Scottish MPA Programme Detailed Assessment against the MPA Selection Guidelines
LOCH CARRON MPA
MAY 2018
Further information on the Scottish MPA network and protected areas management is available at - www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/marine/marine-environment/mpanetwork For the full range of MPA site documents and more on the fascinating range of marine life to be found in Scotland’s seas, please visit - www.nature.scot/mpas or www.jncc.defra.gov.uk/scottishmpas
Document version control
Version Date Author Reason / Comments Version 1 31/01/2018 Mairi Fenton Completion of initial assessment. Version 2 05/02/2018 Lisa Kamphausen Review and edits prior to QA review. and Ben James Version 3 08/02/2018 Mairi Fenton and Address QA review comments. Ben James Version 4 09/02/2018 Katie Gilham Review. Version 5 12/02/2018 Mairi Fenton and Address comments. Ben James Version 6 14/02/2018 Ben James Finalise draft for SNH SAC review following completion of initial QA. Version 7 27/02/2018 Mairi Fenton and Address SNH SAC review feedback. Ben James Version 8 09/03/2018 Mairi Fenton Reviewed by Director of PAD and Operations. Version 9 19/03/2018 Ben James QA sign-off following SNH Protected Areas Committee endorsement. Version 10 05/10/2018 Mairi Fenton Update into MPA format. Version 11 21/03/2019 Ben James QA review and sign-off.
Distribution list
Format Version Issue date Issued to Electronic 2 07/02/2018 John Baxter Electronic 4 09/02/2018 Katie Gillham Electronic 5 14/02/2018 John Baxter Electronic 6 16/02/2018 SNH SAC MPA sub-group Electronic 7 28/02/2018 Director PAD and Operations Electronic 8 09/03/2018 SNH Protected Areas Committee Electronic 9 20/03/2018 SNH web publication Electronic 11 19/05/2019 SNH web publication
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Background & purpose
Loch Carron was originally designated as an MPA on an urgent and temporary basis in May 2017, following confirmation of damage to sensitive seabed habitats in the area. Normal procedures for protected area designations, including a 12-week public consultation, were subsequently followed to create (re-designate) the Loch Carron MPA on a permanent basis. Further details are available on Marine Scotland’s MPA web pages. This document provides details of the assessment of Loch Carron MPA against the Scottish MPA Selection Guidelines. The initial designation of Loch Carron as an urgent MPA means that some of the stages set out in the selection guidelines (e.g. reference to MPA search locations etc.) are not directly relevant to this site. However, for comparative purposes the format and style used for MPAs designated in 2014 have been adopted. Details of supporting evidence are provided in the Loch Carron data confidence assessment.
Terminology
The main terms used in the assessment are described below. MPA search location - this describes a location identified at stage 1 until it passes the assessment at stage 4. Potential area for an MPA - if an MPA search location passes the assessment at stage 4 it goes on to become a potential area for an MPA for consideration at stage 5. MPA proposal - a potential area for an MPA that has passed the assessment at stage 5 and which has been formally recommended for designation by SNH and/or JNCC to Scottish Ministers. Possible MPA - an MPA proposal approved by Scottish Ministers for public consultation. From this time the location is given policy protection as if it were designated. MPA search features - specified marine habitats, species and large-scale features that underpin the selection of MPAs. Geodiversity features - specified geodiversity interests of the Scottish sea bed categorised under themed ‘blocks’ that are analogous to the MPA search features for biodiversity. Protected feature - any feature (habitats, species, large-scale features and/or geodiversity features) specified within the site Designation Order.
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LOCH CARRON MPA - APPLICATION OF THE MPA SELECTION GUIDELINES
Stage 1 - Identifying search locations that would address any significant gaps in the conservation of MPA search features
Summary of The Loch Carron MPA encompasses two protected features (flame shell beds and maerl beds). Both features are considered to be under assessment threat / declining in Scottish waters. The flame shell bed at the Strome Narrows is the largest recorded in the world covering an estimated 194 ha (Moore et al., 2018). The MPA boundary extends south to incorporate multiple, rich maerl beds present along the coast between Plockton and Loch Alsh. The Loch Carron MPA boundary abuts that of the Lochs Duich, Long and Alsh MPA near the Skye Bridge.
Detailed assessment Protected features Guideline 1a Guideline 1b Guideline 1c Presence of key features Presence of features under threat Functional significance for the [MPA search features and and/or subject to rapid decline overall health and diversity of geodiversity equivalents] Scottish seas Biodiversity Flame shell beds T&D1 Maerl beds OSPAR T&D2 v
1 Feature considered to be under threat and/or in decline in Scottish waters (see https://www.nature.scot/snh-commissioned-report-388-identification-priority-marine- features-scottish-territorial-waters for further details). 2 OSPAR list of Threatened and/or Declining species and habitats (see OSPAR, 2008 a & b).
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Map of the Loch Carron MPA showing the known distribution of protected features
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Stage 2 - Prioritisation of search locations according to the qualities of the MPA search features they contain
Summary of The Loch Carron MPA supports two protected features. Both features exhibit a high level of natural biological diversity. The multiple Loch assessment Carron flame shell beds constitute 41% of the known extent of the habitat in the UK. The Strome Narrows bed is considered a high quality example of the habitat with dense flame shells and rich associated epibiotic communities. Numerous maerl beds are also present within the MPA. The protected features are sensitive to a range of pressures and at a regional level are considered to be at high risk of significant damage by human activity (Chaniotis et al., 2014). The Loch Carron MPA was originally designated on an urgent basis due to localised habitat damage associated with scallop dredging. This was found to be restricted to two of the three smaller Sgeir Bhuidhe flame shell beds, and in general the protected features are considered to be in a natural state over most of their extent. Four of the five Stage 2 guidelines have been met (2a - 2e). Guideline 2d is considered to have been partially met - there are examples of flame shell beds within the MPA that have been damaged as a result of human activity, but the vast majority of the feature (including the extensive Strome Narrows bed) is considered to be in a natural state. The maerl beds are considered to be least damaged / more natural.
Detailed assessment Guideline 2a The search location contains combinations of features, rather than single isolated features, especially if those features are functionally linked Loch Carron MPA was designated for two seabed habitat features; flame shell beds and maerl beds. Where the two features interact, flame shells incorporate maerl into their nests with byssal threads and help to stabilise the maerl bed (Lancaster et al., 2014). This is observed in the small maerl bed in the Strome Narrows (Moore et al., 2018). Individual flame shells and scattered nests (although not beds) were also recorded within maerl beds to the north of Plockton and at Port Luinge. In total, the MPA represents 41% of the known extent of flame shell beds in the UK. The Loch Carron MPA abuts the existing Lochs Duich, Long and Alsh MPA. Designated in 2014, this adjacent MPA affords protection to the second largest known flame shell bed in the world (an estimated 105 ha - see Moore et al., 2018). The combined estimated coverage of the Loch Carron beds and the Loch Alsh bed (319 ha in total) represents 61% of the known UK extent of the habitat. Guideline met.
Guideline 2b The search location contains example(s) of features with a high natural biological diversity Flame shell beds Flame shells Limaria hians are small bivalve molluscs (about 4 cm long) that live completely hidden at the sea bed inside nests, which they build from shells, stones and other materials around them, held together by byssus threads. Flame shell beds are characterised by dense populations of L. hians where hundreds of these nests coalesce to form a dense turf (assigned to the SS.SMx.IMx.Lim biotope) over the sedimentary substratum, essentially raising and stabilising the sea bed. A minimum of 10% coverage of the sea bed by flame shell nest material has been adopted by recent studies as a working definition of a bed (Moore et al., 2013). Numerous plants and animals can attach to the surface of the bed, and many other animals live within or under the nest material (for more information on this habitat see Tyler-Walters et al., 2012 & 2016). Flame shells were known to be present in the Strome Narrows in 2001 (Scott, 2001) with the first formal records made in 2007. Targeted surveys undertaken in 2017 recorded 115 species associated with the Loch Carron flame shell beds (Moore et al., 2018) and the Strome Narrows bed alone is thought to be home to an estimated quarter of a billion flame shells. Most density estimates for numbers of flame shells in beds lie within the range 200 - 500 m-2, which corresponds to the values obtained by the most recent study for the Loch Carron beds (330 - 420 m-2) (Moore et al., 2018). The 2017 values are similar to those obtained in the Strome Narrows in 2009 (ERT Scotland Ltd., 2010) and for adjacent sites in Loch Alsh in 2009 and 2012 (Moore et al., 2013).
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Guideline 2b The search location contains example(s) of features with a high natural biological diversity Flame shell beds Infaunal taxon richness (the number of organisms living within the seabed sediments), obtained in 2017 from 10 cm diameter diver cont. core samples screened on a 0.5 mm sieve, varied from 48 at Strome Narrows to 42 at Sgeir Bhuidhe. The 2017 values were similar to those recorded previously for Loch Carron flame shell beds (ERT Scotland Ltd., 2010) and are comparable with observations from other Scottish beds. Moore et al. (2018) present summary statistics from surveys of ten Scottish flame shell beds where infaunal taxon richness values range from 39 to 75, with a mean of 54. The predominant substrate in the Loch Carron flame shell beds comprises coarse sand with dense pebbles, cobbles and shells bound by Limaria byssal turf; often forming a mosaic with relatively homogeneous sand patches. The beds support a ubiquitous red algal turf dominated by Plocamium cartilagineum, Dasysiphonia japonica and Bonnemaisonia hamifera, with hydroids such as Halecium spp. and Kirchenpaueria pinnata and scattered dead man’s fingers Alcyonium digitatum. Over extensive areas within the Strome Narrows bed the red algae are replaced by a dense cover of ophiuroids, generally dominated by Ophiothrix fragilis but also comprising large numbers of Ophiocomina nigra and Ophiopholis aculeata (SS.SMx.CMx.OphMx). The flame shell byssal turf also supports tide-swept parks and forests of kelps dominated by Laminaria hyperborea (IR.MIR.KT.XKTX), sometimes in association with brittlestar beds. Other mobile epifauna include Echinus esculentus, Crossaster papposus, Asterias rubens, Antedon sp., Buccinum undatum, Aequipecten opercularis and Munida rugosa. Horse mussels were found to be locally abundant within the Strome Narrows in 2017 but did not appear to be habitat forming; rather, they tended to be scattered within other dense flame shell or kelp habitats (Moore et al., 2018). Sixty-seven epibiotic taxa (organisms living on the surface of the sea bed) were recorded from the Strome Narrows and 61 from Sgeir Bhuidhe. These high values lie within the range recorded from other Scottish flame shell beds (36 - 78 with a mean of 61 - see Moore et al., 2018 for further details). The Loch Carron flame shell beds represent excellent examples of the habitat overall albeit with impacted areas apparent at two of the three Sgeir Bhuidhe beds in 2017 (Moore et al., 2018). Flame shell turf coverage was found to vary widely throughout the beds in 2017, and within the Strome Narrows it was often impossible to assess due to occlusion by dense brittlestars or kelp. However, average cover was within the range 30 - 70% and extensive areas supported 100% cover of byssus turf (Moore et al., 2018). The density of the Limaria hians population and the diversity of the associated epibiotic and infaunal communities were found to be typical of Scottish beds. Maerl beds Maerl is the collective term for several species of calcified red seaweed, which in their free-living form and under favourable conditions can create extensive beds. Multiple beds have been recorded within the MPA. The beds range in size from very small (0.1 ha) in the Strome Narrows to the larger (~56 ha) Port Luinge bed. Additional sampling is required to determine whether clusters of maerl bed records in other parts of the site are connected (as at Port Luinge) or represent a series of smaller, discrete beds as currently displayed. The Port Luinge bed has a live maerl coverage of around 50% which places it amongst the richer of the Scottish beds (SS.SMp.Mrl.Pcal.R). As regards community diversity, the records of epibiotic taxon richness at Port Luinge and Strome Narrows (69 and 80 respectively) are typical of Scottish maerl beds. However, infaunal diversity at these beds in terms of the mean number of taxa per core (28 and 32 respectively), are comparatively low in a Scottish context (Moore et al., 2018). Surveys in 2017 found maerl beds in Loch Carron to support algal species such as Laminaria hyperborea, Bonnemaisonia hamifera (Trailliella stage) and dense patches of Saccharina latissima as well as Chorda filum, Plocamium cartilagineum, Asperococcus bullosus, and Dasysiphonia japonica. Epifaunal dominants included Ophiocomina nigra, Asterias rubens, Munida rugosa, Liocarcinus depurator and Ophiura albida, with large numbers of Gibbula cineraria and Aequipecten opercularis on the fronds of S. latissima. The maerl also contained flame shells in places, which bound the maerl into a stable carpet, although apparently largely juveniles and overall at low density (not constituting a flame shell ‘bed’). Conspicuous emergent infaunal taxa included the burrowing sea cucumber Neopentadactyla mixta and the blunt tellin Arcopagia crassa (Moore et al., 2018). 2b - Result Guideline met. 7
Guideline 2c The search location contains coherent examples of features, rather than smaller, potentially more fragmented ones Flame shell beds The MPA encompasses a large flame shell bed in the Strome Narrows, as well as three smaller beds off Sgeir Bhuidhe. In total, these beds represent 41% of the known habitat extent in the UK. The Strome Narrows bed is approximately 5.5 km long and covers an area of approximately 194 ha across a recorded depth range of 3 - 23 m, although it appears that the bed probably extends down to around the 30 m depth contour with some evidence of flame shell byssal material present down to ~50 m. While the flame shell bed appears to occupy most of the sea bed below the 5 m depth contour within narrows, there is a gap in its distribution in the deepest trough (20 - 30 m depth) within the channel. Here, the bed is replaced by dense pebbles supporting high (SS.SMx.CMx) or very high (SS.SMx.CMx.OphMx) densities of ophiuroids. The three flame shell beds located to the north, east and west of the small island Sgeir Bhuidhe in outer Loch Carron cover areas of 5.1, 7.0 and 7.7 ha respectively, over a depth range of 9.5 - 21 m. Areas of 100% coverage were present in all beds in 2017, with an average turf cover of around 50%. Where flame shell turf was predominant, it generally formed a mosaic with relatively homogeneous sand patches. Length frequency analysis of the Limaria hians population in May 2017 revealed a major mode of 5 - 10 mm individuals, suggesting strong recruitment in 2016 (Moore et al., 2018). On the basis of laboratory experiments (Lebour, 1937) Limaria larvae are believed to spend at least a few weeks in the plankton (Tyler-Walters & Perry, 2016). On this basis, hydrodynamic modelling outputs would likely conclude some connectivity across the known beds in Scottish waters up the west coast to Orkney (e.g. Gallego et al., 2013). However, the nearshore and semi-enclosed sea loch environments that support most of the extant beds are less dispersive than open water models predict. The implications for larval supply are unknown. Smaller beds may have a greater reliance on adjacent larger beds as a source of recruits. However, whilst temporal variability in flame shell beds has not been well studied, in the absence of disturbance the feature is expected to persist. Maerl beds There are numerous maerl beds of varying sizes within the Loch Carron MPA. Although the Strome Narrows maerl bed (0.1 ha) is small, the Port Luinge bed (56 ha) is a coherent component of a wider system of fragmentary maerl beds that extends along the coastline from Plockton to the mouth of Loch Alsh and which may collectively extend to over 100 ha. In terms of live maerl content the Strome Narrows bed (c.30% cover) is fairly typical of Scottish beds, whereas the Port Luinge bed and other beds between Plockton and Loch Alsh, with extensive coverage of around 50%, can be considered amongst the richer Scottish beds (Moore et al., 2018). Very little information is available to assess the area required to ensure the viability of maerl beds. Vegetative growth is the main form of propagation so the dispersal potential of maerl is limited, probably to less than 1 km, based on the dispersal of adult plants (‘twiglets’) by water movement. The dispersal potential of sexual propagules is unknown because these have not been observed in UK waters and there have been no studies published regarding genetic exchange between populations. Maerl is extremely slow- growing, with growth rates in Scotland in the order of tenths of millimetres to two millimetres per year. The life-span of individual plants of P. calcareum is estimated to be 20 to 100 years. In the absence of significant disturbance or any changes that affect the suitability of the habitat, maerl beds are therefore likely to be long-lived and stable (OSPAR, 2010). 2c - Result Guideline met.
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Guideline 2d The search location contains features considered least damaged / more natural, rather than those heavily modified by human activity Flame shell beds The Loch Carron MPA was first designated on an urgent basis to support recovery of flame shell beds at Sgeir Bhuidhe following damage from demersal fishing activity. An estimated 8% of the East Sgeir Bhuidhe bed and 4% of the West Sgeir Bhuidhe bed are thought to have been damaged (although the estimates do not take into account potential loss of habitat at the edge of the beds) (Moore et al., 2018). The vast majority of the feature within the MPA (including the Strome Narrows bed) is considered to be in a natural state. Maerl beds Maerl beds within the MPA vary in quality but the majority have a high percentage cover of live maerl and are considered to be in a natural state. 2d - Result Guideline partially met. The flame shell beds around Sgeir Bhuidhe were damaged by scallop dredging in 2017 (Moore et al., 2018). Follow-up survey work led to the recording of a significantly larger flame shell bed in the Strome Narrows. This bed and the maerl beds within the MPA are considered to be in an unmodified state.
Guideline 2e The search location contains features considered to be at risk3 of significant damage by human activity Flame shell beds The Loch Carron MPA lies within the West MPA region4. On the basis of the cumulative regional risk assessment, there is considered to be a high risk of significant damage to this feature arising from human activity. This is largely as a result of potential exposure to pressures associated with demersal fishing activity (primarily otter trawling and scallop dredging which are considered to present a high risk), with creel fishing and shellfish farming presenting medium risks. Tourism and recreation-related activities are considered to pose a low risk but some records of the feature are noted to overlap / be in close proximity to moorings. Maerl beds On the basis of the cumulative regional risk assessment, there is considered to be a high risk of significant damage to this feature arising from human activity. Within the region, this is largely as a result of potential exposure to pressures associated with demersal fishing activity (e.g. hydraulic dredging for bivalves, scallop dredging and otter trawling), which is considered to present a high risk. Creel fishing, dive fisheries and aquaculture (fin fish and shellfish farming) present medium risks. Tourism and recreation-related activities are considered to pose a low risk but some records of the feature are noted to overlap / be in close proximity to moorings / anchorages. 2e - Result Guideline met. This is not an assessment of activities that require management within the MPA. That assessment is provided in the conservation objectives and management advice paper.
3 Information on the sensitivity of the MPA features to pressures and their associated activities was taken from FEAST (FEature, Activity, Sensitivity Tool - http://www.marine.scotland.gov.uk/FEAST/). The degree to which an MPA search feature is exposed to activities / pressures to which it is sensitive in each MPA region was assessed to provide a qualitative measure of risk. Risk assessments for the various activities were examined to produce an overall qualitative risk assessment by MPA region (Chaniotis et al., 2014). The conclusions may therefore not reflect the level of risk at the scale of the MPA. Site-specific activities and pressures are considered in further detail within the conservation objectives and management advice paper produced for this MPA. 4 The seas around Scotland were split into five MPA regions (East, North, West, South-west and Far West) at the outset of the Scottish MPA Programme to aid the identification of MPA search locations and the preliminary appraisal of these against the MPA Selection Guidelines (e.g. the completion of regional risk assessments). This approach provided a useful framework for the initial stages of assessment. Within SNH and JNCC’s formal MPA network advice (SNH and JNCC, 2012) the MPA proposals and remaining MPA search locations were then considered within the context of OSPAR regions.
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Stage 3 - Assessing the appropriate scale of the search location in relation to search features it contains
Assessment The size of the search location should be adapted where necessary to ensure it is suitable for maintaining the integrity of the features for which the MPA is being considered. Account should also be taken where relevant of the need for effective management of relevant activities The size and shape of the MPA reflect the distribution and extent of the protected features. The boundary fully encompasses the recorded flame shell beds. The south-easterly extension of the boundary to meet the Lochs Duich, Long and Alsh MPA near the Skye Bridge encompasses a series of coastal maerl beds. The seaward boundary was drawn using straight lines which broadly follow the 20-25 m depth contours. This, along with the landward change to MLWS and the exclusion of Plockton Harbour, aligns with boundary setting principles applied to other MPAs for these seabed habitat features. The MPA boundary is therefore considered suitable for maintaining the integrity of the flame shell beds and maerl beds present. Guideline met.
Stage 4 - Assessing the potential effectiveness of managing features within a search location as part of a Nature Conservation MPA
Summary of The MPA passed the assessment against the Stage 4 guideline. This resulted in the original urgent MPA progressing as a potential assessment area for an MPA to Stage 5.
Detailed assessment There is a high probability that management measures, and the ability to implement them, will deliver the objectives of the MPA The conservation objective for the flame shell beds within this MPA is to ‘recover’5. Although the Strome Narrows flame shell bed is considered to be in excellent condition, the Sgeir Bhuidhe flame shell beds were damaged by fishing activity in 2017. A non-destructive programme designed to monitor recovery of the flame shell habitat was inaugurated as part of the 2017 survey work. At the most intensively studied Sgeir Bhuidhe monitoring sites it was found that significant numbers of flame shells had managed to persist within the impacted areas and at one site there was some evidence to suggest that the level of dredge scarring may have decreased due to byssal growth over the preceding three month period. Given the presence of an extensive area of un-impacted flame shell habitat both in the immediate vicinity around Sgeir Bhuidhe and the nearby presence of extremely large beds elsewhere in Loch Carron and in Loch Alsh, the potential for larval recruitment is expected to be high. Habitat recovery may take in the order of 10 years (Moore et al., 2018). The conservation objective for the maerl beds is to ‘conserve’. Achievement of the stated conservation objectives will be assessed as part of 6-yearly Parliamentary reporting. A number of activities are considered capable of affecting the protected features (see 2e above) and management is required to protect them. Statutory mechanisms exist (e.g. Fisheries Orders or Marine Conservation Orders) to support the introduction of spatial measures to conserve the features within the MPA. Implementation of the urgent MPA with the associated urgent Marine Conservation Order in 2017 has so far achieved protection of the protected features from further damage. There is therefore good potential to implement management measures successfully and to achieve the conservation objectives of the MPA. Further discussion is required with those involved in using the MPA to provide clarification on interactions between the protected features and known and potential activities and developments. Additional details are provided in the conservation objectives and management advice paper produced for this MPA.
5 A review of the recovery potential and influencing factors of relevance to the management of habitats and species within Marine Protected Areas around Scotland is provided in Mazik et al. (2015).
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Stage 5 - Assessment of the contribution of the potential area to the MPA network
Summary of Guideline met - if designated the MPA would make a significant contribution to the MPA network. assessment
Detailed assessment The potential area contributes significantly to the coherence of the MPA network in the seas around Scotland
Assessment of biodiversity features Feature Representation Replication Linkages Geographic range & Resilience variation Flame shell Multiple flame shell There is replication of this feature Not Middle of geographic There is additional replication beds beds including the in the network within OSPAR applicable7 range in Scotland. within OSPAR Region III to largest known bed in Region III (see SNH and JNCC, address the lack of replication Scottish waters and 2012; Cunningham et al., 2015)6. between OSPAR regions6 and potentially the largest Flame shell beds are a protected known damage / decline within bed in the world. An feature of the following MPAs: Scotland’s seas. excellent example of Upper Loch Fyne and Loch Goil; this habitat. Loch Sunart; Lochs Duich, Long [SS.SMx.IMx.Lim and Alsh; Loch Creran; and, biotope] Wester Ross. Maerl beds Multiple examples of There is replication of this feature Not Enhances existing There is additional replication of the feature in the network within and between applicable7 coverage of the feature this feature within the network comprising beds of OSPAR Regions II and III (see within the MPA network. because maerl beds are SS.SMp.Mrl.Pcal.R SNH & JNCC, 2012; Cunningham considered to be threatened and Good examples of et al., 2015). declining in Scottish waters. The this habitat. Maerl beds are a protected feature feature is listed on the OSPAR of the following MPAs: Fetlar to List of Threatened and/or Haroldswick; Wyre and Rousay Declining habitats. Sounds; Loch Sween; Wester Ross and South Arran.
6 Flame shell beds were only confirmed in OSPAR Region II in 2015 from Scapa Flow, Orkney (Seasearch, 2015). 7 The linkages part of the guideline is only assessed in situations where there is a good understanding of the relationship between features in different areas to help build connectivity into the network. There is currently insufficient evidence on which to base detailed assessments of linkages for seabed habitats and low or limited mobility species in Scotland’s seas but initial conclusions are presented in Gallego et al. (2013).
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Bibliography Chaniotis, P.D., Cunningham, S., Gillham, K. & Epstein, G. 2014. Assessing risk to Scottish MPA search features at the MPA regional scale. Final report produced by the Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Scottish Natural Heritage and Marine Scotland for the Scottish Marine Protected Areas Project.
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Bibliography OSPAR Commission. 2010. Background document for maerl beds. OSPAR Commission. Biodiversity series. Publication Number: 491/2010.
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