected triads is an important issue when talking about grid reliability. Triads should be selected either randomly or according to a reasonably determined consequence. It is also important that a person considers all of the elements at one time or another.
The number of constructs to be elicited depends on the research.
The procedure depends on the purpose, given time for interview and whether further analysis to be conducted within a single grid or within several grids. When time for interviewing is not limited and the purpose of investigation is to obtain an in depth detailed view of a single person, the researcher is aimed at more information and would provide all possible combinations of elements revealing maximum constructs and living all of them even if there is a potential overlap and some constructs seem very similar (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 45). All this is done in order to reach as full picture of personal construing capturing his tacit knowledge as possible. In these conditions the RG elicitation procedure is relative free and elicited information and details depend a lot on the negotiation between interviewer and interviewee.
Thereby, sometimes constructs are elicited by considering different triads until no more constructs seem to be emerging, for instance, when constructs start to repeat or if the respondent cannot supply any more constructs (e.g., Steed and McDonnell,
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2003; Eden and Jones, 1984). However, the researcher has to be careful with recognizing among simple repeats those meanings that bare a certain importance to the respondent. It was found from an experiment that people repeat some constructs because they are important to them. In the test people were allowed to repeat constructs and then to rate the constructs in terms of importance. As a result, the repeated constructs were rated more highly signifying their higher importance (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 46).
However, when several grids are to be analyzed together or in order to compare single grids assessment methods often require same amount of constructs and, moreover, constructs should be elicited from the same set of triadic combinations. This not only increases the validity and reliability of findings but also allows for additional inferences regarding, for example, ways people differentiate same elements.
4.5.2.2. Construct specification
According to the “Organization Corollary” of Kelly’s PCT personal constructs do not operate in isolation from each other but form an integrated construction system containing ordinal relationships between constructs (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 186) Thus, elicitation of knowledge implies both eliciting the content as well as the hierarchical structure of the subjective meanings that people attach to the set of elements. It is essential to expose as much of this construction as it is necessary for the purpose of an interview.
By using the RGT individual's constructs can be elicited at different levels of psychological abstraction. Four interviewing procedures designed for this purpose are triading, laddering down, pyramiding and laddering up (Banister et al., 1994).
Bipolar constructs elicited through triading by asking a person how two elements of a triad are alike and different from the third can be stated in more or less detail – in rather abstract terms or in very precise terms (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 64). However, “a ‘good’ construct is also one which is appropriately detailed” (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 33). The interviewer has to reveal the real respondent’s meanings attached to expressed labels.
Two procedures which take the person either ‘up’ a ladder or ‘down’ a ladder allow to elicit the more abstract values or, in contrast, more concrete meanings associated
89 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology with constructs obtained from triading (Marsden and Littler, 2000a; Fransella et al., 2004, p. 44).
Laddering down provides an opportunity to make a person express the construct in sufficient additional detail so that interviewer understands the intended meaning as precisely as possible. After the respondent stated a construct he is asked “how do you mean?” or “what do you mean?” to encourage him to express each pole of the original construct in greater detail being more explicit about the content involved (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 64).
The interviewer always has a choice: whether to accept the originally expressed construct or whether to ladder the person ‘down’ to look for more detail. Sometimes people may provide constructs which are actually clichés. This can happen when a person has never thought about the discussed issue before. Therefore, the clichés may reflect insufficient consideration and don’t represent interviewee’s actual view. However, they might also represent his views precisely. Also what may seem superficial or vague to the interviewer may appear to be neither superficial nor vague to the respondent. Free flow discussion, interviewer’s own empathy and sensitivity as well as awareness of respondent’s background, experience, vocabulary, etc. can be helpful during elicitation and interpretation of personal meanings (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 34; Fransella and Bannister, 1997).
The procedure of revealing clear, operationally defined, non clichéd constructs can be conducted differently depending on the topic of the grid or on the circumstances in which the topic is investigated. If the interviewer needs to identify constructs at a detailed level he would use simple laddering down procedure. Practically this is done by asking the question “how” or “what” first about the emergent pole and then providing the same question about the implicit pole of the original construct. Laddering down is used to express the construct more precisely.
Sometimes it is needed to investigate the variety of a person’s construing i.e., the range of person’s points of view. In this case an alternative to laddering down procedure called ‘pyramiding’ is used.
Pyramiding was suggested by Landfield (1971) and implies elicitation of increasing subordinate constructs from the original one. The person is first asked the question “how” or “what” about the emergent pole of the original construct. Then he needs to state opposite or contrast to the just expressed pole. Afterwards, the same procedure
90 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology is done regarding the implicit pole of the original construct. The shape of the gathered data structure at the end reminds a pyramid, where each pole of superordinate construct is expanded by the subordinate bipolar construct (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 67; Fransella et al., 2004, p. 43).
To summarize, the main difference between laddering down and pyramiding procedures lies in the purpose of constructs specification. In laddering down the superordinate subordinate relationship between constructs is described by seeking ever more specific ways of expressing constructs. Whereas in pyramiding this relationship is elaborated in ever expanding detail by examining and expanding on each pole separately (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 66)
In the current study laddering down technique was appropriate to be used in the interviews. Very often it was needed to understand the meanings attached to some expressions or jargons used by respondents. Therefore, the concern was to get a clear, operationally defined and non clichéd construct.
Pyramiding was less appropriate because of time consuming and the fact that respondents represent intellectual, self conscious and determined people who are able to clearly express their meanings which are enough determined and precise.
Laddering up is in a sense an opposite of laddering down or pyramiding. The procedure is designed to elicit superordinate constructs. Hence, when laddered down, constructs are more precise and detailed, whereas when laddered up, the interviewer arrives at more abstract meanings associated with original constructs (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 186; Marsden and Littler, 2000a).
Laddering up technique is developed for eliciting means and ends, i.e., mental representations of higher levels of abstraction than constructs. In order to keep up with the sequence of the elicitation procedure, laddering up procedure is described further (4.5.4.1) as it enables to reach personal values (Jankowicz, 2004, p.188) from some of the elicited constructs selected after elements are rated on all of the constructs.
4.5.2.3. Elicited and supplied constructs
The repertory grid procedure fundamentally assumes elicitation of interviewee’s own constructs. However, the purpose of the procedure is to understand how the person construes the topic in question. One issue that emerged in grid usage is whether or not supplied constructs give the same disclosure of the matter as elicited constructs. 91 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
For some purposes it can be useful to supply interviewee with constructs, at least in part in order to enhance an extent of complexity and richness of interview (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 46). For example, the interviewer needs to find out how interviewee’s own constructs relate to some other construct which may not be in the interviewee’s repertoire but which is still important to the interviewer. Interviewer may provide a construct to see which of the interviewee’s constructs are used in a similar way, i.e., are rated the same way (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 56).
However, the interviewer may face a problem when the supplied construct appear meaningless to the interviewee. By providing a construct an interviewer is supplying a verbal label to which the person will attach his personal construct. Provided construct labels may range from those that are identical with constructs used by the interviewee to constructs that are nonsense to him. As example for the later may be constructs with verbal labels in a foreign language, or from specialized field containing jargons. Therefore, it is important to bear in mind when supplying a construct that the labels should be meaningful to a person.
According to Kelly’s Individuality Corollary “persons differ from each other in their construction of events” what implies that constructs are personal in the sense that the person is able to attribute them to events and make something of them. Elicited own constructs may appear not as useful for an interviewer as constructs he could have provided himself, but he can usually make some sense of them (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 46).
The matter of elicited versus supplied constructs attracted a substantial research attention. Some researches provided evidence that although supplied constructs, selected in a proper way, can be meaningful to other people, own personal constructs are more meaningful and useful. Assuming that the more meaningful and important the construct is the more extremely people rate it, Bonarius (1977) showed that people provide more extreme ratings on constructs elicited from them than on supplied constructs. It was also showed that elicited constructs produce more differentiation or cognitive complexity (for review of some studies see Neimeyer, 1992).
The research conducted within this study is aimed, among others, at discovering personal meanings and revealing expressions which customers use when talking about the discussed matter. Therefore, most of the constructs were elicited from respondents.
92 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
However, two so called “overall” constructs were supplied in order to apply further a certain kind of content analysis developed by Honey (1979). Overall construct implies obtaining respondent’s ‘overall summary’ on the topic in question by asking him to provide ratings on a construct which summarises his overall view on the discussed topic (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 56). For example, if a grid is designed to explore consumers’ perception of a variety of refreshing beverages in order to make improvements in taste, the grid might involve a supplied construct which assessed the extent to which they slaked their thirst: ‘overall, I fully slaked my thirst – overall, I did not satisfy my thirst’.
Honey’s content analysis justifies an enclosure of supplied constructs but the purpose of its providing implies possibility to make additional inferences about elicited constructs, their interrelations and relation to the topic rather than elicitation of personal meanings. Thus, Honey did not suggest to use supplied construct instead of elicited ones but to add one or two supplied constructs in addition to the elicited to expand the variety of findings available from analysis of RG data. Honey’s content analysis is described further in the chapter devoted to the analysis methods applied for RG data (see 4.6.1.3).
4.5.3. Rating grid or element comparison phase
Once a representative lists of elements and constructs are obtained the next phase is the construction of a grid, i.e., a matrix of elements and constructs. The elements are placed vertically on the top half of the grid and constitute the columns. The constructs are placed horizontally so that on the left side of the grid the emergent poles and on the right side of the grid the implicit poles of constructs are placed. Thereby, constructs constitute the rows of the grid. The arrangement corresponds to the RGT implication where each construct can be related to every element via a rating scale. Therefore, it is necessary that all the elements fall within the range of convenience of the constructs (Feixas and Alvarez, 1996).
As soon as columns and rows of the grid are attributed with meanings, participants are asked to rate all elements in terms of each construct (Cassell et al., 2000).
Each participant is introduced to the idea that the bipolar constructs should be considered as the two ends of a rating scale (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 59). The end of the construct which describes the similarity, i.e., emergent pole should be written down on the left and the rating assigned to this pole on a 1 5 point scale is ‘1’. The
93 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology contrasting end, i.e., implicit pole is written on the right with a ‘5’ rating assigned (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 48).
It was discussed in 4.3.4 that it does not appear to matter greatly what length of scale should be used. However, it is suggested to use scale containing a mid point as neutral. This is supported by numerous applications of repertory grid using ‘5’ or ‘7’ point scales (e.g., Jankowicz, 2004, p. 37; Fransella et al., 2004, p. 63; Marsden and Littler, 2000a; Björklund, 2005). In the current study ‘5’ point scale is used, therefore, further descriptions regard to this length of scale.
Several issues may arise when asking for ratings.
The first issue namely ‘direction’ of rating is whether each construct should be rated on all elements in turn, as Kelly first suggested, or whether each element should be rated on all constructs in turn. However, at the present time there is no consistent evidence that the direction of rating affects grid measures. Hence, it is suggested to follow Kelly’s chosen way of rating each construct on all elements before moving to the next construct (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 64). This way also seems more meaningful from the point that respondent rather compares elements on different dimensions than simply evaluates each element on those dimensions. This is followed from the initial procedure of the triadic or dyadic elicitation where constructs are elicited by comparison of three or two elements respectively.
Second consideration is whether it would make sense and would be more friendly for a respondent if the left end of the construct is the one that positively evaluated and the right end is with a negative contrast. It sounds right until a construct has a clear positively and negatively evaluated end, for example ‘nasty versus nice’ or ‘evil versus good’. However, not all constructs do have such clear ends and it is hard to judge which end is better, e.g., ‘light versus dark’ or ‘speedy versus calm’. Also, sometimes, one end can be slightly better, but only a little, and vice versa. This can lead to enormous confusion during constructs analysis. Thereby, the form of recording should always follow the rule ‘emergent on the left, and implicit on the right’, regardless of ‘which way round is positively evaluated’ (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 48).
Third consideration arises when a construct does not apply to all of the elements from the element set. How this should be handled in order to conduct further analysis properly, especially, when a certain software is used which is not able to cope with
94 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology missing ratings? Researcher’s task is to let the interviewee express his meanings as precisely as possible and when he cannot provide a rating on a particular element, the researcher should not insist on a rating. Otherwise, it would deform the intended meaning. It is suggested to leave the cell blank without any rating. However, if the software is used which demands the ratings in each cell of the grid the least damage would be to put a neutral mid point rating (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 49).
Fourth issue concerns the turn in which the elements should be rated on a construct. That is, whether interviewer should always ask for the ratings of the elements in the triad first, before getting the ratings of the remaining elements or whether to simply run along the row each time. Jankowicz (2004, p. 47) suggests that, at first, elements from the triad should be rated and then remaining elements. He finds it more logical to the interviewee and simplifies the recording for unpracticed interviewer. Still, he admits that both ways are acceptable.
During conduction of the current study it was assumed that when first asking the respondent to rate the elements from the triad it is likely that respondent would assign extreme ratings to the elements, especially to the element which differs from other two. However, during the rating of remaining elements there could be elements which he would rate more extremely than the one from the triad but, by that moment, he would already used the most extreme rating. To avoid this confusion, the way of rating along the row was applied. By obtained results it is seen that very often elements from a triad were rated less extremely than remaining ones, although still without reversing the ratings unintentionally.
Sometimes, rating value assigned to element from presented triad was neutral, i.e., ‘3’ despite that the contrast pole was defined by consideration of this element. This happens because, at the end of the day, as was pointed by Stewart and colleagues (1981): “the rating figures carry no inherent meaning in themselves, but simply provide a way in which consumers can position the elements in relative terms on each of their construct dimensions, thus, providing the researcher with a richer picture of the overall structure of their construct system” (cited in Marsden and Littler, 2000a).
In general, grid form enables to get closer to the functional meanings of elements and constructs. The interview form and the procedure allow to see how each element is rated on each construct and how each construct is being used, thereby, allowing comparison of both the elements and the constructs respectively.
95 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
4.5.4. Eliciting personal values
Elicitation of personal values within the PCT and RGT is supported by Kelly’s ‘Organization Corollary’ which assumes that personal constructs do not operate in isolation from each other, but form an integrated system comprising ordinal relationships between the constructs (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 186). Therefore, eliciting of personal values implies at first, arriving to the most abstract mental representations which represent personal values and secondly, revealing the relationships between derived personal values.
4.5.4.1. Capturing personal values: laddering up technique
Laddering refers to an in depth, one on one interviewing technique used to develop an understanding of how consumers translate product related knowledge about characteristics and attributes into person or self related knowledge which is meaningful associations with respect to self, following the MEC theory (Reynolds and Gutman, 1988). Laddering up procedure, first described by Hinkle (1965), is designed to elicit increasingly superordinate constructs – constructs of a higher order of abstraction then those elicited from the original triads or dyads of elements. Hence, by giving an interviewee the laddering up task the interviewer arrives at more abstract meanings associated with original constructs (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 186; Marsden and Littler, 2000a).
The procedure represents a discussion between interviewer and respondent using repetitive and interactive questions to dig deeply into the product associative meanings. Based on the elicited respondent’s construct which refers to product characteristics and attributes the value hierarchy begins to be built, where the interviewer derives the reasons for preferences pointed out by the respondent, and thus, moves the answers to the abstraction levels corresponding to consequences and values. The researcher leads the respondent to abstraction by repeatedly asking him “why is this important to you” concerning each arisen level. By sequentially answering this question, the respondent expresses consequences derived from attributes, and personal values that arise from consequences (Veludo de Oliveira et al., 2006). Questions based on the question “why is it important to you” are continually asked until a personal value is revealed (Wansink, 2000).
For example, the interviewer can ask an auto buyer: “Why presence of comfort electronics and technologies in an auto is important to you?” The respondent can
96 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology answer: “Because I can feel myself comfortable and relaxed during the ride”. The interviewer continues: “Why is it important for you to feel relaxed during the ride?” The respondent’s answer can be: “Because it helps me to refresh my strength and, therefore, stay always effective at work”. Interviewer: “Why is it important to stay always effective at work?” Respondent: “Because I want to become successful in my career and realize my professional goals and ambitions”. Thereby, the interviewer arrived to the laddering shown in Table 4.
Personal value professional success and self realization
stay always effective at work Consequences feel comfortable and relaxed during the ride
Product characteristic / attribute comfort electronics and techniques / comfort
Table 4: An example of a ladder derived from one construct
The procedure implies that the product characteristic from which ladder is derived is important to the respondent so that he can associate it with more abstract consequences and, even, with personal values. Therefore, it is another question of the interviewing procedure how to identify important characteristics and attributes among all elicited. This is one of the critical issues which are often discussed by researchers with respect to the laddering up technique. In this work the process of recognizing most preferred and important constructs and construct poles towards which laddering task is to be applied is discussed in 5.3 as it relates to the proposed methodology. In the current part the description of laddering up basic procedure from any specific meaning is discussed in order to illustrate how a personal value can be revealed.
4.5.4.2. Prioritizing personal values: resistance-to-change technique
One of the most important concepts in Rokeach’s (1973) theory of human values implies that once a value is learned by a person, it becomes part of personal value system in which each value is ordered in priority relative to each other (cited in Kamakura and Novak, 1992). It is assumed that most situations in life activate more than one value and often involve a conflict between values, for example, striving for hedonic pleasure and professional achievement. In this case the person uses his
97 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology value system as a tool for conflict resolution and decision making so that self esteem can be maintained or enhanced. Therefore, value system consisting of prioritized personal values, rather than a single value, can provide a more complete understanding of motivational forces driving consumer attitudes and behavior (Kamakura and Novak, 1992).
The resistance to change procedure is a technique designed for identifying which personal values are more important and central and which are less so and, thereby, describing an individual’s hierarchy of personal values.
It is argued that core meanings representing personal values are relatively resistant to change. That is, the more important and central an individual belief, the more important it is for a person to see the world in that way, and the less likely an individual is to change his mind about it. Therefore, in order to recognize which personal values are more important for the individual and which less, he is asked to make a choice between values presented in a way which focuses attention on their relative desirability. The choice is made by a person according to the dominance of desirability of one option over another. Hence, the respondent appears to be ready to compromise on some choices indicating less important values which are relatively more open to change, and he is not ready at all to compromise on the others indicating the bedrock, most important values which are highly resistance to change (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 199).
At first, the first two personal values identified by the laddering technique are presented to the respondent as a choice between ‘experiencing one at the cost of another’ and visa versa. For example, if the first value is ‘A’ versus its contrast ‘ A’ and second value is ‘B’ versus its contrast ‘ B’, such as follows:
A A B B
achievement _ aspirations enjoyment and _ no feel of joy and success failure pleasure of life and gratification
The respondent is presented with a choice between ‘A at the cost of –B’, or ‘B at the cost of –A”. The choice actually makes the respondent to think about how strongly he feels about each personal value and which option has the greatest reward with the least pain.
98 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
In this case the respondent is asked to imagine the choice as an existential one and make a choice between ‘imagine in the future, even at the end of your life, you understand that you have achieved everything you have strived for and gained success, however, you also realize that you do not enjoy your life and there is no gratification and joy in it’, or ‘imagine in the future, even at the end of your life, you understand that your life is full of pleasure, joy and excitement but you have not managed to achieve everything you have been striving for to realize your ambitions and aspirations’. By making the choice between these options the respondent points the value which he prefers over the other. For instance, he chooses the second option being more prepared to compromise on success rather than on the enjoyment of life. On the record sheet the option ‘B at cost of –A’ is marked with ‘yes’ indicating preference of value B over value A (Table 5).
Procedure of resistance to change technique implies presenting the respondent in turn with all pairs of values revealed through laddering up technique. Thus, if there are three revealed personal values, the respondent is asked then to choose between ‘A at the cost of –C’, or ‘C at the cost of –A’ and, afterwards, he is asked to choose between ‘B at the cost of –C’, or ‘C at the cost of –B’. And if there are more values then each value is compared to all the remaining ones as shown in Table 5:
Either Or A B B A Yes A C Yes C A A D Yes D A B C Yes C B B D Yes D B C D D C Yes
Table 5: Subsequent comparison of personal values
When all the values are compared with each other, the number of times that each value is preferred over another is counted. In Table 6 the number of ‘yes’ responses against each personal value is counted and the value hierarchy based on the revealed order is built up. In case of two or more personal values chosen an equal number of times, they are recorded side by side, rather than one above the other.
The hierarchy revealed through resistance to change technique may also identify values that are not sincere and central for a person, but were expressed rather fictitious to seem more meaningful. Such values, if any, are likely to appear at the bottom of the hierarchy.
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Personal Value Times chosen Hierarchy of personal values A 2 B B 3 A C 0 D D 1 C
Table 6: Frequency of value preferences over other ones and a value hierarchy
Another important inference that can be made from the revealed hierarchical value system relates to the subordinate constructs that draw on values and are particularly representatives of these values. The higher the personal value in the hierarchy, the higher its resistant to change and, thus, the representative subordinate constructs, including product knowledge related levels of abstraction, i.e., product attributes, are tend to be similarly resistant to change (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 203).
4.6. Analysis of a repertory grid
Once the RG is elicited, the resulting data matrix is potentially as complex as the rating system allows, and its size depends on the ultimate number of provided or elicited elements and constructs used (Feixas and Alvarez, 1996). There can be a lot of these data, for example, a 4 x 4 grid contains 28 pieces of data and an 8 x 8 grid contains 88 pieces of data which consists of the element figures, construct poles labels and numbers which indicate the relationships between elements and constructs (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 82). The matrix format (Table 3) is a compact representation of a deceptively large amount of information contained in the RG. A researcher is, therefore, faced with a great deal of information which must be processed so that the initial structure can be retained without too much loss of information (Feixas and Alvarez, 1996).
One of the most interesting and attractive features of the RGT is the wide variety of different types of analysis that can be applied to the elicited information (Hessenzahl and Wessler, 2000). Many efforts made to mathematically synthesize the basic structure of RG data so that it can become useful to a researcher, starting from non parametric factor analysis proposed by Kelly himself to the more modern multivariate analyses (Feixas and Alvarez, 1996). This chapter briefly covers the most significant methods proposed in the literature.
Analyzing grid data can be conducted by means of one of or a combination of a number of ways that can broadly be categorized as quantitative or qualitative.
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Furthermore, in order to better understand what is being said in a grid a blend of both, qualitative and quantitative approaches are very often appear useful to be applied.
The RGT permits to capture the meanings where each meaning is expressed by both words and numbers (or symbols). People need words to express and communicate a construct – a dimension through which meaning can be expressed; and they need numbers to describe the elements with respect to that dimension, i.e., “to ascribe the meaning attached to the elements by their positions on the various constructs in the grid” (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 72).
In general, in grid analysis the main task is dual: first is to identify a participant’s meanings, and second, is to draw whatever implications seem to be appropriate to the investigator depending on his research objectives (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 72).
Originally, Kelly proposed the first system for summarizing grid data using dichotomous scores (described in 4.3.4) with an implication of a form of non parametric factor analysis that could be done by hand. Although Kelly’s creative mathematical contribution was admitted and appreciated, it is only applicable to the dichotomically scored grids what certainly limits overall RGT’s potential.
Nowadays, the amount of approaches and techniques to be used for grid analysis is numerous however most of them present original as well as forms or modifications of four principle methods of analysis that are traditionally being used (Stewart et al., 1981):
Frequency counts;
Content analysis;
Cluster analysis;
Principal component analysis.
The first two methods can be described as qualitative approaches which are concerned with analyzing the contents of the grid. Two remaining are quantitative approaches which also analyze the inter relationships contained in the grid. Choice of the method will depend on the purpose of the grid and what aspects of the
101 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology person’s construct system a researcher wants to understand (Gutierrez, 1989 cited in Marsden and Littler, 2000b; Stewart et al., 1981).
The first two methods are usually used for analyzing more than one grid. They are aimed at finding commonalities and coincidences between grids either from different people or from one person but elicited on several occasions or in different time.
The remaining twp methods are mainly intended for analyzing relationships between constructs and/or elements within a single grid. They include more mathematical and statistical procedures and mainly deal with the structure of the information captured in repertory grid rather than its content (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 93; Stewart et al., 1981).
4.6.1. Qualitative methods for repertory grid analysis
4.6.1.1. Frequency counts
Frequency counts allow to count the number of times a particular element or a construct is mentioned. When elements and constructs are not supplied during the elicitation procedure, the number of times a certain element or construct has been stated in response to eliciting question gives a useful insight in itself and can be valuable when comparing different people or groups of people and revealing common trends. It can be especially useful when elements are elicited by using identical elicitation categories (described in 4.5.1) revealing elements which can be different as instances, i.e., different brands, products, people or events but present the same set of categories. The number of mentioned elements which can be, for example, different brands of a certain product category may already contribute to the understanding the topic in question (Stewart et al., 1981).
Defining the index of frequency of constructs is often more complicated and requires complementary methods because different interviewees may rarely produce identical constructs in terms of used wording. As one of the solutions, one can select a fairly common construct or group of constructs and make a pattern to see how they are used but he needs to be careful to bring misleading when similarly sounded constructs imply absolutely different meanings revealed during the laddering procedure (Stewart et al., 1981). Therefore, frequency counts often appear more appropriate regarding elements, whereas, classification of different constructs as well as of different types of constructs provided by interviewees is usually conducted by means of content analysis (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 146).
102 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
Some authors, for example Stewart, V., Stewart, A., and Fonda, N. (1981) differentiate frequency analysis and content analysis putting them in one list of variety of methods used for repertory grid analysis (Stewart et al., 1981). Green (2004), however, assigns frequency count analysis as one of three basic approaches to content analysis. The procedure of frequency analysis basically presents the simplified content analysis where the content itself doesn’t need to be interpreted and coded before counting for coincidences. Still, as frequently counts method has got its own procedure based on certain terms, it does have a right to be considered as an independent method. In this study it is adhered to the Stewart’s and her colleagues’ definition but this question is only a matter of definitions and it is up to the reader which definition to accept.
4.6.1.2. Content analysis
Content analysis is a set of techniques that have a potential to assist in examining different kinds of verbalized or other meaningful data including grid content. It is a common type of category generation that involves revealing of patterns in the data and then assigning each pattern into a category (Highlen and Finley, 1996). According to Krippendorf (2004), “content analysis is a research technique for making replicable and valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful matter) to the contexts of their use” (cited in Green, 2004). This definition contains three fundamental features of content analysis, namely (Green, 2004): a. The findings from a content analysis should be able to be replicated by others; b. The analysis should measure what it claims to measure; c. Content analysis is not limited to textual data.
A variety of different approaches to content analysis is available to researchers, however, three basic ones can be emphasized. The first is to examine the co occurrence of words. That means to count how many times a combination of certain words is used together. The second is to code the text units (e.g., words, sentences or paragraphs) using some form of coding scheme (Green, 2004).
Green (2004) describes three basic approaches including frequency counts and two described in the previous paragraph. The first two approaches, i.e., frequency counts and words co occurrence are more likely to be suited to relatively larger texts
103 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology because the likelihood of the same word repeating a number of times or two words appearing together will always be less than the likelihood of either word appearing individually because of the relatively small number of words provided in the grid in general.
Coding of text units is an approach which is mostly used in PCP research (Green, 2004). The analysis of data is a non linear simultaneous process of brining order, structure and meaning to the data in search for general statements about relationships among categories of this data (Highlen and Finley, 1996). The central here is ‘meaning’ and the objective is to try to understand the content and complexity of those meanings derived from participants rather than take some measures of frequency (Smith, 1995).
Some concerns regarding interpretation of individual meaning made researchers either to refuse application of content analysis or, as later, to find explanation and solution to overcome confusion.
The first concern suggested by Kelly (1995) is that constructs are not necessarily equivalent to word labels. Four possible relationships that may exist between construct meanings and word labels are emphasized (Shaw, 1994): a. Agreement between construct meanings and word labels; b. Different words being used for the same construct meanings; c. The same word being used for different construct meanings; d. Different words being used for different construct meanings.
Second concern is that individual meaning cannot be readily categorized by another person, especially in the absence of elaboration or understanding of context and application (Yorke, 1989). Kelly (1995) meant that in order to avoid serious misinterpretation of respondent’s meaning, a researcher should realize that he is setting out to learn a new language rather than relying on presumption that the respondent agrees with the dictionary (cited in Green, 2004).
Thus, researchers need to find the proper ways or improve the existing ones to interpret personal meanings more accurately. One of the defining aspects in considering the trustfulness and precision of interpretation is related to the nature of 104 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology coding process. That is, an important difference in application of content analysis provides whether the categories utilized are theory driven or data driven (Simon and Xenos, 2004; Stewart et al., 1981).
Theory driven content analysis categorize data in terms of categories developed beforehand on the basis of theory or on empirical grounds, whereas data driven approach develops the categories from the raw data.
“Theory driven approaches are more transparent, more readily applied by others and make explicit assumptions, which may not be as apparent in data driven approaches” (Green, 2004).
Theory driven approaches have acquired a certain criticism regarding its limitations. The main problem is that it is hard to develop a category coding scheme which will cover all the constructs elicited afterwards. In most studies utilizing theory driven code schemas a major issue is how constructs that come from different domains should be treated. Categories, especially when derived from not RGT based data, are often formulated in one or two words which can bear rather universal meanings or originally imply different meanings than those current researcher wants to attach and ascribe constructs to them (Green, 2004). In the RGT constructs are usually coded as bipolar entity rather than both poles are coded separately, and the problem arises when construct poles appear to relate to different aspects and, therefore, coding such a construct into a single predefined category becomes problematic.
Another disadvantage of theory driven categorization is that it limits the range of purposes for which the RGT can be used. Stewart with her colleagues (1981) provides an example of a study which purpose is to test whether the predetermined categories in the questionnaire developed to examine the meanings of co workers really reflect the aspects used by these people when talking about the matter. The findings showed that four aspects in the questionnaire were not used by people at all, whereas four other aspects not presented in the questionnaire were revealed.
Data driven categories employed in the content analyses are much more flexible and appealing because categories are derived from and, thus, closer to the raw data. A researcher does not need to force data into predetermined categories that may sometimes not be applicable to the data at all (Green, 2004).
105 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
The major advantage of data driven approach is that categories reflect the constructs they were developed from. This enables to recognize new patterns, domains and categories which are specific for current topic and, maybe, were overlooked during previous research studies.
There are, however, concerns which make researchers look for solutions.
One of the disadvantages of data driven approach is the potential for low replicability by others, especially, when there is no accurate and apparent technique for coding development being adopted.
Another concern is about the fact that data driven approaches involve construing the constructs of others by a certain person (or several people). This fact gives rise to following concern about the reliability of construing. When one is authorized to interpret and develop categories based on the raw data, it is obvious that very often the results will meet some disagreements from others because, according to Kelly’s Individuality Corollary, each individual not only construes things differently but also interprets other’s meanings in different ways. Therefore, resolving potential disagreements may cause difficulties.
In solution, Honey (1979) has proposed the use of additional coders to resist potential bias of the codes, i.e., categories developer. However, there is no evidence in literature of how many coders should be involved. Moreover, Krippendorf (2004) warned against additional coders because “they are more likely to be aware of the researcher’s aims or general approach and are less likely to be truly independent” what causes another kind of coders’ bias (cited in Green, 2004).
In general, data driven approach is favored by researchers working in business and management field (Honey, 1979, Jankowicz, 2004, p. 169; Stewart et al., 1981; Wright, 2004). It is recommended by these authors to cut up all respondents’ single grids so that each elicited construct appears on a separate sheet and then to sort constructs into groups all together revealing common patterns (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 151; Green, 2004).
In order to decide which approach should be employed it is important to consider the respective advantages and limitations, as well as the range of available approaches. It is also suggested to apply a combination of theory and data derived categories
106 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
(Stewart et al., 1981). A different hybrid approach proposed by Honey (1979) implies an enclosure of supplied constructs which permit to sum individual’s perspective on the topic in question.
In the current study the data driven approach of categorization is applied because the main interest of research lies, first of all, in exploring peculiarities, commonalities and utilized language of customers from another culture as well as their environment and mentality aspects associated with the research topic.
4.6.1.3. Honey’s content analysis
Traditional content analysis approaches allow to categorize different meanings expressed in a set of grids. However, traditional content analysis does not use all the available information given in the grids. Thus, ratings of elements on constructs are completely ignored in content analysis.
Honey (1979) developed a technique which permits to make use of individual meanings being expressed by person’s ratings. It is based on the Kelly’s assumptions that constructs are organized into a system (Organizational Corollary) and that some constructs are more important and central to the person’s views and knowledge about the topic while others even though relevant to the topic, are minor. The personal construing system is not monolithic and it can be expected that while there is certainly some kind of consistency among the constructs a person uses, some constructs are particularly related to the discussed matter and carry more meaning about the topic while others may bring secondary notes which do not reflect “what the whole thing is really all about” (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 170).
Honey (1979) argued that the researcher is interested in exploring the individual understanding of the topic in question and at the end all the elicited constructs are more or less related to the “ overall issue a person has in mind when thinking about the topic ”. He proposed at the end of the elicited list of constructs to supply an overall assessment construct designed to sum up the interviewee’s individual attitude to the topic as a whole. For instance, if a grid is made to explore customers’ preferences among different brands of a certain product, the supplied construct could be “overall, absolutely satisfied – overall, absolutely unsatisfied”.
Obtainment of the ratings on the overall construct gives an opportunity to compare overall construct with all other constructs and see how close ratings on each
107 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology particular construct match the ratings on the overall construct. Constructs which match highly with the overall construct represent what the person strongly felt and thought about the topic, overall and constructs matching less highly also represent what the person felt and thought about the topic, overall, however, somewhat less strongly (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 170).
Two indices are used to reflect the extent of match between elicited and overall constructs. The first index is called “percentage similarity score” (PSS). This index reflects the actual similarity between constructs. Second, “H I L” index allows to aggregate constructs across the sample taking into account the fact that people differ in their typical percentage similarity scores (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 171).
1. The Percentage similarity score (PSS) index
The PSS index is based on counting the differences between the ratings along the rows of the grid, where each row represents ratings on particular construct. At first, absolute differences between each two ratings on the particular and overall constructs corresponding to the same elements need to be found and summarized (Formula 1). Each sum of differences indicates how small or high the difference is and, therefore, how similar the constructs are. Some authors prefer the term ‘distance’ between the constructs rather than ‘difference’, however, the implied meaning and the formula remain the same for a conventional grid (Bhatia and Yao, 1993).
If repertory grid consists of ratings on n elements and m constructs so that the sum of differences is denoted by D j D j′ and is given as
n
D j, j' = ∑ rij − rji ′ , (Formula 1) i=1
where rij is the rating assigned to element Ei with respect to the construct C j .
The similarity then between the two constructs, i.e., the PSS which is denoted as
σ ' can be computed as j, j
200%× D j, j' σ ' =100% − , (Formula 2) j, j (k − )1 × n
108 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology where k is the maximum possible rating. So ( k 1) is the largest possible difference between ratings and ( k 1) × n is the largest possible sum of differences between constructs in the whole grid.
The constructs are bipolar and each element can be rated on the construct in both ways, running from ‘1’ to ‘5’ (on the 5 point scale) or running from ‘5’ to ‘1’ when expressions at each pole of the construct are reversed. The expressed meanings regarding personal attitude and preference to one of the poles remain the same, however, relationships between meanings of reversed constructs with remain constructs may change. Table 7 shows two constructs on which six elements are being rated. The sum of difference computed according to Formula 1 is 16 (whereas the largest possible sum of difference is (5 1)×6 = 24), which is rather large and demonstrates weak relationships between the constructs.
Triad combination E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 Sum of Difference, DjDj′ 1 5 E1 E3 E6 Construct A Speedy 2 4 5 5 3 1 Calm
E2 E4 E5 Construct B Large 4 2 2 1 5 4 Compact
r − r ' 223423 16 ij ij
Table 7: Relationship between two constructs about six elements
However, basic grid elicitation procedure implies that the way both poles are written down in the grid depends on what has been expressed as similarity and what was expressed as contrast during the triadic comparison. It is suggested as a convenient way of recording the elicited information which helps to quickly see where the elicited information is coming from. Triads are used just as combinations of elements in order to encourage fresh constructs and are offered arbitrary. Most important is the meaning expressed when person was comparing some triad but not the triad itself or on which pole of the construct which meaning is placed (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 109).
In Table 7 for construct A a triad composed of elements E1, E3 and E6 was offered. Elements E1 and E6 are defined as similar in that they are both “speedy” and, hence, this emergent pole is written down on the left, indicating the ‘1’ end of the scale.
If the triad offered for eliciting construct B was E2, E4 and E5 and element E2 is defined similar with E4 as more or less ‘large’, whereas E5 is considered as ‘compact’, the construct is to be written down as shown in Table 7.
109 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
However, if the same domain implicated in construct B was elicited from another triad, for example, E4, E5, E6 where now E5 and E6 are construed similar as ‘compact’, then the pole ‘compact’ should be written on the left as a similarity meaning defining the ‘1’ end of the scale. In this case the ratings on construct B would be given as shown in Table 8.
Triad combination E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 Sum of Difference, DjDj′ 1 5 E1 E3 E6 Construct A Speedy 2 4 5 5 3 1 Calm
E4 E5 E6 Construct B Compact 2 4 4 5 1 2 Large
r − r ' 0 0 1 0 2 1 4 ij ij
Table 8: Relationship between two constructs showing a reversal
It can be seen that both ways of recording the construct B express the same meanings, although, in Table 8 the sum of difference is 4 what already demonstrates close relationship between two constructs and in particular between meanings of emergent poles and between meanings of implicit poles respectively.
As exemplified, it is very important that construct analysis takes into account the possible reversed relationship between constructs when calculating construct similarity. The calculation should be conducted twice, once with each construct as it stands and once with the ratings being the same of the first of compared constructs and ‘reversed’ of the second of compared constructs. It is apparent that if ratings of both constructs are reversed the sum of difference and, therefore, constructs’ PSS would be the same as without construct reverse (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 108).
Coming back to the calculation of construct similarity (Formula 2), in order to take into account possible reversed construct relationships the range of the percentage scale should be spread over a 200% point scale. Hence, the proportion is multiplied by 200%, but not by 100% (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 115; Bhatia and Yao, 1993). Subtraction from 100% turns the percentage sum of difference into a percentage similarity score. Similarity and difference are calculated in proportion Thereby, the percentage permits to compare the extant to which pairs of constructs are matched when grids to be compared have different amount of elements.
200%× 4 The PSS in the provided example is: σ =100% − = 66 7, % A,B 5( − )1 × 6
110 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
Constructs compared to demonstrate calculation of PSS are rather elicited according to their meanings. However, the same way ‘overall assessment’ construct can be compared with any elicited one.
2. The „H I L” index
The „H I L” index allows to analyze a group of individuals and to compare similarity scores within a single grid with those of other grids and, thereby, to identify relevance of each individual construct to general matter of the interview.
It is recognized that people have different construct similarity metrics. Their ranges of PSSs for any topic may differ. For example, supposing in one interview the highest PSS between given elicited constructs and overall construct is 100% and the lowest is 80%, whereas in another interview where the person tends towards seeing many different aspects when thinking about the topic, the highest PSS may be 85% and the lowest, 55%. In this case, PSS of 82% indicates comparatively very similar meanings between constructs for the second person and lies towards the bottom of the range of similarity for the first person.
Therefore, the PSS index represents a relative value and Honey’s procedure is aimed at assigning the actual percentage value of PSS index to either ‘high’, ‘intermediate’ or ‘low’ (‘H I L’) values for a particular individual. Then, for example, when selecting constructs with similar meaning and with high similarity scores, researcher should focus attention on constructs with individually high rather than simply high PSSs, i.e., PSSs which are particularly high for the given individual who provided that particular constructs (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 171). As a result, the aggregated set of constructs, on the one hand, represents the categorized views, i.e., clusters of constructs on which there is a consensus across the sample of interviewees and, on the other hand, preserves information about each individual’s views in terms of personal relevance to the topic.
The steps for accomplishing Honey’s technique have the following consequence:
1. Ratings on a supplied overall construct are obtained.
2. Sums of differences for each construct against the overall construct are calculated according to the formula provided in Formula 1. In order to check for reversals, i.e., if the sum of differences is smaller when one of the two constructs is
111 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology reversed, at first, the sum of difference is computed between overall construct and elicited construct. Secondly, the sum of differences is computed between reversed overall construct and remaining unreversed elicited construct. The smaller sum is then being noted.
3. Turn all computed sums of differences into PSSs (Formula 2), therefore, ensuring comparability with other grids.
4. Within each grid the H , I and L value intervals to be defined and each construct is labeled according to the calculated score. The highest, intermediate and lowest thirds defined by
Li = li
h − l L < l + i i i i 3
h − l I = l + i i i i 3
(2 h − l ) I < l + i i i i 3
(2 h − l ) H = l + i i i i 3
Hi = hi
Where:
hi and li – are the highest and lowest PSS between elicited construct ci and overall construct respectively;
Li and Li – are the lower and the higher boundaries of the L value interval;
Ii and Ii – are the lower and the higher boundaries of the I value interval;
H i and H i – are the lower and the higher boundaries of the H value interval.
112 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
When all the elicited constructs within the single grid are assigned with H I L indices, those constructs that are labeled with ‘H’ index represent most relevant constructs to the overall assessment construct and, thus, contain meanings that reflect what the person particularly had in mind when thinking about the topic, even though, within their category they may be different in meaning covering different aspect of the topic. Constructs assigned with ‘L’ index appear less salient to the overall topic.
Procedure of Honey’s technique described in this section is demonstrated in Table 9. The used RG represents the one shown in Table 3 as an example of elicited RG. Similarity between elicited constructs with overall supplied construct is calculated. The reversed ratings of the overall construct are shown at the bottom, below the construct unreversed ratings. The unreversed sums of differences are shown below each construct, on the left. The reversed sums of differences are shown below, on the right. All sums of differences are turned into the PSSs. For each construct the higher of the two values of PSS (for unreversed and reversed) are chosen and shown in bold. The constructs are labeled (letters in bold below each construct, in the middle) by H , I and L values taking individual’s personal metric into account where the highest PSS is 100% and the lowest PSS is 30%. Table 9 demonstrates how grid data is complemented with Honey’s technique estimations. Interpretation and inferences which can be derived from this will be discussed in 7.2.2.
When analyzing all the grids where constructs are ascribed to categories, a certain consensus between the respondents can be revealed.
If most of the H I L indices are high within one category it signifies that the category, i.e., attribute which the category represents is relevant and important for all or most of the respondents in the sample and, therefore, important for the sample as a whole.
If most of the H I L indices are low within the category, it signifies that the sample as a whole agree that the attribute does not relate particularly well to the topic in general.
If the H I L indices are mixed within the category, especially if there are mostly either ‘H’ or ‘L’ indices, the researcher should pay special attention to the respondents of the sample and the category because such a division may reveal a presence of latent group among the sample for which the attribute presented by the category is
113 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology important and relevant to the topic in general despite the fact that for other respondents of the sample it is less salient.
emergent pole (1) PC Mac G3 iMac G4 eMac Ideal implicit pole (5) 1 2 5 4 5 Unreversed Reversed Looks boxy and 'standard' The looks are to die for Sum of Diffs. 16 H Sum of Diffs. 0 PSS(%) 60 PSS(%) 100 1 2 4 2 1 Unreversed Reversed Large range of software Smaller range of software Sum of Diffs. 9 L Sum of Diffs. 7 PSS(%) 10 PSS(%) 30 1 3 5 2 5 Unreversed Reversed Slow performer Fast Sum of Diffs. 13 I Sum of Diffs. 3 PSS(%) 30 PSS(%) 70 5 1 1 2 1 Unreversed Reversed Easy to set up Difficult to set up Sum of Diffs. 3 I Sum of Diffs. 15 PSS(%) 70 PSS(%) 50 5 2 1 3 1 Unreversed Reversed Good build quality Flimsy build Sum of Diffs. 3 I Sum of Diffs. 13 PSS(%) 70 PSS(%) 30 2 3 1 1 1 Unreversed Reversed Easy to upgrade Upgrade is a dealer job Sum of Diffs. 5 L Sum of Diffs. 13 PSS(%) 50 PSS(%) 30 1 1 4 5 5 Unreversed Reversed Difficult to move Transportable Sum of Diffs. 17 I Sum of Diffs. 3 PSS(%) 70 PSS(%) 70 Unreversed 5 4 1 2 1 Appropriate for my work Doesn't fit properly Reversed 1 2 5 4 5
Table 9: Repertory grid using Honey’s technique
In this work it is proposed that the relevance of the elicited constructs to the supplied construct identified by application of Honey’s technique can also be applied regarding not just overall assessment construct representing the general topic of the grid but also regarding constructs representing subthemes of the survey. While the general importance of the elicited constructs can be identified by other approaches, for example, supplying the ‘ideal’ element, the relevance of constructs to a concrete question which researcher is interested in within the general topic can be revealed by
114 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology supplying the construct which would reflect the question and comparing it with other constructs by analogy with the described technique. This is demonstrated in the empirical part of the work.
4.6.2. Quantitative methods for repertory grid analysis
When conducting an empirical study using the RGT analysis of several individual grids aimed at exploration of similarities and differences in content and structure of consumers’ individual and collective personal construct systems can be pursued. The main methodological problem is to find a way of aggregating the information from all participants without destroying the phenomena of individuality of each personal world (Jankowicz, 1990).
It was George Kelly (1955), the founder of PCP theory who had first suggested to analyze psychological space by means of statistical approaches. He invented a nonparametric form of factor analysis for RG. Later two major contributions were made to the history of RG quantitative analysis.
• The first contribution was made by Patrick Slater (1964, 1976, 1977) who developed a computer program “Ingrid” based on application of “The Principal Components of a repertory grid” (Slater, 1964).
• The second significant contribution was the adoption of cluster analysis for RG data (Jankowicz and Thomas, 1982; Shaw, 1980).
There was also an attempt in suggesting multidimensional scaling within multivariate methods for grid analysis, but it did not receive a wide use as well as adoption in computer programs (Feixas and Alvarez, 1996). Most of computer programs developed for analyzing grid data and most of conducted researches using quantitative methods still use for RG analysis principal component analysis and cluster analysis or derivatives of them (Fromm, o. J.).
For those researchers who are not familiar with statistics the quickest, simplest and most effective method for interpreting grid data is counting simple frequencies. However, for those who have got proper grounding in statistical procedures it is suggested that repertory grids can be analyzed with standard computer statistics packages (Bell, 1994).
115 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
Originally, the RG was devised as an interview based or paper and pencil technique. A number of computer packages have been developed for their elicitation and analysis which are constantly being used by contemporary researchers. The thing is, when using a RG in clinical purposes for understanding meanings about a certain topic of a particular person, it is better to analyze constructs and ratings by means of paper, pencil and professional look. However, since the technique is used in a variety of disciplines where one of the aims of research is to aggregate the information from a number of RGs or from a great grid consisting of a large number of constructs, it became more helpful to conduct a comprehensive analysis by means of computer program to recognize larger patterns. Computer software is also helpful as it provides a graphical illustration so that some relationships between constructs or elements can be seen at a first glance.
Despite the fact that there is a number of excellent programs which offer certain analysis tools, repertory grid research deals with a large number of variables and pursues different objectives to be reached and the programs may or may not match the needs of a specific research project. None of the packages is a complete solution to all the possible repertory grid designs and there is no one best way to interpret grid data (Shaw and McKnight, 1981 cited in Hadley, 1996). Most important is to remember as Easterby Smith (1980, p. 17) says: “ the interpretation of grid data is very much an art and not a technology”. So the researcher is relatively free to choose the way of interpreting grid data “so long as it is well informed and consistent with repertory grid theory” (Hadley, 1996).
In this study the analysis are carried out by means of a popular WEBGRID IV program developed by Brian R. Gaines and Mildred L. G. Shaw (Bell, 2003). It is a Web version of REPGRID program (Shaw, 1989) available via the Internet which offers “the capability to elicit and analyze grids over the Internet or a local network with customized interactive dialogs and privacy of data” (Gaines and Shaw, 2005).
Some peculiarities of the RG form such as bipolarity of constructs and consideration of construct reversing make application of software which is not developed specially for RGT rather problematic and effort consuming. A variety of computer packages for RGT analysis is provided by Bell (see 2003 for description of different software). The program chosen for this study provides all the necessary analysis tools for proposed
116 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology methodology. Besides, it has friendly, clear design without any additional complexity what makes its practical use suitable in business and managerial applications.
4.6.2.1. Hierarchical cluster analysis
Technique that is used for highlighting the relationships in a grid so that they become visible at a glance is called Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA). Originally, clustering methods are based on analysis of correlations, however, for grid analysis the HCA of distances, also called “Focus” or “focusing”, is commonly adopted (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 87). This method sorts and rearranges rows (constructs) and columns (elements) of the grid so that simultaneously similarly rated elements are situated together and similarly rated constructs are situated together both being displayed in same dendrogram. Such ‘focusing’ of the structure gives the technique its name.
In the WEBGRID IV package, used in the current study, one of the supplied tools is called “Focus sorting and hierarchical clustering”. This tool was firstly designed and presented in FOCUS program (Thomas and Shaw, 1976) and then, later, in REPGRID (Shaw, 1989) which became one of the earliest computer programs designed to carry out clustering of repertory grid data (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 88; Thomas and Shaw, 1976). The program utilizes the city block distance metric rather than the common Euclidian distance metric (Shaw, 1980, p. 159) (see Appendix 2 for more details on metrics).
In an output of HCA the PSS (in the software term ‘matching’ is used for PSS) of both adjacent elements and adjacent constructs are presented in numeric form as well as in a dendrogram like is shown further in Figure 11.
There are other general statistical packages such as SPSS, BMDP, CLUSTAN and G PACK which analyze the clusters. However, as above mentioned, the hierarchical clustering presented in the FOCUS and REPGRID (WEBGRID) programs has significant advantage over other statistical packages of taking into account the bipolarity of the constructs. Thus, if two constructs are very different in their ratings a distance coefficient is high indicating independence between the constructs. However, as constructs represent bipolar dimensions, if one construct is reversed a strong association between constructs may be revealed. Therefore, when distance coefficient between constructs is high it is difficult to determine whether it indicates inverted association or constructs independence. The “Focus” tool of WEBGRID
117 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology reverses the two poles of one of the constructs by replacing scores (e.g. a ‘1’ becomes a ‘5’ and a ‘2’ becomes a ‘4’, etc.) and, basically, establishes a single direction of construing between each pair of constructs (Feixas and Alvarez, 1996). As a result, those constructs that are more similar to others when being reversed, are printed out so.
Reading of HCA outcome
This part is focused on reading and understanding of relationships between RG components revealed by HCA produced by WEBGRID in a form of dendrogram and supported figures (the term “Focus Cluster” is used for HCA outcome in the WEBGRID software). The example of RG represents one of the elicited grids of the current study. However, interpretation of underlying meanings is not presented in this part and will be provided in the next chapter. The description here is stressed only on the reading of quantitative analysis outcome where the RG form is used as an example, therefore, reader should not pay attention to the expressed meanings provided (therewith, expressed constructs are not fully provided but only bipolar categories they were assigned to) but only bear in mind the bipolarity nature of constructs elicited to describe elements set and rated on the 5 point scale according to the described earlier in this work RG elicitation procedure. The elicited individual grid is displayed in Figure 10 where elicited constructs form grid’s rows and elicited elements form grid’s columns. To the left is the emergent pole and to the right the implicit pole of a construct. The elements are printed out in turn they were originally elicited (The numeric indications in front of emergent poles stand for the number of construct, therefore, it can serve as numeration of constructs which will be rearranged during analysis and also can serve as an indicator of emergent pole which also may be placed to the other side in case of construct reverse).
Figure 10: Display of elicited repertory grid
118 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
In Figure 11 the elements are rearranged and constructs are rearranged and reversed so that the construct poles to the left of the grid are the ‘1’ end of the scale, and those poles to the right are the ‘5’ end. The rating values of ‘4’ and ‘5’ are produced dark shaded, whereas ratings of ‘1’ and ‘2’ are left unshaded and rating values of ‘3’ are given light shading. This reproduction of the grid is given in order to highlight the clusters and make the identification of “blocks” within the “focused” grid even more visualized and clear (McKnight, 2000).
The PSS of constructs/elements can be found if to follow adjacent lines from two constructs/elements till they meet at a common apex and then further to the scale. This “tree” structure which reflects the % similarity scores for adjacent constructs is actually a construct dendrogram of the grid. Ditto for the adjacent elements and element dendrogram (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 121). General dendrogram comprising both construct and element dendrograms illustrates the strength of association between elements and between constructs.
Figure 11: Graphic plot (dendrogram) of HCA of the grid
Constructs R reversed PSS (%) 8 1 R 100 45 90 53 R 90 13 85 87 R 85 26 70 46 70
Table 10: Links between constructs
119 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
Elements PSS (%) iMac G4 Ideal 87.5 eMac Ideal 71.9 PC Mac G3 59.4 Mac G3 eMac 59.4
Table 11: Links between elements
Sort of elements iMac G4 Ideal eMac Mac G3 PC
Table 12: Element sort after cluster rearrangement
Sort of constructs 2 6 4 5 3R 1R 8 7R
Table 13: Construct sort after cluster rearrangement
High matches between constructs indicate that the relevant constructs distinguish identically or similarly between the majority of elements. High matches between the elements signify that the elements share identical or similar ratings on the majority of constructs (Dillon and McKnight, 1990).
In Figure 11 if the cutoff point is 75%, i.e., if to break up any associations whose matching score is less than 75%, 1 major cluster of constructs is identified consisting of constructs 1, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8; constructs 2 and 4 stand apart not referring to any cluster.
The match of 100% between reversed construct 1 and construct 8 means that elements that are seen as having ‘The looks are to die’ have a very strong tendency to be seen as ‘Appropriate for my work’ and those that are seen as ‘Looks boxy and 'standard'’ are likely to be perceived as ‘Doesn't fit properly’. Rather strong resemblance, 90%, is seen between meanings ‘Easy to set up Difficult to set up’ and ‘Good build quality – Flimsy build’ (constructs 4 and 5) as well as between meanings ‘Good build quality – Flimsy build’ and ‘Fast Slow performer’ (construct 5 and reversed construct 3). Less strongly alike but still significantly, 85%, are constructs ‘Looks boxy and 'standard' The looks are to die’ and ‘Slow performer –
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Fast’ (constructs 1 and 3); and ‘Appropriate for my work Doesn't fit properly’ and ‘Transportable Difficult to move’ (construct 8 and reversed construct 7). It is important that similarity between construct meanings should be interpreted according to the way poles are rearranged.
Similar inferences can be made considering elements. Thus, focusing on the columns, i.e., the elements 1 cluster is sorted out if to take a 75% cutoff level. This cluster includes elements ‘Ideal’ and ‘iMac G4’. Although, these elements are comprised in a cluster their match is only 87% what indicates that ‘iMac G4’ still does not entirely fit the person’s image of an ideal product. Elements ‘PC’ and ‘Mac G3’ appeared isolate and stand out. Element ‘eMac’ stands also out from the main cluster, however, differs less strongly from the element ‘Ideal’ than other two isolate elements. By using here the term ‘isolate’ it should be borne in mind that although these elements do not match with other elements at 75% or higher, they still join a general cluster by the 59% and 72% level respectively (McKnight, 2000).
The ‘Focus’ display of HCA allows a convenient illustration of variance graphically what helps the researcher to get a first view of similarities or differences (Björklund, 2005).
4.6.2.2. Principal component analysis
Principal component analysis (PCA) permits, on the one hand, to analyze relationships between constructs and elements within a single analysis, i.e., analysis of one individual grid and, on the other hand, to group together the persons’ constructs and reveal the relationships between them (Easterby Smith et al., 1996). PCA indicates how different constructs group together and where different elements are placed in relation to these. Besides, it indicates the statistical distance of each element from any other (Senior, 1996).
When talking about PCA, two different calculation procedures can be implied, first, calculation of the eigenvalue decomposition of a data covariance matrix and, second, singular value decomposition of a data matrix, often after mean centering the data for each attribute. The results of these two calculation procedures are expressed in terms of component scores and loadings (Shaw, 2003). In this description both procedures of decomposition are named as PCA, however some authors distinguish the methods and apply the term PCA to the first procedure and the term singular
121 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology value decomposition (SVD) to the second method emphasizing its independency as a statistical method.
It is important to note that PCA used for grid analysis differs from the original statistical method of principal component analysis. One of the most significant contributions to the advance in RG mathematical analysis was made by Patrick Slater who introduced a most widely known method for representing both constructs and elements. Slater proclaimed the method as “The Principal Components of a repertory grid” (Slater, 1964), however, the mathematical procedure was, actually, SVD and this fact caused later a lot of confusion in the literature.
The SVD is a technique which implies a linear transformation which is often used in pattern recognition, i.e., to explore structures in multivariate data. A matrix such as RG can be approximated by another matrix of a lower rank. As a mathematical procedure it means that a number of variables (elements or constructs) are translated into a lesser number of composite variables (principal components) which explain the maximum possible variance (Feixas and Alvarez, 1996).
Further in this study the term PCA is adopted for the analysis name as most of literature and computer packages devoted to the RG use the term PCA bearing in mind SVD as an underpinning mathematical procedure. As the procedure is developed and computerized for specialized software for a long time, its accuracy and validity are assumed to be proved. The study is not aimed at providing a comprehensive description of difference between calculation procedures of SVD and PCA. At the end, both SVD and PCA are data compression techniques for determining a set of weighted linear composites (principal components) of original variables such that each principal component is uncorrelated with the others. In marketing research it is rather important to understand an outcome produced by the analysis tool provided by the software in order to make inferences and an accurate interpretation of data.
Principal components identified through the analysis are used as the axes where the constructs are plotted according to their factor loadings. Thereby, a certain representation of a grid is produced which presents a useful map for further grid interpretation (Feixas and Alvarez, 1996, Easterby Smith et al., 1996). An essential interpretation of this analysis is that the greater the amount of variance that an
122 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology element or construct accounts for within the overall RG data, the more important they are (Metzler and Neimeyer, 1988).
Reading of the PCA map
The PCA map produced by PCA tool of the software (the term “PrinGrid map” is used for PCA outcome in the WEBGRID software) contains the information about relationships between constructs, between elements, and between the constructs and the elements. The analysis tool provides a number of tables and graphs for the data (Easterby Smith et al., 1996).
First of all, the PCA tool provides a table with the percentage of variance accounted for by each component, as shown in Table 14.
1 Component 2 Component 3 Component 4 Component Percentage, % 76.38 15.50 5.09 3.03 Cumulative % 76.38 91.88 96.97 100.00
Table 14: Percentage of variance accounted for by each component
The information is then presented in a form of series of graphs. Each graph plots columns (elements) and rows (constructs) according to their arrangement with respect to the principal components as shown in a Figure 12.
Figure 12: Graphic plot of PCA of the grid
123 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
The vertical and horizontal axes stand for the first two components and plotted at right angles to each other reflecting the maximal distinguish between two components as patterns in the original grid data. One plot reproduces any two of all revealed principal components.
The textual output of the data underlying the plot contains tables with constructs (rows) and elements (components) loadings on each component. The absolute values of the loadings produced are arbitrary and depend on how the grid data was scaled. Only the relative values are meaningful. Therefore, in the resulting plot distances between lines, points and poles are important and can be meaningfully interpreted (Gaines and Shaw, 2005).
To produce the plot the grid is treated as if the elements were points plotted in an n dimensional space defined by the constructs as axes centered on the means of the elements. The data is then rotated through principal components analysis to spread the elements out as much as possible in a 2 dimensional plot. As a technical note, PCA map carries out an analysis of the double centered matrix of distances between elements with all construct ranges scaled to be the same (because the software supports grids with constructs having differing ranges) (Gaines and Shaw, 2005). This analysis is equivalent to a principal components analysis of the construct variance matrix which is the basis of most grid analysis packages emulating Slater's (1976; 1977) “Ingrid” (Gower, 1966).
John Gower showed in his work (1966) that it is not always possible to recognize different patterns (components) in the original sample of data and “these must be first found by using an analysis based on similarities or distances which do not allow for within data correlation”. He pointed that very often an interpretation of such methods as PCA and factor analysis can be better understood by examining the distances suitably defined between the variables rather than by correlations between them. He suggested a method for finding co ordinates for each variable referred to principal axes which preserve these distances.
Gower’s work, published in 1966, where he described the technique based on the concept of distance between variables has become a “bible” and a manual for Dr. Brian Gaines, one of the developers of the RepGrid software who programmed the PCA for RepGrid (and WEBGRID) software:
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“Ny far the best ref on PCA is John Gower, "Some distance properties of latent root and vector methods in multivariate analysis", Biometrika, 1966. 53, 325 338. John sent me a draft of that paper in 1964 and I programmed PCA on the Cambridge TITAN it has been my bible ever since and is a recognized citation classic.” (from personal correspondents with Dr. Brian Gaines, 2008)
As mentioned before, the distances between variables are counted with Minkowski metric where the default power of 1 defines the standard city block metric (in contrast to Euclidean metric which is defined by power of 2, see Appendix 2).
Components and constructs
Constructs are plotted as straight lines where the angle with respect to each component reflects the extent to which the construct is represented by the component.
The angle between any two construct lines reflects the extent to which the ratings of elements on those constructs are correlated: the smaller the angle, the more similar the ratings.
In a broader outlook, the angle between a group of construct lines and the component line reflects the extent to which the component can be taken to represent the grouping of constructs; the smaller the angle, the greater the extent (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 130; Gaines and Shaw, 2005).
The construct poles’ names are spread so it is also can be seen right away in which direction the constructs are similarly rated.
In Figure 12, for example, the first, horizontal, component represents constructs 1 and 8 quite well (construct lines of 1 and 8 are coincided as their ratings are identical when one of the constructs is reversed, i.e., PSS between them is 100% (Table 10)). The second, vertical, component does not stand clearly for any construct. Lines of all other constructs are disposed between the components being well represented by neither of them. Interpretation of meanings underlying such plotting is presented in section 7.3 of empirical part of the work.
Further, in this work, the term ‘dimension’ stands for a principal component which, in its turn, represents a distinct pattern of variability in the grid, i.e., a certain direction in
125 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology which the values of the ratings vary. Thus, constructs with highest variance define directions based on which respondent perceives a product. The PCA of a grid reveals the dimensions in which a person perceives elements. When looking at the constructs referred to one component usually a shared meaning of those constructs can be identified. The shared meaning represents a common topic or direction of meanings described by the constructs. Each person perceives elements in several dimensions which can be named generally according to the meanings of the constructs aligned to each dimension.
Components and elements
Elements are also placed on the plot. As each component stands for several constructs, the elements can be positioned along each component in place of their original position along each construct. It is like the position of a point on a graph far along both axes. Itself, it does not bring a lot of sense and is not that useful for interpretation until other elements are positioned on the plot (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 130).
The distance between any two elements gives an idea of the relationships between these two elements because it reflects the ratings, each element was given on all the constructs. Thus, if two elements are closely positioned on the graph it means they received similar ratings on those constructs which are represented by the components reflected on the plot.
Only two components can be reflected on the plot at a time. Therefore, when more then two principal components are significant it is important to look how elements are positioned on plots reflecting all pairs of components. It can be revealed that two elements that are placed closely on the graphic plot, for example, of two first components are placed apart on the plot of, e.g., first and third components, still showing the similarity on the first component but real difference on the third one. Such positioning observation reveals on which dimensions the elements are considered differently by the respondent and on which dimensions perceptions of elements are similar.
For example, in Figure 13 on the first plot reflecting first and second components, i.e., dimensions, elements ‘Ideal’ and ‘iMac G4’ are placed identically on the first dimension and appeared in different quadrants but also not very distantly on the
126 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology second dimension. However, on the second and third plots reflecting first and third; and second and third components respectively these elements are positioned far apart. This signifies that although element “iMac G4’ is considered similar to the ‘Ideal’ element on the first dimension, they are considered different on the second and very different on the third dimension (construct lines are not shown in Figure 13 for visual convenience).
Figure 13: Element perception on different dimensions
This is a particularly useful property offered by grid analysis which allows to compare how closely a person construes his perceptions towards certain elements on different dimensions. Depending on how far the two elements are positioned on the plot it can be concluded, for example, what might need to be changed to make element ‘iMac G4’ to be perceived closer to or like ‘ideal’ element. Along which dimensions and,
127 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology hence, constructs the movement should occur so that the rating values of perceptions on that constructs would be altered by the person (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 131).
4.6.2.3. Synergy of principal component and hierarchical cluster analysis
Analysis of similarities and differences between construct meanings allows to identify groups of customers whose perceptions of elements, e.g., products or brands, are similar or different in certain ways. These findings can help a company to appeal to the customers in a proper way emphasizing and focusing on important attributes and characteristics sought by each group taking into account customer’s preferences and expectations.
The RG contains not only meanings but also ratings which allow to apply both qualitative and quantitative approaches making the analysis of similarities and differences more thorough. This study is aimed at proposing an application of PCA and HCA in a way which would produce a synergy effect by structuring and systemizing RG data into a certain form to simplify data visualization and to allow customers' classification according to their perceptions and preferences.
PCA and HCA present pattern detection methods which purpose is to represent the variation in a data set into a more manageable form by recognizing categories or groups (Van Ooyen, 2001). The principle of synergy effect produced by combination of PCA and HCA is illustrated in Figure 14.
At first, PCA allows to distinguish constructs according to the distinct patterns of variability. Each dimension, i.e., component contains constructs that have the same variation trend of the ratings (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 128).
Within each dimension by means of HCA the distances between constructs as well as between elements are calculated and grouping according to PSSs in ratings is performed.
Combination of PCA and HCA allows recognizing:
1. Common patterns of variation, i.e., common directions in which construct ratings vary (where the first component accounts for the largest variance);
128 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
2. Similarities among rating absolute values which indicate possible similarity between meanings underlying constructs.
Constructs with highest variance attributed to the principal components define directions based on which a respondent perceives a product. And if there are constructs that do not only vary in the same direction but also have the same or similar rating values it may indicate strong resemblance between meanings underlying constructs or, at least, strong correlation and complementarity of perceptions.
General data set
1 Component 2 Component
PCA: distinct patterns of variability
1 Component 2 Component 1 Cluster 1 Cluster
HCA: similarity grouping by distances 2 Cluster
Figure 14: Synergy effect of PCA and HCA
It is very important to bear in mind that the nature of the research to be conducted by means of described methodology is exploratory. Exploratory research, although applying quantitative methods such as PCA and HCA, implies the biggest role of the interpretation aspect comprised in methodology. Exploratory research is, first of all, aimed at recognizing common patterns which can describe people, i.e., consumer behavior and permits to classify people according to these patterns.
Therefore, although pattern detection is sometimes regarded as yet another form of statistics, there are important conceptual differences which should be taken into
129 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology account when conducting quantitative analysis within the suggested methodology (Hogeweg, 1976 cited in Dijkshoorn et al., 2001, p. 44):
1. In statistics deviations from randomness in the data set are looked for.
In pattern detection the structure in the data set is sought.
2. In statistics attempts are made to make sample independent statements. The data under consideration is assumed to be a random sample of the whole population, and the objective is to make statements about the whole population by looking at a representative sample of the population. Ideally, these statements should not change if a different random sample is taken from the population.
In pattern detection, the data set under study is not considered a sample from a larger population but is considered all there is. A different structure may be found if new data is added.
3. In statistics groups (and an underlying distribution) are presupposed and tests are made to determine whether these groups differ significantly form each other (i.e., more than can be expected on the basis of random fluctuations alone). In other words, concepts are tested (i.e., attempts are made to answer the question whether presupposed groups are different).
In pattern detection groups are generated per se. In other words, concepts (i.e., groupings) are generated. Descriptive statistics, however, may be used in pattern detection for characterizing the grouping obtained in cluster analysis.
PCA and HCA can best be seen as heuristic, rather than statistical, methods for exploring the diversity in a data set by means of pattern generation. Thus, rather than trying to find the “right” pattern or classification, the differences in the patterns as revealed by analysis should be used to gain further understanding of the objects under the study (Dijkshoorn et al., 2001, p. 45).
4.7. Reliability and validity of the repertory grid
When talking about the concepts of reliability and validity, first of all, the determination needs to be differentiated according to whether it determines the reliability and validity of the RG as a data collecting technique or it determines the
130 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology reliability and validity of measures applied for data analysis. It is also important how these two concepts are construed from the PCT perspective underlying the RGT (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 132).
Although a resulting grid contains a lot of numbers, it is important to remember that the technique remains qualitative where the data represents the result of a sorting process by a respondent. This data shows relations between the elements and is rather susceptible to the selection of elements and the interview situation. The elicited constructs contain very subjective individual meanings and labels which require a great care of the researcher to be interpreted ‘correctly’. Therefore, an excess of statistical processing may distort information derived from this ‘soft’ data (Björklund, 2005).
It is important to remember that the RG represents a flexible and diverse methodology but not a standardized test with the set procedure. The manuals written about the RG outline the diversity of the technique, the variety of form design, elicitation procedures and analyzing approaches (e.g., Fransella et al., 2004, Jankowicz, 2004; Feixas and Alvarez, 1996). Unlike tests, where the administering procedure is clearly specified and described and the ratings and scores are based on an adequate standardization data, the RGT does not meet these requirements and grids do not have norms (Beail, 1985, p. 22).
Given the wide variety of form, content and analysis available in the RG application it makes no sense to discuss reliability and validity of RG in general. The same as when talking about the reliability and validity of a questionnaire, the defining issues comprise what grid, in what area administrated, to what kind of people, under what kind of conditions, analyzed in what kind of manner and what kind of results are sought (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 134). Therefore, the RG should be viewed as a specific format which is used for collecting the data and the question of reliability and validity should be referred to a particular case of RG application and its measurement procedures.
When talking about the reliability of a measure, there are two various definitions of the term used by researchers. The first definition of the reliability concept implies the general capacity of a measure to ‘reliably’ assess a characteristic, whether or not the ‘amount’ of the characteristic is changing in the subject. As second, by ‘reliability’ is
131 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology meant the tendency of a test to produce exactly the same result for the same subject at different times. There are the research contexts in which the second definition could be regarded as a reasonable operational form of the first definition, for example when it is assumed that the characteristic is relatively stable and unchanging for a given subject such as the height of an adult or a temperature of a healthy person. However, the universal application of the second definition as a requirement of a measure becomes pointless when it is about things that change a priori.
In Kelly’s PCT, underlying the RGT, the person is a ‘form of motion’, not a static object and, therefore, the consistence between person’s construct systems over time could be low (Björklund, 2005). Hence, since much of life is about change and the stability or the instability exists in what is measured, not in the measure, the aim is not to produce stable measures but to assess as accurately as possible the predictable stability and the predictable change (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 133).
The question arises under what circumstances a researcher would expect stability or change from a personal construct system? This question can be answered only regarding a particular form of the RG. It would depend on which part of the person’s viewpoint, attitudes or knowledge is examined and re examined. For example, a high degree of stability can be expected when examining from time to time personal notions of the rules of arithmetic. However, when examining, for example, personal viewpoint about the political situation, more variation in attitude can be expected in time (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 133). In marketing research, it can also be expected that more superordinate constructs such as values or socio psychological expected consequences would appear more stable than consumer’s attitude or perception of a particular product characteristic, such as high level of product quality. However, even in this case a lot depends on what kind of product or product category is in question.
This exemplifies that the idea of the static mind represents a contradiction in terms. Therefore, the application of the RG should not be done to repeat the same result but to understand, when it shows change, what that change is signifying. In these terms the reliability can be rather regarded as merely one aspect of validity (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 134).
The discussion of the RG validity took place in a lot of studies again due to its flexible format and a variety of applications (see Fransella et al., 2004, p. 143 for discussions
132 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology in different fields of research). However, at the end, as Fransella and colleagues (2004, p. 146) point out that the grid became a problem for those researchers who regarded it as a ready made device or tool for their purposes rather than a broad methodology which involves them in solving a series of experimental problems if it is to be of any value.
The RG does not represent a test. It is a format in which data can be placed what reveals if there is a pattern or meaning to the data. As it has no specific content, its validity can be discussed in a sense that the researcher can question whether or not it can effectively reveal patterns and relationships in certain types of data (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 144).
The validity of the technique in terms of the PCT is its capacity to enable us to elaborate our construing, our ability to anticipate (Björklund, 2005). Elaboration, according to the PCT, occurs by the extension and definition of personal construing system. In its turn, the extension implies an increase of the range of convenience of personal constructs so that more events or elements are taken into consideration. Elaboration of construing by definition implies tightening of the construing within an investigated area so that the researcher attains a more precise, detailed and exact comprehension of this area. Thus, Kelly equated the concept of validity with usefulness and saw understanding as the most useful of enterprises. The validity ultimately refers to the way in which a mode of understanding enables the researcher or the respondent to take effective action (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 151).
Bannister and Bott (1973, p. 162) say: “ if we substitute for validity the notion of usefulness, or at least make usefulness the central feature of validity, we shall be less concerned with the correlation between a test and some relatively arbitrary criterion, and more concerned with the values which users of a test find in it”.
The interpretive paradigm and the PCT underpinning the RGT are congruent with what Kelly argued that the validity of any theory is to be found in its usefulness. In this respect the RGT has proven its utility by being applied and tested in widely differing fields for several decades and remains a fruitful technique offering a number of fundamental advantages to the researchers.
The above explanation and arguments confirm that the validity of a grid should be questioned within a particular study applying a particular elicitation and administering
133 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology procedure. The fact that even slight procedural variations can produce a substantial impact on the content and structure of the elicited personal constructs emphasizes the role and responsibility of the researchers who have to understand their own contributions to the grid outcomes that they interpret (Neimeyer, 2002). Thus, if it is found that a particular grid does not have any predictive value and did not produce the sought information, the researcher should look for the shortcomings in that specific grid format and design rather than make general remarks regarding the validity of the technique.
Although there are shortcomings and limitations of the method many of them can be overcome due to the various ways of grid application, its flexibility. Within the each area where the method is used researchers try to adopt and further expand the methodology by suggesting new variations which can make the technique even more suitable to a particular field.
In this work the general description of the RG includes discussions of reliability, validity or, at least, reasonability of either option appropriateness depending on the topic, objective and conditions of the research. Although almost in every aspect of RGT various ways and approaches are described, there is still a lot left aside because of its diversity especially in respect to different fields where the technique is applicable. It is, therefore, a researcher’s task to consider the options and nuances and design the grid which would meet the conditions and the requirements regarding information of his study.
The market research study conducted in the frame of this work is aimed at exploring the customers’ constructs related to a particular product category. Therefore, the utility presents in the discovered information and inferences that can be made by interpreting the data to be used further for strategic, positioning and advertising objectives. The reliability estimates of the study are not tested as they need to be based on re test correlations replicated previous research finding which are not available due to the specificity of the research topic, the conditions, the region and the sample involved in the study.
4.8. Summary
♦ Repertory grid is a technique of structured interviewing designed to capture the dimensions and the structure of personal meanings . It is aimed at eliciting
134 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
and describing the ways in which people give meanings to their experience in their own terms, in their own language . Its methodology allows a new deeper insight on how people think and perceive life experience and things around.
♦ The technique represents a qualitative approach for data collection designed so that the gathered data is appropriate for both qualitative and quantitative analysis methods.
♦ Repertory grid technique is developed within the personal construct theory which maintains that a person’s understanding of the world is the result of an active, constructive process rather than a passive reaction to some external reality.
♦ This understanding is achieved through a construing , i.e., the process of contrast and similarity . People construe situations and give meaning to events by seeking to differentiate them from others and see them as similar to others.
♦ Similarity and contrast in events or objects that are observed and perceived by an individual stimulate the creation of his personal classification standards – constructs . Thus, subjective meanings take the form of bipolar constructs which are organized into a system of superordinate and subordinate relationships.
♦ Therefore, not only the content but also the structure of meanings is considered within the personal construct theory and the repertory grid technique.
♦ Personal construct theory is consistent with the interpretive paradigm which focus lies on the exploring the psychological processes that people use to make sense of their material and social environments.
♦ The resulting form of the repertory grid elicitation procedure in whole represents a set of rating scales printed one above the other with the ratings arranged in rows and columns into a table or a grid.
♦ A grid is always conducted about a particular topic with an intention of eliciting just those constructs which a person uses in making sense of that particular field of discourse, i.e., that particular piece of his experience.
135 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
♦ Repertory grid mainly consists of:
a set of elements which are representative of the content area under the study;
a set of personal constructs that a person uses to compare and contrast the elements;
a rating system that evaluates the elements based on a bipolar arrangement of each construct.
♦ Constructs represent individual scales that a person uses when thinking about the elements, where poles of a construct represent scale limits. Constructs can be elicited or supplied . Elicited constructs are more informative for an explorative research. An enclosure of supplied constructs enables to expand the variety of findings.
♦ Elements can also be elicited or supplied . Elicitation of elements based on supplied categories represents an advantageous approach which, on the one hand, implies consideration of elements a respondent is aware of and, on the other hand, enables further comparison of individual grids within the sample.
♦ ‘Self’ elements such as ‘ideal’ or ‘current’ represent individual perceptions and images of what a respondent actually has or wants when talking about things, events or people enclosed in the element set. Supplying of such key elements permits to significantly extend the findings from further analyses.
♦ When elements represent products or brands the ‘ ideal ’ element represents a generalized image comprising mostly desired performance of a product or a brand from the domain. This element appears helpful in any research in which a grid is used to understand a respondent’s choice, i.e., preferences .
♦ Personal values represent desired end states which can be derived from constructs by means of the laddering up technique and then prioritized and put into a hierarchical order by means of the resistance to change technique.
136 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
♦ Resistance to change technique enables to identify values that are not sincere and central for a person, but were expressed rather fictitious to seem more meaningful.
♦ The higher the personal value in the hierarchy, the higher its resistant to change and, thus, the representative subordinate constructs, including product attributes are tend to be similarly resistant to change .
♦ In order to better understand what is being said in a grid a blend of both, qualitative and quantitative approaches appear useful to be applied.
♦ Qualitative analysis methods that are traditionally used are frequency counts and content analysis . These methods are concerned with analyzing contents of a grid.
♦ Quantitative analysis methods most often used are hierarchical cluster analysis and principal component analysis which also enable to analyze inter relationships contained in a grid.
♦ When applying traditional content analysis the ratings contained in a grid are completely ignored. Honey’s content analysis technique permits to make use of individual meanings expressed by person’s ratings .
♦ Honey’s content analysis suggests to supply an overall assessment construct which is formulated to sum up the interviewee’s individual attitude to the topic as a whole. Ratings on this construct are compared with the ratings of elicited constructs to identify how closely the elicited meanings relate to the topic in question.
♦ Honey’s content analysis allows aggregation of constructs across a sample revealing the homogeneity in attributes’ relevance and importance. It takes into account respondents’ personal metrics of construct similarity to the overall construct.
137 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
♦ Honey’s content analysis also allows to discern a presence of latent groups for which attributes that appeared less salient for the rest of a sample are commonly important.
♦ It is proposed that the relevance of the elicited constructs to the supplied construct identified by Honey’s technique can also be applied regarding constructs representing subthemes of a survey rather than only its general topic.
♦ Hierarchical cluster analysis used for analyzing repertory grid data differs from the traditional cluster analysis as:
it sorts and rearranges rows (constructs) and columns (elements) of a grid so that the resulting dendrogram comprises both construct and element dendrograms illustrating the strength of association between elements and between constructs;
it takes into account the bipolarity of constructs by considering both reversed and unreversed constructs.
♦ High matches between constructs indicate that the relevant constructs distinguish identically or similarly between the majority of elements. High matches between elements signify that the elements share identical or similar ratings on the majority of constructs.
♦ Principal component analysis of a grid reveals the dimensions in which a person perceives elements.
♦ The difference of the principal component analysis used for a grid data in comparison to the original analysis approach is that it allows to compare how closely a person construes his perceptions towards certain elements on different dimensions . This is attained by the analysis tool capability to place elements on the same plot that reflects constructs on different dimensions.
♦ It is suggested that application of the principal component analysis and hierarchical component analysis on the complementary basis can produce a synergy effect by structuring and systemizing repertory grid data into a certain form which simplifies data visualization and allows consumers' classification according to their perceptions and preferences.
138 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
At first, principal component analysis allows to distinguish constructs according to distinct patterns of the variability .
Secondly, within the each dimension by means of the hierarchical cluster analysis distances between the constructs as well as between the elements are calculated and a grouping is performed.
♦ Combination of the principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis allows recognizing:
Common patterns of variation, i.e., common directions in which construct ratings vary (where the first component accounts for the largest variance);
Similarities among rating absolute values which indicate possible similarity between the meanings underlying constructs.
♦ Constructs with highest variance attributed to the principal components are determinative for the directions based on which a respondent perceives a product. Each person perceives elements in several dimensions which can be generally named according to a common meaning of the constructs aligned to each dimension.
♦ Constructs that do not only vary in the same direction but also have the same or similar rating values may have a strong resemblance between their meanings or, at least, there is a strong correlation and complementarity of these perceptions.
♦ In an exploratory research after recognizing common patterns and similarities in consumer perceptions by means of quantitative approaches the inferences and conclusions are very much dependent on the interpretation of these findings.
♦ Concepts of reliability and validity of the repertory grid are built on the fact that the technique represents a flexible and diverse methodology but not a standardized test with the set procedure.
♦ In the personal construct theory a person is a ‘form of motion’ , therefore, when talking about technique’s reliability , application of the repertory grid should not
139 4. Repertory grid technique within the personal construct psychology
be done to repeat the same result but to understand, when it shows change, what that change is signifying.
♦ The interpretive paradigm and the personal construct theory are congruent with what Kelly argued that the validity of any theory is to be found in its usefulness . The validity ultimately refers to the way in which a method of understanding enables a researcher or respondent to take effective actions.
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5. Modeling the consumer motivational sphere
In this chapter the individual consumer motivational sphere (CMS) described in the theoretical part is further discussed with the focus on a procedure suggested to identify the concepts and linkages represented in the CMS schema. The purpose of the chapter is to define where each level of abstraction can be found when analyzing RG data by means of analysis methods described in 4.6. After showing the initial schema developed in 2.2 the model is further extended with its analysis sources assigned to each level of the initial schema. Following parts of the chapter are devoted to the description of each level presented in the model focusing on the analysis approach suggested to reveal relevant information.
According to Trommsdorff (2009, p. 108) values represent too general motives and by themselves do not explain much about consumer buying motivation. It is important to obtain the full sequence of motives starting from too specific which explain a lot about purchasing motivation of an individual, then moving to motives of the middle range which allow revealing of commonalities within a group of consumers and ending up with too general motives in order to understand the full structure of consumers’ mental representations regarding the investigated topic and the nature of the consumer behavior underlined by their preferences and choices.
Situational and Environmental incentives
Expected consequences Product (desirable/undesirable) Values Product characteristics Product attributes Specific consequences Abstract consequences
"too specific motives" "motives of "too general motives" middle range"
MOTIVES
Figure 15: Consumer motivational sphere
It is assumed that each level of abstraction presented in the schema can be disclosed by analyzing data elicited by means of the RGT. In Figure 16 the schema is extended with its sources, i.e., each level is assigned with that part of the methodology by which the level can be identified and described.
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Product characteristics Specific consequences Values
Personal constructs Laddering UP Laddering UP subjective
Persondriven: WHICH Resistance to Change
Product attributes Abstract consequences
Content Analysis PCA Dimensions
WHAT Clusters objective
Sit. and Env. incentives
Analysis driven: Analysis relatively HOW+ Ideal ratings
Figure 16: The CMS schema extended with sources
Thus, it is suggested that by integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches in analyzing RG data a clear structure of an individual CMS schema can be obtained. On the one hand, this structure contains very individual aspects which usually can be useful when working with each customer individually or with very small group of people. It is especially appropriate for companies producing high involvement products usually at relatively high prices. On the other hand, the structure provides more abstract information about the customer which permits comparison of different individuals and revelation of similarities among people on different levels of abstraction of their mental representations.
The suggested methodology integrates and extends existing qualitative and quantitative approaches to investigate an individual construing system on two levels according to the extent of meaning objectivity.
The first level of integrated method is based on producing a person driven outcome which actually organizes the information elicited directly from an individual using his own meanings. Findings made on this level are based on the individual expressed meanings where the numeric part of the RG form is not considered. This method, actually, represents the common method usually applied for RG analysis based on the laddering technique developed on principles of the MEC theory. Within the suggested methodology this ‘upper’ level represents a more subjective part of the whole methodological chain.
The second, ‘bottom’ level of the method is based on producing the analysis driven outcome which is aimed at revealing and structuring the underlying meanings
142 5. Modeling consumer motivational sphere expressed, on the one hand, directly in a sense of elicited expressions and, on the other hand, indirectly in a sense of meaning relationships implied by numeric evaluations, i.e., given ratings. All the analyzed data is still elicited from an individual, however, an attempt is pursued to uncover subconscious part of construing system built on certain relationships between meanings which are hard to be recognized when only interpreting individual’s directly expressed wording. Involving quantitative analysis the ‘bottom’ level of methodology represents a relatively objective part of the methodological chain.
The ‘bottom’ level of the methodology represents a major methodological contribution to broadening the variety and complexity of approaches used for analysis of the RG data. The proposed methodology does not contradict the traditional approaches to analyze RG but rather complements them with an opportunity to use and produce inferences from fuller capacity of the RG elicitation technique.
As for contribution to the theory of consumer motivation the suggested methodology comprises a certain approach to define and assess motives of the middle range building on the motives conception proposed by Trommsdorff.
In the Figure 16 the linkages within the chain show that the procedure comprised in the upper level methodology is not directly connected to the procedure implied in the bottom methodology level. It is assumed that although the levels of abstraction in the scheme do not necessarily sequentially flow out from each other in terms of analysis procedure, their linkages are preserved in terms of sense implied by revealed and interpreted structured meanings in each level of abstraction. It means that the methodology is developed to identify each level of abstraction according to its definition where level distinction is based on the extent of its relation to the person’s product or self knowledge.
Further each level of abstraction presented in the CMS schema is described in terms of its disclosing procedure based on the elicited RG data.
5.1. Product characteristics
At first, elicited personal constructs represent product characteristics that are more or less important for the consumer. Sometimes, personal construct is expressed in relatively abstract way when it is not clear which specific product characteristic or
143 5. Modeling consumer motivational sphere feature is implied, for example, “more comfortable versus less comfortable”. This should be précised during the interview by means of laddering down technique, when asking, for example, ‘what does it mean ‘more comfortable’ for you?’ Then person states what is it that he considers ‘comfortable’ for him. In this case, one may say: “there is enough space for me to stretch my legs and lay down”, another may say: “the auto is better equipped with different technical devices that provide passenger’s comfort”, while the third one points that: “comfortable means not to feel bumpy roads at a high speed” and so on. Therefore, it is important to try to keep all the information and expressions provided by the interviewee.
In order to detect which constructs should be specified during the interview it is helpful to examine the constructs that distinguish between the elements on the classificatory criteria employed by the respondents (Dillon and McKnight, 1990). To do so, constructs can be classified virtually as referring to different aspects of the elements’ description. Within the context of the current research elements which represent different autos appear to be distinguishable on three types of elicited constructs according to the direction of their meanings about the elements. Thus, constructs refer to one of the following aspects of elements’ description:
• ‘Which’ characteristics the auto contains, e.g., large or compact in size, rigid or soft suspension, attractive or unappealing design, capacity of high speed and power or lack of the capacity, etc. • ‘What’ the auto provides or emphasizes, e.g., comfortable or not, prestigious or ordinary, provides a feel of safety or does not provide such a feel, enjoy from driving or stressful driving, evokes respect on the road or imperceptible, etc. • ‘How’ the auto is being used, e.g., for work or for leisure time, in summer or all year around, in the city or in the countryside, with a driver or for self driving, for oneself or for the family use, etc.
Such a virtual classification of constructs helps the researcher to examine the constructs right away during the interview. Thus, at first level of abstraction all personal constructs are kept and those constructs that answer the question ‘which’ and ‘how’ are usually recorded as initially expressed while those constructs that refer to the question ‘what’ often reflect more abstract meanings that rather stand for the
144 5. Modeling consumer motivational sphere attributes or even consequences and, therefore, should be précised through the laddering down technique.
The virtual classification of constructs is feasible in the studies regarding different topics. It is only important for the researcher to accurately define the questions or the aspects of elements to which the constructs refer. When aspects are accurately defined, usually most constructs refer to one of them. Rarely, constructs that can be referred to neither of aspects are either very specific to the individual or bear little obvious semantic resemblance to any other construct with which they may match (Dillon and McKnight, 1990).
The elicited constructs may appear at any level of abstraction, although it is usually found that consumers make distinctions at relatively concrete level of abstraction such as product physical characteristics or product perceived attributes. However, some may discriminate elements at the higher level of abstraction such as consequences and very rarely at the highest level, i.e., personal values (Olson and Reynolds, 1983, p. 82). In this study it is found that in most cases by laddering down procedure when asking the question “how, in what way?” or “what does it mean for you?” interviewer can reveal chains of lower level of abstraction such as concrete product characteristic or at least attribute (see also Jankowicz, 2004, p. 64).
5.2. Product attributes
Product attributes represent perceptible product characteristics and features. Perceptible characteristics of a product often enclose several product physical characteristics. As an example taken from one of the elicited grids of this study, a person provides one construct “reliable vehicle which needs less service versus unreliable, often breaks down” and another construct “producer’s proved image of high quality production versus not proved”. As a result of content analysis and categorization these constructs refer to the perception of quality of the vehicle. And by looking at the ratings given by the interviewee (see Table 15) it is seen that most ratings are similar and only on one element ratings differ at minimal value. The PSS between these two constructs is 94%.
Product attributes are individually perceptible and, sometimes, presence and performance of the same product physical characteristic may be associated with
145 5. Modeling consumer motivational sphere different attributes by different people. As an example, in the conducted study several interviewees mentioned “presence of rigid versus soft suspension” in vehicle.
Element Emergent pole (1) Implicit pole (5) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
reliable, needs less servicing 1 2 2 2 3 2 3 4 1 unreliable, breaks more often producer's proved quality (e.g. German or not proved production quality (e.g. Italian 1 3 2 2 3 2 3 4 1 Japanese producers) proucers)
Table 15: Ratings given on constructs of the same product attribute.
For one person who purchases armored tough body vehicles, presence of a rigid suspension is essential for a safe reliable exploitation and, therefore, he perceives the presence and quality of rigid frame and suspension as one of the components of a high quality vehicle.
Another person, who also pointed necessity of a rigid suspension, often utilizes his auto out of the city area which is characterized by a very bad quality of roads. For this person presence of rigid suspension defines the level of rough terrain performance provided by a vehicle implying assurance that the auto will not get stuck in a ditch or mud.
However, for the third person who also expressed the construct “rigid versus soft suspension”, it appears to be important to have soft suspension which provides a comfortable ride. This person utilizes an auto only in the city where he does not face problems with a bad quality of roads. For him it is important to experience a soft calm ride without feeling any bumps on the roads.
This example proves the importance of understanding the underlying meanings expressed in the constructs and importance of interpretation of expressions in compliance with all elicited and even beforehand known information, if available, about an interviewee.
Categorization and assignment of product characteristics to product attributes can be highlighted later, as a researcher goes with analysis, by means of the HCA which sorts and rearranges constructs so that similarly rated constructs are situated together. This method can, sometimes, help to prove an uncertain assignment, however, it is important to always pay attention to the expressed meaning as similarly rated constructs not necessarily imply reference to the same product attribute.
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5.3. Specific expected consequences
Specific expected consequences represent the lowest of three levels of abstraction which already represent the motives that stimulate and influence consumer decision making process. Specific consequences are very personal and hard to approximate in order to reach common set of expected benefits.
In suggested model specific consequences are identified through the laddering up technique. Consumers are given laddering up task aimed at understanding of consumers’ underlying personal motives with respect to a given set of elements, e.g., products or brands. Each unique pathway from product characteristic to a personal value represents a possible perceptual orientation with respect to viewing the product category (Reynolds and Gutman, 1988).
Laddering task is undertaken during the one on one interview to elicit individuals’ means end knowledge structures linking product characteristics to related values or end states. There are reasons to apply laddering technique only to some elicited constructs rather than make a person provide ladders for each given construct.
One reason to be emphasized is time limit during an interview. This reason refers to the conduction of the research, i.e., its practical accomplishment rather than scientific or theoretical limitation. RGT requires relatively long time, usually not less than 1 hour for one interview. When the technique is to be used in clinical purposes or by human resources department in organizations respondents usually may or ready to devote as much time as needed because they are forced or self interested in it, besides they are usually interested in the results received from analysis of their personal repertory grids. In marketing it is researchers and managers who are interested in the outcome and the findings rather than consumers who, indeed, make a favor to a researcher by participating in survey. They are not interested in the results of the study (as they rarely acquire access to them) and it is hard to ask them to devote so much time as would be needed to elicit all possible cognitive meanings and ladders related to the investigated topic. That is why it is vital to understand at the beginning which information is useless and should not be asked in order to make interview less time consuming.
Second reason refers to a common criticism of the original means end chain approach which claims that by asking “why is it important for you?” artificial abstract
147 5. Modeling consumer motivational sphere levels may occur (Grunert and Grunert, 1995). This problem does not take place only when all the characteristics from which ladders are elicited are considered as enough important to produce benefits for an interviewee. Otherwise, respondents are basically forced to find arguments for their buying behavior what makes them think in a more strategic way and provide reasons that often do not explain their actual preferences and choice (Botschen, et al., 1999).
The RGT does not imply elicitation of most important characteristics that respondents seek for when choosing a concrete product. The triadic sort task described in section 4.5.2.1 is intended to elicit the salient distinctions respondents use to discriminate among stimuli in the domain of interest (for example, brands in a product category) (Olson and Reynolds, 1983, p. 82). These salient distinctions, i.e., elicited constructs reflect cognitive meanings that respondents use when thinking about that domain, however, not all of them appear to be important when making purchasing decisions.
The ‘ ideal ’ element which represents a generalized image comprising mostly desired performance of the product or brand from the domain appears helpful in any research in which a grid is used to understand the respondent’s choice, i.e., preferences (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 58). The rating value assigned to the construct on the ‘ideal’ element points the preferred by the respondent construct pole. Rating value of ‘1’ or ‘2’ points that respondent prefers product characteristic performance as expressed in the emergent pole and, correspondingly, rating value of ‘5’ or ‘4’ indicates that the product characteristic performance of the implicit pole is preferred.
For this reason, in the proposed methodology it is suggested that laddering procedure should be carried only with those constructs that are given extreme rating value which is either ‘1’ or ‘5’ (in case of 5 point scale) on the ‘ideal’ element. It is assumed that when respondent provides extreme rating on the ‘ideal’ element he is consciously aware of why and what for he wants a product characteristic expressed in the construct to be necessarily present as stated in the preferred pole. Therefore, he can provide conscious consequences that he expects from obtaining the product characteristic.
Depending on the field and research purpose ladders can be elicited either from preferred pole or from both contrast poles. In the elicitation from both contrast poles at each iteration when respondent answers the question “why is it important for you?”
148 5. Modeling consumer motivational sphere the following question “what would the other end of that construct be?” is to be asked next. Thus, the resulting ladder consists of a set of superordinate constructs on top of which most superordinate one reflects personal value and its contrast for example “life and hope versus death, hopelessness, and despair” (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 191).
In marketing, elicitation of both contrasts of personal values seems to be excessively unlike. In condition of limited time asking for contrasts at each ladder doubles the time and rarely brings significant information. Personal values are very general and their contrasts are more or less clear unlike subordinate constructs, especially at the lower levels of abstraction. If the procedure for eliciting personal values implied straight asking for ‘your’ values, expressed ‘life and hope’ would not say much about a person to the researcher, however, the elicited contrast ‘death, hopelessness, and despair’ also would not be so helpful in explaining individual’s construing system of his buying behavior. Sequence of ladders obtained only from the preferred pole explains much more about personal mental representations which bridge product characteristics and personal values what is of a greater interest for marketers. Moreover, it saves time and does not let the respondent become bored with an interview what is very important when the data is based on the meanings expressed by respondent and his disinterest and unwillingness to support may lead to artificial or scant data.
Specific expected consequences, being elicited from constructs which are given the extreme rating value on the ideal element, ensure that revealed ladders are consciously realized and, thus, meanings expressed in each ladder are scarcely artificial. On the other hand, meanings implied by other constructs are not considered on the higher levels of abstraction because of a doubt of the fact that a respondent can actually produce consciously realized and, at the same time, not artificial ladders. However, being elicited by the RGT these other constructs are assumed to be a part of a customer’s construing system related to the domain and, therefore, need to be considered, analyzed and interpreted in terms of their role within the CMS.
The term ‘specific’ used for defining the expected consequences elicited by means of laddering technique emphasizes that these consequences are directly formulated by the respondent based on his conscious mental representations and, thus, they are individually peculiar.
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Disclosing of abstract expected consequences, discussed next, implies application of quantitative approaches in addition to the qualitative content interpretation in order to consider all constructs, i.e., meanings associated with the topic in question, and define their motivational role in the respondent’s cognitive structure related to the topic.
5.4. Abstract expected consequences
Next level of abstraction in the proposed model concept represents consequences that are identified by means of quantitative analysis and interpretation of elicited product characteristics and attributes. In original MEC theory consequences of a higher level of abstraction are obtained through the laddering and bridge product characteristics, product attributes and consequences of a lower level of abstraction with personal values. As described in 2.1.2 there is, however, a certain criticism in literature concerning identification and distinguishing between consequences of different levels of abstraction and values.
This work proposes different approach for disclosing abstract consequences, i.e., motives of the middle range that drive and direct consumers in their buying behavior. The aim pursued is to suggest a method that would allow to identify and to formulate consequences at a level of abstraction which permits to approximate and find commonalities within a group of people but, at the same time, the identified consequences would still be not too general and could be interpreted in terms of product features and perceptions.
The virtue of identifying abstract consequences by means of suggested methodology is that another type of human cognitive representation is additionally involved. In laddering a person is actually using his ability for reasoning, that is, he expresses underlying reasons for perceiving and preferring things in this or that way. In the proposed method analysis of person’s comparing ability is involved. Therefore, mental representations underlying person’s evaluative and comparative approach to perceive things are analyzed and inferences are made not only from vertical relationships between meanings, i.e., linkages between different levels of abstraction, but also from horizontal interrelationships between meanings that are on the same level of abstraction.
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Slater’s PCA described in 4.6.2.2 reveals dimensions which represent directions based on which a respondent perceives elements. By conducting PCA of elicited constructs and ratings components, i.e., dimensions which represent distinct patterns of variability in the grid can be identified. According to Jankowicz (2004, p. 128) and as it was found in this study, in most cases constructs aligned to one component share some common meaning and, hence, a common direction of characteristics described by constructs can be defined.
Common meanings underlying each identified dimension represent abstract expected consequences. Therefore, an abstract consequence is derived from product characteristics and their perceptions by identification of sort of a bundle comprised of product features which person construes in the same way and direction and associates them with attainment of a certain benefit.
Sometimes, meanings of constructs within one dimension can be different but the fact that their rating values vary in the same way indicates a strong correlation between these constructs. For this reason after carrying the quantitative procedure of the PCA it comes to the numerously discussed importance of the interpretive process.
PCA as complex analysis requires the researcher to make assumptions when interpreting the original grid and unlike, for example, cluster analysis these assumptions are less visible (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 132).
An essential interpretation of this analysis is that the greater the amount of variance that a construct accounts for within the component and within the overall grid data, the more important the construct is (Metzler and Neimeyer, 1988). Therefore, this construct should be thoroughly considered when identifying underlying component meaning. Finding a common meaning between constructs which lie closest to the component, i.e., account for greater variance within the component, and naming the component requires cautious interpretation.
The name given to a component which, in turn, represents an abstract consequence reflects researcher’s judgement. Therefore, it is suggested, if possible, to negotiate a meaning with an interviewee and check whether the researcher’s judgement reflects true meaning of an interviewee (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 132). However, collaborative process of verifying components denotation with an interviewee, i.e., consumer, is
151 5. Modeling consumer motivational sphere rarely feasible in marketing and it appears vital how good the researcher is qualified and can understand respondent’s jargon and meanings. Anyway, quantitative assistance in distinguishing the elicited meanings makes the qualitative procedure of interpretation more straightforward, clear and scientifically grounded.
PCA also provides hierarchical importance of identified abstract consequences. There are two indicators that can specify hierarchical relationship between components, i.e., dimensions.
• First indicator is a percentage of variance that component accounts for within the overall RG data. The greater the percentage of variance a component accounts for the more important the component is. • Second indicator is a loading of the ‘ideal’ element. It is assumed that the greater the loading of the ideal element a component has got the more important the component is. As each component represents an abstract consequence a respondent seeks for, consequences can be arranged according to their importance for the respondent.
An indicator to be used depends on the aim of the research. If a research focus lies in pursuing better understanding of how people construe their meanings and what aspects people consider when thinking about a domain such as, for example, product category then first indicator is more appropriate. However, when research is aimed at revealing consumer preferences and expectations regarding product consumption an indicator based on the ideal element evaluation should be used.
When PCA of the RG data is performed and constructs are assigned to the components, it is suggested to perform the HCA regarding each component. That is, in order to reach a synergy effect described in 4.6.2.3 and to structure elicited meanings more precisely, within the each identified dimension constructs are rearranged so that similarly rated constructs are positioned as adjacent. Such positioning indicates that the person perceives meanings underlying similar constructs not only in the same direction but also in the same way. This strengthens the credibility of inferences made regarding similarity of individual subjective meanings. At the same time, meanings underlying constructs which appear in different clusters within the same dimension are considered, although different but
152 5. Modeling consumer motivational sphere highly correlated what signifies their complementary relationship within the personal cognitive structure of meanings.
Moreover, elements are also clustered within the each dimension allowing revealing on which dimensions elements are considered similar or different. This is important in order to understand on which dimensions a particular product or brand is perceived, for example, differently from the ‘ideal’ one. This would mean that this particular product cannot cause the abstract expected consequences, implied by that dimensions, in the desired manner and, therefore, product characteristics and product attributes comprised in that dimensions need to be improved or repositioned (see also 4.6.2.1).
5.5. Values
The highest level of abstraction stands for personal values. Values are “end benefits” that are expressed by respondent during laddering procedure (Gutman, 1991). They are obtained during an interview when respondent at first is given a laddering task regarding only the constructs that are given extreme rating values and secondly, the respondent is given a task to prioritize all named values by means of resistance to change technique described in 4.5.4.2.
Process of laddering from different constructs may lead to the same personal values. Since it is dealt with the hierarchy of meanings at different levels of abstraction a single superordinate meaning can have several subordinate ones below it. That means that an interviewee is likely to associate several of his original constructs with the same value (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 189). In the conducted study it was found that most respondents draw not more than three or four personal values associated with consumption of a certain product.
Because values represent consciously desired end states, they are directly elicited from a person. Although the process of identifying abstract expected consequences is not directly linked to the process of values elicitation, they are still linked on the principles of MEC where values represent end states and abstract consequences represent psychosocial consequences provided by product characteristics and attributes.
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All constructs that are given extreme values on ‘ideal’ element are also ascribed to the dimensions on which a person perceives elements. Therefore, values, laddered from these constructs are also linked to the dimensions, i.e., abstract consequences. However, now it can also be found how close are the other constructs, not rated by extreme values, to the constructs from which values are elicited and, thereby, how actually important is their performance in reaching consciously desired end states.
5.6. Situational and environmental incentives
As discussed in 2.2, in the proposed CMS schema situational and environmental incentives reflect environmental systems and current life circumstances which a consumer faces at a given time. They are relatively temporary and unstable, i.e., they can be changed when person achieves another social level, moves to another place, changes family status or work but they may significantly affect the perception of desirable end states and choice criteria related to the product attributes at a given time and circumstance.
It is almost impossible to reveal from an interviewee all the conditions related to the product use, however, some important incentives appear to be available for the researcher. As shown in section 5.1 elements appear to be distinguishable on different types of constructs which represent product characteristics. Constructs can be classified virtually as referring to one of aspects of the elements’ description (Dillon and McKnight, 1990). In the current study three levels on which elements are distinguishable were defined where one of the levels reflects an aspect ‘How’ element, i.e., product is being used. Constructs that pertain to this level basically enclose meanings that demonstrate how and in which circumstances respondent uses a product. Some examples of such constructs taken from the current study where autos represent elements, are: ‘ an auto can be used for (in)’: work – leisure time, in the city – countryside, in summer – all the year round, business – family, with driver – self driving, only for me – for family, friends.
All these constructs reflect environmental incentives such as “in summer – all year around” or “in the city – countryside” as well as life circumstances in which an auto is to be used, for example “for business – for family” or “with driver – for self driving”. (Differentiation between usage of an auto in summer time or all year around reflects climate peculiarities of the location the respondent is living; in this study conducted in
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Russia the conditions of vehicle exploitation in winter time strongly differ from conditions in summer time because of very low temperature degrees and atmospheric precipitation. Differentiation between exploitation in the city or in the countryside reflects the problem of quality of roads in the investigated area as well as problem of clearance of roads, especially in winter time.)
Elicitation of such constructs does not itself indicate which pole reflects the way of respondent’s exploitation. For example, construct “with driver – for self driving” expressed during triadic sort task does not show whether the respondent uses his auto with driver or drives his auto himself. The pole referred to the type of respondent’s use can be identified by looking at the rating value on the ‘ current’ element. In the study it was found that the neutral rating value (‘3’ on a 5 point scale) is given when respondent either uses his auto for (in) both kinds of exploitation, e.g., for family and for business purposes or that he does not face such choice and the difference does not make sense in his current situation. For example, if a person has moved to another location where climate factor is not actual anymore, however, he is aware of difference from his previous experience and, therefore, might name such a construct when differentiating elements in triads.
Ratings given on the ‘ideal’ element can also indicate how vehicle is being used. However, this would represent useful information for marketer when sample represents consumers that are likely to purchase a desired product from a product category rather than consumers who are limited, e.g., by resources or available product variety and are obliged to purchase not desired but available and affordable products.
In the current study consumers of premium and luxury autos have been investigated. These consumers are characterized by relatively high standard of living who can afford products which they really like and which include desired attributes and features. In this case ratings on both ‘ideal’ and ‘current’ elements should be taken into account. It is likely that a person who currently drives his auto himself within the next few months will higher personal driver and will buy a new auto to be a passenger rather than a driver. Or, if a person is going to purchase a new house out of the city and his ideal auto is to be appropriate for both, city and countryside.
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It is useful to look at how similarly ‘ideal’ and ‘current’ elements are rated. If the ratings on constructs highly differ, it may indicate that ideal auto represents some kind of a dream auto which exists in respondent’s mind with respect to his drawn ideal world and life. For example, respondent is a hard worker and mostly uses his auto for business purposes, however, he dreams about calm life in a tropical country where he drives an auto only for pleasure. In this case it is important to be aware of the way the auto is being used currently because, probably, when he is going to make his next choice he still will be living in a country of a temperate or frigid climate.
Overall, the model, proposed in this study, serves to make elicited mental representations organized to a structural form which allows more thorough understanding of consumers’ construing system and makes it possible to differentiate consumers on different levels of abstraction and develop segments according to consumers’ commonalities. In this chapter it was described how each level of proposed chain can be identified from the data gathered by means of RG interviewing technique.
The suggested approach does not claim to be a substitute to the traditional qualitative procedure of laddering technique. The methodology represents an integrated approach which is aimed at an attempt to get an insight into the individual mind from another perspective. It is believed that quantitative analysis and related interpretation of expressed meanings and evaluations provided by the RG form can extend the existing approaches enabling more thorough and broad understanding of individual’s construing system on different levels of abstraction and, thereby, reaching closer insight to the consumer motivational sphere.
5.7. Summary and conclusion
♦ It is proposed that each level of abstraction presented in schema of consumer motivational sphere can be derived from the data elicited by means of the repertory grid technique .
♦ It is important to obtain the full sequence of motives starting from too specific which explain a lot about purchasing motivation of an individual, then moving to motives of the middle range which allow approximation and revelation of commonalities within the sample and ending up with too general motives in order
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to understand the full structure of consumers’ mental representations regarding the investigated topic.
♦ Suggested methodology integrates and extends existing qualitative and quantitative approaches to investigate individual construing system on two levels according to the extent of meaning objectivity .
♦ The first level is based on producing the person driven outcome which organizes information elicited directly from the person using his own meanings. This level uses meanings elicited by laddering up technique and, therefore, the numeric part of the repertory grid form is not considered. This level represents a subjective part of the whole methodological chain.
♦ The second level is based on producing the analysis driven outcome which is aimed at revealing and structuring the underlying meanings expressed, on the one hand, directly in a sense of elicited expressions and, on the other hand, indirectly in a sense of meanings relationships implied by numeric evaluations, i.e., given ratings. This level of the methodology represents a relatively objective part of the methodological chain.
♦ Analysis of meanings underlying evaluative and comparative approach to cognitive representation uncovers subconscious part of construing system built on interrelationships between meanings which are hard to be recognized when only interpreting individual’s directly expressed wording.
♦ The suggested methodology comprises a certain approach to define and assess motives of the middle range building on the motives conception proposed by Trommsdorff.
♦ Product characteristics are expressed in the elicited constructs and should be virtually categorized by the researcher during the interview according to their extent of specification in order to precise the meanings if needed.
♦ Product attributes are identified by means of content analysis when all constructs are assigned to the perceptible attributes.
♦ Sometimes, presence and performance of the same product physical characteristic may be associated with different attributes by different people. It is
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vital when interpreting the underlying meanings expressed in the constructs to consider the expressions in compliance with all elicited, observed and even beforehand known information , if available, about an interviewee.
♦ Specific expected consequences are identified through the laddering up technique.
♦ Laddering up procedure is applied towards constructs that are given extreme rating values on the ‘ideal’ element. In this case a person is consciously aware of the reasons why he wants a product characteristic to be necessarily present as stated in the preferred pole and, therefore, is likely to provide not artificial ladders.
♦ Constructs that are not given extreme ratings on the ‘ideal’ element, however, being elicited by the repertory grid technique are assumed to be a part of a customer’s construing system related to the domain and, therefore, need to be considered, analyzed and interpreted in terms of their role within the consumer motivational sphere.
♦ Disclosing of abstract expected consequences implies application of quantitative approaches in addition to the qualitative content interpretation in order to consider all the constructs, i.e., meanings associated with the topic in question
♦ The most apparent difference of identifying abstract consequences, i.e., motives of the middle range is that mental representations underlying person’s evaluative and comparative approach to perceive things are analyzed and inferences are made not only from vertical relationships between meanings but also from horizontal interrelationships between meanings that are on the same level of abstraction.
♦ Principal component analysis reveals dimensions which represent directions based on which respondent perceives elements. Usually dimensions can be generally named according to the common meaning or direction of the construct meanings ascribed to each dimension, however, it requires cautious interpretation.
♦ Common meanings underlying each identified dimension represent abstract expected consequences . Therefore, an abstract consequence is derived from
158 5. Modeling consumer motivational sphere
product characteristics and their perceptions by identification of a bundle consisting of product features which person construes in the same way and direction and associates them with attainment of a certain benefit.
♦ The greater the amount of variance that a construct accounts for within the dimension the more important the construct is to be thoroughly considered when identifying underlying dimension meaning.
♦ Principal component analysis enables hierarchical order of identified abstract consequences . Two indicators can be considered:
First indicator is a percentage of variance a dimension accounts for within the overall repertory grid data; the greater the percentage the more important the dimension, i.e., abstract consequence is.
Second indicator is a loading of the ‘ideal’ element a dimension has got; the greater the loading the more important the dimension is.
♦ An indicator to be used depends on whether the aim is to better understand the personal construing system regarding the domain or to reveal consumer preferences.
♦ In order to reach a synergy effect and to structure elicited meanings more precisely, within the each identified dimension constructs are rearranged by means of hierarchical cluster analysis. It discloses the relationships between the meanings which are either perceived in the same way or, at least, highly correlated signifying complementary relationship within the personal cognitive structure of meanings.
♦ Elements are also clustered within the each dimension allowing to understand on which dimensions elements are considered similar or different. This is important in order to understand on which dimensions a particular element is perceived, for example, differently from the ‘ideal’ one, showing the weakness of the element in providing certain abstract consequences in the desired manner.
♦ Values are elicited and prioritized by the respondent during the laddering up and the resistance to change procedures. Constructs from which values are laddered
159 5. Modeling consumer motivational sphere
are also ascribed to the dimensions and, thereby, the abstract consequences are linked to the values.
♦ The method for identifying abstract consequences exposes how close are other constructs, not rated by extreme values, to the constructs from which values are elicited and, thereby, how actually important the performance of other constructs is in reaching the desired end states.
♦ Situational and environmental incentives are enclosed in the meanings and ratings on the ‘ideal’ and ‘current’ elements of constructs that pertain to the virtual category which answers the question ‘ how and in which circumstances ’ respondent uses a product.
♦ Overall , the model and the methodology proposed in this study serve to make elicited mental representations organized to a structural form which allows more thorough understanding of consumers’ construing system and makes it possible to differentiate consumers on different levels of abstraction and develop segments according to consumers’ commonalities.
♦ The proposed methodology does not contradict the traditional approaches to analyze the repertory grid data and does not claim to be a substitute to the traditional analysis approaches but rather extends them with an opportunity to use and produce inferences from fuller capacity of the repertory grid elicitation technique.
♦ An integrated method is aimed at getting an insight into the individual mind from another perspective and extending the existing approaches allowing more thorough and broad understanding of individual’s construing system on different levels of abstraction and, thereby, reaching closer insight into the consumer motivational sphere.
160 6. Research design
III. Field research
6. Research design
6.1. Research objectives
In the previous chapters issues of defining customer motivation and motives of different ranges, modeling the CMS and assessing each level of the CMS schema have been addressed using a number of theories, assumptions and analysis approaches from different areas related to the fields of consumer behavior and psychology. Apart from a systematic discussion of the many ways to design, proceed and analyze RG data comprising various individual mental representations, the major result of this work so far is the development of a conceptual model and supportive methodology to assess each level of abstraction comprised in the CMS.
The aim of this chapter is to demonstrate the applicability of the suggested methodology by conducting a comprehensive analysis of customers’ motivation mechanism and preferences on the Russian automotive market with the focus on customers of premium cars.
The full capacity of the RGT is hard to demonstrate as it allows numerous findings and inferences depending on the design of the form and applied analysis. Therefore, empirical part of the work is mainly concentrated on demonstration of the proposed methodology, however, some additional inferences and managerial recommendations for the company that ordered the study are provided as well.
The objectives of the empirical study presented in this thesis can be described as follows:
• Design of a particular form of RG which would be appropriate according to the research objectives and peculiarities; • Elicitation of the individual consumer motivational sphere from an individual grid; • Performance of a customer segmentation based on the grid analyses of the sample.
161 6. Research design
6.2. Research design
To demonstrate an applicability of the methodology proposed in this work a primary data is used. The proposed methodology built on principles and design of a particular interviewing technique implies that a research should be conducted from the very beginning and the data acquisition has to be done according to the suggested methodology. For this reason it was impossible to use secondary data, all analyses and findings should be accomplished within the data gathered in a particular form. Secondary data collected by the RGT implication would also not be appropriate for this work because the interviewing technique is very flexible in its design and included components (e.g., elicited or supplied elements and constructs, way of rating and domain of elements). The ultimate form depends on the objectives of a particular research.
The data set was generated in the context of a market research project conducted on a behalf of a major German car manufacturer. For confidentiality reasons the company name is not disclosed. The interest of the research practical outcome lies in the exploration of perceptions, preferences and purchasing intentions of customers of premium and luxury cars in the Russian car market. A particular interest also lies in exploring customer attitudes towards auto safety and security measures as well as the perceived confidence in a car.
6.2.1. Structure of the sample
The survey was conducted in two of three largest cities of Russia, Moscow and Novosibirsk. A sample of 20 (18 male and 2 female) respondents was surveyed in July August 2007. Besides, 7 experts were asked to share their opinion on the investigated topic in order to provide a more thorough insight into the behavior of premium armored car customers. In this chapter the focus lies on the scientific part of the research that is an application of the methodology suggested in this study. Information and findings gathered for the practical outcome, such as expert opinions and specific information about armoring and criminal situation is not provided in the work because, on the one hand, it does not represent the scientific interest pursued here and, on the other hand, most of the information was asked to be kept confidential by the company.
162 6. Research design
Respondents represent current owners of premium or luxury autos who are as well current or potential customers of armored cars. Design of the interview form required a particular thoroughness and accuracy taking into consideration peculiarities of the respondents who are:
• hardly accessible; • continually busy and not ready to devote 1,5 hour for an interview which doesn’t bring them any profit or benefit; • not ready to share much about private and business issues of their life.
Selection criteria include objective and subjective criteria.
Objective criteria for respondents’ selection include two aspects:
1. class and price of a car in possession; 2. position and field of activity of a respondent.
Each respondent obtains at least one luxury auto starting from entry level luxury cars (i.e., premium according to European classification) and ending by high end and ultra luxury autos according to American classification of luxury autos (see Appendix 1). Besides, all respondents spend their own means for an auto purchase.
In the initial stage of respondent selection it was assumed that people who spend their own money are likely to make final purchasing decision and choice, although, their decision may be influenced by opinions of opinion leaders from respondents’ surrounding or presented in different kinds of media. During the survey conduction this assumption was proved. On the question: “Who makes decision on purchasing an auto?” all respondents named themselves. On the question: “Who influences a choice of technical equipment and other characteristics of an auto to be purchased?” 70% of respondents named themselves, 24% named “me and friends” and rest 6% named “me and mass media”.
In addition to the current ownership of a premium or luxury car (further, in the study, the notion ‘premium’ is used for both), all respondents represent experienced users in a sense that currently used auto is not the first purchased auto.
163 6. Research design
Second objective criterion is respondent’s position and field of activity. This criterion gives an insight into the social status and level of respondent’s welfare. The specificity of the surveyed sample is that interviewer cannot ask direct question about income or welfare. Most of the respondents either wouldn’t answer this question at all or would give an answer which most probably does not reflect true state. Eighty percent of respondents are owners or joint owners of private companies and the rest represent chief executives and people working on top managerial positions.
Peculiarities of the sample do not allow using an objective criterion. For this reason, subjective criterion appears supportive in sample selection.
Subjective criterion reflects respondents’ subjective estimation of personal income and welfare. Personal income represents one of the most often asked data and can be effectively used for predicting consumer behavior in marketing research. However, this indicator when asked directly is not perfect. Consumers with low income often pretend and behave as having higher income, especially when being surveyed rather than observed during actual buying behavior, and vice versa. One of the reasons for such contradiction is that consumers differ in their financial commitments and abilities to manage own assets. Two people having the same income, after fulfillment of necessary payments and purchasing essential goods may perceive their discretionary income differently. One may perceive his discretionary income as relatively low and therefore feel himself relatively poor while another one perceives discretionary income as relatively high and feels himself as relatively rich person. People with higher discretionary income have more opportunities to spend money on special, luxury or comfortable goods and services or save money for future expenses. Therefore, information about respondents’ subjective discretionary income appears to be useful in selection, segmentation and prediction of consumers buying behavior in marketing research (Churchill, 1996, p. 356).
Subjective discretionary income (SDI) is a measure of perceived spending power originally conceptualized and developed by O’Guinn and Wells (1989). Specifically, it is an estimate by the consumer of how much money he or she has to spend on nonessentials. The SDI index is “considered as attitudinal rather than an objective behavioral resource” and is based on the psychological approach allowing assessment of a capacity to spend. This approach implies revealing subjective estimation of personal well being rather than asking respondents to provide complex
164 6. Research design objective economic data. Analysis conducted in different fields provided evidence of the SDI predictive validity (e.g., Rossiter, 1995; O’Guinn and Wells (1989) cited in Bearden and Netemeyer, 1999).
SDI measurement approach allows to overcome criticism claiming that firstly, consumers cannot objectively and precisely calculate and say about their discretionary income. Secondly, understanding of “discretionary” and “necessary” income is very subjective and depends on the individual perception.
Psychological approach of assessing respondents’ SDI implies estimation of three statements in terms of how they reflect personal perception of his state of well being. The following statements were scored on 5 point scale starting from “absolutely agree” (5) and ending up with “absolutely disagree” (1) (Bearden and Netemeyer, 1999):
1. “No matter how fast my income goes up, I never seem to get ahead.” 2. “I have more to spend on extras than most of my neighbors.” 3. “My income is high enough to satisfy nearly all of my important desires.”
The first statement reflects personal economic state and his ability to manage personal assets. It shows the ability to earn and at the same time to spend less than it is available. Second statement reflects availability of means and resources that are not available for neighbors who represent respondent’s considerable reference group. The third statement stands for an attitude towards money in terms of having sufficient resources to purchase goods and services that are considered to be desirable and, at the same time, represent rather important desires, because desires in general are unlimited and there is always something unreachable at the moment no matter how much a person can spend (Churchill, 1996).
Sum of individual scores given on each statement form an overall SDI index that can range from 3 to 15. Respondents having higher sums on the scale show that they can afford what they desire and even more. Respondents having smaller sums on the scale show lack of means (Churchill, 1996). In this study four states of welfare are proposed based on the sum of ratings (Table 16).
A majority of respondents estimate their income and welfare as relatively high and no respondent estimates his income as “not enough”. This shows that the sample
165 6. Research design comprises people who feel themselves as having high standard of well being and at the same time they can afford premium or luxury auto and, therefore, it can be assumed that respondents represent consumers from upper middle or higher class who can afford almost everything. Although their purchasing behavior can be sometimes perceived as irrational in terms of common understanding of main reasons for buying behavior (usually pursued regarding volume brands), these people still can be characterized as rational and adequate consumers who make a choice instead of ‘buying everything up’.
State of welfare Sum of ratings Amount of respondents (%)
High income 13 15 25% High income “for me” 10 12 65% Not always high enough 7 9 10% Not enough 3 6 0%
Table 16: Personal estimation of welfare
Measuring of SDI in the demonstrated way might also provoke some criticism concerning measurement and data accuracy. However, in conditions of inability to estimate respondents’ income directly, this approach was found most appropriate to reach an insight to the respondents’ standard of living without asking them undesirable and often provocative direct questions.
6.2.2. Survey instrument: repertory grid design
The survey instrument represents a questionnaire consisting of a repertory grid form and additional questions concerning the car usage and demographic data. Some complementary questions are included to get more detailed information about respondents that is important for the company which is also interested in practical findings. Within the context, these questions are only briefly addressed and the full questionnaire form is provided in Appendix 3. For the empirical study to be conducted in accordance with the proposed methodology the relevant part of the questionnaire is a design of the RG form. This part is comprehensively described further.
166 6. Research design
The final survey instrument consisted of an eight page questionnaire. Four pages comprised repertory grid form, laddering down form, laddering up form and resistance to change form. The rest pages included questions regarding:
♦ Utilized auto: Model and maker of an auto, car owner, driver, person who makes decisions concerning the auto; ♦ Aim of purchase of a car (current or next); ♦ (open ended) Importance and meaning of being confident about an auto; ♦ Usage of enhanced security devices and measures; ♦ (open ended) Situations related to auto utilization and ownership which respondent beware of: in general (what comes to mind at first); affecting: • respondent’s image; • respondent’s property (e.g. auto, notebook, briefcase, bag, etc.); • respondent in physical or psychological way; ♦ Preference to either high tech or physical security methods in terms of confidence in case of need; ♦ Estimation of subjective discretionary income; ♦ Personal data: • Field and sort of activity, education, family status, age, etc.
Next each component of the designed repertory grid form is described.
Topic
At first the topic has been agreed with representatives of the company which has ordered the study in accordance with the aim of the scientific aspect of the work. The topic of the repertory grid elicitation is “Exploration of similarities and differences in the content and structure of customers’ subjective meaning systems related to a decision making process of buying a car”.
Grids were elicited individually during face to face interviews conducted in places convenient for respondents (home, office, restaurant) allowing for calm, undisturbed
167 6. Research design
1,5 hour (on average) conversation. Respondents were given a brief introduction into the aims of the study and the nature of the repertory grid technique.
Set of elements
Two aspects need to be considered while selection of elements:
1. Decide on appropriate strategy for element selection (see 4.5.1 for strategies description and their advantages and disadvantages); 2. Elements set should meet the requirements described in section 4.3.2 to preserve the validity of a grid’s design.
In this study the third strategy described in 4.5.1 was chosen. Each respondent was provided with general categories which cover the range of the topic and was asked questions based on the categories, answers to which appeared as elements.
The aim of the RG application is to explore and build a model of a particular domain of knowledge by enabling consumers to verbalize how they perceive certain elements within the area of interest (McKnight, 2000). In the current study area of interest covers questions such as how consumers of luxury and premium autos perceive ownership and exploitation of an auto and what thoughts, feeling, priorities and preferences do they have regarding auto purchase, ownership and usage.
To derive a set of elements so that the proposed method would be meaningful it is necessary to identify a set of autos among respondent’s consideration set, i.e., autos that are known to the respondent (McKnight, 2000). Therefore, at the end, elements should be named by the respondent. In order respondents’ grids to be comparable, each respondent names autos that correspond to answers on the category based questions. All respondents are asked the same questions so that the elements are elicited by using identical elicitation categories (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 32). This approach, on the one hand, allows respondents to consider their own elements which they are aware of and, on the other hand, permits further analysis and comparison of all grids. Each respondent names different autos which he can consider, that is, either he has got an experience of exploitation or knows about it from, for example, friends and has got a certain opinion and attitude towards named autos.
168 6. Research design
Each respondent was asked to name eight different cars as answers for the questions listed in Table 17. To find most of individual’s constructs which also may reflect undesired states and meanings, respondent had to provide a stratified set of elements (Björklund, 2005), including some that he likes in a way and some that he does not like or that are not suitable in a way. Provided questions make respondent consider vehicles from different perspectives and, thereby, to think about different autos according to the provided situation or condition. Provided categories cover most important and common consideration aspects which arise when thinking about auto ownership and exploitation.
Marking for analysis Categories questions for elements elicitation 1 (work) Which auto would you prefer to use mostly for work 2 (vacation) Which auto would you prefer to use mostly for vacation (weekend or holiday) 3 (evening) Which auto would you prefer to use mostly for leisure (evening) time 4 (in no way) Which car evokes negative emotions and you wouldn’t consider it as an alternative 5 (previous) Your previous auto 6 (doesn't fit) Which auto really attracts you, however it doesn’t fit your lifestyle or environment 7 (alternative) Which auto did you consider as an alternative to buy (during the last purchase) 8 (current) Your current auto (mostly used) 9 (ideal) Your generalized image of an ideal auto supplied element, provided after all constructs were elicited
Table 17: Category based questions for eliciting a set of elements
First three categories cover most common auto exploitation situations:
• 1 (working): If a person is about to choose an auto which would be used particularly for his working time, which auto would he prefer. His preferences and choice would depend on the way the person exploits an auto during working hours, for example, whether he has a driver or drives himself; whether he uses time during the rides for work or for rest, etc.;
• 2 (vacation): An auto a person would prefer to use mainly during holidays and weekends. Preferences would depend on the way the person spends his vacation, for example, with family, with friends or by himself; whether he goes out of the city to the mountains or suburbs or prefers to spend vacation in the city or abroad, etc.; • 3 (evening): An auto a person would prefer to use mainly for evening, i.e., leisure, after work time. Preferences would depend on the way the person spends his free time, for example, whether he goes to fancy clubs or
169 6. Research design
restaurants or he prefers to spend evenings in cottage with family or closest friends (what is very popular in Russia), etc.
Categories 5, 7 and 8 reveal autos with which respondents are good familiar and experienced.
• 5 (previous): A respondent got an experience with previously owned auto, therefore, he can surely express in the constructs what he did or did not like, what disconfirmations were faced and reasons for purchasing next, i.e., “current” auto (the reasons, though, may not reflect negative experience); • 7 (alternative): When making auto purchasing decision a respondent is likely to choose among most desirable range (in case of this study, when people can afford what they really like rather than for what they have enough money). The final choice in favor of “current” auto is likely to leave behind at least one auto which was carefully studied and examined, however, the choice has fallen on another one; • 8 (current): Auto which is currently used implies a certain experience and opinion about it. When a respondent owns more than one auto it is up to him which auto he names. The study shows, however, that respondents likely name those autos which they use more often or which exploitation perceived as primary.
Categories 4 and 6 derive elements regarding which respondents a likely to have negative or not suitable judgements and perceptions:
• 4 (in no way): A respondent may have negative personal experience, be aware of negative reference, have negative attitude towards car maker or simply not like certain auto. There are certain meaning representations for such an attitude which can be revealed by triadic differentiation; • 6 (doesn’t fit): There are often situations, life circumstances or a way of exploitation which entail possession of certain auto features or attributes. However, desirable autos may often lack these features and, therefore, appear not appropriate for a personal use in that particular circumstance or situation. For example, in situation of a very cold winter time and bad quality of roads it does not make sense to buy a sporty cabriolet unless to buy it only for summer months, although, quality of roads is not a seasonable problem; or
170 6. Research design
when a person lives in downtown where problems with traffic jams and lack of parking place are actual it becomes inconvenient to have a relatively big auto such as, e.g., van or SUV.
During the elicitation of elements the last supplied ‘ideal’ element was not yet provided. Only until thereafter it was included.
According to Yorke (1985), sampling of elements can actually rarely be representative of their respective area. However, validity can be considered from the notion of usefulness, that is, grids are valid in the sense that they allow accurate capturing of respondent’s construing and “they tell the researchers what they don’t know, thereby, contributing to the building of theory about individual concerned” (Yorke,1985).
Elicited constructs
Once elements were elicited from the respondent, construct elicitation procedure occurred. Respondent was presented with a subset of elements, i.e., triad and asked to generate a construct which would meaningfully for him facilitate comparison and discrimination between these elements. The aim is to elicit a set of bipolar constructs which the respondent utilizes to perceive the elements (Dillon and McKnight, 1990).
Constructs were elicited by using the triadic difference method (see 4.5.2.1). This method was selected because the produced constructs are able to better discriminate between elements (Caputi and Reddy, 1999). It was important since elements were rather similar in a sense that they represented autos mostly of a higher class reflecting sample’s consideration sets. Besides, the method yields constructs that are more cognitively complex (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 63)
Each respondent was presented with three elements at a time (triad) written on different cards and asked to think of a way in which two of these three are similar and, thereby, different from the third. The elements were always selected from the set elicited from the respondent. Eight constructs were elicited by presenting different triads composed according to a predefined sequence arranged so that no pairings of elements are repeated and each element is presented 3 times among triads (Dillon and McKnight, 1990; Jankowicz, 2004, p. 42). The sequence of triads allows future comparison between the grids when certain categories are compared in terms of
171 6. Research design individual constructs. For example, frequency of constructs with similar meanings expressed towards same triad, i.e., same categories’ comparison. The combinations were presented to each respondent in the same order:
128
427
137
368
265
534
578
164.
Depending on the research field and objective the sufficient amount of constructs may vary. However, when it is not for a clinical purpose, it is agreed that eliciting between 7 and 12 constructs during 1 hour session is usually sufficient and any additional constructs provide little difference to the distribution of elements (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 44). Easterby Smith (1980) argues that even from eight to ten constructs are quite adequate for most purposes.
Each respondent was expected to generate one construct per triad, however, in practice several respondents produced more then one construct from a given triad. In this case, these were noted and used in turn (Dillon and McKnight, 1990).
It is important to tell the person that he should voice that difference and similarity that come at first moment when triad is presented. It is important that he uses the terms in which he actually construes in mind, no matter if they are jargon or censorial. Besides, it appeared to be useful to explain that each thought, each kind of expression is important; there are no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answers and what is more, there are no ‘clever’ or ‘stupid’ answers. What is important, is the person and his own individual construing such as it is.
When a meaningful construct was generated the two poles were written in the cells of the grid form, the emergent pole on the left and implicit pole on the right. Constructs
172 6. Research design that were not enough precise were at first specified through laddering down technique by asking the respondent “how/what do you mean; in what way?” (there is a variety of ways the question can be asked depending on the context that can be found in Jankowicz, 2004, p. 34) and the answer was used as a construct to be noted in the grid form. Ladders were also recorded on a separate ‘laddering down’ form.
Elicited data was recorded on a recording sheet. The numbers of element cards between which the similarity occurred were underlined to indicate which element pair formed the construct pole.
There are plenty of pitfalls that may occur during interviewing concerning adequacy of expressed meanings and ways to overcome uncertainties and misunderstandings. Different examples and solutions are thoroughly described by Jankowicz (2004). This study does not cover these details because most of the cases relate to application of repertory grid in other fields rather than marketing such as clinics, human recourses, education, etc.
Ratings
Once constructs on all given triads were elicited and noted in the grid form, respondent was asked to rate all the elements, i.e., autos on each construct. Each construct was presented as a rating scale with the contrast meaning on the left (emergent pole) standing for the ‘1’ end of the scale and the contrast meaning on the right (implicit pole) standing for the ‘5’ end of the scale. The 5 point scale was chosen following recommendations and arguments provided in the literature (e.g., Jankowicz, 2004, p. 36; Marsden and Littler, 2000a; Dillon and McKnight, 1990). Respondent rated each element based on how his perception of the element is referred to one of the construct poles.
Supplied constructs
One of practical research objectives is to explore respondents’ attitude towards the issue of safety related to the auto usage. Following aspects are of a special interest in the research:
• What is meant by safety and feeling safe in a car;
173 6. Research design
• How is it important to feel safe in a car; • How close are perception of feeling safe in a car and perception of feeling confident about a car.
For this reason two overall assessment constructs were supplied:
• Feel confident about a car – Not feel confident about a car • Feel safe in a car – Not feel safe in a car
In addition, beforehand, in the provided questionnaire an open end question “what does it mean to you to feel confident about a car?” was asked to reveal how person perceives ‘confidence’ within the context.
Respondent was asked to rate elements on the supplied constructs in the same way as he did with elicited constructs.
Supplied element
After elicited elements, constructs and ratings were obtained the respondent was asked to rate the supplied ‘ideal’ element on the same constructs. Ratings assigned to the ‘ideal’ element represent the extent of preference for the characteristic performance comprised in the corresponding pole. Ratings of ‘ideal’ element can also point where respondent’s actual and desirable images are among the construed elements.
Personal values
Once ratings on elicited and supplied elements were obtained, respondent was given laddering up task regarding constructs which were assigned with the extreme rating values on the ‘ideal’ element (see 5.3 for the reasoning). Laddering task was aimed at eliciting individual’s means end knowledge structures linking product characteristics to associated values or ends.
Respondent was asked ‘why is this important for you’ and each given ladder was noted on the separate ‘laddering up’ form (see Appendix 3). Thereby, interviewer arrived at more abstract values associated with original constructs (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 186; Marsden and Littler, 2000a).
174 6. Research design
After all personal values were elicited, respondent was asked to make choice according to resistance to change technique described in section 4.5.4.2 aimed at prioritizing personal values. He was asked to imagine the choice as an existential one. For example, if the revealed values were ‘pleasure, enjoyment of life’ and ‘success, achievement’ the respondent was asked to choose one option either “imagine, after some years you are going to live the rest of your life having everything what you need to enjoy every day, but you will realize that you have not achieved desired success and aspirations that you have been striving for” or, alternatively, “imagine, you have gained everything you have been working for, absolute self realization, however, you realize that your achievements appeared to be not enough to make you happy and enjoy the rest of your life”. Thereby, a person had to prefer one end state at cost of another, i.e., to prefer one value over another. When all respondent’s personal values were compared with each other the outcome record represented a hierarchy of his personal values.
Example of the recorded individual RG is presented in Table 18. Such a full and structured way of recording allowed by RGT has advantages which make the technique even more convenient in application. Although the record is extremely full of data, it is possible to reconstruct all the substantive points that occurred in the interview by looking at the record. Another advantage is that the structured form allows several interviewers working on the same problem where each researcher can understand his colleagues’ interview records without making long discussions, explanations and distorting reconstructions of what went on during their various interviews (Stewart et al., 1981).
175 6. Research design
moring (5) entertainment Implicit pole for business, not for for not business, for not feel safe in this car safe feel not initially better technological technological better initially electronics and technologies and electronics
equipment in sense of safety of sense in equipment
limited equipment withlimited equipment comfort not feel confident about this car about confident feel not
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c r e M 1 2 2 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 model later a already is there 5 4 4 3 4 5 4 5 5 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 1 2 (1) (1) work (2) vacation (3) eveningin (4) no way pre (5) (1) beautiful 1 2 1 5 3 1 3 1 2 design unsatisfactory with driver 1 4 5 3 5 5 1 1 2 self driving for in sense of safety of in sense Emergent pole pole Emergent feel safe in thisin car safe feel appropriate for comfort comfort for appropriate there is no later model: model: later no is there appropriate for armoring for appropriate 1 5 5 5 5 5 1 1 1 ar of inexpediency technologically innovative technologically feel confident about this car about confident feel
electronics and technologies and electronics
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14.2 2 7 4 14.5 2 14.4 6 3 14.7 7 8 5 14.3 3 1 14.9 14.1 1 14.8 6 1 14.6 3 5 14.10
Table 18: Repertory grid record of the 14 th respondent
176 7. Analysis of repertory grids
7. Analysis of repertory grids
7.1. Preparation of data
The first step in analyzing the data is to turn it into a proper format. All interviews were conducted in Russia and noted in Russian. Therefore, the first thing to do was to translate all the grids and record them digitally. At this phase skills of the researcher play an essential role in his ability to accurately translate and justify all the expressed meanings. Thorough knowledge of both languages is required to be aware not only of word meanings provided by dictionaries but also awareness of their special underlying meanings which are used in certain cultural and social surroundings.
Once all grids are translated and recorded an appropriate data format for the computer package is required.
Constructs of all grids are coded with the first number denoting an interviewee and the second number the construct order within the grid. For example, the code 14.7 indicates that the construct in question is the seventh construct in the fourteenth interviewee’s grid (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 151). After the constructs are coded and, thereby, can be identified, a categorization procedure which represents the generic procedure of content analysis is performed.
7.2. Content analysis
7.2.1. The generic content analysis procedure
Content analysis is a technique in which constructs of all the respondents are grouped and categorized according to the meanings they express. As discussed in 4.6.1.2, categories can be theory driven or data driven. In this study categories are derived from constructs themselves by identifying the various themes they express. The reason for choosing data driven approach is explained by the research purpose. The study is aimed at revelation of common meanings, perceptions and stereotypes as well as jargon used by a certain kind of customers in considering a very specific product category. Moreover, respondents represent residents of a different culture to the one in which the producing company is founded.
To reveal categories and allocate constructs to them all grids are cut into pieces, each piece containing one grid row, i.e., one construct. When all pieces are put on a 177 7. Analysis of repertory grids large table they can be shuffled around until all of them are placed into piles, each pile constituting a different category (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 151). Each item is to be compared with another and if they are alike in some way they are placed together under a single category created for them at that very moment or if meanings are different they are put into separate piles. Each time remaining items are compared with each of the already derived categories and allocated to the appropriate one or a new category is created. Once a new category is created, other existing categories are reconsidered and if needed redefined, i.e., combined or broken up with their items reallocated accordingly (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 149).
It can happen that some number of items appears to be unclassifiable. In this case, as suggested by Jankowicz (2004, p. 149), if the number of unclassified items is less than 5% of the total they can be allocated to a single category labeled ‘miscellaneous’, otherwise one or more categories should be redefined so that at the end not more than 5% of the total are categorized as ‘miscellaneous’.
In the current study all constructs are classified and allocated to a certain category. However, it is found that some meanings of constructs actually enclose combination of two (and in one case, three) meanings which belong to different categories. In this case the construct is assigned to both categories. For example, the construct “attractive, good design – bad, old (outdated) design” reflects respondent’s judgement that “only autos of new models have attractive, good design as they are not yet widespread”. This person considers only new car models as having good design and he is ‘right’ as he is always right in his personal perceptions and attitudes. In this case the construct was allocated to categories “design” and “novelty” as both these aspects are equally important in the content of the construct meaning and need to be satisfied to bring the desirable consequence.
Derived categories are also identified with respect to their position in the CMS scheme. In the model conceptualization defined categories represent higher level of abstraction of constructs. Therefore, categories are defined in such a way that they represent product attributes reflecting perceived product characteristics rather than product physical characteristics.
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Sum and % in Category Bipolar category's poles Construct general sample Comfort 1.2 comfortable: driver's comfort in terms of less emotional and physical efforts 28 comfortable uncomfortable 1.5 comfortable2: comfort electronics and technologies 14.2 2.3 comfortable: appropriate size, comfortable passenger seating arrangement 2.11 comfortable2: comfort electronics and technologies 3.5 comfortable: don't feel hummocks, potholes and bumpy roads at driving Prestige prestigious ordinary 4.4 prestigious: others will notice me 26 4.5 universal exploitation / large / prestigious narrow exploitation/compact/ordinary: 12.7 universal for business and family use, narrow cool, only for me 5.1 prestigious / representative: not youth 5.4 prestigious2: black color spectacular, convincing 5.8 prestigious3 ordinary3: super image, for men, not women Representativeness representative 1.8 representative unrepresentative: prestigious, which means reflects my status 23 unrepresentative 2.8 representative: prestigious, which means reflects my status 11.7 3.4 representative unrepresentative: for business but not for entertainment, family or vacation 3.6 representative2: not for self driving Technical quality of high technical quality of 1.1 rough terrain high low performance/of high low technical quality: safe 20 low technical quality "anywhere" ride in tough climate conditions (mud, ice) 10.2 2.4 of high technical quality: time and money savings 2.7 of high technical quality2: producer's proved high quality (producer reputation) 3.2 of high technical quality: won't break down, time and money savings 4.7 of high technical quality: safe in our climate (snowdrift, glare ice) Intended application universal exploitation 4.3 narrow exploitation: sporty for pleasure, not city universal 17 (Universality) narrow exploitation 4.5 universal exploitation/large/prestigious narrow exploitation/compact/ordinary: 8.6 for business and family use 6.5 universal exploitation: for year round 6.8 universal exploitation2: highly functional 7.5 universal exploitation narrow: for everyday life not only for leisure driving 7.12 universal exploitation2 / unrepresentative2: can fit and seat my dog, when car is too representative, I can't seat in my dog Size large compact 1.6 large: for several people or luggage 17 1.7 large2: comfortable luggage transportation (don't need to push in and stuff) 8.6 2.6 large: better observation (panoramic view) and feel safe Design stylish unattractive 2.2 stylish: bright attractive appearance 17 3.3 stylish unattractive: stylish appearance 8.6 4.8 stylish: attractive Speed/Power 1.3 high speed/powerful: adequacy between power and weight 13 high speed/powerful limited 4.12 high speed/powerful limited: speedy 6.6 9.2 high speed/powerful: powerful 10.3 high speed/powerful: sporty = speedy and powerful Cross country ability rough terrain high 1.1 rough terrain high low performance/of high low technical quality: safe 12 "anywhere" ride in tough climate conditions (mud, ice) 6.1 performance 2.1 rough terrain high performance: city, countryside, mountains rough terrain low performance 5.7 rough terrain high performance: city, countryside, mountains 7.1 rough terrain high low performance: for city/everywhere 7.7 rough terrain high performance2 / of high technical quality: rigid suspension, rugged auto will survive in fosse Safety/Security safe/secure unsafe 1.4 safe/secure: appropriate for security measures (bodyguard, driver, armoring) 10 8.1 safe/secure unsafe: practical = not notable on the roads, less risk of criminal attempt 5.1 8.11 safe/secure: no risk of criminal attempt because of good car brand 9.5 safe/secure: maneuverability Price expensive 2.5 expensive affordable price: not affordable by anyone 8 affordable price 7.8 expensive affordable price: rather expensive but without extra frills that make 4.1 car overpriced 10.7 expensive affordable price 11.8 affordable price expensive: affordable for majority expensive 16.4 expensive affordable price: need to work hard to afford this auto Novelty new model old model 3.1 new model: new means technologically innovative, not outdated 7 5.3 new model old model: unique, uncommon 3.6 7.6 stylish2/new model: elegant because of novelty, uniqueness 12.3 new model: new means technologically innovative, better steering, can't be burnt anymore Totals 197 100.0
Table 19: Content analysis procedure
Twelve different categories are identified according to the content of constructs. It is important to remember that the same attribute may imply different meanings for
179 7. Analysis of repertory grids different respondents. For this reason the original construct phrases are kept and their implied meanings are enclosed into the analysis and interpretation phases.
A total of 180 elicited constructs are content analyzed and because, as mentioned above, some can be attributed to two categories the total amount of constructs comprised by categories is 197.
Table 19 provides all the categories and numbers of constructs categorized under each heading. All constructs allocated to each category are provided and categories are ordered according to the number of constructs allocated to them (see Appendix 4 for the full table). Construct poles are reflected according to preferences expressed by ratings on ‘ideal’ element. Both poles are written when the ‘ideal’ element is given the neutral rating, ‘3’ on the construct.
Performance of frequency counts by categorizing constructs discloses common aspects which respondents consider when they construe meanings about the discussed topic, i.e., about premium cars. Thus, derived categories and the amount of constructs in each category reflect more or less common aspects being considered. The top four categories which together cover 49% of all constructs are ‘comfort’, ‘prestige’, ‘representativeness’ and ‘technical quality’. It means that these four categories represent product attributes that are most common among the respondents and describe 49% of their expressed meanings.
Therefore, first aggregation of individuals’ meanings is done by recognizing and categorizing similarities and differences in the respondents’ meanings. Categorization technique, however, employs only the context presented in the constructs and does not take into account information provided by ratings which emphasize the ways in which respondents use those constructs.
Frequency counts conducted for all elicited constructs reflect the homogeneity of aspects that respondents consider when thinking about the elements. It is also meaningful to examine how important mentioned aspects are (see Table 20).
Relative importance of constructs is defined by rating values given to the ‘ideal’ element indicating the importance of the corresponding construct pole (Walker and Olson, 1991). Thus, when constructs to be counted are only those that are given rating value of ‘1’ of ‘5’, the extent of importance of each category can be assumed.
180 7. Analysis of repertory grids
In total, on 100 out of 197 elicited constructs (51%) the ‘ideal’ element is rated with value of ‘1’ or ‘5’.
Sum in general Homogeneity Rank of Sum among Homogeneity Importance Rank of sample among all homogeneity 'important' among among importance Category name elicited constructs important constructs in constructs, % constructs, % category, % Comfort 28 14 1 22 22 79 2 Prestige 25 13 2 10 10 40 7 Representativeness 23 12 3 8 8 35 8 Technical quality 20 10 4 16 16 80 1 Intended application (Universality) 17 9 5,6,7 5 5 29 10,11 Size 17 9 5,6,7 5 5 29 10,11 Design 17 9 5,6,7 12 12 71 4 Speed/Power 13 7 8 7 7 54 6 Cross country ability 12 6 9 4 4 33 9 Safety/Security 10 5 10 6 6 60 5 Price 8 4 11 0 0 0 12 Novelty 7 4 12 5 5 71 3 Totals 197 100 100 100 51
Table 20: Homogeneity and the importance of the derived meanings
There are categories that are rather common and related meanings emerge very often among respondents when thinking about a certain product category. Although categories are common, these meanings can be of different importance for respondents.
If categories are ranked according to the percentage of most important constructs the order looks different (compare 3 rd “rank of homogeneity” and 7 th “rank of importance” columns of Table 20). Category ‘technical quality’ is on the 4th place when looking at the sum of constructs; however, 80% of these constructs are valued as very important. Whereas category ‘prestige’ which is on the 2nd place according to the aspect mentioned, when considering importance of the attribute this category drops to the 7 th place as only 40% of all constructs in this category are perceived as very important.
Categories which are rare are likely to represent either very important aspect for people or, on the contrary, may be not important and emerge within the expressed meanings because respondents could not construe any other more actual for them meaning.
Category ‘novelty’ which is not very common attribute among respondents is very important for those who mentioned it. It means that there is a certain consumer segment for which novelty of a car, its model or technical innovations play very
181 7. Analysis of repertory grids important role in making decision about its purchase and this segment’s priority should not be underestimated.
The second assumption can be demonstrated on the example of category ‘price’. Only 4% of all elicited constructs are about price and none of them are considered to be important. This is, actually, a peculiarity which characterises the sample that was interviewed. For these customers price is not a determinant factor when making purchase decision.
Overall, it can be noticed that the most important categories are those which reflect attributes important for confident and convenient utilization such as ‘technical quality’, ‘comfort’, ‘novelty’, ‘design’, ‘safety’ and ‘speed/power’. Confident utilization implies both confidence in a car’s quality and in its image.
Next two categories according to rank of importance rather relate to the external perception by others which are ‘prestige’ and ‘representativeness’. These both attributes imply ability of auto’s image and image of auto’s owner to reflect customer’s social status.
Other categories represent attributes that allow proper auto usage depending on the conditions and circumstances in which auto is used. These categories include ‘cross country ability’, ‘intended application (universality)’ and ‘size’.
7.2.2. Honey’s content analysis
Honey’s content analysis is applied in this research with the goal of identifying constructs that are more related to a particular issue the survey is focused on. A particular interest of the survey is to understand how people perceive and what their attitudes towards the notion of confidence and safety when talking about autos are.
It was expected that for some people the perception of feeling safe and secure in an auto may differ from the perception of being confident about an auto. For this reason two overall assessment constructs were supplied to be rated by each respondent. The first construct is “overall, feel confident about this car – overall, not feel confident about this car” and the second construct is “overall, feel safe in this car – overall, not feel safe in this car”.
182 7. Analysis of repertory grids
All single grids are analyzed according to the procedure described in section 4.6.1.3. For each elicited construct the sum of differences and the percentage similarity score (PSS) index against both supplied overall assessment constructs are calculated (formulas were presented in the 4.6.1.3). The calculation regarding each elicited construct against each supplied construct is conducted twice, once with the given ratings and once with the reversed ratings of the supplied construct. After all PSS indices in the grid are estimated each construct is labeled with either ‘H’, ‘I’ or ‘L’ index standing for high, intermediate or low relevance of the construct to the overall assessment construct of the respondent. To do so the individual’s personal metric is calculated by defining individual H , I and L value intervals. Table 21 shows 14 th grid (presented in Table 18) analysis by Honey’s technique.
e
p
d u r o a
u C
G 9 d a B 1 r 0 e r 2 e K D 2 r o L Emergent pole (1) 2 r 2 Implicit pole (5) n i m S a C t S r r s C s s A a
e e e e 7 8 d r d M d h L e Q a e e S c n c i c c i s u A r r o r d r t d g E e e e u o s u a D M A P J M A M A I (1) work (2) vacation (3) evening (4) in no way (5) previous (6) doesn't fit (7) alternative (8) current (9) ideal 1 5 5 5 5 5 1 1 1
14.1 appropriate for armoring 15 16,67 21 16,67 L inexpediency of armoring
16 11,11 20 11,11 L
1 2 1 5 3 1 3 1 2
14.2 beautiful 7 61,11 25 38,89 I unsatisfactory design
6 66,67 24 33,33 I
1 1 1 5 3 1 3 2 2
14.3 novelty of a model 9 50,00 25 38,89 I old model
8 55,56 24 33,33 I
5 1 1 3 1 1 5 5 5 for business, not for 14.4 for leisure time 19 5,56 13 27,78 L entertainment 18 0,00 14 22,22 L
5 4 4 3 4 5 4 5 5 worse technological initially better technological 14.5 equipment in sense of 25 38,89 1 94,44 H equipment in sense of safety safety 24 33,33 0 100,00 H
1 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 there is no later model: there is already a later 14.6 5 72,22 27 50,00 H technologically innovative model 4 77,78 26 44,44 H
1 4 5 3 5 5 1 1 2
14.7 with driver 13 27,78 17 5,56 L for self driving
14 22,22 16 11,11 L
1 1 1 3 2 1 2 1 2 limited equipment with appropriate for comfort 14.8 4 77,78 26 44,44 H comfort electronics and electronics and technologies technologies 3 83,33 25 38,89 H
1 2 2 3 2 1 1 1 1 14.9 not feel confident about this feel confident about this car supplied car 5 4 4 3 4 5 5 5 5
1 2 2 3 2 1 2 1 1 14.10 feel safe in this car not feel safe in this car supplied 5 4 4 3 4 5 4 5 5
Table 21: Honey’s technique calculations
183 7. Analysis of repertory grids
The sums of differences are shown below each construct followed by PSSs. The left two numbers are calculations between the unreversed ratings and the right two numbers are the calculations between ratings of the elicited construct as they are and the reversed ratings of the supplied construct. The reversed ratings of the supplied constructs are shown bellow the supplied constructs 14.9, 14.10. Two rows bellow each construct show calculations, first, between the construct and the supplied construct 14.9 “feel confident about this car – not feel confident about this car” and, second, between the construct and the supplied construct 14.10 “feel safe in this car – not feel safe in this car” placed one above another correspondingly. For each construct the higher of the two values of PSS (unreversed and reversed) is chosen and shown in bold with respect to each comparison with supplied constructs.
Thus, the sum of difference between unreversed constructs 14.1 and 14.9 is
9
D j, j' = ∑ rij − rji ′ = 15 and the PSS is then i=1
200%× D j, j' 200%×15 σ ' = 100% − = 100% − = 16,67% . j, j (k − )1 × n 5( − )1 ×9
The constructs are divided evenly into three sets, high, intermediate and low according to the individual’s personal metric, i.e., based on the grid’s highest and lowest PSSs. For this grid the intervals are shown in the Table 22.
Similarity with 14.9 Similarity with 14.10 Label Interval for PSS Interval for PSS "H" 68,53 94,44 70,38 100,00 "I" 42,60 68,52 40,75 70,37 "L" 16,67 42,59 11,11 40,74 Table 22: Intervals for H I L indices
All elicited constructs within the sample are allocated to the categories. When all the constructs are assigned with the H I L indices according to the individual’s personal metrics the consensus between all respondents can be defined. In Table 23 the constructs within each category are shown in three groups according to their high, intermediate and low relevance to the supplied constructs.
184 7. Analysis of repertory grids
Similarity with construct 14.9 'Confidence' Similarity with construct 14.10 'Safety'
Sum in Sum in H I L H I L general general sample sample, % Sum of % in the Sum of % in the Sum of % in the Sum of % in the Sum of % in the Sum of % in the constructs category constructs category constructs category constructs category constructs category constructs category
Comfort 28 14 14 50% 8 29% 6 21% 18 64% 7 25% 3 11% Prestige 25 13 12 48% 6 24% 7 28% 12 48% 3 12% 10 40% Representativeness 23 12 3 13% 7 30% 13 57% 5 22% 8 35% 10 43% Technical quality 20 10 11 55% 4 20% 5 25% 10 50% 5 25% 5 25% Intended application (Universality) 17 9 1 6% 8 47% 8 47% 7 41% 6 35% 4 24% Size 17 9 2 12% 5 29% 10 59% 4 24% 9 53% 4 24% Design 17 9 8 47% 6 35% 3 18% 8 47% 5 29% 4 24% Speed/Power 13 7 4 31% 4 31% 5 38% 3 23% 5 38% 5 38% Cross country ability 12 6 3 25% 3 25% 6 50% 3 25% 2 17% 7 58% Safety/Security 10 5 1 10% 1 10% 8 80% 2 20% 1 10% 7 70% Price 8 4 0 0% 2 25% 6 75% 1 13% 0 0% 7 88% Novelty 7 4 4 57% 2 29% 1 14% 4 57% 2 29% 1 14% Totals 197100,0 63 56 78 77 53 67 Percentage of all (197) 32% 28% 40% 39% 27% 34%
Table 23: Honey’s content analysis of all grids
Category ‘comfort’ is not only most common but also has a high relevance to both supplied constructs for the majority of respondents. Also constructs ascribed to the category ‘technical quality’ are rated similarly with the supplied constructs indicating high relevance of their meaning when respondents think about overall confidence and safety of an auto.
Although category ‘novelty’ is least common among the respondents, for the majority of those who expressed constructs ascribed to this category the constructs are also highly relevant and important when considering the question of confidence and safety of an auto. This group of respondents represents a latent group for which the fact that the auto is new and embodies most recent technological achievements is an important factor influencing the choice decision and, therefore, it can be effectively used in positioning and advertising of a product targeting this latent group.
When thinking about confidence about an auto, categories ‘size’, ‘cross country ability’, ‘safety/security’ and ‘price’ have rather low relevance for the majority. At the same time, categories ‘prestige’ and ‘design’ appear relevant and similarly rated for the large part of the sample. This signifies that the notion of confidence is often related to the image of an auto and the social perception of an auto as well as of its owner rather than to the feeling of safety.
Moreover, when thinking about the safety of an auto or provided by an auto, the category ‘safety/security’ has a low relevance for the majority of people expressed the constructs ascribed to this category. However, categories ‘prestige’ and ‘design’ remain highly relevant for a large part of the sample.
185 7. Analysis of repertory grids
This confusion is likely to be explained by the specificity of the sample and its common attitude towards questions reflected in the supplied constructs. The respondents, on the one hand, represent consumers of premium autos who perceive general safety measures provided by an auto as a must have in premium autos due to their superiority in quality. Cars named for each element category present premium autos which, when being distinguished between each other by triadic differentiation, usually can not be distinguished by general safety measures. On the other hand, the respondents represent people referred to the risk group who are, if really concerned, have particular requirements about safety and security measures which often exceed the ordinary measures provided by ‘average’ premium autos. For example, as can be seen in the individual grid (Table 21) the first construct ascribed to the category ‘safety/security’ has a low relevance to the overall construct about auto safety because the respondent considers auto’s appropriateness for armoring which implies rather different requirements of an auto than those which are needed for general safety measures. For example, Audi Q7, although possessing all or most of the superior technologies and safety measures in the general notion, is perceived by the respondent as inappropriate for armoring because of its relatively large size what makes it easier to hit it with the bullet or projectile.
The common attitude towards the notion of auto safety is rather skeptical in a sense that people, at least in Russia, believe that if there is a plan to commit crime against a person in a car or aimed at stealing property from an auto or stealing or damaging the auto itself it will most probably be accomplished. This belief is explained by another one which is “there are no technologies smarter than a man”. That is why most safety and security measures are perceived either against different kinds of accidents and provided by premium autos as a must or against foolish, poorly thought out crimes. More serious measures require both specific technological achievements as well as physical protection involving the human factor.
The H I L indices regarding both supplied constructs do not differ much within each category. That is because most respondents rated both supplied constructs rather similarly and the general match between these constructs is 96% considering all the grids. It can, therefore, be supposed that most of respondents when rating the last supplied construct were actually thinking about each element as a package consisting of technological achievements as well as of the social value provided by a
186 7. Analysis of repertory grids car and the more appropriate meaning to such assessment is probably the convenience about an auto.
Because of the relatively small number of respondents in the sample the assumptions based on this data might need additional testing. However, this study is, first of all, aimed at demonstration of the technique application and illustrates how researcher can handle the estimations. It shows on which kind of differences and similarities in calculations the researcher needs to pay a particular attention because it can disclose unconsidered, unexpected or unknown aspects of the study. It is also very important to be careful with the interpretations to produce accurate inferences.
7.3. Analysis of relationships within a single grid
RG analysis is aimed at systematization of data and presenting it in a structure which allows to reveal commonalities and differences among consumers according to their perceptions and preferences. For this purpose each grid is separately analyzed, elicited meanings are systematized and the CMS schema of each respondent is constructed and presented. Afterwards, all structured individual data is analyzed together.
To conduct the analysis of relationships within a single grid the following steps need to be accomplished:
1) Preparation and input of data into the used software package.
2) Systematization of the elicited meanings:
a) Perform Slater’s PCA and provide a convenient structure form for findings representation;
b) Perform HCA within each defined PCA component and structure individual constructs based on the interrelationships between their meanings;
c) Build an individual CMS.
3) Systematization of elements perceptions:
a) Analyze matches between elements perceptions with respect to the revealed construct dimensions, i.e., abstract consequences.
187 7. Analysis of repertory grids
7.3.1. Preparation and input of data into the software package
In this study analysis are carried out by means of a web version of REPGRID program (Shaw, 1989) namely WEBGRID IV. This is the latest version introduced in 2008. Description of the software was provided in section 4.6.2.
Table 18 in section 6.2.2.1 shows the grid elicited from 14 th interviewee as it was recorded. All grids are inputted into the software including elements, constructs and ratings. Figure 17 shows the 14 th grid as it is displayed in the WEBGRID package. Elements are inputted as element categories instead of mentioned particular cars in order to later compare the grids and to analyze a collective grid representing several individual ones. This allows having different constructs but the same set of elements. Constructs are inputted in a coded form so that each construct is represented by its unique coding number and the category it is ascribed to. As well as constructs, categories are also bipolar as shown in Table 24.
Figure 17: Display of the 14 th repertory grid
188 7. Analysis of repertory grids
Emergent pole Implicit pole Construct № Category name Construct category Elicited meaning of construct Construct category Elicited meaning of construct
14.1 Safety/Security safe/secure appropriate for armoring unsafe inexpediency of armoring
14.2 Design stylish beautiful unattractive unsatisfactory design
14.3 Novelty new model novelty of a model old model old model
14.4 Representativeness unrepresentative for leisure time representative for business, not for entertainment
worse technological equipment in initially better technological 14.5 Safety/Security unsafe safe/secure sense of safety equipment in sense of safety there is no later model: 14.6 Novelty new model old model there is already a later model technologically innovative
14.7 Representativeness representative with driver unrepresentative for self driving
appropriate for comfort electronics limited equipment with comfort 14.8 Comfort comfortable uncomfortable and technologies electronics and technologies feel confident about not feel confident about 14.9 Overall confidence feel confident about this car not feel confident about this car this car this car
14.10 Overall safety feel safe in this car feel safe in this car not feel safe in this car not feel safe in this car
Table 24: Correspondence between category poles and construct poles
After all individual grids are inputted, WEBGRID’s analysis tools are used.
7.3.2. Systematization of elicited meanings a) Perform Slater’s PCA and provide a convenient structure form for findings representation
Each individual grid is examined by means of PCA. The produced graphic plot is presented in Figure 18. In addition, a table with percentage of variance accounted for by each component is also provided as shown in Table 25. Description of reading the plot was described in section 4.6.2.2.
1 Component 2 Component 3 Component 4 Component Percentage, % 64.36 30.80 2.23 1.19 Cumulative % 64.36 95.17 97.39 98.59
Table 25: Percentage of variance accounted for by each component.
Interpretation of the graphical plot involves three steps.
• At first it is needed to determine how many components are significant and should be examined.
In this graphical plot the first component accounts for 64% of the variance and together with the second, 31%, it identifies 95% of the variance in the data. It means
189 7. Analysis of repertory grids that to analyze this grid only one plot of first component against the second should be examined.
Figure 18: Graphic plot of a PCA of the 14 th grid
• Secondly, the positioning of the lines representing the constructs needs to be examined to reveal the distinct patterns.
Around the first component, i.e., x axis three constructs are grouped, including:
construct ‘14.1 safe/secure – unsafe’, construct ‘14.4 unrepresentative – representative’, construct ‘14.7 representative 2 – unrepresentative 2’.
These constructs form a joint with small angles around the first principal component and could all be considered as important for the grading process.
Second grouping consists of four constructs including:
construct ‘14.2 stylish – unattractive’, construct ‘14.3 new model – old model’, construct ‘14.6 new model 2 – old model 2’, construct ‘14.8 comfortable – uncomfortable’.
These constructs have relatively small angles towards the second component indicating another dimension in the assessment system of this respondent. 190 7. Analysis of repertory grids
Apart from the grouped constructs, three constructs 14.5, 14.9 and 14.10 are disposed between the components being well represented by neither of them. Two of these constructs are overall supplied constructs ‘14.9 feel confident about this car – not feel confident about this car’ and ‘14.10 feel safe in this car – not feel safe in this car’ and the third construct is elicited one ‘14.5 unsafe2 – safe/secure2’. Construct lines of 14.5 and 14.10 are coincident as their ratings are identical when construct 14.5 is reversed, i.e., the PSS between them is 100%. The expressed meaning underlying the elicited construct is ‘safe means initially better technological equipment in sense of safety’ which has a close meaning to the overall construct 14.10.
Thus, constructs 14.5, 14.9 and 14.10 align neither with the first grouping nor the second. It can be concluded that overall feeling of safety or confidence about a car depends neither on attributes aligned to the first component nor on the attributes aligned to the second component but more or less equally on both (Jankowicz, 2004, p. 129).
The graphical plot allows interpretation of the data, however, it is not always easy to attribute constructs to the components by visual inspection.
Together with graphical plot the tool provides an underlying textual output. It includes tables of construct and element loadings on each principal component. To further discuss the constructs a table of construct loadings is first presented and interpreted (Table 26).
Construct Component 1 Component 2 Component 3 Component 4 Construct poles (categorized) 14.1 -2.95 0.29 -0.16 -0.11 safe/secure--unsafe 14.2 -0.32 1.87 0.12 0.00 stylish--unattractive 14.3 0.03 1.87 0.36 -0.06 new model--old model 14.4 2.77 0.48 0.07 -0.11 unrepresentative--representative 14.5 0.49 -0.79 0.33 0.03 unsafe2--safe/secure2 14.6 0.19 1.08 -0.32 0.49 new model2--old model2 14.7 -2.46 -0.43 0.42 0.16 representative2--unrepresentative2 14.8 -0.00 0.96 0.31 0.02 comfortable--uncomfortable 14.9 -0.67 0.64 -0.21 -0.38 feel confident about this car--not feel confident about this car 14.10 -0.49 0.79 -0.33 -0.03 feel safe in this car--not feel safe in this car Table 26: Construct loadings on each component
As described in section 4.6.2.2 construct loadings do not directly represent the correlation between the component and its construct as in original principal component analysis. Loadings represent distances which absolute values depend on how the data has been scaled. Thus, for interpretation the relative values are
191 7. Analysis of repertory grids meaningful (Gaines and Shaw, 2005). It means that the criteria for construct loading value to be considered significant also depends on the relative loading values. Therefore, the loadings are considered as follows:
Constructs with highest loadings on one component and, at the same time, with relatively low loadings on other components are considered indicative for the component generalized meaning. Constructs with high loadings on two (or more) components are not indicative for defining generalized meaning and name of each component. However, these constructs are significant and demand deliberation bearing in mind that their meanings take account of both components. Constructs with low loadings on all components are considered to be insignificant for component definition.
In Table 26 constructs with the highest loadings are marked in bold. The constructs that are attributed to the components and account for the largest variance repeat the clusters identified through visual inspection of the plot. It is also seen that three constructs that were not aligned to either of the components have similar loadings of a middle level on both components.
• After lines in the plot are examined and groupings are recognized, the third step is to identify a common meaning between constructs within each group.
At this phase a researcher examines construct meanings and looks if there is any shared meaning. It is very important procedure of ‘naming components’ when abstract desirable consequences are actually identified. However, in this study this step is postponed and will be accomplished after reaching the synergy effect of conducting both PCA and HCA. This will provide a more clear view on the meanings of constructs in each component and their importance. b) Perform HCA within each defined PCA component and structure individual constructs based on the interrelationships between their meanings
Constructs within each dimension are clustered according to percentage of similarity in their rating values. Thereby, each construct grouping is based on, firstly, common pattern of variability and, secondly, close distances between rating absolute values.
192 7. Analysis of repertory grids
Dendrograms in Figures 19 and 20 illustrate ‘trees’ of both components identified by PCA.
Figure 19: HCA: Component 1 including constructs 5, 9, 10
Links between constructs Links between elements
Constructs R reversed PSS (%) Elements PSS (%) 10 5 R 100.0 1 (work) 8 (current) 100.0 9 5 R 97.2 3 (evening) 5 (previous) 100.0 4 1 R 94.4 1 (work) 9 (ideal) 95.8 7 4 R 94.4 2 (vacation) 3 (evening) 95.8 7 9 63.9 7 (alternative) 8 (current) 91.7 5 (previous) 6 (doesn't fit) 87.5 2 (vacation) 4 (in no way) 75.0 6 (doesn't fit) 9 (ideal) 54.2
Table 27: Links in the dendrogram of Figure 19
193 7. Analysis of repertory grids
Figure 20: HCA: Component 2 including constructs 5, 9, 10
Links between constructs Links between elements
Constructs R reversed PSS (%) Elements PSS (%) 10 5 R 100.0 1 (work) 6 (doesn't fit) 100.0 9 5 R 97.2 1 (work) 8 (current) 96.4 2 3 94.4 2 (vacation) 3 (evening) 96.4 6 8 91.7 8 (current) 9 (ideal) 92.9 8 10 91.7 3 (evening) 6 (doesn't fit) 89.3 2 6 83.3 5 (previous) 7 (alternative) 89.3 2 (vacation) 5 (previous) 85.7 4 (in no way) 7 (alternative) 67.9
Table 28: Links in the dendrogram of Figure 20
Constructs 14.5, 14.9 and 14.10 are first included in both dendrograms as they have similar loadings on both dimensions. In Figure 19 these three constructs compose separate cluster, whereas, in Figure 20 they are embodied in the cluster with the rest constructs aligned with second dimension. Thus, it is concluded that three constructs have comparatively closer meanings with constructs from the second dimension and, therefore, they are retained there in order to keep the completeness of information for further interpretation. c) Build an individual CMS
Table 29 presents the form developed in this study which comprises all the attributions that were derived through consecutive conduction of PCA and HCA. Columns of the table represent dimensions. In the upper part of rows constructs are arranged according to their dimension ascription. Each construct is put down so that
194 7. Analysis of repertory grids its number of interviewee (of RG), number of construct, category the construct is ascribed, indicator of category repeat, and emergent and implicit poles are reflected. Besides, preferred poles are written in bold.
Pole preference is identified by rating given on the ‘ideal’ element. In case of a neutral rating on the ‘ideal’ element meaning of the pole which corresponds (i.e., is on the same side of the dendrogram) to the preferred pole of the adjacent construct is to be interpreted. If preferred pole of a construct appears on the other side regarding preferred poles of adjacent constructs in cluster and percentage of similarity between adjacent constructs is high, the researcher needs to pay more attention to expressed meanings of each pole to interpret their similarity or difference in meanings appropriately.
In this study such examples appeared very few times and the reason for contradiction could be reasonably explained. For example, one interviewee (8 th RG) expressed the construct ‘high risk of criminal attempt because of good expensive car brand’ versus ‘no risk of criminal attempt’. By rating the ‘ideal’ element on this construct he gave ‘4’ meaning that he does not want to incur any criminal attempt. However, by high risk he actually meant an ownership of a good expensive car which is often a reason for criminal attempts. It is his personal perception and he has a full right to judge so. Ratings of ‘ideal’ element on constructs reflecting prestigiousness vary from ‘1’ to ‘3’ on cars including current and alternative as well as those that he would prefer for work, vacation or leisure time. Hierarchical clustering arranged respondent’s constructs so that pole ‘high risk of criminal attempt’ appeared to be on the side among other preferred poles in favor of prestige and representativeness. This can be interpreted as that the respondent prefers obtaining an expensive prestigious car despite the fact that this kind of autos is incurred criminal attempts in Russia. It would be ‘ideal’ for him when a good expensive car does not bring such risk, although he realizes that it is not possible (in Russia) like it is not possible, for instance, to purchase an ‘expensive’ auto at a cheap price.
In the bottom of Table 29 constructs are arranged according to percentage of match, i.e., similarity between their ratings what is displayed in the right upper tree structure of dendrograms (Figures 19, 20). This representation of data allows to see which meanings are more or less similar. Constructs attributed to the first dimension all match with each other between 90% and 100% (excluding 100%) where construct
195 7. Analysis of repertory grids
f Var.: 30,80% Var.: sense of of sense nologies nologies not feel confident about this feel not old model old not feel safe in this car safe feel not Bipolar constructs Bipolar unsatisfactory design unsatisfactory 2 dimension there no lateris model, i.e. technologically comfort electronics and technologies novelty model of 2 dimension beautiful there is a later model islater a there >=90% 90%>M>=80% 80%>M>=75% M<75% initially better technological equipment sensein o feel in safe car this feel confident car this about 14.2 stylish: 14.3 model: new limited equipment with comfort electronics and tech limited equipment electronics comfort with 14.9 14.8 comfortable: 14.5 safe/secure2: worse technological equipment technological in worse 14.5 safe/secure2: safety safety 14.6 model2: new innovative 14.9 14.6 14.2 14.3 car 14.10 14.8 1.87 1.87 1.08 0.96 0.64 0.79 0.79 Loadings 14.5 (R) 14.10 Var.: 64,36% 64,36% Var.: inexpediency of of inexpediency for business, not not for business, for for self driving for Bipolar constructs Bipolar with driver 1 dimension appropriate armoring for 1 dimension
14.4 representative: for leisure time leisure for 14.4 representative: entertainment armoring 14.1 safe/secure: 14.1 safe/secure: 14.7 representative2: 14.7 representative2: 14.4 (R) 14.7 14.1
M=100% 100%>M>=90% 90%>M>=80% 80%>M>=75% M<75% M=100% 100%>M Loadings Reversed Reversed constructs 14.114.2 2.95 14.3 14.414.5 R 14.6 R 2.77 14.714.8 14.9 2.46 14.10 Construct Matches between constructs (%) constructs between Matches
Table 29: Individual structure of construct meanings
196 7. Analysis of repertory grids
14.4 is reversed. This means that the absolute difference between their ratings is one or two units and it is likely that constructs share very close meanings or are in some sense complementary in respondent’s related perceptual structure. Hence, it is important to look at the content of the expressed meanings.
Construct 14.7 ‘with driver – for self driving’ and reversed construct 14.4 ‘for leisure time – for business, not for entertainment’ basically both express personal perception of a representative auto where he sits on a passenger seat and uses an auto for business purposes also implying working process while being in the car (e.g., telephone calls, reading, working with notebook, etc.) and, therefore, requires appropriate fulfillment. Although expressions ‘with driver’ and ‘for business purposes’ do not share the same meaning, they present complementary characteristics of perceived representative, business auto.
At first sight construct 14.1 ‘appropriate for armoring – inexpediency of armoring’ does not share any common meaning with constructs 14.4 and 14.7. However, appropriateness for armoring represents for the respondent another very important characteristic of an owned auto. During the interview it seemed that appropriateness for armoring is respondent’s prior requirement. This assumption is proved by the produced quantitative analysis. The construct has got the highest loading (in absolute value) on the first component, i.e., dimension.
Identifying similarities in the meanings, constructs of the first component seem to relate to practical characteristics that are essential for the consumer’s car exploitation taking into account his life circumstances and first purpose for the car use. According to constructs answering the question how a car is used and ratings of ‘current’ and ‘ideal’ elements, the main purpose for car exploitation is business (‘for business, not for entertainment’). An auto does not represent any working instrument (as, for example, for taxi driver) by means of which the respondent earns money or receives profit. The auto is to be used to provide proper conditions for its owner to lead his business and spend time during the rides differently than when self driving a car (‘with driver’). The respondent prefers autos that are appropriate for armoring and estimates the characteristic as very important (rating value ‘1’ on ‘ideal’ and ‘current’ elements). Ratings of this construct vary in the same way as ratings on other two constructs which refer to the preferences regarding working exploitation. Business is the main purpose for the car exploitation. Therefore, it can be assumed that
197 7. Analysis of repertory grids
‘appropriateness for armoring’ is also perceived as an important requirement referred to the main purpose of vehicle exploitation. Considering ratings on different elements, it appears that those autos that respondent considers as representative and appropriate for business exploitation are also considered as appropriate for armoring.
Based on this interpretation the resulting name of the first dimension which reflects the shared meaning of included constructs and their preferred poles is formulated as “Appropriate for my business use” and can also be precised as “Appropriate for my business use: armored and representative”.
Here, it is useful to describe some details revealed during the interview in order to provide a reader with a broader picture. The respondent is an entrepreneur who leads several large businesses in Russia. A couple years ago he was shot five times but survived. The reason behind armed assault was related to his business activities. For this reason this person does not feel in safety so far and always moves in armored auto with escort armored vehicles and thirteen bodyguards. These circumstances and the fact that respondent still leads his businesses makes construct pole ‘appropriateness for armoring’ likely to be called a requirement rather than a preference.
Returning to Table 29, constructs attributed to the second dimension also share a common meaning. First of all, indicative meanings of constructs which have high loadings on the second component should be considered. Constructs 14.8 ‘comfort electronics and technologies – limited equipment with comfort electronics and technologies’ and 14.6 ‘there is no later model, i.e., technologically innovative – there is already a later model’ match at 92%. They both relate to the technological achievements which provide better comfort as well as general exploitation features. According to the respondent’s perception the newer a model is the more innovative technologies it possesses.
Constructs 14.2 ‘beautiful unsatisfactory design’ and 14.3 ‘novelty of model old model’ match at 94%. During laddering down specification the respondent mentioned that beautiful design is only provided by new models which are not yet often seen on the streets. He basically perceives auto’s beauty depending on its uniqueness. Quantitative analysis proves this judgement and shows this strong interrelation in
198 7. Analysis of repertory grids meanings in form of two adjacent constructs which highly match and have high loadings on the second important dimension.
Besides, constructs 14.6 and 14.2 match at 83% in rating values. The double line between constructs 14.6 and 14.2 indicates that their matching score lies in the column where percentage of match is between 80% and 90%, while they both match with adjacent constructs, 14.8 and 14.3 correspondingly, at score between 90% and 100%.
Four constructs which have higher loadings on the second dimension appear to share respondents attitude and preference to novelty of auto model which, in turn, means (for the respondent) representation of most updated technologies in automotive industry. As these four constructs appeared to be indicative for determining the second dimension, the resulting name of second dimension is “Novelty of a model with recent technological achievements ”.
Three constructs 14.5, 14.9 and 14.10 form a cluster within the second dimension. Overall assessment construct 14.10 ‘feel safe in this car – not feel safe in this car’ matches at 100% with reversed elicited construct 14.5 ‘worse technological equipment in sense of safety initially better technological equipment in sense of safety’. It can be interpreted that for respondent a question of safety when talking about car features relates to the technical equipment and level of quality which can increase security and protection measures. If the respondent felt safe in an auto which meets certain attribute requirements he probably would not need other security measures such as bodyguards and escort. The person feels safe only when all measures are presented in complex which, in turn, involves a maximum technical quality and equipment of the used vehicle, besides measures not related to the auto itself. For this reason the respondent when talking about feeling safe and confident about an auto, is likely to consider its provided technical quality and features enabling its appropriateness for armoring. Therefore, construct loadings laying between two dimensions show that overall feeling of confidence and safety when talking about an auto depends more or less equally on both dimensions. However, meanings of three constructs are closer to the meanings expressed in constructs of the second dimension.
199 7. Analysis of repertory grids
The resulting schema of individual CMS is presented in Table 30. The schema accumulates all the elicited data which was analyzed and structured according to different levels of abstraction of respondent’s personal meanings.
In the bottom of the hierarchy (on the left of the schema) product characteristics are put into a tabular form reflecting the extent of similarity between personal meanings. Constructs are arranged according to the dimensions and clusters they have been attributed to. It repeats the Table 29 but dimensions are located one on another instead of side by side.
Product attributes reflect categories that were assigned to the elicited constructs. They are ordered according to their relation to one of the dimensions. Thus, it can be seen which attributes are sought to satisfy each of identified abstract expected consequences.
Specific expected consequences which represent too specific motives include individual expressions revealed during laddering technique procedure carried out with mostly preferred constructs according to their given ratings on the ‘ideal’ element. Resulting expected consequences, actually, reflect desirable consequences as they were derived from the preferred construct poles. It was proved that people do not necessarily provide ladders that link product characteristics with personal values through all levels of abstraction, especially, in terms of six level chain proposed by Olson and Reynolds (1983, p. 81). For example, ladders from constructs 14.5 and 14.6 have only one meaning linking product attribute with personal value. Actually, it does not mean that the respondent could not produce and explain details corresponding to each level of abstraction. In contrast to clinical purposes, application of laddering in marketing research targets relatively adequate people who usually can clearly express their thoughts especially about ‘obvious’ things. During the current study it was found that asking for more details often does not provide additional information, however, can evoke respondent’s irritation and, thereby, endanger the remained interviewing procedure. It depends on the researched topic, type and complexity of product, sample and conditions of the survey that makes interviewer either feel comfortable and free to ask for more details even regarding obvious things or be cautious and realize the situation going on to adjust his scrupulosity.
200 7. Analysis of repertory grids
Values Security Achievement Appropriate for Novelty a of consequences Abstract expectedAbstract Dim. 1: my business use (armored and representative) Dim. 2: model with most recent technological achievements consequences Specific expected security measures security long possible as as alive Stay hi due last to (14.5)safer Feel tech achievements tech achievements (14.1) Provide maximum(14.1) Provide a as (14.4)comfortable Feel passenger Save time for working purposes working time for Save (14.6) riding Enjoy due last hi to Be confident about surrounding confident Be and things people Values Laddering UP Laddering Resistance to Change Incentives Product attributes Product Security Novelty Design Security Business With driver measures Security Comfort Representativeness Clusters PCA DimensionsPCA Abstract consequences Abstract Laddering UP Laddering HOW+ ratings Ideal Sit. and Env. incentives Env. Sit. and Specific consequences 90% > M >= 80% >= 90%M > 75% >= 80% M > 75% < M WHAT Content Analysis Content Product attributes Product Product characteristics 14.6 means model2: new new 14.9 feel confident about this 14.8 comfortable: comfort comfort 14.8 comfortable: 14.1 safe/secure: appropriate appropriate 14.1 safe/secure: armoring for self not for 14.7 representative2: driving car and technologies electronics innovative technologically 14.2 stylish: beautiful 14.3 model: novelty new 14.4 representative: for for 14.4 representative: business,entertainment not for WHICH Personal constructs Product Product characteristics
M = = 100%M 100% 90% M >= >
objective subjective
Analysis driven: relatively relatively driven: Analysis Person driven: driven: Person 14.5 safe/secure2: initially 14.5 initially safe/secure2: equipment technological better 14.10 feel safe in this car safety of in sense Table 30: Individual schema of a consumer motivational sphere
201 7. Analysis of repertory grids
Abstract expected consequences representing individual motives of the middle range consist of defined dimensions. They aggregate individual meanings which are not only put into words but also expressed in individual estimations. These abstract consequences are more general and can be compared with preferred abstract consequences of other individuals, although they are still expressed in terms of product features.
The incentives are revealed from the content and preferred construct poles of constructs which explain how and in which circumstances the auto is used.
Values represent motives at the highest level of abstraction that are too general and do not directly reflect product preferences and requirements which help come closer or reach the value state. Nevertheless, values represent the final states which person is trying to achieve by living his life and doing as well as consuming what he does. Values associated with investigated product consumption can be partly or fully attained through benefits identified on the lower levels of abstraction.
7.3.3. Systematization of elements perceptions a) Analyze matches between elements perceptions with respect to the revealed construct dimensions, i.e., abstract consequences
Elements, i.e., autos named for each supplied category can also be analyzed and differences in perceptions can be revealed by the suggested methodology.
Figure 21 displays the PCA plot reproducing only the elements. PCA of the grid data rely on one plot reproducing two first principal components which account for 95% of the variance in the data.
Looking at the distances between the elements, elements 2 (vacation), 3 (evening) and 6 (doesn’t fit) are plotted close to each other indicating that they received similar ratings.
The same similarity can be seen within another group including elements 1(work), 8 (current) and 9 (ideal).
Element 4 (in no way) is plotted far apart from other elements which tends to show rather different ratings given on this element.
202 7. Analysis of repertory grids
Figure 21: Relationships between elements
Positions of elements 5 (previous) and 7 (alternative) provide less evidence of their interrelations to other elements, although with respect to the first dimension element 5 (previous) seems to be similar with the first mentioned group of elements and element 7 (alternative) is similar to the second group of elements. Positions of elements with respect to the second dimension show strong similarities in ratings between both groups mentioned above, however, when looking at elements 9 (ideal) and 6 (doesn’t fit) they are plotted already far enough from each other.
This exemplifies how visible relations can be recognized from the plot, however, more precise and comprehensive interpretation of element relationships requires additional procedures. Moreover, it becomes harder to interpret and easier to misinterpret the relationships between elements when more than two components appear significant for data analysis.
Relationships between cars based on the constructs, i.e., perceptions are presented in dendrogram of Figure 22. Table 31 shows links between elements, i.e., the percentage of match between adjacent elements. Dendrogram displays the result of HCA conducted with all respondent’s constructs. An advantage of such representation offered by the computer package is that clustering of both constructs
203 7. Analysis of repertory grids and elements is provided simultaneously and both ‘trees’ are displayed in the analysis outcome.
Figure 22: HCA producing element and construct dendrograms
Elements PSS (%) 1 (work) 8 (current) 97.5 2 (vacation) 3 (evening) 95.0 3 (evening) 6 (doesn't fit) 92.5 8 (current) 9 (ideal) 92.5 2 (vacation) 5 (previous) 87.5 7 (alternative) 9 (ideal) 82.5 1 (work) 6 (doesn't fit) 70.0 4 (in no way) 5 (previous) 65.0
Table 31: Links between adjacent elements in the dendrogram of Figure 22
Examining the element dendrogram presented in Figure 22 and its supportive Table 31, two major clusters are sorted out by 75% cutoff level. First cluster includes elements 1, 8, 9 and 7, second cluster includes 2, 3, 6 and 5 elements; and there is also one “isolate” element 4 which stands out. By using the term “isolate” it should be borne in mind that although this element does not match with any other elements at 75% or higher, it still joins a general cluster by the 65% level (McKnight, 2000).
This illustration replicates what was assumed from the first view on PCA plot considering elements interrelations.
204 7. Analysis of repertory grids
Additional inferences can be made when elements are clustered with respect to constructs within each dimension. Figures 23 and 24 show dendrograms displayed for each PCA dimension.
Figure 23: HCA conducted within the first PCA dimension
Figure 24: HCA conducted within the second PCA dimension
In Table 32 clusters are summarized and elements are arranged according to their matching scores. The algorithm is similar to the one shown in Table 29 but this time examining elements rather than constructs.
• In the first column which reflects clusters considering all the constructs the first cluster consists of elements 1, 7, 8 and 9.
205 7. Analysis of repertory grids
Elements 1(work) and 8(current) have the highest match of 97%. Elements 8 (current) and 9 (ideal) have also relatively high match of 92%. In turn, elements 9(ideal) and 7(alternative) match at 82%.
It can be assumed that the respondent when choosing his current auto was looking for a one that is mostly appropriate for his working purposes. He draws his ideal car very close to the current one. Besides, he considered as alternative purchasing an auto which also was alike with his ideal image.
Second cluster of the first column illustrates how similar the ratings between elements 6 (doesn’t fit), 3 (evening), 2 (vacation) and 5 (previous) are. In other words, autos that are more suitable for free time and an auto that this person really likes but it doesn’t fit to his surrounding, environment or life circumstances are perceived relatively similar to each other and different from those that are practical and to be used for work.
• In the second column it is shown how elements are similar on the constructs ascribed to the first dimension. There are no cardinal changes in element groupings. Moreover, it can be seen that elements 8, 1 and 7 as well as 6, 3 and 5 match now at 100% correspondingly. This is not surprising as first dimension “Appropriate for my business use” accounts for the largest percentage of the variance in the grid data and, basically, is most determinative in the general positions and distances between the elements.
• In the third column elements grouping appears different from those in previous two columns. There is only one major cluster and an isolate element 4 (in no way). Here, elements are compared regarding constructs attributed to the second dimension “Novelty of a model with recent technological achievements”. The respondent named autos that are relatively new and correspond to recent technological achievements in automotive industry (see in the bottom of Table 32). For this reason the ratings on these constructs do not differ so much to build different clusters. However, the extent of similarity between elements is different.
206 7. Analysis of repertory grids
4 (in no way) ≥ 75%≥ M < 75% PSS (%) 5 (previous) 7 (alternative) 2 Dim 3 (evening) 2 (vacation) 9 (ideal) 8 (current) 1 (work) 6 fit) (doesn't Elements 1 (work)1 (work)2 (vacation) 6 fit) (doesn't 8 (current) 3 (evening) 8 (current)3 (evening)5 (previous) 9 (ideal) 6 fit) (doesn't 100.0 2 (vacation) 7 (alternative)4 (in no way) 96.4 5 (previous) 96.4 7 (alternative) 89.3 89.3 92.9 67.9 85.7 Guard Mercedes GWMercedes % M <75% M = 100% 100% >M ≥ 90% 90% > M 80%≥ 80% > M Other owned autos Other owned Mercedes Mercedes C140 Guard 4 (in no way) Audi S8 PSS (%) Armored 1 Dim S220 Mercedes Mercedes 2 (vacation) 9 (ideal) DB9 Coupe (6)doesn't (6)doesn't fit (7)alternative (8)current Aston Martin 6 fit) (doesn't 3 (evening) 5 (previous) 1 (work) 7 (alternative) Elements 1 (work)1 (work)3 (evening) 7 (alternative)3 (evening) 5 (previous) 8 (current)2 (vacation) 6 fit) (doesn't 7 (alternative) 100.0 5 (previous) 9 (ideal)2 (vacation)4 (in no way) 100.0 4 (in no way) 100.0 100.0 9 (ideal) 91.7 91.7 75.0 41.7 Named autos 75% M =100% 100% >M ≥ 90% 90% >M 80%≥ 80% >M 75≥ 4 (in no way) Jaguar (any)Jaguar CLK Mercedes Carrera Porsche Porsche PSS (%) General match General 5 (previous) Audi Q7 1 (work) 3 (evening) 2 (vacation) 9 (ideal) 8 (current) (1)work (2)vacation (3)evening (4)in no way (5)previous Mercedes Mercedes S221 Guard Elements M =100% 100%> ≥M 90% 90% >M ≥ 80% 80% >M ≥ 75% M < 1 (work)2 (vacation)3 (evening) 3 (evening) 8 (current)8 (current) 6 fit) (doesn't 2 (vacation)7 (alternative) 9 (ideal) 5 (previous) 9 (ideal)1 (work) 95.0 92.5 4 97.5 (in no way) 5 (previous) 6 fit) (doesn't 87.5 92.5 82.5 65.0 70.0 PSS Cluster 2Cluster 6 fit) (doesn't Cluster 1Cluster 7 (alternative) 8 (current) Interval of of Interval
Table 32: Interrelationships between element perceptions
207 7. Analysis of repertory grids
Element 6 (doesn’t fit) is closer to elements 1 (work), 8 (current) and 9 (ideal) rather than to elements 3, 2 and 5 as in previous columns (the double line stands for the match score between 80% 90%). Moreover, element 6 matches element 1 at 100%. It indicates that the car named as an auto that ‘I really like but it doesn’t fit’ mostly meets all individual preferences regarding technological equipment, design and comfort. Therefore, the main reason why this auto would not probably be purchased by the respondent lays in lack of correspondence to the preferences presented in the first dimension. During the interview the respondent has mentioned that he is delighted with Aston Martin DB9 Coupe, auto that he named as element 6 (doesn’t fit), and he would love to have it. However, his current life circumstances prevent this purchase.
Besides, element 7 (alternative) is now positioned relatively far from elements 1 (work), 8 (current) and, especially, from 9 (ideal). Respondent didn’t choose the ‘alternative’ auto over the ‘current’ one because its technological and design features did not enough meet his preferences, although this auto fully corresponded to most important preferences related to its appropriateness for security measures and representativeness.
Such element comparison is very useful when differences between elements carry special meaning for researcher and, especially, for the manufacturer. It allows to draw inferences regarding what needs to be changed or improved to make a certain product be perceived closer to the ‘ideal’ or at least ‘current’ product. It gives a clue along which constructs and in which direction product improvement or its repositioning should occur to make ratings of the improved product move towards customer’s ‘ideal’ image.
Representation of dimensions and clusters as in Table 32 permits to compare element interrelationships and to recognize how respondent perceives each element with respect to his perceptual dimensions, i.e., abstract expected consequences he seeks for. It can be useful for managers who want to reveal disadvantages of their product or brand from perspective of a consumer.
To sum up, the suggested methodology for analyzing individual grid data by means of subsequent conduction of PCA and HCA permits to reveal relationships,
208 7. Analysis of repertory grids similarities and differences between individual perceptions and between products within the product category which often can be already assumed from observational inspection of resulting graphs.
However, inferences made from observational inspection often bear doubt and should be supported by other evidence to be persuasive. Otherwise, there is often a risk to be claimed in making conjectures. The methodology implies both qualitative and quantitative analyzing procedures which on their own represent solid and recognized techniques and the findings made from their application are considered reliable. It has also proved to reflect all assumptions and notices recognized during interviewing. Therefore, it is believed that if interviewer and analyst appear to be two different people the proper inferences could still be drawn revealing different aspects of consumer’s life. The variety of aspects includes life circumstances, environment and some features of character which influence the way a product is exploited. Last but not least, personal perceptions, preferences and choice depending on the whole complex of internal and external incentives can be drawn.
7.4. Segmentation based on the comparison of the findings from the single grids analyses
All twenty grids were analyzed according to the suggested method and for all respondents CMS schemas were produced similarly to the provided example of 14 th respondent’s grid. Such representation of individual meanings associated with the topic allows researcher a comparison of respondents on different levels of abstraction depending on the aim in research and application of findings.
In this study an attempt to identify groups of customers is pursued to differentiate them on higher levels of abstraction in order to appeal to the customer’s motives in positioning products which are very similar to the competitors’ products in sense of technological, functional and quality performance and the distinction between products and brands is reached mostly on the emotional component of a high involvement product.
The selection of appropriate segmentation type depends on the purpose of the research, e.g., understanding markets, product positioning or new product development (Wind, 1978; Botschen et al., 1999). When the main purpose is to use findings in effective new product development differences of rather specific meanings
209 7. Analysis of repertory grids are of an interest and segmentation that works well statistically based on product characteristics and attributes as well as psychographic and general attitudinal approaches is reasonable (Young et al., 1978). However, such approaches to segmentation are less useful when the research is aimed at deriving effective positioning and marketing strategy. For these purposes segmentation on higher levels of abstraction such as benefits and values is preferred (Wind, 1978).
Human values as a basis for market segmentation have attracted much attention from consumer researchers driven by the view that values are more closely related to behavior than are personality traits (Kamakura and Novak, 1992). Besides, values are less numerous, more central and stable determinants of behavior and attitudes (Vallette Florence, 1988 cited in Kamakura and Novak, 1992).
Conducted value segmentation studies applied different approaches, some have relied on a single, and most highly ranked value from each individual to define segments, whereas, other suggested segmentation based on value systems shared by groups of customers (Kahle et al., 1986; Novak and MacEvoy, 1990; Kamakura and Novak, 1992). Value construct is used both as criteria for segmentation and as a way to enrich the description of segments identified through other criteria. Researchers agree that segmentation based on higher levels of abstraction such as values is more meaningful and stable (Gutman, 1982; Reynolds and Gutman, 1988). However, it is also argued that any situation in life including product purchasing or consumption is likely to activate several values rather than only one from a whole set of personal values (Rokeach, 1973) and it is reasonable to consider the priority of values associated with particular situation or, in this context, with particular purchasing decision (Kamakura and Novak, 1992).
Value system of a person consists of values that are most central and general determinants of consumer behavior and, therefore, fairly remote from each particular decision, which can also be influenced by many other more immediate but less stable situational and environmental affects. That is why segmentation on particular product market based on general value systems doesn’t seem reliable and meaningful. Other more immediate and closer influences such as product attributes, product consequences and consumer preferences must be taken into account when defining segments for a particular market (Kamakura and Novak, 1992).
210 7. Analysis of repertory grids
Maslow’s (1954) analysis of “deficiency” versus “growth” needs suggests that deficiency needs (e.g., health, safety) are inactive or functionally absent once the gap between desired standard or satisfaction and the person’s perceived current state is eliminated. Satisfaction of growth needs (e.g., self actualization, curiosity), on the contrast, is pursued even after high levels of satisfaction are reached and there is no stable external standard that when is attained turns the need into inactive. From psychological perspective behavior patterns aimed at satisfying growth needs are different from those aimed at satisfying deficiency needs and, hence, people are likely to attribute high importance to different values depending on the pursued behavior pattern (Bilsky and Schwartz, 1994). This conception can be helpful in marketing implementation when deciding from which perspective communications and positioning are to be provided.
In this study segments are formed according to individual differences in their consumer behavior patterns. Values have long been suggested as means for understanding consumers’ underlying motivations and groups identified accordingly are more likely to engage in a common pattern of attitudes, beliefs and behavior (Kamakura and Novak, 1992).
Botschen and his colleagues (1999) provided a study aimed at clarifying the distinction between attributes and benefits sought and suggesting modified laddering technique to be applied to form benefit segments. It is not an aim of this work to prove the appropriateness of a certain segmentation approach in different situations. Relying on the statements and inferences made by authors it is agreed that the MEC concept is ideally suited to form market segments according to different levels of abstraction, such as attributes, desirable consequences (benefits), values or linkages between the meanings. In this work it is demonstrated how segmentation can be performed based on the systemized structure of personal meanings represented in individual motivational schemas.
Expected consequences and values being motives of different ranges represent actual drivers for purchase and choice of certain set of product attributes. Because same product attribute may lead to different consequences and single consequence may be reached by combination of attributes (Pieters, 1993), segments based on attributes may differ from segments based on consequences sought and derived segmentation may appear grossly misleading.
211 7. Analysis of repertory grids
In this study individual analysis of respondents’ motivational schemas allowed to conduct a two stage segmentation considering at first stage the most general motives, i.e., values and on the second stage the revealed abstract consequences which represent the motives of the middle range (Table 33).
The first stage of segmentation considers values which are derived by laddering technique related to the subjective part of the proposed integrated method. To remind the procedure, from all elicited constructs that were given rating ‘1’ or ‘5’ laddering technique was applied and values associated with the product category were derived. Elicited personal values were then prioritized by respondent according to the resistance to change technique described in section 4.5.4.2.
Respondents are compared in terms of frequency and priority of elicited values. It was found that most common associated values named by respondents were ‘self actualization, achievement’ and ‘pleasure and enjoyment of life’. All respondents named either both values or at least one of them.
For this reason, at first, participants are distinguished according to whether their first priority value implies ‘achievement and self actualization’ or whether it implies ‘pleasure and enjoyment of life’.
Thus two main groups are identified according their preference between these two general values.
• The first group includes respondents who prefer ‘self actualization and achievement’ over ‘pleasure and enjoyment of life’ or who did not mention the second at all. Among these respondents two have also named value “power and social recognition” and prioritized it over the ‘self actualization and achievement’. Power and social recognition imply social influence and achievements recognized not only by individual himself but also by social surrounding. Power and achievement are compatible in that they both emphasize superiority and esteem (Schwartz, 1992 cited in Paulssen, 1999).
• The second group includes respondents who either prefer ‘pleasure and enjoyment of life’ over ‘self actualization and achievement’ or named only ‘pleasure and enjoyment of life’ as an only value or among other values excluding ‘self actualization and achievement’ associated with car use.
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On the second stage commonalities among important individual abstract consequences are explored. For this purpose from each individual CMS attributes, i.e. categories the constructs are ascribed to, are extracted that appeared to be indicative for dimensions on which ‘ideal’ element has got highest loading(s). Indicative attributes are considered those that have high loadings on the revealed dimensions of each single grid. Dimensions that are significant by variance and on which ‘ideal’ element has highest loading(s) are considered in segmentation.
Table provided in Appendix 5 shows respondents’ most important attributes (on the left hand side) and prioritized personal values derived from individual ladders (in the right part). Respondents are divided into two groups according to the presence of attribute ‘prestige’ among three most preferred attributes.
Five groups are identified from the investigated sample which description is presented in the form of matrix shown in Table 33. Testing of representativeness and validity of segmentation is not pursued in this study because the aim is to derive common patterns of consumer behavior in the surveyed sample rather than to claim to be a statistically representative (see 2.6.2.3).
Horizontally the groups are divided into two types of customers according to their priority regarding aspiration for self actualization and professional success or aspiration for pleasure and enjoyment of life ensured by professional success in terms of financial and status security. Thus, groups and divided into ‘careerists’ and ‘hedonists’.
Groups of careerists refer to people for whom “success and self realization means pleasure and enjoyment of life”, whereas groups of hedonists refer to people for whom “self realization serves as means for pleasure and enjoyment of life”. In the first definition the term ‘mean(s)’ is used as a verb to emphasize that business or professional success and self realization make a person feel enjoyment of life. In the second definition the term ‘means’ is used as a noun to emphasize that self realization in terms of professional success does not bring enjoyment itself but serves as a resource to obtain status and to afford things that make a person enjoy his life.
Vertically the groups are divided into two types according to social orientation and conspicuity of product consumption. The first type represents people who are self
213 7. Analysis of repertory grids oriented regarding products consumption and consume premium goods to benefit, first of all, from their quality and functional superiority. Attributes like image and design are also important for these people but for own enjoyment rather than to make sure to be perceived properly by others. The second type represents people whose consumption of premium goods is more socially oriented and they pursue social prestige and acknowledgement by such a conspicuous consumption. Thus, vertically groups are divided into ‘introverts’ and ‘extroverts’.
Success and self realization means pleasure and Self realization as means for pleasure and enjoyment of life enjoyment of life
Careerist introvert: "I know how successful I am" Hedonist introvert: "I enjoy my life"
Orientation: professional success Orientation: enjoyment of life
Consume brands that proved to be qualitative and Consume prestigious brands to reflect achieved success appropriate for personalized use Prioritized values Common important attributes Prioritized values Common important attributes
Self oriented Self actualization, Achievement Representativeness Pleasure and enjoyment of life Comfort Pleasure, enjoyment of life Comfort Technical quality Technical quality Cross country ability Careerist extrovert: "Others know how successful I Hedonistic careerist extrovert: "Others should know am" how successful I am" Orientation: strong leadership Orientation: become successful and recognized
Consume prestigious brands to demonstrate success and Consume prestigious brands to demonstrate achieved power success Prioritized values Common important attributes Prioritized values Common important attributes Power, Social Recognition Prestige Pleasure and enjoyment of life Prestige Self actualization, Achievement Speed/Power Self actualization, Achievement Design Novelty / Comfort
Hedonist extrovert: "Others notice me"
Sociallyoriented Orientation: be unique among others
Consume prestigious brands to demonstrate themselves
Prioritized values Common important attributes Pleasure and enjoyment of life Prestige Affiliation, Recognition Speed/Power Design
Table 33: Customer segmentation
The terms ‘introvert’ and ‘extrovert’ are used to define people with an ‘introverted type of consumption’ and an ‘extroverted type of consumption’ respectively. In this work an introverted type of consumption implies a consumer behavior oriented first of all at person’s own opinion and judgement. In contrast, an extroverted type of consumption implies a consumer behavior strongly influenced by stereotypes, attitudes and perceptions generated by the society. Thus a consumer with an extroverted type of consumption is predominantly concerned with other’s opinion and
214 7. Analysis of repertory grids tends to make his choice towards products or brands that are first of all recognizable by others. Two types of behavior represent opposite dispositions, however, consumers fluctuate in their behavior and, therefore, their belonging to one of the types is relative and based actually on the tendency towards one of the behavior types in particular situation.
Customers who belong to introverts do not have the attribute ‘prestige’ among three most important attributes. For these people the social function of premium brand autos provides first of all a sense of life they possess or aspire to. In contrast, three remaining groups related to extroverts all have a common most important attribute ‘prestige’ among first three. For these people the social function of premium brand autos provides social prestige and recognition. Next each segment is described in details.
Careerist introvert: "I know how successful I am"
This group includes respondents oriented at professional success. They are motivated by achievement and self realization and exhibit their professional success. This people refer to self oriented individuals who put own opinion and self esteem over the social opinion and social recognition.
Members of this group prefer premium brand cars first of all to profit from their technological and aesthetical advantages. In the first place they value the practical use and an appropriateness of a car for their individual way of its exploitation.
Through a social prestige provided by the social function of premium brand these people reflect their maturity and achieved success. They are likely to seek for a symbol of well being and wealth, taste and connoisseurship. Therefore, they are especially interested in the representativeness of a car which reflects their social status of mature, successful and respectable people.
Common most important attributes that contribute to the perceived product utility are comfort, representativeness and technical quality of an auto.
Careerist extrovert: “Others know how successful I am”
This group comprises people oriented towards strong leadership. As a car exploitation associated value they name ‘self actualization and achievement’ but in 215 7. Analysis of repertory grids the first place they put ‘power’ as a prior value. They are motivated not only by achievement but they perceive self realization in attaining social status that enables strong influence, authority, control and dominance over people and resources. Although for these people own opinion is primary factor, the desire to influence other people requires social recognition and preserving public image. Their buying behavior regarding remarkable products is likely to be socially oriented by which they exhibit their strength and power.
For this group social function of premium or luxury brands comes to the foreground although they also require sufficient level of functional fulfillment. To demonstrate success and power they seek for attribute ‘prestige’ which reflects their status and attribute ‘speed/power’ that underlines strength and risk loving. As already discussed rather functional attribute ‘speed/power’ significantly contribute to the social function of car brand in customers’ perception in Russia.
Hedonist introvert: “I enjoy my life”
This group includes people oriented at enjoyment of life. They are motivated by life gratification and tend to enjoy an active life full of excitement, entertainment, and socializing. For this group achievement and professional success present means to attain sufficient social level when they can afford things they need to enjoy time and life in general. Relative to the previous two groups, members of this group are likely to spend more time for leisure and fun filled, social activities. They also spend more time with family and friends and are likely to try new things in life.
Premium brand car is valued by these people first of all due to its technical and functional advantages over volume brands. They prefer products that proved to be highly qualitative and appropriate for their personal way of exploitation.
Members of this group are self oriented in terms of car perception. Social perception and attitude play secondary role in their purchasing decision. Common most important attributes that contribute to the perceived product utility are ‘comfort’ and ‘technical quality’. Also such attributes as ‘size’ and ‘cross country ability’ appeared important for majority of members of the group according to their individual favors for outdoor activities.
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Hedonistic careerist extrovert: “Others should know how successful I am”
Members of this group are oriented at achieving success and, thereby, are being recognized by others. They are motivated by social recognition and respect because of achieved success. If compare with the first group: “I know how successful I am”, members of the first group are also oriented at achievement, however, they are interested first of all in professional success i.e., to make a career in particular field, to master every aspect of their professional activities.
In contrast, members of this group want to gain success to prove others what they can. It may not be so important in what field and how interesting their work is but what is important is an attained social status through earned wealth. At the end this people are motivated by enjoyment and pleasure in life. They believe that to reach this state they need to earn enough money and show or prove others that they are successful. Thereby they build up a sense of self esteem which is necessary for further full enjoyment of life. This group represents some kind of a gold middle between full hedonists and full careerists for whom pleasure and enjoyment of life is a prior value (associated with product consumption), however, not possible without achievement and success.
Because they pursue to let others recognize their achievements, social function of premium brand car comes to the forefront. It can be expected that these people tend to change cars and purchase new ones with stronger image and brighter appearance every time they feel they have reached next level within society and in well being.
Most important common attributes for them are ‘prestige’ and ‘design’ and often also considered ‘novelty’ and ‘comfort’ which reflect pacing in step with trend and progress and enjoying correspondingly.
Hedonist extrovert: “Others notice me (and my success)”
Members of this group present highly hedonistic group oriented at becoming noted by others. They are extroverts motivated by pleasure and enjoyment within social environment. This people usually have already attained a status which they consider sufficient for their wished state of well being and rather maintain this position than pursue new challenges. They enjoy life and like being recognized by others and being affiliated with subjectively perceived highest strata of society.
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This group is tended to purchase cars which already belong to high end or ultra luxury cars as they impress first of all with their sophistication and excess. They purchase such cars to demonstrate themselves, to make others notice them on the road or in general. Therefore, this type of product consumption is also regarded as socially oriented.
They are likely to seek for a symbol of wealth, omnipotence and lifestyle opened to enjoyment and excitement. Such image is brought by sufficient performance of attributes: ‘prestige’, ‘design’ and ‘speed/power’. According to the conducted survey, this combination is usually found in luxury sport cars e.g., Bentley Continental GT Speed or Jaguar S type.
As a result, people that were surveyed for this research work are distinguished. These respondents all together already represent relatively homogeneous group of customers who all belong to an upper middle or a higher class characterized by a high level of well being able to purchase almost everything including property and assets. They all are successful professionals or entrepreneurs who dispose self earned means. However, provided segmentation permits to differentiate these people according to very stable meanings and to define common patterns in consumer behavior based on desired and pursued end states of well being and on directed intervening states which facilitate approaching of desired end states.
Vershofen and Belz (Belz, 1994) argued that premium products provide, besides their intended use, additional utilities of satisfying needs for prestige and self esteem. According to the findings of this study, both these utilities should be presented. However, the customer’s prioritized utility among these two significantly defines his behavior, his choice for particular brand and product and combination of important attributes, sought to provide desirable consequences.
7.5. Multi-grid analysis
In this part of the work elicited constructs from all respondents are to be aggregated in order to draw inferences about commonalities and differences in customers’ perceptions, i.e., meanings. This is another opportunity provided by RGT which is helpful when analysis of single grids is time consuming in a sense of big amount of grids.
218 7. Analysis of repertory grids
Multi grid analysis implies analysis of respondents’ constructs by analogy with the proposed methodology regarding analysis of a single grid. However, in a multi or collective grid each construct represents a collective construct developed from respondents’ constructs ascribed to a particular category (Wright and Cheung, 2007). Analysis and comparison of single grids allow to compare customers, their behavior and attitudes, whereas, multi grid analysis allows comparison of meanings of different customers.
Twenty face to face in depth RG interviews produced 180 bipolar personal constructs of how customers perceive ownership and exploitation of cars. In addition 40 supplied constructs were rated by respondents to reveal their preference on the overall assessment constructs and its relation to elicited perceptions. The categorization procedure of content analysis allowed to aggregate and to reduce the original 180 elicited constructs into 12 major collective bipolar construct categories (see Appendix 4). Two more categories enclose supplied constructs, that is, each additional category includes supplied overall assessment constructs of all respondents. Therefore, each additional category consists of 20 constructs. As described in section 7.2 constructs that actually enclose meanings of two (and in one case, three) categories are allocated to both related categories. Therefore, the sum of constructs allocated to twelve identified categories is 197.
Table 34 provides an example of how one collective construct ‘comfortable uncomfortable’ which represents a bipolar category ‘comfort’ was generated from 28 individually elicited constructs. Codes on the left hand side of the table stand for the number of a construct and number of respondent the construct is elicited from. In this category six constructs were reversed so that all preferred poles were aligned on the left hand side to provide easier grouping of the constructs.
Table 35 shows all collective constructs with the numbers of constructs comprised in each collective construct. In some categories the preferred poles of customers do not relate to one of the poles of collective construct as in category ‘comfort’. For example, some respondents may prefer having large cars, whereas, others prefer rather compact autos or some prefer autos of universal exploitation and others prefer more specialized cars such as sport cars. Therefore, constructs in such categories were reversed so that meanings of their poles correspond to the poles of collective constructs.
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Coded elicited Construct pole: 'comfortable' Construct pole: 'uncomfortable' construct 1.2 Driver's comfort in terms of less emotional and physical efforts More stress at driving 1.5 Comfort electronics and technologies Limited technological features 2.3 Appropriate size, comfortable passenger seating arrangement Uncomfortable 2.11 Comfort electronics and technologies Lack of comfort electronics and technologies 3.5 R Don't feel hummocks, potholes and bumpy roads at driving Feel hummocks, potholes and bumpy roads at driving 3.7 Feel comfortable on the passenger seat (don't feel bumpy roads and potholes) Feel bumpy roads and potholes on the passenger seat 3.8 R Enough space to lie (stretch legs) Only sitting position 4.6 Appropriate size for tall people Not appropriate size for tall people 5.6 R Comfort electronics and technologies Lack of comfort electronics and technologies 5.11 R Don't feel hummocks, potholes and bumpy roads at driving Feel hummocks, potholes and bumpy roads 6.3 Smooth running, feel comfortable on the passenger seat Not smooth running 6.6 Good ergonomics of saloon Bad ergonomics of saloon 6.11 Feel comfortable on the passenger seat Feel uncomfortable on the passenger seat 8.5 R Comfort electronics and technologies, feel my own space Lack of comfort electronics and technologies, lack of space 9.7 Don't feel hummocks, potholes and bumpy roads (soft suspension) Feel hummocks, potholes and bumpy roads (rigid suspension) 10.1 Driver's comfort, relatively large Not comfortable at driving 12.4 Large and high for tall people Not appropriate size for tall people 12.8 Comfortable for tall people to get in Uncomfortable to get in 13.1 Driver's comfort at driving Not comfortable at driving 13.8 Attractive, comfortable and not harsh interior Uncomfortable and harsh interior 14.8 Comfort electronics and technologies Lack of comfort electronics and technologies 15.2 Driver's comfort in car handling Not comfortable handling 16.3 R No bumpy ride at high speed Bumpy ride at high speed 17.2 Comfortable enjoying steering Not enjoying steering 17.13 Don't feel hummocks, potholes and bumpy roads Feel hummocks, potholes and bumpy roads 18.1 For self driving at high speed: steering, not noisy, good view Noisy, bad view at a high speed 19.5 Comfortable, good noise isolation Bad noise isolation 19.11 Soft car suspension, not sporty car suspension Rigid, sporty car suspension
Table 34: Collective construct ‘comfortable – uncomfortable’
Number of individual Type of № Category Collective grid bi polar construct constructs representing construct collective construct
1 Comfort Comfortable Uncomfortable 28 2 Prestige Prestigious Ordinary 25 3 Representativeness Representative Unrepresentative 23 4 Technical quality Of high technical quality Of low technical quality 20 5 Intended application (Universality) Universal exploitation Narrow exploitation 17 6 Size Large Compact 17 Elicited 7Design Stylish Unattractive 17 8 Speed/Power High speed/powerful Limited 13 9 Cross country ability Rough terrain high performance Rough terrain low performance 12 10 Safety/Security Safe/secure Unsafe 10 11 Price Expensive Affordable price 8 12 Novelty New model Old model 7 13 Overall confidence Feel confident about a car Not feel confident about a car 20 Supplied 14 Overall safety Feel safe in a car Not feel safe in a car 20 Total 237 Table 35: Constructs of the collective grid
For further analysis a collective aggregated grid incorporating average ratings and collective constructs of the sample group was produced (Wright and Cheung, 2007). Display of the collective grid is shown in Table 36.
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active model Collective construct (5) pole Collective comfortable ordable price ordable dinary nsafe 0 Unrepresentative deal 00 1.85 Limited 75 1.10 car in a safe feel Not 5 2.12 2.35 exploitation Narrow 2.20 1.90 1.25 technical quality low Of 50 2.30 1.70 1.00 car aboutconfident a feel Not 5 4.17 2.08 2.42 2.08 low performance Rough terrain vious doesn't (6) fit alternative (7) current (8) i (9) Elementcategory (1) work (1) vacation (2) evening (3) in (4) noway pre (5) Collective construct(1) pole Collective C2 PrestigiousC3 RepresentativeC4 high Of technical quality 1.80 2.28 1.74 1.70 2.44 2.35 2.15 1.96 3.52 3.75 4.08 3.43 2.30 3.48 3.83 2.75 1.92 3.09 1.88 2.78 2.40 2.78 1.80 2.3 Or C1 ComfortableC5 exploitation Universal 1.68C6 LargeC7 1.89 Stylish 2.06 2.25 2.06 3.82 3.59 2.35 3.04 2.24 2.35 2.06 2.64 2.35 1.76 4.12 2.50 1.94 3.47 3.24 2.04 4.18 2.6 2.82 1.29 2.71 Un 3.06 1.71 2.65 2.41 2.24 2.76 2.29 Compact 2.12 Unattr C8 High speed/powerfulC11Expensive 1.69C12New modelC13 2.08 carabout a confident Feel C14Feel carin a safe 1.38 1.55 2.88 4.00 1.29 1.75 3.25 2.62 1.65 1.57 2.10 2.38 1.77 1.75 1.14 3.85 4.50 1.85 2.60 4.14 2.50 3.88 2. 3.25 2.86 2. 1.75 2.60 1.57 3.50 2.50 2.71 3.00 2.20 2.86 2.75 1. Aff 1.43 Old C9high performance Rough terrain C10Safe/secure 2.50 1.83 2.83 2.50 3.42 3.10 1.7 3.50 3.80 2.70 2.90 2.20 2.30 1.60 U
Table 36: Collective RG with average ratings
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PCA was performed with the collective grid (the produced PCA map is shown further in Figure 26). Table 37 shows construct loadings on two principal components, i.e., on two dimensions in psychological space (Wright and Cheung, 2007). Component 1 and component 2 account for 85.58% of the total variance.
Collective grid bi polar construct Dimension 1 Dimension 2
C1 Comfortable Uncomfortable 1,03 0,22
C2 Prestigious Ordinary 1,00 0,33
C3 Representative Unrepresentative 0,62 0,36
C4 Of high technical quality Of low technical quality 0,92 0,37
C5 Universal exploitation Narrow exploitation 0,12 0,85
C6 Large Compact 0,33 0,71
C7 Stylish Unattractive 0,88 0,40
C8 High speed/powerful Limited 1,00 0,31
C9 Rough terrain high performance Rough terrain low performance 0,34 0,87
C10 Safe/secure Unsafe 0,62 0,46
C11 Expensive Affordable price 0,84 0,72
C12 New model Old model 1,26 0,48
C13 Feel confident about a car Not feel confident about a car 1,08 0,31
C14 Feel safe in a car Not feel safe in a car 0,79 0,43 Percentage of variance for each component 61.09% 24.49%
Table 37: Fundamental core perceptual dimensions based on construct loadings
Given the constructs with heaviest loadings, dimension 1 includes attributes which define the class and the level of a car interior design and equipment. Thus, for example, the more comfortable, technologically equipped, well designed, prestigious and powerful a vehicle is, the higher class it belongs to.
Dimension 2 comprises attributes which define level of practicality of auto exploitation. Thus, large, multifunctional auto with rough terrain high performance implies different kind of exploitation than rather compact, specific, e.g., sport car. However, these attributes do not define how premium a car is as it can be premium mid size SUV as Porsche Cayenne or BMW X5 as well as ordinary mid size SUV such as Toyota Highlander or Honda Pilot which all satisfy the same characteristics regarding size, cross country ability and multifunctional exploitation.
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Therefore, dimension 1 is labeled as “ Class and image defining ” and dimension 2 is labeled as “ Practicality defining ”.
The findings indicate that customers’ preferences about a car are built on, on the one hand, desirable and affordable social aspect which defines the price and corresponding level of car interior design, equipment, quality and image, and on the other hand, desirable and needed utility aspect which defines the size and range of exploitation.
Construct correlations of car perceptions
Table 38 shows correlation matrix of collective constructs. Of particular interest of this study are supplied overall assessment constructs C13 and C14. The purpose for supply was to reveal perceptions which are highly correlated with perception of overall confidence about an auto and overall safety feeling in a car. Both overall assessment constructs are highly correlated with each other signifying the importance of perception of feeling safe in general perception of confidence about an auto. Besides, both supplied constructs are highly correlated with construct C1 and construct C4 which represent comfort and technical quality of an auto. It means that for the interviewed sample of customers comfort and technical quality represent attributes that are determinative when considering general confidence and safety of an auto. Furthermore, correlation between constructs C1 and C4 is also very high signifying the interdependence of perceptions of technical quality and comfort.
Category C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14
Comfort C1 1.00
Prestige C2 0.78 1.00
Representativeness C3 0.76 0.49 1.00
Technical quality C4 0.94 0.68 0.61 1.00
Intended application (Universality) C5 0.06 0.48 0.28 0.22 1.00
Size C6 0.49 0.12 0.70 0.53 0.73 1.00
Design C7 0.69 0.88 0.31 0.65 0.45 0.02 1.00
Speed/Power C8 0.78 0.92 0.40 0.74 0.39 0.06 0.94 1.00
Cross country ability C9 0.41 0.04 0.24 0.66 0.67 0.51 0.04 0.16 1.00
Safety/Security C10 0.67 0.54 0.52 0.72 0.30 0.64 0.41 0.46 0.47 1.00
Price C11 0.57 0.82 0.26 0.41 0.65 0.12 0.88 0.82 0.37 0.23 1.00
Novelty C12 0.78 0.78 0.47 0.69 0.37 0.02 0.90 0.86 0.06 0.26 0.81 1.00
Overall confidence C13 0.98 0.74 0.67 0.98 0.14 0.52 0.69 0.78 0.51 0.74 0.53 0.74 1.00
Overall safety C14 0.94 0.63 0.81 0.92 0.31 0.73 0.51 0.59 0.51 0.81 0.37 0.57 0.95 1.00
Table 38: Correlation matrix of collective constructs
223 7. Analysis of repertory grids
It is also interesting that construct ‘prestige’, C2, is very high correlated with construct ‘speed/power’, C8, showing the importance of attribute performance ‘speed/power’ in perceiving prestigiousness of an auto. Perception of ‘prestige’, C2, is also highly influenced by ‘design’, C7, and ‘price’, C11. It is rather evident that prestige of an auto is reflected in its relatively high price.
Construct ‘design’, C7, is also highly correlated with construct ‘speed/power’, C8, as well as with construct ‘novelty’, C12. During interviews it was found that very often customers consider design as good and attractive when car model is new and not often seen on the roads yet.
For Russian customers of premium autos ‘speed/power’ attribute represents not just physical characteristics of vehicle capacity. Speed and power are indirect indicators of consumer character and ambition. The more risky, ambitious and, sometimes, even aggressive a person is the higher potential speed as well as more horsepower the person is likely to ask for. People who are also ambitious but prefer rather safe business or activity in a sense of, for example, legitimacy, possible loss or competition rules are likely to choose less speedy, rather calm and gentle types of autos.
Construct ‘price’, C11, in turn, stronger correlates with constructs ‘design’, C7, ‘speed/power’, C8 and ‘prestige’, C2. It turns out that three components are important for a car to be perceived as reasonably expensive: appearance, physical potential and social acknowledgement. At the same time, construct ‘price’ is low correlated with ‘comfort’ and ‘technical quality’. It signifies that for customers higher price is rather an indicator of status and social acknowledgment rather than good quality and comfortableness. Probably, such an attitude gives rise to a rather common notion between customers of ‘adequacy between quality and price’.
HCA of the collective grid presented in Figure 25 confirms the results generated from the construct correlations. It can be seen that the smaller the clusters, the higher the significant matches between the ratings and, hence, the stronger the matching. Constructs C2, C13, C14 and C1 build a tight cluster and when this cluster is extended it is linked to another tight cluster of C2, C7 and C8 and then to C12. Another distinct cluster links less correlated constructs and, therefore, it was not seen evidently in the correlation matrix. This cluster ties constructs C5, C6, C3, C9 and
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C10 further confirming the identified by PCA dimensions, the second of which named “Practicality defining” comprises constructs which reflect the exploitation and practical appropriation rather than image and class component of an auto.
Figure 25: HCA of the collective grid
Correlation matrix of element categories presented in Table 39 shows no strong correlation between any element categories. It signifies that consideration set used for construct elicitation comprises diversified auto categories which allows thorough distinction between elements and, thereby, increases the validity of findings.
Category E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E9
Work E1 1.00
Vacation E2 0.75 1.00
Evening E3 0.43 0.28 1.00
In no way E4 0.09 0.33 0.68 1.00
Previous E5 0.12 0.53 0.08 0.56 1.00
Doesn't fit E6 0.20 0.18 0.73 0.75 0.52 1.00
Alternative E7 0.25 0.37 0.24 0.08 0.46 0.11 1.00
Current E8 0.40 0.50 0.04 0.41 0.53 0.27 0.59 1.00
Ideal E9 0.68 0.57 0.41 0.09 0.26 0.12 0.53 0.67 1.00
Table 39: Correlation matrix of element categories
Collective cognitive map of all customers’ perceptions of autos
Figures 26, 27 show the collective cognitive map (Bougon, 1992) of all twenty respondents. In Figure 26 cognitive map displays the relationships between
225 7. Analysis of repertory grids elements, the relationships between constructs and how elements relate to constructs, i.e., perceptions in psychological space on two major perceptual dimensions. Figure 27 displays the cognitive map without vector lines, i.e., construct lines. This allows to easily distinguish the location of each element with respect to others.
Figure 26: PCA of the collective grid
Figure 27: Relationships between elements
The ‘ideal’ element is located in the same quadrant with elements ‘work’, ‘vacation’, ‘current’ and ‘alternative’. Given the labeling of two core perceptual dimensions, it can be analytically defined in which directions elements categories are distinguished.
226 7. Analysis of repertory grids
It is apparent that elements ‘evening’ and ‘doesn’t fit’ differ from the ‘ideal’ and ‘current’ as well as from other elements located in the bottom quadrants on the second dimension “Practicality defining”. Elements ‘evening’ and ‘doesn’t fit’ are perceived more as autos of a narrow exploitation which are likely to be compact, unrepresentative and with low cross country ability (rough terrain low performance). At the same time these elements represent cars that have strong image and mostly relate to premium or luxury cars which are prestigious, expensive, stylish, novel, high speedy and powerful. Such set of attributes including both perceptual dimensions is likely to describe sports cars. Most brands and car models named by respondents for categories ‘evening’ and ‘doesn’t fit’ relate to sports cars, supercars or luxury speedy cars, for example, Porsche 911 Carrera, Porsche Cayman, Ferrari, Mercedes Benz S Class, etc. (see Appendix 6 for cars mentioned). These cars are very attractive for respondents, however, according to the findings most of the customers use auto first of all for business purposes and, hence, sport cars are usually not appropriate. Other reasons for being not suitable are climate conditions and the quality of roads which are significant regional distinctions of the most parts of Russia.
Element 5 ‘previous’ represents car category which includes cars used directly before the ‘current’ ones. From plots it can be seen that ‘previous’ differs from elements in the bottom, left hand quadrant mainly on the first dimension “Class and image defining”. The inference can be made that participants are experienced and determined concerning what kind of auto they need in terms of their practical exploitation. They are not likely to change an auto type but rather look for an updated quality and comfort features as well as new, stronger or improved image component and higher class.
This inference is also confirmed by the main difference between ‘current’ and ‘ideal’ elements. They are very close, almost the same on the second dimension and distinct on the first dimension although both already being plotted in the same quadrant. The same tendency occurs between elements ‘previous’ and ‘current’. However, ‘current’ element is already closer to the ‘ideal’ on the first dimension appearing in the same quadrant.
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Similar analysis can be performed regarding other elements using two major perceptual dimensions and the construct lines to describe how each auto category is perceived by respondents.
In the current study elements were elicited from respondents according to the supplied categories in order to compare single grids and carry out collective aggregate analysis of the grids. However, each respondent was considering his own category set comprised of particular auto models associated with supplied element categories what enabled each respondent to express constructs comparing subjects he is familiar with. Therefore, in aggregated collective grid customers’ perceptions of supplied auto categories rather than certain auto models or brands are analyzed. The study is aimed, first of all, at deriving cognitive meanings and mental representations as well as preferences associated with auto purchase and exploitation. The study was not aimed at revealing perceived differences and preferences in consumers’ mental structures regarding particular autos. When this goal is pursued in the research it is recommended to supply a set of elements consisting of interested brands or particular products, however, the researcher should then conduct the survey with respondents who are familiar or, at least, aware of all supplied elements.
7.6. Additional analysis and findings for managerial implications
7.6.1. Segmentation according to aims for purchasing an auto
In the customer segmentation according to associated values and benefits sought (described in 7.4) the revealed abstract consequences are considered as bundles of common important attributes defined for each identified group. Thus, commonly important attributes are recognized within the each group. This kind of segmentation provides useful information first of all for the company and can be used for internal processes such as product development and positioning strategies.
Abstract consequence, however, also provides a common meaning of product characteristics and attributes comprised in each bundle. This shared meaning if accurately defined can be effectively used in advertising and positioning as a message for an appeal to customers.
One of the questions of the questionnaire offered to respondents after RG elicitation was “What was (is) the aim of purchase of the current or next car?” The respondents
228 7. Analysis of repertory grids were asked to select from a multiple choice or to provide own answer in case none of the options appeared suitable. The options included:
1. Need for transportation during leisure and free time
2. Need for transportation at work
3. To maintain and fit a social status
4. To enjoy driving (ride)
All respondents chose one of the provided options and none of them chose the first option. The resulting distribution of answers is presented in the diagram of Figure 28.
Need for transportation at work 20%
To enjoy driving (ride) 50% To maintain and fit a social status 30%
Figure 28: Aims of purchasing the current or next auto
Respondents are divided into three groups according to the aim of purchasing they named. Constructs of all respondents within one group are put together and analyzed by means of PCA. It is permitted by the RG form designed for this study where elements are elicited by common categories.
The revealed dimensions are ordered according to the percentage of variance each dimension accounts for within the overall number of constructs in each group.
Constructs in each dimension are considered and common meanings are suggested for each dimension. Names reflecting meanings of abstract consequences that allowed to identify commonalities within each group are presented in Table 40.
In each group along with common significant dimensions there are also significant dimensions which reflect very personal requirements and, therefore, they are reflected in the table as individual requirements. For example, in the first group the fifth dimension consists only of two constructs which both are expressed by the same respondent, construct 3.1 ‘new model: new means technologically innovative, not
229 7. Analysis of repertory grids outdated’ versus ‘old model’ and construct 3.8 ‘comfortable: enough space to lie (stretch legs) so I can take a rest during a ride’ versus ‘uncomfortable’. These constructs are rather specific and do not have common variation pattern of ratings. However, when a customer is to be considered individually these requirements are very important to take into account.
Loadings of Aim Dimension Variance % Cumulative % 'ideal' element
1. Most important features of a car to be used for my working purpose 48,43 48,43 3,35
2. Reflecting my status 24,37 72,8 0,37
Need for 3 Individual requirements 9,26 82,07 0,97 transportation at work
4 Individual requirements 7,04 89,1 0,62
5 Individual requirements 5,08 94,18 1,32
1. "Auto as my mirror" reflects my character 36,05 36,05 3
2. Perception of ME in an auto everybody should know who I am 17,9 53,96 0,11
3. Purpose of use especially during leisure time to enjoy the ride (for 15,24 69,2 0,64 country side / for city) To maintain and fit a 4. Image and perception of my AUTO 11,36 80,55 1,69 social status
5. Individual requirements 8,06 88,61 0,32
6 Individual requirements 4,45 93,06 1,51
7 Individual requirements 3,89 96,95 2,11
1. Auto for me fits my character and driving style 32,45 32,45 3,10
2. Practical use (e.g., for work but not for enjoyment) 24,72 57,17 3,02
3. Use for long, far trips (camping, country side) 11,67 68,83 1,73
4. What means for ME to "feel confident (safe)", i.e., a 'must' which 9,47 78,30 0,69 defines the type of my car To enjoy driving (ride) 5 Individual requirements 8,12 86,42 0,24
6 Individual requirements 5,92 92,34 1,63
7 Individual requirements 3,95 96,29 0,10
8 Individual requirements 3,71 100 2,54
Table 40: Common customer abstract consequences
Although, in each customer group individual requirements are presented, first dimensions within each group can be defined according to a shared meaning of comprised constructs.
In the first group of customers whose aim of purchase of the current or next auto is associated with business purposes the first dimension (accounts for 48% of variance) 230 7. Analysis of repertory grids reflects constructs mostly referred to the requirements related to business exploitation of an auto. Most of the ascribed attributes are technical quality, comfort, cross country ability and speed/power. The supplied constructs regarding feeling safe and confident are also mostly ascribed to the first dimension.
The second dimension comprises constructs that are mostly associated with the status and reflect the attribute “representativeness”.
In the second group where consumers pursue to maintain and fit the social status the first dimension is named “auto as my mirror which reflects my character”. Attributes ascribed to this dimension are very different such as prestige, design, comfort, speed/power and size, however, they all reflect characters of respondents who named the constructs. For example, some respondents who are aimed at strong leadership and power have prestige and speed/power ascribed to this dimension, others who refer to the type of ‘hedonistic extroverts’ have comfort, design, speed/power, size and cross country ability which reflect their way of driving or exploitation of an auto as well as aesthetic preferences. Defining general meaning of this dimension especially required a thorough consideration of all the observed and known data about the respondents obtained by the researcher.
The second dimension “perception of me in an auto” contains attributes which can reflect and project auto peculiarities on its owner. Attributes such prestige reflecting tough image, new model emphasizing uniqueness, limited exploitation in a sense of a speedy car, pompous auto, unsafety in a sense of being notable on the road, etc. are ascribed to this dimension.
The third dimension contains attributes related to the practical use of a car, especially, during leisure time. Thus, it comprises size, cross country ability, intended application, comfort as well as technical quality and safety/security.
The fourth common dimension is “image and perception of my auto”. This dimension reflects attributes and underlying characteristics that can be perceived by others and emphasize a certain image of an auto. For example, the construct (construct 17.14, see Appendix 4) related to the attribute safety/security is ascribed and respondent’s preferred pole is reversed, showing that he actually prefers an unsafe auto. This is because by an ‘unsafe auto’ the respondent implies a car of a good brand which has
231 7. Analysis of repertory grids a high risk of being hijacked. Therefore, this construct actually emphasizes a brand of the auto. Other attributes are unrepresentativeness emphasizing sports type of a vehicle, prestige, novelty, price and design.
The third group comprises people who purchase the next auto to enjoy driving or ride. Similarly to the first dimension of the second group, the first dimension of this group “auto for me, e.g., fits my character and driving style” (accounts for 32% of variance) contains a variety of attributes which actually reflect car features that characterize the way of exploitation and the style of driving. Most common attributes in this dimension are comfort, speed/power and intended application. However, regarding some respondents this dimension also reflects prestige and design.
The second dimension “practical use, e.g., for work but not for enjoyment” consists of constructs which mostly reflect auto characteristics and attributes necessary for business purposes. Although the respondents enjoy driving, they still devote much of the time to working and business purposes and, therefore, their preferences concerning car attributes relate to a considerable degree to the practical, business use. Thus, attributes such as representativeness, prestige, quality and intended application are most common for this dimension.
The third dimension “use for long, far trips (camping, country side)” reflects the group peculiarity of enjoying driving and ride. It contains constructs which show requirements of a car that make it appropriate for long distances and driving out of the city. Prevailed attributes are size, intended use, technical quality and cross country ability.
The last dimension “what means for me to feel confident (safe), i.e., a ‘must’ which defines the type of my car” reflects attributes which define individual perception of safety and confidence associated with car exploitation. Attributes such as intended application emphasizing auto universal exploitation, cross country ability reflecting rough terrain high performance and comfort are presented in this dimension. Also attributes prestige and representativeness are presented as reversed describing ordinary, not prestigious and unrepresentative types of autos.
From the last column of Table 40 it is seen that in all groups first dimensions have the highest loadings of the ‘ideal’ element. It emphasizes not only the homogeneity but also the preference and importance of the identified abstract consequences.
232 7. Analysis of repertory grids
It is also shown that in the second group of customers whose aim is to maintain their social status the second highest loading of the ‘ideal’ element is presented by the fourth dimension reflecting attributes which allow to perceive an auto by others. This finding supports theoretical statements about the conspicuous consumption of people who strive for social status, prestige and recognition.
In the third group the second and the third dimensions have second and third highest loadings of ‘ideal’ element emphasizing customers’ enjoyment from using a car in their free time. However, the peculiarity of the whole sample is also taken into account and customers’ need to devote a considerable part of auto exploitation to business purposes is reflected.
This type of segmentation illustrates how common abstract consequences which are pursued by customers can be recognized and formulated as a message in which people can recognize their own benefits sought. When the common meaning or direction of a consequence is defined it is further a wording art to make a strong appeal but it is clear which meaning the message should communicate.
7.6.2. Stereotypes of car attribute perceptions
Table 41 provided in this section shows most common consumers’ perceptions of product attributes. Although these meanings are common among consumers of the sample, some of them may appear new for the researcher and for company managers.
RGT allows to reveal meanings that are common among a particular group or type of consumers. For example, perceptions can reflect or be based on regional peculiarities from where respondents come from as well as cultural peculiarities and generally adopted attitudes towards product consumption peculiar for the sample. Especially when conducting a survey in a foreign country or in an uninvestigated region, the RGT enables to reveal perceptions that are not self evident and are hard to think of when developing a questionnaire in office. Often, important aspects of consumers’ construing systems associated with the domain are not considered in surveys based on questionnaires with supplied questions regarding individual perceptions (Stewart et al., 1981, p. 49).
233 7. Analysis of repertory grids
Comfort Comfort electronics and technologies Not feel hummocks, potholes and bumpy roads Comfortable passenger seating arrangement Comfortable enjoying steering Appropriate size Feel my own space being far from other people For self driving at high speed: steering, not noisy, good view Prestige Reflects my status Respect of other drivers on roads who give me a way For mature experienced users who are good judges of autos Expensive, immodest image Image of brand and manufacturer Not youth Super image, for men, not women Others will notice me Representativeness Representative: Prestigious, which means reflects my status With driver / not for self driving For business, not for family or entertainment For experienced users of premium cars who are good judges Not youth Unrepresentative: For self driving For youth who are more risky (not for mature people) Speedy self driving of a cool auto Technical quality Won't break down, time and money savings Producer's proved high quality (producer reputation) Available good service Safe in our climate (snowdrift, glare ice) Rigid frame and suspension Intended application (Universality) Universal exploitation: For work and leasure All year round, for climate conditions Can be only one in garage Not pompous Highly functional For everyday life not only for entertainment Not sporty Narrow exploitation: With strongly marked peculiarities (e.g. high speed or powerful) Sports car for pleasure Size Large: Better observation (panoramic view) and feel safe Can fit people and luggage Steady, not short: not to go off from rut For more than 2 people Compact: Others will notice me, aesthetically acceptable Better to move on in traffic jam or narrow roads Design Attractive appearance Stylish: beautiful Can be expected uncommon, not boring coloring Demonstrative, bright design Modern, not dated Sharp, aggressive forms 234 7. Analysis of repertory grids
Speed/Power Speed: Speedy Allowable high speed Combination of allowable high speed and cross country ability Limited in speed: for comfortable, calm driving Power: Powerful: not girly Adequacy between power and weight Combination of power and economy Cross country ability For city, countryside and mountains Safe "anywhere" ride in tough climate conditions (mud, ice) No worry about potholes Rigid suspension Safety Secure No risk of criminal attempt because of good car brand Appropriate for bodyguard, driver, armoring Price Not affordable for majority Value for money Overpriced to make a splash Novelty Technically innovative Modern, not dated Unique, uncommon Elegant because of novelty, uniqueness
Table 41: Stereotypes of car attribute perceptions among the respondents
7.7. Summary
♦ Twelve categories are identified according to the content of elicited constructs.
♦ The top four categories which together cover 49% of all constructs are ‘comfort’, ‘prestige’, ‘representativeness’ and ‘technical quality’ . It means that these four categories represent product attributes that are most common among the respondents.
♦ Category ‘novelty’ is the least common attribute among respondents, however, it is very important for those who mentioned it. These respondents form a latent group for which the fact that a car is new and embodies most recent technological achievements is an important factor influencing the choice decision.
♦ The notion and feeling of confidence about an auto is often associated with the image and social perception of an auto as well as with the perception of its owner rather than with the feeling of safety.
235 7. Analysis of repertory grids
♦ For the majority of customers who expressed constructs ascribed to the category ‘safety/security’ these constructs have a low relevance to the perception of safety of an auto or provided by an auto. The respondents represent people referred to a risk group who perceive general safety measures provided by an auto as a must have in premium autos due to their superiority in quality. However, when really concerned in a sense of criminal threat, they have particular requirements about safety and security measures which often exceed ordinary measures provided by ‘average’ premium autos. Respondents of the sample share belief that “there are no technologies smarter than a man” . Therefore, the common attitude towards the notion of auto safety is rather skeptical in a sense that people believe that if there is a plan to commit a crime it will most probably be accomplished.
Single grid analysis
♦ Individual schema of consumer motivational sphere is built. It accumulates all the elicited personal data which was analyzed and structured according to different levels of abstraction of the respondent’s personal meanings.
♦ Abstract expected consequences representing individual motives of the middle range aggregate individual meanings which are not only put into words but also expressed in individual estimations.
Respondent’s first abstract consequence is defined as “Appropriate for my business use: armored and representative” . The shared meaning between constructs attributed to the first dimension, i.e. principal component is that they relate to practical characteristics that are essential for the consumer’s car exploitation taking into account his life circumstances and business as the main purpose for car exploitation.
Respondent’s second abstract consequence is defined as “Novelty of a model with recent technological achievements” . Indicative constructs of the second dimension reflect respondent’s attitude and preference to novelty of an auto model which, in turn, means for him a representation of most updated technologies in automotive industry.
236 7. Analysis of repertory grids
♦ Structuring of elements relations showed that the respondent chooses cars that are mostly appropriate for his working purposes . He draws his ideal car very close to the currently possessed auto as well as to the one that he considered as an alternative.
♦ The respondent did not choose the ‘alternative’ auto over the ‘current’ one because its technological and design features did not enough meet his preferences, although this car was considered as appropriate for security measures and representativeness.
♦ It is also found that the car (Aston Martin DB9) named as an auto that ‘I really like but it doesn’t fit’ meets all individual preferences regarding technological equipment, design and comfort. That is, it is very close to the ideal image on the second dimension which reflects the second abstract consequence. The main reason why this auto ‘does not fit’ (and is not purchased) lays in a lack of its correspondence to the consumer preferences regarding auto appropriateness for his working purposes reflected in the first dimension.
♦ Analysis of single grids has shown that the suggested methodology reflects all assumptions and notices recognized during the interview . Therefore, it is believed that if an interviewer and an analyst appear to be two different people the proper inferences can still be drawn revealing different aspects of respondent’s life influencing his consumer behavior.
Segmentation based on the comparison of the findings from the single grids analyses
♦ Individual analysis of respondents’ motivational schemas allowed to conduct a two stage segmentation. At first stage consumers are divided according to the most general motives , i.e., values and on the second stage – according to the revealed abstract consequences which represent the motives of the middle range . As a result, customers are divided into five groups. Description of groups is presented in a form of matrix.
♦ Horizontally the groups are divided into two types of consumers ─ ‘careerists’ and ‘hedonists’ :
Careerists represent people who aspire to self actualization and professional success 237 7. Analysis of repertory grids
Hedonists represent people who in the first place aspire to pleasure and enjoyment of life. For these people professional success represents means by which they ensure the aspiration in terms of financial and status security.
♦ Vertically the groups are divided into two types, ‘introverts’ and extroverts’ , based on the social orientation and the extent of conspicuity of product consumption:
Introverts represent people with an introverted type of consumption. These people are self oriented in consumption and purchase premium goods to benefit from its quality and functional superiority in the first place. Attributes like image and design are also important for these people but for own enjoyment rather than to make sure to be perceived properly by others. For these people the social function of premium brand autos provides first of all a sense of life they possess or aspire to .
Extroverts represent people whose consumption of premium goods is more socially oriented and they pursue social prestige and acknowledgement by such a conspicuous consumption.
♦ It is found that additional utilities of satisfying needs for prestige and self esteem provided by premium products both should be present. However, a customer’s prioritized utility among these two significantly defines his behavior, his preference for a particular brand or a product and combination of important attributes sought to provide desirable consequences.
Multi grid analysis
♦ Analysis of the collective grid which incorporates average ratings and collective constructs of the sample group revealed two major directions in which customers’ perceptions are built .
The first direction is called “Class and image defining” . It represents the first dimension where attributes define the price and corresponding level of car interior design and equipment, technical quality and image.
The second direction is called “Practicality defining” . It represents the second dimension which comprises attributes defining the level of practicality
238 7. Analysis of repertory grids
of car exploitation. These attributes define the size and range of vehicle use. That is, they define the type of a vehicle but they do not define how premium the car is.
♦ The collective construct ‘design’ is highly correlated with the construct ‘novelty’. It is found that very often customers consider design as good and attractive when car model is new and not often seen on the roads yet.
♦ The collective construct ‘speed/power’ is attributed to the first dimension which defines a car class and image rather than its practicality. For Russian customers in the premium car market the ‘speed/power’ attribute represents not just physical characteristics of a vehicle capacity. Speed and power are indirect indicators of consumer character and ambition.
♦ It is revealed that when purchasing a next car to replace the previous one the participants are not likely to change a car type . They are experienced and determined concerning what kind of auto they need in terms of their practical exploitation. So when purchasing a new car they rather look for an updated quality and comfort features as well as a new, stronger or improved image component and higher class .
Additional analysis and findings for managerial implications
♦ Customer segmentation according to customers’ aim of purchasing a next auto is presented. Common abstract consequences pursued by customers within each segment are recognized and formulated as a message in which people can then recognize their own benefits sought. When the common meaning or direction of an expected consequence is defined marketers can produce a strong appeal by communicating this meaning.
♦ The repertory grid technique allows to reveal meanings or stereotypes that are common among a particular group or type of consumers, but not necessarily known before to a researcher and company managers.
239 Summary and conclusion
Conclusion
1. Theoretical contribution
The main goal of this dissertation was to contribute to the understanding of consumer motivation which explains the psychological dynamics determining consumer behavior.
In literature, concepts of consumer motivation and motives have been often approached, however, there are certain limitations regarding the explanation and disclosure of these notions. Most concepts of consumer motivation suggest universal sets or categories of motives that are presumed to apply universally across contexts and, therefore, they appear unable to account for specific actions and to recognize situational variability of consumer behavior. Most theoretical concepts of consumer motivation do not provide certain supportive methodology which would enable sampling it in a particular investigation of consumers. Besides, in consumer research a long standing dispute between qualitative and quantitative approaches to motivation research resulted in attempts to develop a compromise approach based on the synthesis of motivation research with quantitative practice, however, an accomplishment of this task has remained vague.
Lack of a certain theoretical model of consumer motivation and causality which would provide an active guidance for analysis algorithms results in the conduction of most of the research and analysis of consumer motives as purely atheoretical predictive exercises producing an ad hoc inductive explanation.
Considering the aforementioned limitations and dilemmas in the field of consumer motivation research, the main theoretical contribution of the thesis is the suggested conceptualization of the consumer motivational sphere that provides a certain representation of a personal cognitive structure. The conceptualized schematic model is:
• a theory based conception of content and structure of consumers mental representations and their interrelations;
240 Summary and conclusion
• constructed with respect to the methodology supporting theoretical assumptions and, thereby, allowing for further practical application by marketers and researchers.
Consumer motivation is goal oriented. It consists of the anticipation of possible actions expected to result in certain consequences which can bring a person closer to his goal. The reasons for choosing a particular goal are represented in a hierarchical network of motives.
The suggested taxonomy of the individual consumer motivational sphere links an individual’s product related knowledge with person related self knowledge where representations such as product characteristics, attributes, consequences and values are ordered hierarchically according to their levels of abstraction and connected through means end linkages. The schema constitutes the relationships between purchasing decision and its associated motives, where the motives are interrelated according to their levels of abstraction.
Consumer motives are represented in the person related self knowledge part of the schema where specific and abstract consequences represent “too specific motives” and “motives of the middle range”, and personal values represent “too general motives”.
The schematic model is based on the assumptions of the means end theory and some of its modifications and on the concept of consumers’ motives implying three levels of motivational abstraction. Values represent too general ends which themselves cannot show what is it expected from the product consumption that would bring a person or a group of people to the desired state of being. Too specific motives explain very specific purchasing behavior which is hard to approximate in order to reach a common set of expected consequences of a group of people. As a result, motives of the middle range represent a theoretical challenge in defining it and providing a measurement instrument which would allow a balance between too specific and too general motives.
Built on that, another contribution of the work is the definition and assessment of motives of the middle range comprised in the consumer motivational sphere. Since the definition of this type of motives is tied to its assessment, this contribution is considered as methodological and discussed in the next section.
241 Summary and conclusion
The proposed schema of consumer motivational sphere serves as a theoretical framework underpinning the suggested methodology which enables the conceptualization to be appropriate for practical implication.
2. Methodological contribution
Extensions and modifications adopted in the theoretical model of consumer motivational sphere are made to overcome some limitations of traditional approaches in construing and measuring consumers’ cognitive structures. It is aimed at suggesting a congruent methodology which gives an insight into other aspects of consumers’ mind rather than the ones that are usually explored within consumer motivation research.
The major methodological contribution of this work is the proposed integrated method for assessing each level of abstraction in the consumer motivational sphere. The methodology shows how each level of abstraction represented in the schema can be derived from the data elicited by means of the repertory grid technique and analyzed by qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Repertory grid is a cognitive mapping instrument designed to capture the dimensions and the structure of personal meanings allowing the researcher to attain new, deeper insight on how people think and perceive life experiences and the world around. Based on the personal construct theory, the repertory grid technique provides an interpretive research framework for exploring similarities and differences in the content and structure of consumers’ subjective meaning systems.
The integrated method represents an algorithm built on existing qualitative and quantitative approaches that produces two types of analysis outcomes. The first type is based on producing a ‘person driven’ outcome which organizes information elicited directly from the person using his own meanings expressed in wording and, therefore, the numeric part of the data is not considered. This qualitative approach is based on the laddering technique which is often used for qualitative analysis of the repertory grid data. The proposed methodology does not contradict traditional approaches to analyze repertory grid data but is rather aimed at further methodological elaboration by involving quantitative analysis to benefit from the fuller capacity of the repertory grid technique.
242 Summary and conclusion
Hence, the second type of analysis produces an ‘analysis driven’ outcome whose goal is to reveal and structure the underlying meanings expressed in both direct wording and numeric evaluation and comparison. Analysis of meanings that are construed by an evaluative and comparative approach to cognitive representation permits one to uncover some part of subconscious or even unconscious construing system. Thus, mental representations built on the interrelationships between meanings are considered. Such interrelationships are hard to recognize when only interpreting an individual’s directly expressed wording.
As mentioned above, another contribution of this dissertation is that the suggested methodology comprises of a certain approach to define and assess motives of the middle range. To assess motives of the middle range a quantitative approach is suggested which structures personal meanings so that they can be approximated and commonalities within a group of people can be revealed.
Motives of the middle range are reflected in abstract consequences which are positioned in the chain of levels of the consumer motivational sphere between specific consequences and values representing too specific and too general motives respectively. Principal component analysis of a grid data reveals dimensions which represent directions based on which a person perceives objects. By cautious interpretation, the dimensions can be generally defined according to the common meaning, or the direction of construct meanings, ascribed to each dimension. Common meanings underlying each identified dimension represent abstract expected consequences. Therefore, an abstract consequence is derived from product characteristics and their perceptions by identification of a bundle consisting of product features, each of which a person construes in a similar way and direction and associates them with an attainment of a certain benefit.
The virtue of identifying abstract consequences by means of the suggested methodology is that another type of human cognitive representation is additionally involved. In laddering a person actually uses his ability to reason, that is, he expresses underlying reasons for perceiving and preferring things in this or that way. In the proposed method, analysis of a person’s comparing ability is involved. Therefore, mental representations generated by a person’s evaluative and comparative approach in perceiving things are analyzed and inferences are made not only from vertical relationships between meanings, i.e., linkages between different
243 Summary and conclusion levels of abstraction, but also from horizontal interrelationships between meanings that are on the same level of abstraction.
The quantitative methods applied together with the qualitative content interpretation allow to consider respondent’s less salient meanings which are still presented in his construing systems related to the topic in question and may influence person’s choice decision. These meanings reflect consumer preferences regarding product characteristics which may not be very important for the consumer in terms of benefits sought as long as these characteristics are appropriately provided. However, deficiency of appropriate presence of these characteristics may significantly impact a consumer’s choice and, therefore, it is important to consider them and define their role in the person’s cognitive structures related to the domain.
The proposed methodology approaches some concepts and analysis which are rarely or never have been used by researchers for analysis of repertory grid data, although their application may significantly extend the findings during further analysis.
♦ The application of principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis on the complementary basis allows one to reach a synergy effect by structuring and systematization of the repertory grid data. The subsequent implementation of these analysis methods enables a more precise and reliable recognition of the similarities and differences between meanings. It also permits the presentation of the data and interpreted inferences in a form which simplifies data visualization and allows customer segmentation according to customers’ perceptions and preferences.
♦ Supplying of ‘self’ elements appears helpful in any research in which a grid is used to understand the respondent’s choices, i.e., preferences. ‘Self’ elements such as ‘ideal’ or ‘current’ represent individual perceptions and images of what the respondent actually has or wants when talking about things, events or people enclosed in the elements set. When elements represent products or brands the ‘ideal’ element represents a generalized image comprising mostly desired performance of a product or a brand from the domain.
♦ Honey’s content analysis, in contrast to the traditional content analysis in which the numeric part of the grid data is ignored, permits the researcher to make use of
244 Summary and conclusion
individual meanings expressed in ratings. This analysis method identifies how closely elicited meanings relate to the overall issue about the topic. Honey’s content analysis also allows the discernment of a presence of latent groups of customers for whom attributes that appeared less salient for the rest of the sample are commonly important.
♦ Application of resistance to change technique enables prioritizing personal values. An identified, hierarchical order of values permits the researcher to reveal values that are not sincere and central for a person, but being rather expressed fictitiously to seem more meaningful.
Overall, the development of the methodology was aimed at providing approaches which would allow the researcher to overcome some limitations of concepts of consumer motives and motivation described in the beginning. As a result, the methodology:
• is supportive and congruent with the theoretical conceptualization of consumer motivation;
• is appropriate to reveal motives which define particular consumer behavior in a given situation and circumstance;
• integrates qualitative and quantitative analysis methods that enables an insight into different aspects of consumers’ cognition;
• allows one to take into account product characteristics and perceived attributes that are less salient but, however, may significantly impact the consumer behavior.
Moreover, the suggested approach to define and assess motives of the middle range provides probably the first attempt to build upon Trommsdorff’s concept of motives of the middle range by extending it with a methodized assessment approach which overcomes the limitations of given universal sets of motives.
3. Practical contribution and implication
The following quotation clearly paraphrases the inspiration on which a contribution of this dissertation to the managerial implication was focused.
245 Summary and conclusion
“The danger is not of getting too close to customers; the real danger is not getting close enough.” (Johnson, 1998, p. 27)
Nowadays highly competitive markets and increasing complexity of consumer behavior influenced by their social environment make companies strive for each individual customer by providing benefits far beyond just primary functions of products. The act of purchase and consumption is no longer neutral but a particular form of social behavior, especially, regarding products which have public resonance. In the markets of premium and luxury goods a social function of a product, to a large extent, defines the product success. Thus, together with the instrumental function premium brand cars have a social function which can ensure a consumer the social prestige and sense of life he aspires to.
In order to offer a consumer product which would generate symbols emphasizing exactly the aspects on which the consumer puts an emphasis, a company needs to know the consumer much more deeply than just his buying habits and main preferences. The consumer needs to be considered as a bearer of a certain ideology or world perception. A consumer’s mental representations comprised in certain cognitive structures, his goals and values have to be investigated in order to meet his personal dispositions in life which in turn can be somehow reflected by or associated with the offered product.
Based on the theoretical model an assessment approach is developed in this thesis within the interpretive research framework underlying the repertory grid technique. This technique is not only advantageous because of its capability to gather a variety of personal data expressed in the person’s own language and to organize it into a convenient form, but also due to its flexibility and adaptability in different fields and areas of research. In this work, the description of the repertory grid technique is presented rather thoroughly in order to demonstrate how versatile this tool is and how its design can be formed according to the field, objectives and circumstances of a research. The repertory grid is widely applied in psychology along with other numerous fields of application, it has also been proved to be potentially useful approach for conducting qualitative market research, however, up to now this technique is rarely used with its full potential by marketers. The repertory grid technique can be very effective for exploratory research when consumers’ opinions on the researched topic are to be disclosed and investigated.
246 Summary and conclusion
The suggested methodology allows the structuring of personal meanings according to different levels of abstraction that, in turn, allows the approximation and revelation of commonalities in personal representations within a group of people. Thus, the proposed format of the findings structure enables customer segmentation based on different levels of abstraction giving marketers more flexibility in deciding on an appropriate appeal to customers with respect to, for example, the size of the sample and derived segments.
The method can also appear useful for advertising and positioning as it allows the researcher to reveal stereotypes associated with the topic and relative products or brands. The meanings are elicited in the customers’ own language and jargon that permits the use of common expressions and underlying meanings to create messages which would be understandable and more personal to the people.
Another perspective of the methodology's application is to reveal customers’ attitudes towards both their own and their rivals’ products or brands. Elements representing different products or brands can be compared according to their ability to provide abstract expected consequences. By clustering the elements within each dimension, i.e., principal component which represents an abstract consequence, marketers can make conclusions about how products can be improved. For example, if a product has a high match with its ideal, generalized image on the first dimension but appears rather distant on the second, it signifies that this particular product cannot provide or cause the consequence implied by the second dimension in the desired manner. Therefore, product characteristics and product attributes comprised in the second dimension need to be improved or repositioned.
The addition of the repertory grid form with supplied constructs, which reflect a general topic or sub theme of a research, allows one to discover latent groups of customers with specific requirements and preferences. This feature is especially useful for studies conducted in the markets where products are almost individually customized.
Segmentation, from the empirical point of view, is done according to the values and abstract consequences. It permits the differentiation of customers according to relatively stable meanings in life. Common patterns in the studied consumer behavior
247 Summary and conclusion are defined based on desired and pursued end states of well being and on intermediary pursuance which facilitates an attainment of desired end states.
As a result respondents, who together already represent relatively homogeneous group of customers of premium cars, being professionals and self made entrepreneurs able to purchase almost everything including desired cars, property and assets, are divided into five groups.
The whole segmentation has a form of a matrix where the horizontal dimension differentiates between careerists and hedonists and the vertical dimension – between introverts and extroverts.
Horizontal division is based on their priority regarding aspiration for self actualization and professional success or aspiration for pleasure and enjoyment of life ensured by professional success in terms of financial and status security.
Vertical division is based on the respondents’ social orientation and the extent of conspicuity of product consumption.
Thus, customers who relate to introverts do not have an attribute ‘prestige’ among their three most important common attributes. For these people the social function of premium brand autos provides, first of all, a sense of life they possess or aspire to. In contrast, extroverts have a common most important attribute ‘prestige’ among their first three. The social function of premium brand cars provides extroverts with social prestige and recognition.
Findings of this dissertation show that additional utilities of satisfying needs for prestige and self esteem provided by premium products should both be present. However, the customer’s prioritized utility among these two significantly defines his behavior, his preference for a particular brand or a product and combination of the important attributes sought to provide the desirable consequences.
Based on the differences described above and considering other revealed peculiarities of the identified groups, fine borderlines can be drawn between relatively homogenous customers that marketers can use for effective communication to appeal to deep and rather stable dispositions and values.
248 Summary and conclusion
Multi grid analysis has shown that customers’ preferences about a car are built in two major directions. The first direction reflects desirable and affordable social aspect which basically determines a car class. Preferences representing the direction define price and corresponding level of car interior design and equipment, technical quality and image. The second direction reflects desirable and needed utility aspect which determines type of a car. Respective preferences define the size and range of vehicle use.
Analysis of elements relations has shown that when purchasing a next car to replace the previous one customers are not likely to change an auto type but rather look for an updated quality and comfort features as well as for a new, stronger or an improved image component and a higher class.
Customer segmentation according to customers’ aims of purchasing the next auto illustrates how common abstract consequences pursued by customers within each segment can be recognized and formulated as a message in which people can then recognize their own sought benefits.
When common meaning or direction of an expected consequence is defined it is further a wording art to make a strong appeal but it is clear which meaning the message should communicate.
All findings and inferences made during the empirical verification of the suggested conceptualization of the consumer motivational sphere and supportive methodology provided a detailed picture of relevant buyer segments. The company has got a clear view on the portrait of relevant buyers of premium cars in Russia including rather specific and hardly assumed characteristics of the market and its customers.
Russian customers of premium cars and premium goods in general are rather peculiar. Their consumer behavior is impacted by their attitudes and mental representations built on historical and cultural peculiarities as well as on personal experiences which took place during the last two decades. The “turbulent nineties” during which Russia has gone through drastic alterations of the whole national system, strongly influenced people’s system of values, aspirations, attitudes and behavior including their purchasing behavior. That is why it is important for companies that enter Russian markets, especially the markets of premium goods, to
249 Summary and conclusion investigate consumers born after the seventies, whose values, interests, notions and world view significantly differ from those of older generations.
4. Limitations
Several limitations should be mentioned regarding the methodology and empirical study.
The suggested methodology based on the repertory grid technique has its limited applicability to a relatively small sample of participants.
It is appropriate to apply it in exploratory comprehensive research aimed at revealing new information about customers or products. “The grid is par excellence a technique for measuring individual perceptions and any attempts to generalize to collective perceptions begin to lose the advantages peculiar to it” (Easterby Smith et al., 1996). Therefore, when new things are discovered they can be used further in quantitative analysis aimed at testing hypotheses regarding the population.
Considering the empirical study, the major critique might be addressed to the question of reliability of performed content analysis. The procedure of categorization did not involve additional coders and, therefore, its accuracy might be perceived as doubtful.
The peculiarity of the repertory grid interviewing and, especially, of the survey conducted for this thesis is that the person who has carried out the interviews, besides the information recorded in the grid form, often bears additional observed or noticed information. According to Jankowicz (2004, p. 163), agreement on the content with a collaborator may cause prevalence of the collaborator’s reality and perception of the content. If the collaborator did not participate in the design of the study, design of the grid form and the interviewing it is recommended to use the researcher’s content analysis rather than the collaborator’s.
The reliability check would of course be desirable but the fact is that the survey was conducted in Russia, in the Russian language, with a very specific group of customers, by a single Russian researcher and applying a rarely used technique and, finally, the data was analyzed and presented in Germany for a
250 Summary and conclusion
German automaker, making the reliability check rather difficult. For this study it would make sense if there was a second coder who is familiar with the language, jargon, the cultural and mental peculiarities of the participants and region as well as being familiar with the elicitation procedure technique and the topic in question.
As a practical outcome presented for the company all interpretations and findings appeared informative, useful and interesting due to the fact that the researcher comes from the country the survey was conducted in and can, therefore, understand and communicate much better the implied meanings expressed by participants. From the scientific perspective, on the one hand, the empirical study is first of all aimed at demonstration of the applicability of the proposed methodology and its practical findings and inferences regarding meanings remain secondary. On the other hand, the concept of the reliability of the repertory grid technique is regarded as merely one aspect of validity in a sense that the repertory grid should be done to explain causality and signify changes occurring in a person’s construing systems but not to repeat the same result (Fransella et al., 2004, p. 134). In turn, the validity, according to Kelly, ultimately refers to the way in which a mode of understanding enables the researcher or the respondent to take effective action.
The design of the repertory grid form developed for this study can evoke some questions concerning, for example, the representativeness of the set of elements and categories developed for elements elicitation or concerning design of other components comprised in the form.
The repertory grid technique represents a very flexible tool which has almost no rules to be followed, only recommendations which can help the researcher to design the form which would be appropriate for his particular research. The variety of procedures which can be chosen and the reasons and conditions for their appropriateness are thoroughly described in this work and reasons for choices made for the repertory grid design applied in this study are explained to the extent it is permitted within the underlying personal construct theory.
251 Summary and conclusion
5. Potential for future research
The potential of the repertory grid technique and methods for analyzing its data is great within market research, especially in the area of consumer motivation, and it provides a large number of actions for its further development.
The proposed methodology applies analysis approaches which are not new and have proved their appropriateness and usefulness. Therefore, apart from the aspect of interpretation, research results strongly depend on the elicitation procedure. It is important to investigate whether the potential changes in the findings in case of repeated interviewing would be caused by the fact that a person represents a permanent ‘form of motion’ and the consistence of a person’s construct systems over time could be low or the changes are caused by the application of different elicitation procedures. Thus, the question should be investigated whether the elicited set of meanings, i.e., constructs and corresponding results, would differ depending on the elicitation approach used. And if it differs, then which set of meanings should be considered as the correct one?
One of the suggestions that could make interpretation and findings more accurate is to perform quantitative analysis taking into account the weight of constructs according to their relevance and importance. This would enable better differentiation between personal meanings and, thereby, a more accurately structured personal construing systems. Thus, an estimation measure for a construct's weight could be suggested. However, it is important to bear in mind that quantitative analysis without its clear understanding may cause a misleading interpretation. Quantitative analysis has to be carefully approached, making sure that the researcher understands it and can confidently explain it.
Further research can also address practical applicability of the repertory grid and supportive methodology. Procedures and forms to interpret and perform information regarding elements can be further suggested that would provide more findings about consumers’ consideration sets and their attitudes towards particular products or brands. This implies a different objective of the research and needs a different design of the repertory grid form.
Besides, researchers can make use of triads to derive information about elements. For example, constructs elicited by the triads containing particular elements can be
252 Summary and conclusion compared or constructs elicited by the same triads can be compared within the group of people.
These are several ideas to further extend the use of the repertory grid technique, methods for its analysis and types of resulting outcome, leveraging the technique’s flexibility and adaptability. Further research should take a closer look at the potential for using repertory grids in the research of different markets and product categories, attaining an insight into consumers’ related cognitive construing systems and purchase motivation.
253
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Appendix
Appendix 1: Car classification
Car classification American British English Segment Euro NCAP Examples English Microcar, Bubble Microcar BMW Isetta, Smart Fortwo car Daewoo Matiz, Renault Twingo, Toyota Aygo, City car A segment VW Lupo Supermini Hyundai Accent, Ford Fiesta, Opel Corsa, Subcompact car Supermini B segment Suzuki Swift Small family Ford Focus, Toyota Corolla, Opel Astra, VW Compact car Small family car C segment car Golf Ford Mondeo, Opel Vectra, Toyota Avensis, Mid size car Large family car Large family VW Passat D segment Entry level Compact executive car Audi A4, BMW 3 Series, Mercedes C Class, luxury car car Volvo S60
Ford Crown Victoria, Holden Commodore, Opel Full size car Executive Omega, Chrysler 300C Executive car E segment car Mid size luxury Audi A6, BMW 5 Series, Mercedes E Class car Full size luxury Luxury car F segment Audi A8, BMW 7 Series, Mercedes S Class car Sports car Sports car Chevrolet Corvette C6, Porsche 911 Grand tourer Grand tourer Jaguar XK, Maserati GranTurismo Bugatti Veyron, Ferrari Enzo, Lamborghini Supercar Supercar S segment Gallardo Convertible Convertible Mercedes CLK, Volvo C70, VW Eos Roadster Audi TT, BMW Z4, Porsche Boxster, Lotus Roadster Roadster sports Elise Leisure activity Peugeot Partner, Škoda Roomster vehicle Mini MPV Small MPV Opel Meriva, Fiat Idea, Ford Fusion Compact Compact MPV, M segment Mazda5, Opel Zafira, Renault Scénic, VW minivan Midi MPV Touran
Minivan Large MPV Large MPV Ford Galaxy, Toyota Previa, Renault Espace
Daihatsu Terios, Mitsubishi Pajero iO , Suzuki Mini SUV Mini 4x4 Small Off Jimny Road 4x4 BMW X3, Ford Escape, Honda CR V, Subaru Compact SUV Compact 4x4 Forester, Toyota RAV4 Isuzu VehiCROSS, SsangYong Actyon, BMW Coupé SUV J segment X6 Ford Explorer, BMW X5, Jeep Grand Mid size SUV Large Off Cherokee, VW Touareg Large 4x4 Road 4x4 Cadillac Escalade, Chevrolet Suburban, Range Full size SUV Rover, Toyota Land Cruiser Ford F 150, Mitsubishi Triton/L200, Nissan Pickup truck Pick up Pick up Navara
(Source: Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car_classification)
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Appendix 2: Minkowski metric k Minkowski metric measures the distance between two points.
m The Minkowski (power) metric from a point p to a point pi in R is defined by
m k 1/k dL k(p, p i) = [ j=1 ∑ | x j xij | ] Equation 1
where ( x1, x2, . . . , xm) and ( xi1, xi2 , . . . , xim ) are the Cartesian coordinates of p and pi, respectively. Customarily the symbol L k is used for the Minkowski metric , where k refers to the degree of the power.
The parameter k varies in the range of 1 ≤ k < ∞.
i. If k = 1 , equation 1 becomes
m dL 1(p, p i) = j=1 ∑ | x j xij |
which is called the Manhattan metric, the city block distance or the taxi cab distance. Here, the distance between two points measured along axes at right angles.
ii. If k = 2, equation 1 becomes
m 2 1/2 dL 2(p, p i) = [ j=1 ∑ | x j xij | ]
which is called the Euclidean distance. The straight line distance between two points is measured.
iii. If k = ∞, the equation 1 becomes
dL ∞(p, p i) = [max j { | x j xij | j Im }
which is called the Supermum metric or dominance metric.
(Source: Muhammed, R.B. (o. J.), Computational geometry, http://www.personal.kent.edu/~rmuhamma/Compgeometry/MyCG/CG Applets/Minkowski/vorMinkow.htm, accessed: 15 November 2007)
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Appendix 3: Repertory grid form and questionnaire developed for interviews
(translated from Russian) (5)
Implicitpole
g
f d s
g d s
f d s
g s
g s
g d s
g s
d g s
g f d s (1)
Emergentpole
n
o i
t
a
n i
b
m o C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 10 11 12 13 14
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Laddering down
“What does it mean?”
Construct Construct Preferred pole Preferred pole № №
274
Laddering up
“Why is it important for you?”
Construct Construct Preferred pole Preferred pole № №
275
Resistance to change
A A B B C C D D E E F F G G H H I I
Number of revealed values: ______
Number of Values Either Or 5 A B B A A C C A A D D A A E E A B C C B B D D B B E E B C D D C C E E C D E E D
Either Or 4 A B B A A C C A A D D A B C C B B D D B C D D C
Either Or 3 A B B A A C C A B C C B
Either Or 2 A B B A
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Questionnaire
Which car do you currently own and use?
(1) Brand ______Model/Type ______Model year ______(2) Brand ______Model/Type ______Model year ______(3) Brand ______Model/Type ______Model year ______
In case of more than one auto to answer further questions, please, either choose only one which is mostly used or indicate with (1), (2), (3) answers according to the named cars.
Who is the owner of your car?
□ You □ Your organization: □ national □ private □ Other: ______
Who is driving your car?
□ You □ Your driver □ Your guard driver □ You and your driver: During working hours ______During leisure time ______□ Other: ______
Who makes the final decision about an auto purchasing (if differs then considering the last purchased auto)?
□ You □ Other: ______
Who influences the choice of technical equipment and characteristics of your purchased auto?
□ You □ Other: ______
What does it mean for you “to be confident about your auto”? ______
Is it important for you to be confident about your auto?
□ very important □ important □ not that important □ not important
Aim of purchase of an auto (current or next)?
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□ Need for transportation during leisure time □ Need for transportation at work □ To fit social status □ To enjoy driving (ride) □ Other: ______
Do you use enhanced security devices and measures
□ in auto? □ at home? □ in office? □ Other: ______
Describe a situation related to the car usage or ownership which
1. you are afraid of or you would like to avoid (for example, in certain circumstances such as during the work, during family ride or trip, etc.) ______2. affects your image that you are afraid of or you would like to avoid? ______3. affects any property (e.g., car, laptop, briefcase, bag, etc.) that you are afraid of or you would like to avoid? ______4. affects you personally (physically or psychologically) that you are afraid of or you would like to avoid? ______
Suppose you realize a serious danger regarding you or your family and you need special security measures. Please, evaluate your preference to either high tech or physical security methods in terms of confidence (select one option) : 1 2 3 4 5 Entire rigging with Rigging with high Does not matter First of all physical Nothing can high tech devices tech devices as far which one until it protection and replace or be as far as possible. as possible and works and guards / high tech devices better than physical Prefer having both if needed. physical protection involvement only if (man as a still needed. bodyguard)
Estimate your agreement with the following statements: absolutely absolutely agree not always disagree agree disagree No matter how fast my income goes up, I never seem to get ahead . I have more to spend on extras than most of my neighbors . My income is high enough to satisfy nearly all of my important desires .
278
Your sex?
□ Female □ Male
Your marital status?
□ Single □ Married
How many kids do you have? ______
Your age?
□<=18 □45 49 □19 24 □50 54 □25 29 □55 59 □30 34 □60 64 □35 39 □>=65 □40 44
Education (according to Russian educational institution classification)?
□ Higher (university graduate) □ Incomplete higher □ Specialized school □ Secondary □ Incomplete secondary
Your field of activity?
□ Business (entrepreneurship) □ Politics □ Science □ Education □ Other: ______
Your position?
□ Owner (joint owner) □ Chief □ Top manager □ Manager □ Other: ______
Pattern of ownership of your organization?
□ National enterprise □ Own organization □ Private (not own) organization □ International company □ Other: ______
279
Information about the interview
Date:
Time:
Duration:
Location:
280
Appendix 4: Categorized elicited constructs 14.2 Sum, sample % in general % in general d bumpy driving at roads r seat r bumpy roads (soft suspension) bumpy (soft roads bumpy at driving roads high speed seat (don't feel bumpy and potholes) roads (don't feel seat es es s s s , large feel my own space being far from other other from being space far own my feel , large
car suspension car mmocks, and potholes bumpy roads enger seating enger arrangement on the passenger seat (don't feel bumpy and roads (don't feel seat on the passenger ) so I can take a rest duringrest Ia so ) can ride take a and not harsh interior e get to e in motional and physical andefforts motional physical 28 teering, not noisy, good view teering, not noisy, Construct e 10.1 comfortable: driver's comfort, relatively larg relatively comfort, 10.1 driver's comfortable: people and 12.4hightall large for comfortable: peopl tall for comfortable 12.8 large/comfortable2: and technique electronics 14.8 comfort comfortable: insulation 19.5 noise good comfortable: suspension,19.11 car notsoft sporty comfortable2: people hummocks, don't9.7 andfeel potholes comfortable: driving at comfort 13.1 driver's comfortable: comfortable 13.8 attractive, stylish2/comfortable2: inhandling car comfort 15.2 driver's comfortable: nobumpy uncomfortable: 16.3 at ride comfortable steering enjoying 17.2 comfortable comfortable: hu 17.13 don'tuncomfortable2: feel comfortable2 at high speed: s self driving 18.1 for comfortable: 8.5 comfortable: comfort electronics andtechniques electronics comfort 8.5 comfortable: 3.8 comfortable3: enough space to lie 3.8 (stretch legs enough lie to space comfortable3: people tall for size appropriate 4.6 comfortable: andtechniques electronics comfort 5.6 comfortable: hummocks,5.11 don't feel an comfortable2: potholes smooth6.3 running, comfortable comfortable: feel saloon 6.6 ergonomics of good comfortable2: on the passenge comfortable 6.11 feel comfortable3: 3.7 comfortable2: feel comfortable on the passenger comfortable 3.7 feel comfortable2: 1.2 comfortable: driver's comfort to provide less e less provide to comfort driver's 1.2 comfortable: pass comfortable size, appropriate 2.3 comfortable: hummocks, don't3.5 andfeel potholes comfortable: 1.5 comfortable2: comfort electronics and technique electronics 1.5 comfort comfortable2: and techniqu electronics 2.11 comfort comfortable2: comfortable comfortable uncomfortable Category poles category's Bipolar
Comfort 281
25 12.7 fun) m cars who are good judges good are mwho cars (not for mature people) for (not ienced users who are good judges of autos, not for judgesnot good autos, for of are users who ienced , not women s will notice me, aesthetically acceptable me, notice aesthetically s will s s and (e.g. Porsche) er's proved high reputation) (producer proved quality er's s who make (give) me a way way me a make (give) s who way me a make (give) s who way me a make (give) s who cing tation/prestigious: for life luxury (for leisure (for luxury life tation/prestigious: for f my status my f row exploitation/compact/ordinary: for business and for exploitation/compact/ordinary: row ers will notice me notice will ers 19.4 prestigious2/representative2: for mature exper mature 19.4for prestigious2/representative2: and (youth girls) off show who those 20.1 prestigious:super image 20.2 high of quality/prestigious2: technical produc 4.5 universal exploitation/large/prestigious nar exploitation/large/prestigious 4.5 universal not youth 5.1 prestigious/representative: 5.4convin spectacular, prestigious2: black color men 5.8 super image, for ordinary3: prestigious3 status 7.4my prestigious: reflects 8.2 brand and prestigious: of image producer 8.4 o prestigious2: perception stylish, influences on road 8.12 drivers other prestigious3: of respect 10.4 my statu of perception prestigious:influences on road 10.6 drivers other prestigious2: of respect br image or 11.2legendary ordinary: prestigious 12.7 my status prestigious:reflects risky more are who youth 13.6for unrepresentative: immodest15.1image prestigious:expensive, on road 15.6 drivers other prestigious2: of respect premiu users of 15.11 experienced prestigious3: for 16.8 prestigious:superpride image, proper immodest17.5image prestigious:expensive, immodest18.5image prestigious:expensive, 18.6 other compact/prestigious2 large/ordinary2: exploi 19.3exploitation/ordinary narrow universal
Prestige ordinary prestigious 4.4 prestigious: oth
282
3 11.7 e, e, I ienced users who are good judges of autos, not for judgesnot good autos, for of are users who ienced fit and seat my dog, when car is too representativ and my too is dog, car fit seat when t ts my status l but also to make a splash a butl to make also auto ss and myself ss and myself y status y car y s but not for entertainment, family or vacation or s but entertainment, family not for work nment ng g: go where and how I andwant how g: go where wner e ative: prestigious, which means reflects my statusmy prestigious, meanswhich reflects ative: 2 10.5 representative: can be used with a driver for for can be useddriver a 10.5with representative: m reflects unrepresentative: 13.7 representative business, entertai not for for 14.4 representative: self driving not 14.7for representative2: driver with 15.3 representative: high its o statusreflects of 15.7 representative2: self drivi representative: 17.1 unrepresentative got higher credi who's show to 18.8 representative: not famil work), upmarket (for 19.1 representative: exper mature 19.4for prestigious2/representative2: and (youth girls) off show who those on cool self driving 20.3speedy unrepresentative: can't seat in dog can't my seat status but calm for lif not for 8.7 representative: 3.4 representative unrepresentative: for busines for unrepresentative: 3.4 representative self driving not for 3.6 representative2: self drivin representative: 4.1 unrepresentative not youth 5.1 prestigious/representative: respectfu unrepresentative2: 5.5 representative2 driver with 6.1 representative: business, family not for for 6.7 representative2: busine for unrepresentative: 7.11 representative can 7.12exploitation2/unrepresentative2: universal 2.8 representative: prestigious, means reflec which 2.8 representative: representative representative unrepresentative
Representativeness unrepresent 1.8 representative
283
20 10.2 ive ive ywhere" ride inride tough ywhere" al quality: rigid quality: suspension, surval rugged auto will nsion (in case of ditch) of nsion(in case cy of maintenance expenses = after running is = after gear maintenance expenses of cy gs ng gs rvice uality (e.g. Germany, Japan) (e.g. Germany, uality high reputation) (producer proved quality er's igh quality (producer reputation) igh (producer quality pension savings ime and money time savings and money me savings and money me savings and money e s s servicing lity to save timeand money save to lity (snowdrift, glare ice) glare (snowdrift, formance/of high low technical quality: safe "an safe quality: technical high low formance/of 11.6 high of time savi quality: andtechnical money 12.1 high and of susrigid quality: frame technical adequa 12.6 high of quality2/safe/secure: technical changed ancanbe high it's sold at auto still pric se good 12.11 high of quality2: technical available 13.4les needs high of reliable, quality: technical 13.5q high proved of producer's quality: technical t 16.2down, highbreak of won't quality: technical 17.12 high and of suspension technical: rigid frame 19.2 down, high break of won't quality: technical 20.2 high of quality/prestigious2: technical produc 9.1high tough of quality: technical and body suspe 9.6high time of quality: and technical savin money 2.7h high proved of quality2: technical producer's ti down, 3.2highbreak won't of quality: technical in4.7climate high our safe of quality: technical qua 6.2highof highest of quality: technical level ti down, 7.2highbreak won't of quality: technical high7.7 high performance2/of technic rough terrain 2.4high time of quality: and technical savin money climate conditions climate (mud, ice) of high of quality technical of quality technical low
Technical qualityTechnical per 1.1high rough terrain low
284
17 17 e, e, I
8.6 fun) t rather compacttin rather size oads or traffic jam traffic or oads 't need push't to inand stuff) 8.6 uliarities (e.g. sporty or extra powerful) but not powerful) extra or (e.g. sporty uliarities fit and seat my dog, when car is too representativ and my too is dog, car fit seat when s will notice me, aesthetically acceptable me, notice aesthetically s will feel safe feel narrow roads or traffic jam traffic or roads narrow one in one garage e get to e in tation/prestigious: for life luxury (for leisure (for luxury life tation/prestigious: for it it skis ormance: for everywhere (work and leisure) (work everywhere for ormance: ity universal y use y life not only for entertainment for not only life can/can't be only one in one garage can/can't be only mud sporty for anything, doesn't fit bumpyride row exploitation/compact/ordinary: for business and for exploitation/compact/ordinary: row row exploitation/compact/ordinary: for business and for exploitation/compact/ordinary: row climate conditions (no engine weeping) climate ut or luggage or 4.11 large2: large and heavy enough to feel safe bu safe enough feel 4.11to and heavy large large2: than more 26.4people for large: 6.12 not large2: short and f friends with 8.8compact: can go far large 9.4 compact large: better to move on in case of of on in 9.4case to move better compact large: 10.8 compact:and people luggage can fit large 11.1 butSUV large: not (jeep) sedan peopl tall for 12.8comfortable large/comfortable2: 17.6 compact: to sit higherlarge lower 17.7 compact2:and people luggage to no need fit 18.6 other compact/prestigious2 large/ordinary2: r narrow 20.4 onof incompact:case move to better 1.7 large2: comfortable luggage(don 1.7transportation comfortable large2: and view) (panoramic 2.6 observation better large: r from not 4.2 short not go off to steady, large: nar exploitation/large/prestigious 4.5 universal 19.6 universal exploitation2: all year round,famil year all 19.6exploitation2: universal 6.5 universal exploitation: for year round year round for exploitation: 6.5 universal functional highly exploitation2: 6.8 universal everyday for narrow: exploitation 7.5 universal 7.12 universal exploitation2/unrepresentative2: can 7.12exploitation2/unrepresentative2: universal in dog can't my seat not pompous exploitation: 8.3 universal can be only narrow2: exploitation2 8.6 universal exploitation: narrow 11.3exploitation universal marked pec strongly with exploitation2: 11.4 narrow comfort averaged with or averaged round, for all year for exploitation: 12.2universal not sporty 13.3exploitation: universal high perf 16.5exploitation/rough terrain universal exploitation: narrow 17.4exploitation universal exploitation: narrow 18.7exploitation universal exploi 19.3exploitation/ordinary narrow universal 4.3 narrow exploitation: sporty for pleasure, not c pleasure, for sporty exploitation: 4.3 narrow 4.5 universal exploitation/large/prestigious nar exploitation/large/prestigious 4.5 universal universal exploitation exploitation universal exploitation narrow Intended application (Universality) Size Size compact large people several 1.6 for large:
285
17 13 8.6 6.6 ast) coloring coloring ful economy (low consumption engine) (low consumption economy ance: combination of allowable high speed and allowable combinationance: of uniqueness peed, power, design peed,power, and not harsh interior r those who drive like a clappers (i.e. extremely f extremely (i.e. clappers a like drive who those r n power and weight n power tractive appearance tractive 3.3 stylish unattractive: stylish appearance stylish 3.3 unattractive: stylish 4.8attractive stylish: 5.2design stylish: 7.3beautiful stylish: novelty, of 7.6because model: elegant stylish2/new 10.2 beautiful stylish: 11.5design brightstylish: attractive design 13.2attractive unattractive: stylish comfortable 13.8 attractive, stylish2/comfortable2: 14.2 beautiful stylish: 15.4 bright demonstrative, stylish: design 15.8 uncommon, stylish2: canbe expected not boring 4.12limited: speedy high speed/powerful 9.2 powerful high speed/powerful: and power speedy = 10.3 sporty high speed/powerful: 16.7 model: modern, notstylish/new dated BMW) 17.11(like forms sharp,stylish: aggressive 18.2 not stylish: American me notice 20.8 will others stylish: and 11.7power combination of high speed/powerful: 12.12 powerful high speed/powerful: 15.5 speedy high speed/powerful: high perform 16.1 high speed/powerful/rough terrain high performance rough terrain s in everything: 17.3 powerful high speed/powerful: 18.3 notgirly high speed/powerful: high speed 18.4 allowable high speed/powerful2: calm fo (not 19.7driving comfortable, limited: for high speed 20.6 allowable high speed/powerful: high speed/powerful high speed/powerful limited Design unattractive stylish 2.2bright stylish: at Speed/Power betwee 1.3 adequacy high speed/powerful:
286
12 6.1 ive ive e (too (too e "anywhere" ride inride tough "anywhere" of ride performance ride of t potholes ance: combination of allowable high speed and allowable combinationance: of i Q7 is not appropriate as it is an off road vehicl it anisQ7i as off road is not appropriate = presence of front axel front of = presence al quality: rigid quality: suspension, surval rugged auto will cy of maintenance expenses = after running is = after gear maintenance expenses of cy where city use of good car brand car good use of edy cars edy brand car good of se de, mountains de, mountains pt because of good car brand good car passenger) (not pt of because ormance: for everywhere (work and leisure) (work everywhere for ormance: on the roads, less risk of criminal attemptcriminal of risk onthe less roads, 5.1 y/everywhere e quipment safety in of sense urity measures (bodyguard, driver, armoring) armoring) (bodyguard, driver, measures urity 10 performance/of high low technical quality: safe quality: technical high low performance/of 14.1 safe/secure: appropriateness for armoring (Audarmoring for appropriateness 14.1 safe/secure: down) shoot reach, to big, easier e technological better 14.5 initially safe/secure2: attempt criminal 17.14 beca no of risk safe/secure: climate conditions climate (mud, ice) 2.1 rough terrain high performance: city, 2.1countrysi highcity, rough terrain performance: countrysi 5.7city, high performance: rough terrain cit for performance: 7.1high rough terrain low high7.7 high performance2/of technic rough terrain 9.3 rough terrain high performance: for "anywhere" 9.3for high performance: rough terrain everywhere 12.5 for high performance: rough terrain high perform 16.1 high speed/powerful/rough terrain high performance rough terrain high perf 16.5exploitation/rough terrain universal abou 16.6 nohigh performance3: worry rough terrain every 18.11 performance: high rough terrain low spe city prefer 20.5 low performance: rough terrain = not notable practical unsafe: 8.1 safe/secure attemptcriminal becau no of risk 8.11 safe/secure: maneuverability 9.5 safe/secure: attem criminal of risk 9.8 safe/secure2: unsafe2 equipping armor 9.11 damage a without safe/secure: adequa 12.6 high of quality2/safe/secure: technical changed ancanbe high it's sold at auto still pric rough terrain highrough terrain rough performance performance low terrain unsafe safe/secure Cross country abilityCross country 1.1high rough terrain low Safety/Security sec for appropriate 1.4 safe/secure:
287
.1 8 7 3.6 197 100.0 etter steering, can't be burntetter anymore t dated uniqueness rd to afford this auto rd afford to but without extra frills that make car overpriced thatcar make frills butextra without 4 y anyone y majority expensive majority 7.8 expensive obtainable price: rather expensive price: rather obtainable 7.8 expensive model:5.3 old model unique, new uncommon novelty, of 7.6because model: elegant stylish2/new 2.5 expensive obtainable price: not obtainable b price: not obtainable obtainable 2.5 expensive price obtainable 10.7 expensive for affordable 11.8 expensive: price obtainable ha to price: need work obtainable 16.4 expensive 17.8 expensive money for price: value obtainable 19.8 expensive splash make a to overpriced 20.7 expensive: no innovative, means 3.1technically model: new new b innovative, 12.3means technically model: new new 14.3 model: novelty new innovative 14.6 means model2:technically new new 16.7 model: modern, notstylish/new dated expensive obtainable obtainable expensive price model new old model Novelty Totals Price
288
Appendix 5: Customers’ values and most preferred car attributes
Recognition
Affiliation / / Affiliation 2 3 2
Recognition
Power / Social Social / Power 1
Independence
Freedom, Freedom, 3 1 2
Security
Family happiness Family Pleasure, enjoyment Pleasure,
Prioritized associated personal values personal associated Prioritized
achievement
Self actualization, Self actualization, Respondent 3 6 6 20 11 1
group Sumin Comfort
x 8 1 2 1 3 1 2 Prestige
x 20 1 x x 17 2 1 3 3 2 2 Representativeness
x x x 18 1 x x x 5 2 1 x x 15 2 3 x x 10 1 2 Technical Quality Technical
xx x 9 1 2 xx x x x 14 19 2 1 2 1 x x x 3 1 5 5 5 5 6
(Universality)
Intended application application Intended Size
x x x x x x 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Design
x x x x x x 2 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 Speed/Power
xx x x x x x x 4 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 Frequency of attribute presence attribute presence of Frequency Cross country ability Cross country x x x x x 16 2 3 1 4
Presence of attribute in dimension most important attribute of Presence Safety / Security / Safety
x x x xx x x x x 1 1 x x x Price
x x x x x x x x 1 1 1 1 1 Novelty x x x x x 7 3 1 2 x x x x x x x 13 2 1 x x x x x x x 12 2 x 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 : : : "I know how how : "I know : "Others know : "Others know : notice "Others : "I enjoy my life" my :"I enjoy me" Totals Segment successful Isuccessful am" successful Isuccessful am" Hedonist extrovert Hedonist introvert Hedonist introvert Careerist introvert Careerist introvert Careerist extrovert Careerist extrovert how successful I successful am" how Amount respondents of "Others should know how "Othershow should know Hedonistic careerist extrovert Hedonistic Hedonistic careerist extrovert Hedonistic Careerist introvert Careerist extrovert Hedonist extrovert Hedonist introvert
289
Appendix 6: Brands of cars named for element categories
Brands mentioned for "Work" (1)
Maserati ; 2 Mercedes Range Rover ; 1 Mercedes ; 7 Lexus Toyota; 2 BMW Toyota BMW; 2 Range Rover Lexus; 6 Maserati
Brands mentioned for "Vacation" (2)
VW ; 1 Mercedes Lexus Chevrolet; 1 Mercedes ; 3 BMW Porsche; 3 Toyota Audi Audi; 1 Lexus; 7 Porsche Toyota; 1 Chevrolet BMW; 3 VW
290
Brands mentioned for "Evening leisure time" (3)
Infinity ; 1 Mercedes Cadillac ; 1 BMW Bentley ; 1 Mercedes ; 3 Toyota
Jaguar; 1 BMW; 3 Maserati Porsche Toyota; 1 Jaguar Porsche; 8 Maserati ; 1 Bentley Cadillac Infinity
Mercedes Brands mentioned for "In no way" (4) BMW Ford ; 1 Range Rover Volvo ; 1 Audi VW Skoda; 1 Mercedes ; 1 BMW; 2 Jaguar Volga GAZ; 1 Mitsubishi Range Rover; 1 Opel ; 1 Ssangyong KIA; 1 Audi; 2 Chrysler Chrysler; 2 VW ; 3 KIA Jaguar; 1 Opel Ssangyong ; 1 Volga GAZ Mitsubishi; 1 Skoda Volvo
291
Brands of "Previously owned" (5) cars
Saab 93; 1 Mercedes Mitsubishi; 1 Lexus Porsche; 1 Mercedes ; 4 BMW Audi; 1 Toyota Audi Lexus; 3 Porsche Toyota; 8 BMW; 1 Mitsubishi Saab 93
Brands mentioned for "Car that I like but it doesn't fit" (6) Lexus BMW Lexus; 1 Toyota Aston Martin ; 1 BMW; 2 Maserati Lincoln Limo ; 1 Toyota; 1 Audi Porsche Ferrari; 3 Maserati ; 1 Skoda Mazda ; 1 Audi; 1 Hummer Hummer; 2 Porsche; 5 Mazda Skoda; 1 Ferrari Lincoln Limo Aston Martin
292
Brands mentioned for "Alternative choice during last purchase" (7)
Land Rover; 1 Mercedes Honda ; 1 Lexus BMW Infinity; 1 Mercedes ; 4 Toyota Porsche; 1 Range Rover Audi; 3 Lexus; 4 Audi Porsche Range Rover; 1 BMW; 2 Infinity Toyota; 2 Honda Land Rover
Brands of "current" (8) cars
Lexus Jaguar ; 1 Infinity ; 1 BMW Range Rover; 1 Mercedes Toyota; 1 Audi Lexus; 6 Bentley; 1 Mitsubishi
Mitsubishi; 1 Bentley BMW; 4 Toyota Audi; 1 Range Rover Mercedes; 3 Jaguar Infinity
293