NEW HORIZON COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

Forensic anthropology Crime scene- Identification (Race, Sex, Age), Inventory and Profile • The Forensic Anthropologist will make a complete inventory of the bones received. • The specific bone present is described in detail. • Each of the bones will be identified and described as having no anomalies or pathology. • For example, if the left parietal, the occipital, and the right mastoid, they would be listed independently in the inventory. • If the skull is complete, that would be stated. Forensic anthropology  Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical anthropology and human osteology (the study of the human skeleton) in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of decomposition.  Defined as “the field of study that deals with the analysis of human skeletal remains resulting from unexplained deaths.”  study of human skeletal remains to determine sex, age, race, and time of death in an effort to identify an individual “anthros” is Greek for humankind or man, logos means “the study of”  A forensic anthropologist can also assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable.  The adjective "Forensic" refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law. Forensic anthropology is an applied science and consists Five sub disciplines: 1. Biological, or physical anthropology, 2. Archaeology, 3. Cultural anthropology 4. Linguistics and 5. Applied anthropology Basic Functions of forensic anthropologist  Forensic anthropologists often work with coroners and medical examiners in the identification of individual skeletons in which the identity of the remains cannot be established by other means (dental identification, fingerprints, or DNA, for instance).  Forensic anthropologists are also called to assist in the recovery and identification of remains from mass fatality incidents, including plane crashes, building explosions, and other circumstances in which the remains are fragmentary and commingled (remains from one individual mixed with those of other individuals).  The information from the skeleton can even be used to help establish whether two photographs likely represent the same individual. Example -Case A  A man's decomposed body was discovered in a rural area. The sheriff's officers, who responded to the scene, suspected that the individual was the victim of homicide because of the obvious damage to the clothing and to the body underneath.  It appeared that the shirt had numerous cuts. The body was transported to the local medical examiner's office for an autopsy, while the area that was around and under the body was searched for evidence.  Forensic anthropologists work as a team with the forensic pathologist, forensic odontologists, forensic radiologists, and all other forensic experts.  In this case, the forensic pathologist performed the autopsy, which was somewhat modified because of the extensive decomposition of the body.  The soft tissue is usually removed from the skeleton so that the clues are more obvious.

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 The investigation of the identity of human remains must begin with a determination of whether or not the remains are human.  If the remains are not human, the case usually ends, although the author has been asked to continue on cases in which, for instance, a dog had been shot. In this case, the shooter claimed that the dog was attacking him.  The direction of travel of the bullet was important in this case, as the dog was not facing the man when he was shot. History of Forensic anthropology. • 1800s – scientists began using skull measurements to differentiate human bodies • 1897 – Luetgert murder case; man killed his wife and boiled down her remains – Fragments of skull, finger and arm found • 1932 – FBI opened first crime lab helping identify human remains • 1939 – William Krogman published Guide to the Identification of Human Skeletal Material • WWII – remains of soldiers identified using anthropological means • Recently – new mitochondrial DNA techniques have identified Romanov family skeletal remains Number of Bones • Children – 450- Children have bones that eventually suture together • Adult – 206 after all bones have fully developed Aging of Bone • What can bone tell us? – Children build bones faster and bones grow in size – After 30 years – process starts to reverse and bones deteriorate faster than built – of bones and their condition can tell a person‟s age, health, and calcium in food Skulls – Bones to Know • Maxilla, Mandible, Zygomatic bone, Vomer bone, Frontal bone, Nasal bone • Orbit (eye socket), Sphenoid bone and Sutures (between skull bones) Determination of Sex 1.Pelvis – Anatomy Bones to Know • Ilium, Ischium , Pubis, Sacrum, Coccyx, Pubic symphysis and Obturator Foramen

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Pelvis – Male vs. Female • Things to consider: – Sub-pubic angle – Length, width, shape, angle of sacrum – Width of ileum – Angle of sciatic notch Male Trait Female

50-82 degrees Sub pubic angle > 90 degrees

Triangular pubis Shape of pubis Rectangular pubis

Heart shaped Shape of pelvic cavity Oval shaped

Longer, narrower, curved inward sacrum Shorter, broader, curved outward

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• Other differences in female pelvis: – Often weighs less – Surface engraved with scars after female has given birth • Can be detected most at pubic symphysis • Thigh Bone: Femur – Angle of femur to pelvis is greater in females and straighter in males – Male femur is thicker than female femur 2. Cranium second best • Crests and ridges more pronounced in males (A, B, C) • Chin significantly more square in males (E) • Jaw (I, E), mastoid process wide and robust in males • Forehead slopes more in males (F) Skulls – Male vs. Female Frontal View Male Trait Female

Low and sloping Frontal Bone Higher and more rounded

More Square Shape of Eye (orbits) More Rounded

More Square Mandible (Lower Jaw) More V-shaped

Thicker and larger Upper Brow Ridge (Zygomatic) Thinner and smaller

Skulls – Male vs. Female Side View Male Trait Female

Present Occipital protuberance Absent

Lower and more sloping Frontal bone Higher and more rounded

Bumpy and rough Surface of skull smooth

Angled at 90° (straight) Mandible (Jaw bone) Greater than 90° (sloping)

General dereferences between male and female

Male Female

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General size Large Small

Architecture Rugged Smooth

Supraorbital margin Rounded Sharp

Mastoid process Large Small

Occipital bone Muscle lines and protuberance Muscle lines not marked marked Glabella Bony Flat

Gonial Angle Squared Wide angle

Palate Larger, broader, tends to be U- Small, tends to be a parabola shaped Occipital condyles Large Small

Determination of Race The cranium is the only reliable bone and, even then, can only tell general category as below: • Mongoloid (all of Asian descent and Native American decent) • wider cheekbones, concave incisors, width between eyes greatest • Negro (everyone of African decent and West Indian decent) • more prominent ridges, wider nasal opening • Caucasian (all „white‟ individuals), narrow everything Distinguishing Race • This is losing its significance in differences – Two biggest differences are in skull and femur: • Shape of eye sockets, Absence or presence of nasal spine • Nasal index – width of nasal opening X 100 height of nasal opening • Prognathism – projection of upper jaw (maxilla) beyond the lower jaw (mandible), Width of face, and Angulation of jaw and face Distinguishing Race Caucasoid Negroid Mongoloid

Shape of Eye Orbits Rounded, somewhat Rectangular Rounded, somewhat square circular

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Nasal Spine Prominent spine Very small spine Somewhat prominent spine

Nasal Index <.48 >.53 .48-.53

Prognathism Straight Prognathic Variable

Femur Fingers fit under Fingers don‟t fit under Fingers fit under curvature of femur curvature of femur curvature of femur

Determination of Age  Bones don‟t reach maturity at the same time – To help tell their age:  1.suture marks ,2. presence or absence of cartilage • Ages 0-5: teeth are best – forensic odontology • Ages 6-25: epiphyseal fusion – fusion of bone ends to bone shaftepiphyseal fusion varies with sex and is typically complete by age 25 • Ages 25-40: very hard • Ages 40+: periodontal disease, arthritis, breakdown of pelvis, occupational stress, unique clues 1.Suture Marks • Zigzag areas where bones of the skull meet – In babies, some is soft tissue that is gradually ossified – Suture marks slowly fade to give smoother appearance as bones age.

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• Coronal Suture: – closed by age 50 • Lamboidal Suture: – begins closing at 21 – accelerates at 26 – closed by 30

1.Determination of Stature from Bones  Long bone length (femur, tibia, humerus) is proportional to height There are tables that forensic anthropologists use. For example: Femur length Predicted Height 41 cm 167 cm (5‟6”) 50 cm 186 cm (6‟1‟) Males: (1.88 x femur length in inches) + 32.01 Females: (1.945 x femur length in inches) + 28.70 2. Cartilaginous Lines • Epiphysis – line that forms as cartilage is replaced by bone – Also called Epiphyseal plate • Line disappears as bone completes growth • Presence or absence of this can approximate age Long Bones • When head of a long bone has fused with shaft completely – indication of age • Each bone takes different amount of time Region of Body Bone Age

Arm Humerus bones in head fused 4-6

Humerus bones in head fused to shaft 18-20

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Leg Femur: greater trochanter appears 4

Lesser trochanter appears 13-14

Femur: head fused to shaft 16-18

Femur: condoyles join shaft 20

Shoulder Sternum and clavicle close 18-24

Pelvis Pubis, ischium completely united 7-8

Ilium, ischium, pubis fully ossified 20-25

All segments of sacrum united 25-30

Skull Lamboidal suture closed 21-30

Sagittal suture closed 32

Coronal suture closed 50

Estimating Height • Measuring long bones like femur or humerus can help estimate height – Databases established that use mathematical relationships – Different tables for males, females, and races – Example • A femur measuring 49 cm belonging to an African American male is found. Calculation: 2.10(length of femur)+72.22 cm 2.10(49) + 72.22= 175.12 cm or 69 inches (5‟9”) Other things bones can tell • Left or right-handed • Diet and nutritional dairy, esp. vit D and calcium • Diseases or genetic disorders: – Osteoporosis, arthritis, scoliosis, osteogenesis imperfecta • Type of work or sports based on bone structure • Previous injuries such as fractures

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• Surgical implants: artificial joints, pins • Childbirth Estimating Time of Death • Condition of bone depends on the type of burial or exposure along with temperature. – Bodies are in all stages of decay – record animal activity, – smells, – body temperatures, – weather conditions. • Early into the decay process, a fair amount of skin and soft tissue remain and smells are at their worst. • A partial skeletalized body is one in which the bones are still articulated by cartilage and ligaments . • When a body is left on the surface, insect activity will begin immediately and • within 2 weeks the body will be partially skeletalized, • completely skeletalized within 8 months. • If buried, it will take between 1 and 2 years to become completely skeletalized • The number and types of bones available at the scene indicates the amount of time the body has been in that spot, i.e. smaller bones get lost first. • based on environmental factors as follows: 3 weeks -- articulated bones 5 weeks -- some scatter, some articulated 4 months -- disarticulated, within 10' circle 7 to 8 months -- most bones w/in 10' circle and all w/in 20' 1 year -- small bones missing, complete disarticulation 2 to 4 years -- some bones broken, scatterd 40', some large bones missing 12+ years -- bone rot; partial burial* 15 to 20 years -- no surface evidence * partial burial from leaves, storms, erosion from shallow burial Manner and Cause of Death Manner of death refers to the 5 possibilities: • homicide, • suicide, • accidental, • natural • and unknown. • Cause of death refers to injury or disease, or combination, that results in death and could take months/years. • Determining the cause of death is easier with a fleshed body and very difficult with the flesh and organs gone.

• Taking X-rays of the skeletal material is very important. • One may note old damage to bone that has healed, indicating that this injury did not directly lead to death. • Damage from metal objects leaves fragmented metal or metal shavings and saw tooth shavings will show up bright white on X-ray. • Bullets will leave fragments of lead.

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NEW HORIZON COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

Fractures

Type Characteristics complete broken all the way through incomplete crack; not all the way comminuted piece not with the bone linear pressure on skull, stress released by cracking; soft blunt weapon stellate star-shaped piece missing; hard blunt weapon

usually with stellate, piece pressed in; hard blunt object, sometimes sharp depressed weapon

broken hyoid if not adult, not fused; may indicate strangulation

timing linear cracks do not cross prior cracks; indicate order of attack

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UNIT-III- FORENSIC ANALYSIS AND IMAGING

Analysis of Physical evidence, Expert unit men, specially trained evidence collection technician, Analytical technician. Digital cameras and forensic imaging, Uses of digital imaging, Maintaining chain of control with digital images, digital videos, scanners, presenting pictures in courtroom, Detecting compression and forgeries and Maintaining Records.

Analysis of the physical evidences Physical evidence definition:-  Physical evidence usually involves objects found at the scene of a crime. Physical evidence may consist of all sorts of prints such as fingerprints, footprints, handprints, tidemarks, cut marks, tool marks, etc.  A successful crime investigation depends upon the collection and analysis of various kinds of evidence.  Forensic scientists classify evidence in different ways and have specific ways of dealing with it. One major distinction is between physical and biological evidence.  Physical evidence refers to any item that comes from a nonliving origin, while biological evidence always originates from a living being.  The most important kinds of physical evidence are fingerprints, tire marks, footprints, fibers, paint, and building materials. Biological evidence includes bloodstains and DNA.  Locard's Exchange Principle dictates that evidence, both physical and biological, is to be found at the scene of a crime because the perpetrator always leaves something behind by having contact with victims and objects there. Similarly, he or she will often take something away with them, which can be found on a search of their person, their garment, a vehicle, or their premises. Such evidence is often found in minute quantities and known as trace evidence.

COMMON TYPES OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

1. Blood, Semen, and Saliva. All suspected blood, semen, or saliva-liquid or dried, animal or human- present in a form to suggest a relation to the offense or persons involved in a crime. This category includes blood or semen dried onto fabrics or other objects, as well as cigarette butts that may contain saliva residues. These substances are subjected to serological and biochemical analysis for determination of identity and possible origin. Blood and semen stains may be made visual by using an ultraviolet lamp. 2. Documents. Any handwriting and typewriting submitted so that authenticity or source can be determined. Related items include paper, ink, indented writings, obliterations, and burned or charred documents. 3. Drugs. Any substance seized in violation of laws regulating the sale, manufacture, distribution, and use of drugs. 4. Explosives. Any device containing an explosive charge, as well as all objects removed from the scene of an explosion that are suspected to contain the residues of an explosive. 5. Fibers. Any natural or synthetic fiber whose transfer may be useful in establishing a relationship between objects and/or persons. 6. Fingerprints. All prints of this nature, latent and visible. 7. Firearms and Ammunition. Any firearm, as well as discharged or intact ammunition, suspected of being involved in a criminal offense. 8. Glass. Any glass particle or fragment that may have been transferred to a person or object involved in a crime. Windowpanes containing holes made by a bullet or other projectile are included in this category.

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9. Hair. Any animal or human hair present that could link a person with a crime. 10. Impressions. This category includes tire markings, shoe prints, depressions in soft soils, and all other forms of tracks. Glove and other fabric impressions, as well as bite marks in skin or foodstuffs, are also included. 11. Organs and Physiological Fluids. Body organs and fluids are submitted for toxicology to detect possible existence of drugs and poisons. This category includes blood to be analyzed for the presence of alcohol and other drugs. 12. Paint. Any paint, liquid or dried, that may have been transferred from the surface of one object to another during the commission of a crime. A common example is the transfer of paint from one vehicle to another during an automobile collision. 13. Petroleum Products. Any petroleum product removed from a suspect or recovered from a crime scene. The most common examples are gasoline residues removed from the scene of an arson, or grease and oil stains whose presence may suggest involvement in a crime. 14. Plastic Bags. A polyethylene disposable bag such as a garbage bag may be evidential in a homicide or drug case. Examinations are conducted to associate a bag to a similar bag in the possession of a suspect. 15. Powder Residues. Any item suspected of containing firearm discharge residues. 16. Serial Numbers. This category includes all stolen property submitted to the laboratory for the restoration of erased identification numbers. 17. Soils and Minerals. All items containing soil or minerals that could link a person or object to a particular location. Common examples are' soil imbedded in shoes and safe insulation found on garments. 18. Tool Marks. This category includes any object suspected of containing the impression of another object that served as a tool in a crime. For example, a screwdriver or crowbar could produce tool marks by being impressed into or scraped along a surface of a wall. 19. Vehicle Lights.Examination of vehicle headlights and taillights is normally conducted to determine whether a light was on or off at the time of impact. 20. Wood and Other Vegetative Matter. Any fragments of wood, sawdust, shavings, or vegetative matter discovered on clothing, shoes, or tools that could link a person or object to a crime location. Collection and preservation of evidence • The need for proper recognition, collection, and preservation of physical evidence is mandated for use in the criminal justice system. • Physical evidence can directly or indirectly lead to the solution of a crime. • Charging and prosecution decisions may be affected by the quality of the physical evidence supporting the case. General Evidence Guidelines • Protect yourself, Protect the evidence, Protect others. Consider all types of forensic evidence • Chain of custody starts at the crime scene – keep it short.Document location with notes, sketches, and/or photographs. • Mark evidence and/or packaging with your case number, exhibit number, initials, date, and description of evidence or as required by your agency.  Package all evidence separately. Allow wet biological stains to air-dry • Obtain standards if needed for a comparison of evidence. Use packaging that is appropriate for the specific type of evidence such as paper bags, envelopes, plastic bags, cardboard boxes, tamper-proof sealing, etc. Packaging • There are a variety of packaging types that can be used for packaging evidence. The • type you choose depends on the type of evidence, the condition of the evidence, and • the examination(s) you want the laboratory to perform.

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The bag shown at The bag at right is not; left is properly evidence could be lost Chain of Custody sealed• The chain with of custody of evidence is very orimportant accessed through • The court may require proof that the evidence presented in court is the same as that collected at evidencethe crime scene. tape. the portions that are • A proper chain of custody offers this proof and maintains the integrity of the evidence by recording who had contact with the evidence,not at whatsecured. time, and what changes may have been made

to the evidence. • By following your police department policy on maintaining a chain of custody, along with the Forensic Services Division policies on submitting evidence, you ensure the integrity of the evidence. Delivery to Laboratory • Sealed evidence may be submitted to the forensic laboratory by one of four methods: • Hand delivery ,first class Mail,Federal Express, or Parcel Service (PS). Submission of Evidence to Forensic Laboratory • All sealed evidence should be submitted to local laboratory. • An exception to this is a case with blood alcohol or toxicology evidence, which can be submitted directly to the appropriate tox laboratory • Large and involved cases (such as homicides, sexual assaults, and other violent crimes) can contain dozens to hundreds of pieces of evidence that require different types of examinations. • The analyst(s) in local laboratory are trained to manage the evidence in case by ensuring that the evidence gets to the appropriate person for examination.

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A form containing the following information should be submitted with the evidence: 1. The date of the letter,2. The originating agency name, 3. The agency case number, 4. The county of venue, 5. The nature of the offense and the offense date, 6. The victim or complainant (an establishment or individual) and the date of birth of individuals.7. The names of suspects and their dates of birth. 8. The evidence submitted (described in detail), 9. The type of examination requested, 10. The name of the officer submitting the report or investigating the case, and theofficer's commission and telephone numbers.11. Notations concerning accidental or intentional changes which the submitting officer has made in the exhibits. Laboratory Reports • The laboratory will issue a report written by the analyst(s) on all examinations performed. • Copies of the report are mailed to the attention of the investigating officer. • Additional copies may be sent to the District Attorney‟s Office or other involved agencies/individuals, if applicable. Example to some physical evidence. ARSON AND FIRE DEBRIS EVIDENCE • Difficult to find fire was accidental or arson. Simple ignition devices such as a match and paper were used to start the fire. • Flammable liquids such as gasoline, lighter fluid, fuel oil, etc. are used as accelerants. • If a fire‟s origin can be determined, it may be possible to detect and classify accelerants. • Detection is not possible if the fire completely consumes the accelerant or if the samples are not from the fire‟s origin. • care must be taken in the collection and packaging of fire debris Because flammable liquids readily evaporate, . • Containers of arson evidence need to be air tight to prevent loss by evaporation and possible contamination. Moisture is not a problem; do not dry arson evidence. Arson Scene Indicators • Multiple fires in unrelated areas of the fire scene. Odor of petroleum products, paint solvents, alcohol, etc. Stains on floor or other material. Fire trails such as cloth or paper trails, burn trails on carpeting, or deep charring in hardwood. Removal of household property and valuable items • Evidence of another crime which the fire might conceal (items stolen, evidence of violence) • Recent similar fires in the vicinity Evidence To Collect • Charred debris and related material from the origin where the accelerant was placed • Igniting devices (fuses, candles, etc.) including mechanical and electrical devices • Samples of drywall, plaster, wood, or other material that may have been penetrated by flammable liquids. Samples of soil that may have been penetrated by flammable liquids. • Trace evidence such as hairs, clothing fibers, matches, etc.Liquids containing possible accelerants • A sample of uncontaminated carpeting and/or padding, drywall, wood, etc. must be collected and packaged separately • Material used as a wick (shirt, sock, towel, etc.) from an incendiary device. This material may be analyzed for DNA comparisons. Packaging of Evidence • Use airtight containers. Unused, clean metal paint cans are preferred. • Heat sealed bags manufactured for flammable evidence collection may also be used. (unused bag as a control). • Seal each collected item separately and securely.Mark all containers with appropriate identifiers.

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• Document locations from which evidence samples were collected by notes, sketches, and/or photographs. BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE • Biological fluids such as blood, semen, and saliva are frequently encountered as physical evidence in many types of criminal investigations – such as homicides, sexual assaults, assaults, and robberies. • when dried they are difficult to remove. • By performing DNA analysis of these fluids or stains, a genetic marker profile can be obtained that is essentially specific to that individual. Safety and Contamination Prevention • Wear gloves, mask and eye protection while collecting biological samples. • Change gloves frequently or anytime your gloves are contaminated with biological material. • Do not touch the tips of cotton swabs with your fingers. • Do not touch your water dropper bottle tip to any surface or evidence. • Clean tools (such as scissors or tweezers) that you might use to collect evidence. Blood Evidence • Blood evidence is common in violent crimes. In addition to DNA, blood contains cells and proteins that allow the laboratory to perform the following examinations: • Testing can determine if blood is human or non-human in origin. • The specific animal family can be determined for non-human blood. Collecting Liquid or Moist Blood – Large Quantity • 1. Saturate several (5 to 10) sterile cotton swabs with the blood. Allow swabs to air-dry. • 2. Form clotted blood collect a good mix of clotted cells and serum. • 3. The dried swabs can be placed in a paper container (e.g. paper envelope or bag). Collecting Dried Blood . If the stained object is transportable, submit the item intact. . . If it is not transportable, collect the blood by one of the following methods. a.Swabbing 1. Moisten a sterile cotton swab using distilled water or tap water.2. Shake the swab to remove excess water.3. Gently swab the stain with the moistened swab tip until the swab thoroughly absorbs the blood. 4. Collect a sufficient number of swabs (at least 4-6) have been saturated.4. Allow the swabs to thoroughly air-dry.5. The dried swabs can be placed in paper container (e.g. envelope, paper bag) and sealed.6. Select an unstained area adjacent to the suspected bloodstain and collect a sample in the same manner as described above. This sample will serve as a negative control. b.Cut out the stain  This may be desirable when the dried bloodstain is on an object such as the upholstery of a car seat or on carpeting.Use a clean, sharp knife or scissors to excise the stained area.  Include areas that are unstained in your cutting for useas a negative control. Package into a paper envelope and seal. Saliva Evidence • Saliva stains are not usually evident from a visual examination. • However, certain types of evidence frequently contain traces of saliva • (e.g. cigarette butts, gummed surfaces of envelopes, chewing gum, bite marks, etc.). Collecting Saliva Evidence • If the stained object is transportable, submit the item intact. If it is not transportable, such as bite marks on a body, collect the saliva stain in the following manner: 1. Moisten a sterile cotton swab with distilled or tap water.

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2. Shake the swab to remove excess water. 3. Gently swab the suspected saliva stain. 4. Allow the swab to thoroughly air-dry prior to packaging in a paper envelope and seal. 5. Select an unstained area and collect a sample in the same manner (negative control). Semen Evidence • When the perpetrator of a sexual offense is a male, semen stains may be found on the victim as well as on clothing, bedding, and other objects. Collecting Semen Evidence 1. Carefully recover all suspected stained material. 2. Each item of evidence should be packaged separately and carefully. 3. Air-dry all damp stains. Consider marking the location of a damp stain on the evidence itself, as it may not be visible when dry. 4. Clean paper should be spread under the item to catch any debris. 5. Package each item separately in paper bags or envelopes, along with any paper used. FIBER EVIDENCE • Fiber evidence can be of value in cases such as homicides, assaults, and robberies. • Research has shown that with few exceptions the largest quantity of fibers on an object is from the last person to be in contact with it. • Therefore, it is advantageous to consider collecting fiber evidence prior to processing for other types of evidence. • Laboratory analysts examine various physical, chemical, and microscopic properties of fibers when performing a comparison between evidence fibers and a potential source. Fiber Examinations • The following may be determined from fiber examinations: • The type of fiber (e.g. natural or synthetic, animal fiber, glass fiber, etc.) • The possible product uses for the fiber (e.g. carpet fiber, clothing fiber, etc.) • The degree of similarity between evidence fiber(s) and a fiber source.

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FINGERPRINTS (FRICTION RIDGE SKIN) EVIDENCE  Fingerprints (friction ridge skin) are a widely recognized means of personal identification and their individuality and permanence make friction ridge skin identification one of the most valuable forms of evidence.  Most crime scene evidence has the potential to reveal identifiable latent print impressions  so assume that latent prints are present on all objects handled by the perpetrator and process or collect these pieces of evidence accordingly. laboratory will be able to Determine:  • Determine the presence of latent, patent or plastic print impressions.  • Compare and identify these print impressions with suspects.  • Search for a possible latent donor by utilizing the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) to establish a list of potential candidates. Collection, Packaging, and Submission of Evidence  Evidence should be submitted as Forensic Services Request (Form 49).  The item should be packaged so that no rubbing action occurs as this may destroy latent fingerprints present on the object.  Evidence should be submitted for examination as soon as possible after its discovery.  Exposure to water or dampness should be avoided.  Any wet or damp object must be air-dried before it is packed

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Forensic Digital Imaging • Digital Forensic Science (DFS): “The use of scientifically derived and proven methods toward the . preservation, collection, validation, identification, analysis, interpretation, documentation and presentation of digital evidence derived from digital sources . for the purpose of facilitating or furthering the reconstruction of events found to be criminal, . or helping to anticipate unauthorized actions shown to be disruptive to planned operations.” Source: (2001). Digital Forensic Research Workshop (DFRWS) Technical Definition: Digital Forensics  Digital Forensics is the set of tools and techniques to recover the information in a forensically valid way (i.e., acceptable by a court of law) History YEAR EVENT

1970s First crimes cases involving computers, mainly financial fraud

1980’s  Financial investigators and courts realize that in some cases all the records and evidences were only on computers.  Association of Certified Fraud Examiners began to seek training in what became computer forensics

SEARCH High Tech Crimes training created

1984 FBI Magnetic Media Program created. Later it become Computer Analysis and Response Team (CART)

1987 Acces Data – Cyber Forensic Company formed

1988 Creation of IACIS, the International Association of Computer Investigative Specialists First Seized Computer Evidence Recovery Specialists (SCERS) classes held

1993 First International Conference on Computer Evidence held

1998 INTERPOL Forensic Science Symposium

1999 FBI CART case load exceeds 2000 cases,

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2000 First FBI Regional Computer Forensic Laboratory established

2003 FBI CART case load exceeds 6500 cases

• There at least 3 distinct communities within Digital Forensics – Law Enforcement – Military – Business & Industry • Possibly a 4th – Academia • The primary activities of DFS are investigative in nature. • The investigative process encompasses – Identification, Preservation, Collection, Examination, Analysis , Presentation and Decision Investigative Process

Subcategories of DFS • There is a consensus that there are at least 3 distinct types of DFS analysis – Media Analysis • Examining physical media for evidence – Code Analysis • Review of software for malicious signatures

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– Network Analysis • Scrutinize network traffic and logs to identify and locate Computer Forensics • Computer forensics is the scientific examination and analysis of data held on, or retrieved from, computer storage media in such a way that the information can be used as evidence in a court of law. What is Computer Forensics?  Scientific process of preserving, identifying, extracting, documenting, and interpreting data on computer Michael Anderson  “Father of computer forensics” • Computer forensics began to evolve more than 30 years ago. • The field began in the United States, when law enforcement and military investigators started seeing criminals get technical Computer Forensic Activities • Computer forensics activities commonly include: – the secure collection of computer data – the identification of suspect data – the examination of suspect data to determine details such as origin and content – the presentation of computer-based information to courts of law – the application of a country's laws to computer practice. • The basic methodology consists of the 3 As: – Acquire the evidence without altering or damaging the original – Authenticate the image – Analyze the data without modifying it

Process/Phases Identification Collection Bag & Tag Preservation Examination Analysis Presentation/Report

Identification

The first step is identifying evidence and potential containers of evidence More difficult than it sounds Small scale devices Non-traditional storage media Multiple possible crime scenes Acquisition First responders should be trained to handle thistype of evidence. Digital evidence is fragile. Digital evidence is easily altered if not handled properly.Simply turning a computer on or operating thecomputer changes and damages evidence.

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NEW HORIZON COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

Context of the investigation is very important Do not operate in a vacuum! Do not overlook non-electronic sources of evidence, Manuals, papers, printouts, etc.

Collection Care must be taken to minimize contamination Collect or seize the system(s) Create forensic image Live or Static? Do you own the system What does your policy say? • Take detailed photos and notes of the computer / monitor – If the computer is “on”, take photos of what is displayed on the monitor – DO NOT ALTER THE SCENE • Make sure to take photos and notes of all connections to the computer/other devices Collection: Imaging • Rule of Thumb: make 2 copies and don‟t work from the original (if possible) • A file copy does not recover all data areas of the device for examination • Working from a duplicate image – Preserves the original evidence – Prevents inadvertent alteration of original evidence during examination – Allows recreation of the duplicate image if necessary Imaging: Authenticity & Integrity • How do we demonstrate that the image is a true unaltered copy of the original? • A mathematical algorithm that produces a unique value (128 Bit, 512 Bit) – Can be performed on various types of data (files, partitions, physical drive) • The value can be used to demonstrate the integrity of your data – Changes made to data will result in a different value • The same process can be used to demonstrate the image has not changed from time-1 to time-n Analysis • • Analysis involves recovering and analyzing evidence for relevance to the case. • – Accepted tools should be used. • – Search and analysis must be within the scope of the warrant. • – Bench notes should be kept by the examiner. Examination Higher level look at the file system representation of the data on the media Verify integrity of image Recover deleted files & folders Determine keyword list – What are you searching for Determine time lines – What is the time zone setting of the suspect system – Graphical representation is very useful Presentation  Court presentation for a jury must be simple and straightforward. Preservation • Once digital evidence is seized it must be handled carefully to preserve and protect the evidence.

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NEW HORIZON COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

– Everything should be tagged. – No one should operate or preview any evidence on writable media without proper tools and training. – Forensically sound copies of all original evidence must be made before analysis. – Records must be kept.

Certification for Computer Investigative Specialists There are two types of certification 1.CEECS (Certified Electronic Evidence Collection Specialist Certification)  Awarded to individuals who complete the CEECS regional certification course 2. Certified Forensic Computer Examiner  To attain this candidate should undergo the following three programs

Digital cameras and forensic imaging

Types of digital cameras

 Compact digital cameras  Bridge cameras  Tethered cameras

Compact digital cameras

 Portable,easy to use  Suitable for casual & snapshot use  Uses focus free lenses a photographic lenes for which the focus is not adjustable(fixed –focus lens)  Fully automated  Images stored in JPEG  ZOOM RANGE is less than bridge & DSLR CAMERAS

Bridge cameras

 Manual focus mode-(separate focus ring for greater control)  Large zoom range with specified lenses  Fixed lenses(non interchangeable lenses)  Stores in JPEG format

Tethered camera

 Have no internal storage ,to store the captured images, & require a direct connection to the computer  Use in lab microscope  Excellent resolution  Good color stability

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NEW HORIZON COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

 Allows attachment of various lens as needed

Types of sensors in digital cameras

 CCD---Charge coupled device‟  EMCCD:Electron multiplying charge coupled device  CMOS: Complementory metal oxide semicon

 Its is a 2 dimensional array of diodes  Fabricated on a silicon wafer

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NEW HORIZON COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

 Databases of paints used by all domestic and many foreign automobile makers can be used to identify paints flakes and smears from hit anf run accident case.  all these systems use images

PIXELS – short for PICTURE ELEMENT.  The more PIXELS a camera has,the better the picture quality,i.e. level of resolution or details in each picture. How the digital sensor works - Each digital image is made from millions of tiny squares, known as pixels. - Essentially, an image is recorded by tiny microlenses (pixels) which make up the cameras sensor -A digital sensor is essentially made up of millions of tiny micro-lenses (pixels)‏ Pixels are analog devices which record light and color data Larger Sensors contain larger pixels, which are much better and collecting this data Megapixels – Determine the total size (Dimensions) of the image recorded by camera What happens when you take a digital photograph Digital images are made up of pixels. Pixels (short for picture elements) are the small sections of color and/or tone that together form a digital image. Pixels form an image like pieces of a mosaic. A digital image is a grid of pixels. When the pixels are viewed together in proper registration, the image is formed What is Digital Imaging? • A digital or electronic, image is one that has been produced with a computer or camera. The machine (or digitalcamera) takes (captures) a visual image and translates it into a series of mathematical values ones and zero's, or bits of information.

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NEW HORIZON COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

Significance  Digital imaging is the process of acquiring a photographic image into your computer without traditional photographic film.  Digital cameras are the easiest way to get photos in the OR, of patients in the clinic, and x-rays. and to record clinical examination of patients in the clinic.

Spot the forgery!

 The August 2007 cover of the scientific publication Nature featured three autonomous aircraft taking atmospheric measurements. The top and bottom aircrafts, however, were cloned copies of each other. After a keen-eyed reader discovered this photo alteration, the Editors printed the following clarification: “The cover caption should have made it clear that this was a montage. Apologies.”  A political ad for George W. Bush, as he was running for President, shows a sea of soldiers as a back drop to a child holding a flag. The original image included Bush standing at a podium, but he was removed by digitally copying and pasting several soldiers from other parts of the image. After acknowledging that the photo had been doctored, the Bush campaign said that the ad would be re- edited and re-shipped to TV stations.  A Missouri University professor and co-authors retracted their paper (Cdx2 Gene Expression and Trophectoderm Lineage Specification in Mouse Embryos)  published in Science after an investigation revealed that accompanying images were doctored.  Contrary to conventional wisdom, the published research presented evidence that the first two cells of mouse embryos possess markers that indicate from a very early stage whether they will grow into a fetus or placenta.  An investigating university committee found that lead author and post-doctoral researcher deliberately altered images of the embryos.

DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY-How it works

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NEW HORIZON COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

 A picture is taken and the camera automatically converts the pixels from analog to digital format.  The camera then converts the digital pixels to color images.  stored in digital memory within the camera and/or on memory cards/sticks and so on.  Pictures can then be subsequently transferred from the digital camera either by serial cables or more recently via a USB port.  Electronic recording& collection(documenting crime scenes )  Identification, analysis, interpretation,,  Enhancement (enhancing faint or indistinct patterns such as partial fingerprints)& Documentation  storage of visual information& presentation of digital evidence in courtroom

SIGNIFICANCE & USES OF DIGATAL IMAGING/Digital camera • Poor quality photos can be enhanced. • Scene photos can be arranged and displayed in a easy to follow manner for furthering the reconstruction of events found to be criminal. • Digital animations can be produced to reconstruct the act or incident as it occurred • Digital cameras have the advantages of immediacy and lower cost . • Transmitted directly into the computer without processing.: Film and chemicals are not used Safety: There is no exposure to processing chemicals • Stored image can be examined immediately without any need to wait for the chemical development of the image • Polaroid instant prints so that the photographer can be assured that the desired information has been captured • Stored image can be transmitted via the internet,exact duplicates can be made • Images can be filed with no degradation • Digital image lends itself to computer manipulation to enhance the visibility of details • simplify presentation of images in courtroom • it also permits computer based identification and classification of objects. Ex: • there are atlases of images for various types of particles natural and man-made fibers , • chemical residues from explosives etc. that can be used to match and identify features collected in forensic investigations • One area of successful application of automatic matching of images is the automatic fingerprint identification system(AFIS) • to compare fingerprints taken from crime scene or from a suspect with millions of stored prints, with minutes all which is necessary to digitalize the image for transmission and matching

Types of digital evidences • Email – Harassment or threats – Blackmail • Wireless telephones – Numbers called – Incoming calls – Voice mail access numbers – Debit/credit card numbers

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NEW HORIZON COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

– Call forwarding numbers • Landline Telephones/Answering machines – Incoming/outgoing messages – Numbers called – Incoming call info – Access codes for voice mail systems – Contact lists • GPS devices – Routes, way-points • Digital cameras

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NEW HORIZON COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

Bridge  Manual focus mode  Some cases separate focus ring for greator control  Large zoom range  Store images in jEGp  Suitable for daytime activites  One of the aspects that distinguishes forensic digital imaging from non-forensic digital imaging arises from legal considerations.  Images that are destined for use in a court of law must be obtained and processed using carefully documented procedures if they are to be allowed as evidence.  The documentation typically includes  the name of the photographer, the date the image was obtained,  the names of anyone who had access to the image before it was introduced in court,  the names of anyone who enhanced or altered the image, and the details of any enhancement procedures. One issue that is a particular concern when an image is obtained with a digital camera is originality.  Whereas traditional photography produces a film negative or positive that cannot be easily replaced without detection, digital cameras produce electronic files that can be modified and overwritten either accidentally or deliberately.  It is possible to open a file, make modifications, and then save it with the same file name even though the image has been altered.

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NEW HORIZON COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

 Computer systems used to store forensic digital imagery must therefore be secure enough to prevent accidental modification of or deliberate tampering with original files  The use of scientifically derived and proven methods toward the preservation, collection, validation, identification, analysis, interpretation, documentation, and presentation of digital evidence derived from digital sources for the purpose of facilitation or furthering the reconstruction of events found to be criminal,

What are you looking for?  • E-Mail  • Pictures  • Internet History  • Documents  • Spreadsheets  • Internet Chat Logs  • Financial Data  • PDF Files  • Suspiciously Renamed Files  • Yahoo Messenger, AOL Chat, MSN Messenger, Internet Relay Chat  • Many Others Uses  Poor quality photos • can be enhanced, scene photos can be arranged and displayed in a easy to follow manner, and Extract data that may be hidden, deleted or otherwise not directly available  digital animations can be produced to reconstruct the act or incident as it occurred  Images recorded by the camera can be transmitted directly into the computer without processing. Conservation: Film and chemicals are not expended.  Safety: There is no exposure to processing chemicals  Stored image can be examined immediately without any need to wait for the chemical development of the image  Polaroid instant prints so that the photographer can be assured that the desired information has been captured  Stored image can be transmitted via the internet,exact duplicates can be made  Images can be filed with no degradation  Writing images in a tamper-proof format-CD-R disk is recommended to quarantee the integrity of the images.maintaining the chain of control for evidence is thus simplified  Digital image lends itself to computer manipulation to enhance the visibility of details  Simplify presentation of images in courtroom ty

Presenting pictures in courtroom

• Old-fashioned way: Holding up pictures; Passing documents , Viewing the information directly on • Television • Computer screens

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NEW HORIZON COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

• Projectors -35mm slide • Then the evidence Information can be stored in CDs and submitted to the court • Introduced in form of 8x 10 inch prints and Over laid with transparent sheets that can be marked to indicate features of interest • Selection of paper • Chemicals • Processing and highlighting important information in image For presenting Digital image in the court ,digital images can be printed using - Dye sublimation printers - Ultra fine drop ink jet printers - Thermal activation of laminated dye layers - Sliver halide printers The documentation that should be associated along with the evidence 1. the name of the photographer 2. the date the image was obtained, 3. the names of anyone who had access to the image before it was introduced in court, 4. the names of anyone who enhanced or altered the image, 5. and the details of any enhancement procedures..

• Documentation includes. Software used and Version Numbers. • Collection tools. • Methods used. • Explanation of why this analysis.

Detecting compression • Image compression techniques, generally divides the original image into subimages called blocks. • Each block is transformed and the selected large coefficients are quantized and then stored/transmitted. • These techniques drawbacks is that the discontinuities at the block boundaries are visible • be used to detect digital image forgery by measuring its quality inconsistency based on blocking artifacts • Digital watermarking and signature are two main techniques of image authentication • The signal may be audio, pictures or video, for example. • If the signal is copied, • then the information is also carried in the copy. • A signal may carry several different watermarks at the same time Visible watermarks - A Visible watermark is an opaque or semi-transparent sub-image or • image that is placed on top of another image -Denoting the original image as f, the watermark as w, and the watermarked image as fw

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NEW HORIZON COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

Invisible watermarks • - Invisible watermarks cannot be seen with the naked eye but they can be recovered with an extracted appropriate decoding algorithm Watermark Detection Scheme –(2D – Discrete Wavelet Transform) • Perform 2D-DWT that divide image into 4 sub-bands – LL – Lower resolution version of image – LH – Horizontal edge data – HL – Vertical edge data – HH – Diagonal edge data • Select coefficients from each sub-band that surpass a threshold . – Compute the correlation between the coefficients of the received image

Drawbacks of Digital Watermarks

• It is not possible to determine whether the watermark has been inserted after manipulation • Watermarks can be fragile, and when a watermark image has been compressed with using a compressing algorithm like JPEG, they are destroyed • Extract a watermark manipulate the image and then reinsert the watermark, which itself can be modified during insertion therefore making the technique unreliable • Detecting areas where an image has been manipulated • Determining whether a manipulation is innocent, such as JPEG Compression and sharpening, from those which are malicious, such as adding or removing parts to an image. This is where watermarks have a difficulty – they are unable to determine this difference

Digital Image Forgery Detection Techniques for Still Images

• Scientists, such as Alin C. Popescu and Hany Farid, have stated in their research papers about the vulnerability of watermarks in digital images in regards to authenticity of images • These drawbacks have made scientists to start looking for alternative methods in order to detect for “tell-tale” signs of tampering What is a Forgery?

• “Forgery” is a subjective word • An image can become a forgery based upon the context in which it is used

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• An image altered for fun or someone who has taken an bad photo, but has been altered to improve its appearance cannot be considered a forgery even though it has been altered from its original capture • The other side of forgery are those who perpetuate a forgery for gain and prestige – they create an image in which to dupe the recipient into believing the image is real and from this be able to gain payment and fame • Three type of forgery can be identified: 1) An image that is created using graphical software 2) An image where the content has been altered 3) An image where the context has been altered • Using graphical software is one method in which a forged image can be created • It needs the creator to especially skilful in ensuring that the image they are creating is realistic, for example, that the fall of light on objects in an image is consistent right across the image, that shading is consistent, the absorption of light • An image created using this method can take some time to develop • Creating an image by altering its content is another method • Duping the recipient into believing that the objects in an image are something else from what they really are! • The image itself is not altered, and if examined will be proven as so • This method is where the context of the image is altered • Objects are be removed or added, for example, a person can be added or removed • The easiest way is to cut an object from one image and insert it into another image – image editing software makes this a simple task

Altering Images

• Altering images is not new – it has been around since the early days of photography • The concepts have moved into the digital world by virtue of digital cameras and the availability of digital image editing software • The ease of use of digital image editing software, which does not require any special skills, makes image manipulation easy to achieve and do

Digital Image Editors

• Firstly, this research is not concentrating on any one make or brand of editor, but specifically the algorithms used • The algorithms are basically the tools which the photo editor uses to manipulate the image • Some of the tools found in the editors are: resizing an image, cropping, selecting part of an (lasso tool), removing unwanted parts of an image, rotating objects, merging pictures together Research In Progress

• An understanding of how digital cameras work – the sensors (CCD, CMOS, X3), how colour is captured – Bayer Array, their drawbacks – noise • An understanding of the algorithms used in image manipulation which can be used in digital forgery

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Module II What is crime lab, Organization of crime lab at various levels in India (Center and State), facilities offered by various laboratories. Basic services provided by full service crime laboratories physical Science unit, biological unit, firearms unit: Document Examination unit, photograph unit, optional services (lie detector, toxicology and voice print analysis unit). Functions and duties perform by each unit and lab. • WHAT IS CRIME LAB • 1.1. A crime laboratory - often shortened to crime lab - is a scientific laboratory, using primarily forensic science for the purpose of examining evidence from criminal cases. No regional or national planning has modeled a “typical” crime lab. • Increase in numbers of crime labs because • Increase in crime • Increase in drug related crimes require toxicology testing • DNA profiling has put increased demand on crime labs. • A typical crime lab has two sets of personnel: • 1. Field analysts - investigators that go to crime scenes, collect evidence, and process the scene. • Job titles include: • Forensic evidence technician, Crime scene investigator, Scenes of crime officer (SOCO) • 2. Laboratory analysts - scientists or other personnel who run tests on the evidence once it is brought to the lab (i.e., DNA tests, or bullet striations). • Job titles include: • Forensic Technician (performs support functions such as making reagents) • Forensic Scientist/Criminalist (performs scientific analyses on evidence) • Fingerprint Analyst, Forensic Photographer, Forensic Document Examiner • Forensic Entomologist • Four major federal crime labs worldwide: • FBI – Federal Bureau of Investigation has largest crime lab in the world • DEA – Drug Enforcement Administration analyzes drugs seized • ATF – Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms analyzes alcohol, examines weapons in conjunction with Gun Control Act of 1968 and Organized Crime Control Act 1970, and examines documents relating to tax laws • The U.S. Postal Inspection Service maintains laboratories concerned with criminal investigation related to the postal service • ORGANISATION OF CRIME LAB- IN INDIA- • MINISTER OF STATE IN THE MINISTRY OF HOME AFFAIRS The details of Forensic Science Laboratories at Central Government level are as under:- (i) Central Forensic Science Laboratories-4 (At Hyderabad, Chandigarh, Kolkata & Delhi) (ii) Govt. Examiner of Questioned Documents-3 (At Hyderabad, Kolkata & Shimla) (iii) Central Finger Print Bureau-1 (At Delhi) (iv) Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics (CDFD)-1 (At Hyderabad) (v) At State Government level there are 26 main Forensic Science Laboratories. • There is no proposal by the Ministry of Home Affairs for setting up of Forensic Science Laboratories in the Private Sector. • Up gradation of Forensic capabilities in the country is an ongoing process for which constant efforts are being made keeping in view the new research and advancement in technology. • Central Forensic Science Laboratory • The Central Forensic Science Laboratory (CFSL) is a wing of the Indian Ministry of Home Affairs, which fulfills the forensic requirements in the country. • There are four central forensic laboratories in India, at Hyderabad, Kolkata, Chandigarh and New Delhi. • CFSL Hyderabad is centre of excellence in chemical sciences, • CFSL Kolkata (oldest laboratory in India) in biological sciences • and CFSL Chandigarh in physical sciences. • These laboratories are under the control of the Directorate of Forensic Science (DFS) of the Ministry of Home Affairs. • The laboratory in New Delhi is under the control of the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) and investigates cases on its behalf. • The Central Forensic Science Laboratory, Kolkata (CFSL-K) • The Central Forensic Science Laboratory, Kolkata or popularly known as CFSL, Kolkata, was established in 1957 which is the first central forensic lab in India. • The laboratory is presently working under the administrative control of Directorate of Forensic Science, Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt. of India, New Delhi. • This laboratory has nine examination units namely Biology, Serology, DNA, Chemistry, Explosive, Toxicology, Ballistics, Cyber crime and Physics. Infrastructure , Facilities and services provided by CFSL Kolkata.

Sl. No. Division Facilities available

1. Explosive Facilities for analysis of Explosive materials.

2. Chemistry Facilities for analysis of Narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, bribe trap materials and misc. chemicals.

3. Toxicology Examination & identification of Poisons

4. Biology DNA profiling ,Biology and Serology

5. Ballistics A. Ballistics Examination & Identification of Firearms & Ammunition. Estimation of Range of Firing .Identification and Comparison of Cartridges/Cartridge Cases/Bullets, etc. Serviceability of firearms. Examination of barrels of firearms. Sound proof firing room Firing protection system during test firing B. Computer Forensics Retrieving & Analysis of electronic/digital data, deleted/erased data/files/ folders, etc from all types of storage medias like hard disk, floppy disk, CD, etc.

6. Physics Examination of tool marks/cut marks, soil, cement, paints, glass. Examination of lottery tickets/currency notes by poliview system.

Computerized colour matching system for solid and liquid samples. Digital and still photography facility for case exhibit works and functions.

Comparison of tire marks/plaster cast impression. Restoration of serial numbers. Comparison of printing materials/logos/product packets. • The Central Forensic Science Laboratory, Hyderabad (CFSL, Hyderabad) • CFSL was established in 1967 under the Intelligence Bureau and was brought under the administrative control of Bureau of Police Research & Development (BPR&D) in 1973 along with Central Forensic Science Laboratory, Kolkata. • Presently, the CFSL, Hyderabad is under the administrative control of the Directorate of Forensic Science, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. • Under the Restructuring Scheme of the Ministry of Home Affairs, the CFSL, Hyderabad was declared as Centre of Excellence in Chemical Sciences and the NAA Unit . • Charter of Duties • CFSL, Hyderabad is engaged in mainly the following types of activities : • Testing – Case Examination • Training – Training of scientists, Police Officers, Judiciary & Students of various Universities • Research & Development – Plan & Non-Plan Research Projects and JRF scheme • Other Activities – Procurement of equipment for other State Forensic Science Laboratories • Nature & Type of Facilities of Forensic Examination available • Some Instrumental facilities • The laboratory has a pool of well-qualified and experienced experts who are capable of analyzing the cases pertaining to Ballistics, Biology, Chemistry including Narcotics, Explosives, Physics, Toxicology, Computer Forensics & Currency. • The laboratory is equipped with latest state of art equipment, Scanning Electron Microscope coupled with Energy Dispersible X-ray Analyzer (SEM-EDXA), XRD, Comparison Microscope, TGA-DSC, Ion Chromatograph, Inductively Coupled Plasma – Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES), GC-MS, GC-FID/ECD, HPLC with PDA detector & TEA Detector, UV-VIS, Amino Acid Analyzer, FT-IR, FT-Raman, TLC-FID, Brasstrax, GC-MS, HPTLC, DNA Sequencer, PCR, Gel Doc System LC-MS- MS. • All the software required for the examination of cases involving cyber crimes, mobile phones and other computer crimes are also available in the laboratory. • The scientists of the laboratory are fully trained in crime scene examination and to collect scientific evidence from the scene of crime. • GOVT. EXAMINER OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS (GEQD) • Govt. Examiner of Questioned Documents , Hyderabad, • Govt. Examiner of Questioned Documents ,Kolkata • Govt. Examiner of Questioned Documents Shimla. • Govt. Examiner of Questioned Documents ,Chandigarh. • SERVICES OF GEQD’S- • The Questioned Document Section focuses on the identification of handwriting, indentations, obliterations, alterations, and differentiating ink. • A document may be defined as anything that can be written, copied or reproduced that conveys a meaning or message. The premise(s) of which handwriting identification is based are that no two individuals can produce exactly the same writing and that an individual cannot exactly reproduce his own handwriting. • The identification of handwriting is a result of performing a comprehensive comparative analysis between the questioned document and known handwriting of the suspected writer. Specific habits, characteristics and individualities of both the questioned item and the known samples are examined for similarities and differences. • The goal of the Questioned Document Section is to insure the quality, integrity and accuracy of the examinations, to provide services to the Criminal Justice Community and to provide expert testimony for Criminal Justice proceedings in accordance with the policies of the laboratory. • BASIC SERVICES OF THE FULL TIME CRIME LABS • A. Physical Science Unit – applies principles and techniques of chemistry, physics, and geology to the identification and comparison of crime-scene evidence. (glass, paint, fiber, soil, drugs, explosives) • B. Biology Unit – identifying and typing dried blood, semen, and other body fluid stains, also comparison of hair and fibers and identification and comparison of plant materials • C. Firearms Unit – examination of firearms, discharged bullets, cartridge cases, shotgun shells and ammunition of all types, clothing and other objects are also checked for firearm residue and to get an approximate distance of where the gun was fired. Toolmarks are also examined here. • D. Document Examination Unit – analysis of handwriting and typewriters to determine authenticity and/or source. Analysis of paper and ink also occur here and indented writing, obliterations. Erasures, and burned or charred documents. • E. Photography Unit – used to examine and record physical evidence. Many different types of photography can be used to enhance evidence (infrared, X- ray, U-V, etc). Photographic exhibits for court are prepared here, as well. • Optional Services Provided by Full-Service Crime Labs • Toxicology Unit: examines body fluids and organs in order to determine the presence and identification of drugs and poisons. • Latent Fingerprint Unit: processes and examines evidence for latent fingerprints i.e. those found on surfaces. • Polygraph Unit: uses lie detectors, an essential tool of the crime investigator rather than the forensic scientist. • Voiceprint Analysis Unit: are involved in cases of telephone threats or tape-recorded messages. Investigators may be able to connect a voice to a particular suspect. • Other Forensic Science Services Death can be classified into five different categories: natural death, homicide, suicide, accident or undetermined manner of death. • 1. Forensic Pathology: The cause of death can often be determined by performing an autopsy. • a. Rigor mortis: immediately following death, the muscles relax and then become rigid, shortening of the muscles. • b. Livor mortis: when the human heart stops pumping, due to the blood begins to settle in the parts of the body closest to the ground due to gravity. The skin will appear dark blue or purple in these lower areas close to the ground. • c. Algor mortis: the process in which the body temperature continually cools after death until it reaches room temperature, enabling the medical examiner to establish the general time of death. • 2. Forensic Anthropology: primarily involves the identification and examination of skeletal remains, in order to determine if the remains are human or another type of animal. If human, ethnicity, sex, approximate age, and manner of death can often be determined by an anthropologist. • 3. Forensic Entomology: is the study of insects and their developmental stages, which can help to determine the time of death by knowing when those stages normally appear in the insect's life cycle. • Forensic Psychiatry: is the study of human behavior and legal proceedings in both civil and criminal cases. In civil and criminal cases, competency often needs to be determined. In criminal trials, the evaluation of behavior disorders is often required in order to establish the psychological profile of a suspect. • Forensic Odontology: An odontologist can match bite marks to a suspect's teeth, or match a victim to his dental x-rays, resulting in an identification of an unknown individual. • 6. Forensic Engineering: is used to analyze construction accidents, and the causes and origins of fires or explosions. • Functions of the Forensic Scientist • A. Collection and Preservation of Evidence • Specially trained evidence collection technicians are dispatched to crime scenes to assure all evidence is collected and packaged properly. • Not all police forces have adopted this method and a patrol officer is in charge of evidence collection • Proper evidence collection is vital, if evidence is improperly collected, contamination can occur rendering the evidence useless in court. • Some Crime Labs provide training to personnel and police officers. • B. Analyzing Physical Evidence – • The forensic scientist must be skilled in applying the principles and techniques of the physical and natural sciences in order to analyze the many different types of evidence they will encounter. • Serology • is the analysis of body fluid evidence that includes bloodstains, semen stains, and saliva. • To determine the identity and origin of the substance, Criminalists analyze blood dried into fabrics or other objects, as well as cigarette butts that may contain saliva residues. • Sometimes the stain is not visible to the naked eye. Blood is usually visible due to its color, but often an artificial forensic light source is necessary to see other body fluid evidence. • The stained evidence must remain dry and be stored at a cold temperature to maintain its integrity. • DNA typing • is possible with a sample of body fluid such as blood, saliva, or semen. DNA typing provides a Criminalist with a genetic blueprint that is unique to each person. • Criminalists then try to match the DNA typing results with a suspect. Proper handling and storage is essential to preserve DNA test samples. • Trace evidence • is the analysis of hairs, fibers, paint, glass, wood, and soil that are present at a crime scene. • Examination of trace evidence helps to establish a relationship between a suspect and the victim. A fiber may be taken from the victim's body revealing the type of fiber from carpet unique to the make and model of the suspect's car. • Once trace evidence is discovered, a Criminalist or other investigator collects the evidence from the crime scene by using a pair of jeweler's tweezers and immediately places the evidence in a folded paper cone and then into a sealed evidence envelope. • Trace evidence is later analyzed at the crime lab to determine its composition and origin. • Firearms and toolmarks • Analysis involves the examination of any firearm that is suspected of being used in a criminal act. • Criminalists can determine the kind of bullet used and whether it was fired from the gun used to commit the crime. • Toolmark analysis includes any object suspected of containing the impression of another object that served as a tool in the commission of a crime. • For instance, a screwdriver makes a distinctive impression when scraped along the surface of a wall. A Criminalist will analyze the marks the screwdriver left behind. • Impression evidence • is the evaluation of impressions made by shoes, tires, depressions in soft soils, and all other forms of tracks and impressions. • Glove and other fabric impressions, as well as bite marks in skin or food, are included. Criminalists also obtain impressions of dust from surfaces to reveal fingerprints. • Drug identification • is used by Criminalists to analyze and identify illegal substances such as cocaine, heroin, and marijuana, that are found in plastic bags or vials at crime scenes. • Criminalists must interpret the results of drug analyses in order to determine their significance to the case. • Different unit of Forensic Science Laboratory • Physical science unit- functions & duties Forensic Chemistry Unit • The Forensic Chemistry Unit is staffed by forensic scientists. Their primary role is the analysis of controlled or suspected controlled substances. The qualitative and quantitative analysis of controlled substances constitutes the majority of case work submitted to the crime laboratory. • In addition to this, they conduct analysis of fire debris evidence for the Fire Department. They also conduct analysis of human blood for the percentage of ethanol in suspected incidents as well as vehicular assaults and homicides. The Trace Evidence Unit • Analyzes a broad spectrum of physical evidence including paint, glass, fibers, fire debris, explosives, fireworks, lamp filaments, plastics, lubricants, household and industrial chemicals, building materials, cosmetics, tapes, ropes and cordage and metals. • Paint • Paint sample are most commonly submitted to the laboratory in crimes of hit-and-run and cases. In the commission of these crimes, one or more painted surfaces may be damaged. Paint from the damaged surface may be transferred to another surface. • Paint consists of a plastic film containing solids that give it body and color. The analysis of a paint relies on classifying the organic film (a plastic) and the inorganic solids (pigments, fillers, extenders). Vehicular and building paints have multiple layers. If possible each layer is analyzed separately. • Initially a small chip (2-5 mm square) of the standard paint is examined side-by-side with a chip of the questioned paint. The number of layers and the color and texture of each layer is noted. There are no instruments that can differentiate shades of color as well as the human eye • Fibers • Fibers come in many diameters, lengths, colors and compositions. Fibers may be animal, vegetable, mineral or synthetic in origin. All of these properties are useful when comparing a standard fiber to a questioned fiber. • Biology Unit Functions & duties • The Forensic Biology Section of the Laboratory is composed of two Lead Criminalists and three Criminalists. Forensic Biology is primarily responsible for the discovery and identification of blood and body fluids on physical evidence. In addition to blood, the other body fluids include semen, urine, saliva and fecal material. • The majority of the evidence submitted to the Forensic Biology Section is from sexual assaults, assaults and homicides. The examiners perform hands-on painstaking documentation and examination of the physical evidence. • The evidence is examined for patterns, identification and isolation of samples for further analysis. Biochemical and microscopic testing is conducted to determine the type and possible origin of biological materials prior to DNA analysis. • In addition, trace evidence is removed from the submitted items and can be forwarded to the Trace Section for further analysis. Items of evidence that require multiple types of evidence processing (i.e. blood, fingerprints, documents, etc) will be submitted to the Forensic Biology Section first for identification and collection of biological material. • After this process is complete, the evidence will be forwarded to the other Units where further testing will continue.

UNIT-IV- FORENSIC BIOLOGY Forensic Pathology: Rigor mortis, Lovor mortis, Algor mortis. Forensic Anthropology, ForensicEntomology, Forensic Psychiatry, Forensic Odontology, Foresnsic Engineering, DNA Analysis,Dactyloscopy, Fingerprints : Classification and patterns.- ______

Forensic pathology

 Forensic pathology, which for practical purposes deals with the postmortem investigation of sudden and unexpected death, is about as far from the mainstream of medicine as one can get, short of actually becoming Surgeon General or a medical school dean.  Forensic pathology is a branch of pathology concerned with determining the cause of death by examination of a corpse.  The autopsy is performed by the pathologist at the request of a coroner or medical examiner usually during the investigation of criminal law cases and civil law cases in some jurisdictions.  Forensic pathologists are also frequently asked to confirm the identity of a corpse. The word forensics is derived from the Latin forēnsis meaning forum.  Forensic pathology was first recognized in the USA by the American Board of Pathology in 1959.  In Canada, it was formally recognized in 2003, and a formal training program (a fellowship) is currently being established under the auspices of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada.

Scope of forensic pathology

Forensic pathology is an application of medical jurisprudence.

The forensic pathologist:

 Is a medical doctor who has completed training in anatomical pathology and who has subsequently sub-specialized in forensic pathology. The requirements for becoming a "fully qualified" forensic pathologist varies from country to country. Some of the different requirements are discussed below.  Performs autopsies/postmortem examinations to determine the cause of death. The autopsy report contains an opinion about : o The pathologic process, injury, or disease that directly results in or initiates a series of events which lead to a person's death (also called mechanism of death), such as a bullet wound to the head, exsanguination caused by a stab wound, manual or ligature strangulation, myocardial infarction resulting from coronary artery disease, etc.), and o The "manner of death", the circumstances surrounding the cause of death, which in most jurisdictions include: . Homicide, Accidental, Natural, Suicide and Undetermined

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A. Cause of death This is a specific medical diagnosis denoting a disease or injury (e.g., myocardial infarction, strangulation, gunshot wound). In particular,

 1. Proximate cause of death. The initial injury that led to a sequence of events which caused the death of the victim.  2. Immediate cause of death. The injury or disease that finally killed the individual.

Example: A man burned extensively as a result of a house fire dies two weeks later due to sepsis. The proximate cause of death is his burns, leading to sepsis, which is the immediate cause of death.

B. Mechanism of death This term describes the altered physiology by which a disease or injury produces death (e.g., arrhythmia, hypoventilatory hypoxia, exsanguination).

C. Manner of death This determination deals with the legal implications superimposed on biological cause and mechanism of death:

1. Homicide. Someone else caused the victim's death, whether by intention (robber shoots convenience store clerk) or by criminal negligence (drunk driver, going 55 mph on Fondren, runs red light at Bellaire and strikes pedestrians in crosswalk).

2. Suicide. The victim caused his/her own death on purpose. This may not always be straightforward.

3. Accidental. In this manner of death, the individual falls victim to a hostile environment. Some degree of human negligence may be involved in accidental deaths, but the magnitude of the negligence falls short of that reasonably expected in negligent homicide. reasonably considered a victim of accidental death.

4. Natural causes. Here, the victim dies in the absence of an environment reasonably considered hostile to human life. Most bodies referred for forensic examination represent this manner of death.

The Forensic Autopsy  An autopsy is a post mortem examination preformed on a corpse to determine the cause and manner of death.  The prefix 'auto-' means 'self', and so autopsy means 'to see for oneself„.  Forensics autopsies are preformed when the cause of death of a victim may be a criminal case, often involving foul play.A forensic autopsy applies science to legal law. Classification  In a forensic autopsy, death is placed into five different categories.  Natural, Accident, Homicide, Suicide and Unknown

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 Following an in-depth examination of all the evidence, a medical examiner or coroner will assign a manner of death as one of the five listed above; and detail the evidence on the mechanism of the death. Natural Death  Death by natural cause is a term used by coroners to describe the death of someone by occurring disease process, or is not apparent given medical history or circumstances.  The majority of natural death iscaused by old age.  Other causes of natural death are heart disease, stroke, gentic disorders, etc. Accidental Death  Accidental death is a death that is often caused by mistake or in a freak occurrence.  These deaths are not planned yet can be explained by surrounding circumstances. Homicidal Death  The term „homicide‟ refers to the act of killing another person.  There are different types of homicide.  Infanticide - Killing of an infant  Fratricide - Killing of one's brother; in a military context, killing of a friendly combatant  Sororicide - Killing of one's sister  Parricide - Killing of one's parents  Patricide - Killing of one's father  Matricide - Killing of one's mother  Mariticide - Killing of one's spouse  Uxoricide - Killing of one's wife  Filicide - Killing of one's child  Regicide - Killing of a monarch.  Genocide - Killing of a national, ethnic, racial or religious group  Homicide is often the most investigated death, therefore making it the most autopsied. Suicidal Death  The act of ending ones own life.  These autopsies often easily identify source, cause, and other factors of the death.  Suicide is often identified in the forensic autopsy as a cause of toxic, firearms, blunt force trauma, etc. Unknown Death  In some jurisdictions, the Undetermined category may include deaths in absentia,  such as deaths at sea and missing persons declared dead in a court of law; in others, such deaths are classified under "Other". Experts Who Perform Forensic Autopsies  A forensic autopsy is usually preformed by a specialized medical doctor called a forensics pathologist or medical examiner.  To be a pathologist, the doctor must have completed  a four-year undergraduate program,  four years of medical school training,  and three to four years of postgraduate training in the form of a pathology residency.

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There are four main types of autopsies:

1. Medico-Legal Autopsy (or) Forensic (or) coroner's autopsies

– seek to find the cause and manner of death and to identify the decedent. – They are generally performed, as prescribed by applicable law, in cases of violent, suspicious or sudden deaths, deaths without medical assistance or during surgical procedures.

2. Clinical or Pathological autopsies

– are performed to diagnose a particular disease or for research purposes. – They aim to determine, clarify, or confirm medical diagnoses that remained unknown or unclear prior to the patient's death.

3. Anatomical or academic autopsies

– are performed by students of anatomy for study purpose only.

4. Virtual or medical imaging autopsies

– are performed utilizing imaging technology only, primarily magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT).

Protocol for Performing A Forensic Autopsy

• The corpse is brought to the medical examiner‟s office

– in a brand new body bag (to avoid transfer of evidence between cases) – or in a set of evidence sheets.

• The body is then placed on the cadaver dissection table.

Physical Examination

• The physical examination of the body is broken up into two parts. – External Examination • The external examination consists of inspecting the physical outer layer of the body for signs of foul play that would result in injury or death. – Internal Examination. • The internal examination consists of inspecting the internal organs of the body for evidence of trauma or other indications of the cause of death.

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External Examination

Steps of an external examination.

1. Photographed. 2. Physical evidence collected off body. 3. Samples of hair, nails, etc. are collected. 4. Undressed, examined for wounds. 1. Lacerations, abrasions, bruises. 5. Measured, weighed, cleaned.

Internal Examination

• Steps of an internal examination.

1. Incisions – A “Y” shaped cut from behind each ear and running down the neck, meeting at the breastbone, continuing towards the groin. Most often used in cases of suspected strangulation. – A “T” shaped cut from each shoulder ,meeting at the breastbone, continuing towards the groin. Used to create a better looking finished product as this cut is not often seen. – Single vertical cut from throat to groin.

• All cut are deviating towards the left. • Cuts • The chest cavity is cut open using shears.

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• The ribs are sawed away, letting them be lifted off the body, exposing the heart and lungs. • Removal • En masse technique of Letulle – All organs removed at once. • En bloc method of Ghon – organs divided into four groups and removed in sections. • All removed organs are now weighed and examined for unusual markings or signs. • Brain examination • An incision is made from a point behind one ear, over the top of the head, to a point behind the opposite ear. • The scalp is pulled away from the skull, creating tow flaps. The front flap goes over the face, the rear flap over the neck. • The skull is then cut with an electric saw to create a cover that can be pulled off to expose the brain. • The brain is then cut from the spinal cord and lifted out of the skull for further examination. • In addition, • The cardiovascular system, the respiratory system, the central nervous system, and all other “systems” in the body that help control activity are examined.

Vitreous Humor

• The levels of vitreous humor in the corpses eye tells us how long the victim been dead. • The more potassium in the eye, the longer the victim has been dead.

"Normal" postmortem changes These are important to be familiar with, as they may otherwise mislead the examiner into thinking trauma or other foul play led to the victim's death.

 A. Rigor mortis, B. Lovor mortis, C. DesiccationD. PutrefactionE. Alternatives to putrefaction include mummification,

A. RIGOR MORTIS

 One of the classic markers of death, its normal sequence is well documented in history.  Muscular relaxation immediately after death is followed by the onset of gradual rigidity without shortening of the muscle.  Since muscle continues to metabolize for a short time after somatic death, or from products built up during the death event, glycogen is converted into lactic acid.  As the pH falls, there is a physical change in the muscle protoplasm. Since there is no regeneration of ATP in dead muscle, this process proceeds in one direction only.  The sol is converted into a gel as the actin of the muscle is physically changed. Perception of rigor is more rapid in the smaller muscles, leading to the misbelief that this process started in the head and worked down the body.  All muscles are affected at a similar rate; rigor is more evident in the short, smaller muscles earlier than in the longer, larger muscle masses. 6

 Since this is a chemical process, heat accelerates and cold decelerates the process. Acidosis, uremia or other medical conditions promoting a lowered pH accelerate the process.  The very perception of rigor depends on experience and condition. A very cold body may appear stiff because of changes in the fat layer.

 Rigor is typically quantitated by mild or early, moderate or mid and full or complete as a descriptive statement of degree of change.  This is totally subjective, and two observers may have different interpretations. Usually, perceived stiffness in motion of a joint is mild, difficulty requiring force to move a joint is moderate, and having to use great force is full rigor.  One the physical change of the muscle is forced, that degree of change will not reoccur, so that if someone has broken the rigor, it will not reform if to completion. If only partial, some rigor will continue to form.  This is an unreliable method of indicating the time of death. It is affected by illness, temperature, activity before death, and the physical conditions where the body is placed or found.  It may be poorly formed in the young or the old. It is an aid in the general determination of death at best, and should not be relied on as a single indicator of the time death

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B. LOVOR MORTIS

(SYNONYMS: POSTMORTEM HYPOSTASIS, LIVIDITY, SUGGILLATIONS, GRAVITATION)  Know since antiquity, the settling of blood to the dependent parts of the body has been recognized as a change of death.  When cardiac activity stops the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid blood causes it to settle and distend the dependent capillary bed.  The color of the dependent part will depend on the skin pigment and any additional compounds in the blood that may affect color, such as carbon monoxide, but it is generally dark blue or purple.  Livor begins at or very soon after death since it is a function of blood flow and, therefore, cardiac activity.  However, stasis can occur to some extent in shock and some degree of lividity can be present even while a person is technically alive.

 There are factors that will accelerate or retard the onset of visible livor, and the disappearance rate is similarity variable.

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TARDIEU‟S SPOTS  When the accumulated area engorged with blood is large, gravity can cause capillaries in a small area to rupture so that larger, usually circular or rounded areas of skin hemorrhage occur.  Size is important since these areas are usually 4-5 mm or larger in diameter, whereas petechiae are usually 1mm or smaller in diameter.  Livor will not usually develop where there is pressure from clothing or object so important information regarding whether a patient was clothed for a period of time after death or if his position was changed can be gained from a careful inspection of livor‟s distribution.  Generally, time can at best be supported from observation of livor and comparison with the accelerating or decelerating factors affecting that scene.

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C.ALGOR MORTIS (Cooling after Death)  The metabolism of the tissue generates heat, which is very tightly regulated by the body to a narrow range.  Cooling of the body after death is another of the classic markers of death. If the body always cools at a uniform rate, then that slope would enable an accurate determination of the time of death.  However, the body temperature is a narrow range not a fixed temperature. Activity, illness, decomposition, infection and absorption of heat can maintain or raise body temperature after death.  The body cools by radiation, convection and direct transfer, so that any facts that influence heat loss affect rate.  Careful consideration of the scene, clothing, patient size and activity and physical factors have to be considered in interpreting cooling rate.  Over the years, there have been a number of formulas proffered that would, in theory allow the calculation of the time of death.

 In Fatteh is the statement that the cooling of the body is the most reliable factor for the first 12-18 hours, but he points that exercise or struggle could raise the temperature from 9 by 3-4, sleep lowers etc.  He included the warning that degree of fatness, age, ventilation all changed the rate, and that clothing was 66% slower and water 2X as fast.  Marshall and Hoar, in a series of articles on this topic stated that the rate was not uniform, but 1/hr for the first three hours, then 2/hr for the next six hours then 1 ½ hours for the next three, etc.  Spitz and Fisher caution that they had observed cases where 93 was reached in as short a time as 2m hours and as late as 6 hours. Temperature has to be considered insight of all the scene data, consideration for any altering factor, and then carefully.  For example, a person dead in a closed car all day with the sun shining on the car who is then observed at night could not be expected to cool in a regular fashion, and in fact may well have an elevated or normal temperature.

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IV. Trauma

This is the cornerstone of forensic pathology. Terms used to describe traumatic lesions are somewhat more specific than analogous terms used in surgery and internal medicine.

 A. Laceration is a tearing injury due to friction or impact with a blunt object. The typical laceration has edges which are ragged3, bruised, and/or abraded. Generally, surgeons and ER physicians do not make a distinction between lacerations and incised wounds, calling them both "lacerations."  B. Incised wound is a cutting injury due to slicing action of a bladelike object. The wound edges are smooth. Serrated blades produce the same smooth edges as do nonserrated blades.  C. Puncture is a penetrating injury due to pointed object without a blade, such as an ice pick.  D. Abrasion is a friction injury removing superficial layers of skin, allowing serum to exude and form a crust. Abrasions may not be visible on wet skin; therefore, an abrasion not apparent when a body is first examined may appear the next day, after the wet body has had a chance to dry out in the morgue refrigerator.

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 E. Contusion is a bruise due to rupture or penetration of small-caliber blood vessel walls. Contusions may be seen on the surfaces of internal organs (such as the brain or heart) as well as the skin and mucous membranes.  F. Gunshot wounds represent a special form of trauma very important to forensic pathology. The types of determinations made on bodies include 1) type of firearm used (shotgun, handgun/rifle, or high-powered rifle), 2) distance of the gun from the victim at the time of firing, 3) whether a given wound is an entrance wound or an exit wound, and 4) track of the projectile through the body. Wounds may be classified by distance as follows: o 1. Contact wound: Muzzle of gun was applied to skin at time of shooting. Classic features include an impression of the muzzle burned around the entrance wound and absence of fouling and stippling (see below). Contact wounds over the skull may have a stellate appearance because of expulsion of hot gases from the barrel which are trapped against the outer table of the skull and blow back toward the exterior, ripping apart the skin around the entrance wound. o 2. Close range (6 - 8 inches): The entrance wound is surrounded by fouling, which is soot that travels for a short distance from the gun barrel to be depositied on the skin. There may also be stippling (see below). o 3. Intermediate range ( 6 - 8 inches to 1.5 - 3.5 feet): This is too far for soot to travel, so there is no fouling, but hot fragments of burning propellant (gunpowder) follow the bullet to the victim and produce stippling by causing pinpoint burns around the entrance wound. Of the two type of propellant, "ball" and "flake," the former will produce stippling at a greater distance. o 4. Distant (greater than 1.5 - 3.5 feet): This is too far for either soot or burning propellant to travel, so the wound margins are clean, with neither fouling nor stippling. Entrance versus exit wounds represents an important distinction for the forensic pathologist to make. A grand jury may look with more favor on an assailant alleging self defense, if the victim has the entrance wound on the front and the exit wound on the back, rather than vice versa. Classically, the entrance wound has a rim of abrasion surrounding the wound, because the projectile "drags" the surrounding skin into the wound a bit, abrading it along the way. The exit wound lacks this abrasion, unless the victim was braced against a wall or other solid object that may secondarily abrade the margin of the exit wound as the projectile penetrates the skin and pushes it into the wall.

Crime scene- Identification (Race, Sex, Age), Inventory and Profile • The Forensic Anthropologist will make a complete inventory of the bones received.

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• The specific bone present is described in detail. • Each of the bones will be identified and described as having no anomalies or pathology. • For example, if the left parietal, the occipital, and the right mastoid, they would be listed independently in the inventory. • If the skull is complete, that would be stated.

Forensic anthropology

 Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical anthropology and human osteology (the study of the human skeleton) in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of decomposition.  Defined as “the field of study that deals with the analysis of human skeletal remains resulting from unexplained deaths.”  study of human skeletal remains to determine sex, age, race, and time of death in an effort to identify an individual “anthros” is Greek for humankind or man, logos means “the study of”  A forensic anthropologist can also assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable.  The adjective "Forensic" refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law. Forensic anthropology is an applied science and consists Five sub disciplines: 1. Biological, or physical anthropology, 2. Archaeology, 3. Cultural anthropology 4. Linguistics and 5. Applied anthropology Basic Functions of forensic anthropologist  Forensic anthropologists often work with coroners and medical examiners in the identification of individual skeletons in which the identity of the remains cannot be established by other means (dental identification, fingerprints, or DNA, for instance).  Forensic anthropologists are also called to assist in the recovery and identification of remains from mass fatality incidents, including plane crashes, building explosions, and other circumstances in which the remains are fragmentary and commingled (remains from one individual mixed with those of other individuals).  The information from the skeleton can even be used to help establish whether two photographs likely represent the same individual. Example -Case A

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 A man's decomposed body was discovered in a rural area. The sheriff's officers, who responded to the scene, suspected that the individual was the victim of homicide because of the obvious damage to the clothing and to the body underneath.  It appeared that the shirt had numerous cuts. The body was transported to the local medical examiner's office for an autopsy, while the area that was around and under the body was searched for evidence.  Forensic anthropologists work as a team with the forensic pathologist, forensic odontologists, forensic radiologists, and all other forensic experts.  In this case, the forensic pathologist performed the autopsy, which was somewhat modified because of the extensive decomposition of the body.  The soft tissue is usually removed from the skeleton so that the clues are more obvious.  The investigation of the identity of human remains must begin with a determination of whether or not the remains are human.  If the remains are not human, the case usually ends, although the author has been asked to continue on cases in which, for instance, a dog had been shot. In this case, the shooter claimed that the dog was attacking him.  The direction of travel of the bullet was important in this case, as the dog was not facing the man when he was shot. History of Forensic anthropology.

• 1800s – scientists began using skull measurements to differentiate human bodies • 1897 – Luetgert murder case; man killed his wife and boiled down her remains – Fragments of skull, finger and arm found • 1932 – FBI opened first crime lab helping identify human remains • 1939 – William Krogman published Guide to the Identification of Human Skeletal Material • WWII – remains of soldiers identified using anthropological means • Recently – new mitochondrial DNA techniques have identified Romanov family skeletal remains Number of Bones • Children – 450- Children have bones that eventually suture together • Adult – 206 after all bones have fully developed Aging of Bone • What can bone tell us?

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– Children build bones faster and bones grow in size – After 30 years – process starts to reverse and bones deteriorate faster than built – of bones and their condition can tell a person‟s age, health, and calcium in food Skulls – Bones to Know • Maxilla, Mandible, Zygomatic bone, Vomer bone, Frontal bone, Nasal bone • Orbit (eye socket), Sphenoid bone and Sutures (between skull bones) Determination of Sex 1.Pelvis – Anatomy Bones to Know • Ilium, Ischium , Pubis, Sacrum, Coccyx, Pubic symphysis and Obturator Foramen

Pelvis – Male vs. Female • Things to consider: – Sub-pubic angle – Length, width, shape, angle of sacrum – Width of ileum – Angle of sciatic notch

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Male Trait Female

50-82 degrees Sub pubic angle > 90 degrees

Triangular pubis Shape of pubis Rectangular pubis

Heart shaped Shape of pelvic cavity Oval shaped

Longer, narrower, curved inward sacrum Shorter, broader, curved outward

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• Other differences in female pelvis: – Often weighs less – Surface engraved with scars after female has given birth • Can be detected most at pubic symphysis • Thigh Bone: Femur – Angle of femur to pelvis is greater in females and straighter in males – Male femur is thicker than female femur 2. Cranium second best • Crests and ridges more pronounced in males (A, B, C) • Chin significantly more square in males (E) • Jaw (I, E), mastoid process wide and robust in males • Forehead slopes more in males (F) Skulls – Male vs. Female Frontal View

Male Trait Female

Low and sloping Frontal Bone Higher and more rounded

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More Square Shape of Eye (orbits) More Rounded

More Square Mandible (Lower Jaw) More V-shaped

Thicker and larger Upper Brow Ridge (Zygomatic) Thinner and smaller

Skulls – Male vs. Female Side View

Male Trait Female

Present Occipital protuberance Absent

Lower and more sloping Frontal bone Higher and more rounded

Bumpy and rough Surface of skull smooth

Angled at 90° (straight) Mandible (Jaw bone) Greater than 90° (sloping)

General dereferences between male and female

Male Female

General size Large Small

Architecture Rugged Smooth

Supraorbital margin Rounded Sharp

Mastoid process Large Small

Occipital bone Muscle lines and protuberance Muscle lines not marked marked Glabella Bony Flat

Gonial Angle Squared Wide angle

Palate Larger, broader, tends to be U- Small, tends to be a parabola shaped

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Occipital condyles Large Small

Determination of Race The cranium is the only reliable bone and, even then, can only tell general category as below: • Mongoloid (all of Asian descent and Native American decent) • wider cheekbones, concave incisors, width between eyes greatest • Negro (everyone of African decent and West Indian decent) • more prominent ridges, wider nasal opening • Caucasian (all „white‟ individuals), narrow everything Distinguishing Race • This is losing its significance in differences – Two biggest differences are in skull and femur: • Shape of eye sockets, Absence or presence of nasal spine • Nasal index – width of nasal opening X 100 height of nasal opening • Prognathism – projection of upper jaw (maxilla) beyond the lower jaw (mandible), Width of face, and Angulation of jaw and face Distinguishing Race

Caucasoid Negroid Mongoloid

Shape of Eye Orbits Rounded, somewhat Rectangular Rounded, somewhat square circular

Nasal Spine Prominent spine Very small spine Somewhat prominent spine

Nasal Index <.48 >.53 .48-.53

Prognathism Straight Prognathic Variable

Femur Fingers fit under Fingers don‟t fit under Fingers fit under curvature of femur curvature of femur curvature of femur

Determination of Age  Bones don‟t reach maturity at the same time – To help tell their age:

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 1.suture marks ,2. presence or absence of cartilage • Ages 0-5: teeth are best – forensic odontology • Ages 6-25: epiphyseal fusion – fusion of bone ends to bone shaftepiphyseal fusion varies with sex and is typically complete by age 25 • Ages 25-40: very hard • Ages 40+: periodontal disease, arthritis, breakdown of pelvis, occupational stress, unique clues 1.Suture Marks • Zigzag areas where bones of the skull meet – In babies, some is soft tissue that is gradually ossified – Suture marks slowly fade to give smoother appearance as bones age.

• Coronal Suture: – closed by age 50 • Lamboidal Suture: 20

– begins closing at 21 – accelerates at 26 – closed by 30

1.Determination of Stature from Bones  Long bone length (femur, tibia, humerus) is proportional to height There are tables that forensic anthropologists use. For example: Femur length Predicted Height 41 cm 167 cm (5‟6”) 50 cm 186 cm (6‟1‟) Males: (1.88 x femur length in inches) + 32.01 Females: (1.945 x femur length in inches) + 28.70 2. Cartilaginous Lines • Epiphysis – line that forms as cartilage is replaced by bone – Also called Epiphyseal plate • Line disappears as bone completes growth • Presence or absence of this can approximate age Long Bones • When head of a long bone has fused with shaft completely – indication of age • Each bone takes different amount of time

Region of Body Bone Age

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Arm Humerus bones in head fused 4-6

Humerus bones in head fused to shaft 18-20

Leg Femur: greater trochanter appears 4

Lesser trochanter appears 13-14

Femur: head fused to shaft 16-18

Femur: condoyles join shaft 20

Shoulder Sternum and clavicle close 18-24

Pelvis Pubis, ischium completely united 7-8

Ilium, ischium, pubis fully ossified 20-25

All segments of sacrum united 25-30

Skull Lamboidal suture closed 21-30

Sagittal suture closed 32

Coronal suture closed 50

Estimating Height • Measuring long bones like femur or humerus can help estimate height – Databases established that use mathematical relationships – Different tables for males, females, and races – Example • A femur measuring 49 cm belonging to an African American male is found. Calculation: 2.10(length of femur)+72.22 cm 2.10(49) + 72.22= 175.12 cm or

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69 inches (5‟9”) Other things bones can tell • Left or right-handed • Diet and nutritional dairy, esp. vit D and calcium • Diseases or genetic disorders: – Osteoporosis, arthritis, scoliosis, osteogenesis imperfecta • Type of work or sports based on bone structure • Previous injuries such as fractures • Surgical implants: artificial joints, pins • Childbirth Estimating Time of Death

• Condition of bone depends on the type of burial or exposure along with temperature.

– Bodies are in all stages of decay

– record animal activity,

– smells,

– body temperatures,

– weather conditions.

• Early into the decay process, a fair amount of skin and soft tissue remain and smells are at their worst.

• A partial skeletalized body is one in which the bones are still articulated by cartilage and ligaments .

• When a body is left on the surface, insect activity will begin immediately and

• within 2 weeks the body will be partially skeletalized,

• completely skeletalized within 8 months.

• If buried, it will take between 1 and 2 years to become completely skeletalized

• The number and types of bones available at the scene indicates the amount of time the body has been in that spot, i.e. smaller bones get lost first.

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• based on environmental factors as follows: 3 weeks -- articulated bones 5 weeks -- some scatter, some articulated 4 months -- disarticulated, within 10' circle 7 to 8 months -- most bones w/in 10' circle and all w/in 20' 1 year -- small bones missing, complete disarticulation 2 to 4 years -- some bones broken, scatterd 40', some large bones missing 12+ years -- bone rot; partial burial* 15 to 20 years -- no surface evidence * partial burial from leaves, storms, erosion from shallow burial

Forensic entomology

 Forensic entomology is the application and study of insect and other arthropod biology to criminal matters. Forensic entomology is primarily associated with death investigations; however, it may also be used to detect drugs and poisons, determine the location of an incident, and find the presence and time of the infliction of wounds.  Forensic entomology can be divided into three subfields: urban, stored-product and medico- legal/medico-criminal entomology.

History

 The concept of forensic entomology dates back to at least the 14th century.  However, only in the last 30 years has forensic entomology been systematically explored as a feasible source for evidence in criminal investigations.  Through their own experiments and interest in arthropods and death, Song Ci, Francesco Redi, Bergeret d‟Arbois, Jean Pierre Mégnin and the German doctor Hermann Reinhard have helped to lay the foundations for today's modern forensic entomology.

Song Ci

 Song Ci (also known as Sung Tz‟u) was a lawyer and death investigator in China.  In 1247 AD Song Ci wrote a book entitled Washing Away of Wrongs. In this book Song Ci depicts several cases in which he took notes on how a person died and elaborates on probable causes.  He goes into detail on how to examine a corpse both before and after burial.  He also explains the process of how to determine a probable cause of death.

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 His level of detail in explaining what he observed in all his cases laid down the fundamentals for modern forensic entomologists and is the first recorded account in history of someone using forensic entomology for judicial means.

Francesco Redi

 In 1668, Italian physician Francesco Redi disproved the theory of spontaneous generation.  The accepted theory of Redi's day claimed that maggots developed spontaneously from rotting meat. In an experiment, he used samples of rotting meat that were either fully exposed to the air, partially exposed to the air, or not exposed to air at all.  Redi showed that both fully and partially exposed rotting meat developed fly maggots, whereas rotting meat that was not exposed to air did not develop maggots.  This discovery completely changed the way people viewed the decomposition of organisms and prompted further investigations into insect life cycles and into entomology in general.

Bergeret d'Arbois

 Dr Louis François Etienne Bergeret (1814–1893) was a French hospital physician, and was the first to apply forensic entomology to a case.  In a case report published in 1855 he stated a general life cycle for insects and made many assumptions about their mating habits.  Nevertheless these assumptions led him to the first application of forensic entomology in an estimation of post-mortem interval (PMI).  His report used forensic entomology as tool to prove his hypothesis on how and when the person had died.

Hermann Reinhard

 The first systematic study in forensic entomology was conducted in 1881 by Hermann Reinhard, a German medical doctor who played a vital role in the history of forensic entomology.  He exhumed many bodies and demonstrated that the development of many different types of insect species could be tied to buried bodies.  He also concluded that the development of only some of the insects living with corpses underground were associated with them, since there were 15-year-old beetles who had little direct contact with them.  Reinhard's works and studies were used extensively in further forensic entomology studies.

Jean Pierre Mégnin

 Jean Pierre Mégnin (1828–1905), an army veterinarian, published many articles and books on various subjects including the books Faune des Tombeaux and La Faune des Cadavres, which are considered to be among the most important forensic entomology books in history.

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 In his second book he did revolutionary work on the theory of predictable waves, or successions of insects onto corpses.  By counting numbers of live and dead mites that developed every 15 days and comparing this with his initial count on the infant, he was able to estimate how long that infant was dead.

Forensic entomology subfields

1. Urban forensic entomology

 Urban forensic entomology typically concerns pests infestations in buildings gardens or that may be the basis of litigation between private parties and service providers such as landlords or exterminators.  Urban forensic entomology studies may also indicate the appropriateness of certain pesticide treatments and may also be used in stored products cases where it can help to determine chain of custody, when all points of possible infestation are examined in order to determine who is at fault.

2. Stored-product forensic entomology

 Stored-product forensic entomology is often used in litigation over infestation or contamination of commercially distributed foods by insects.

3. Medico-legal forensic entomology

 Medicolegal forensic entomology covers evidence that may be gathered through arthropod studies at events such as murder, suicide, rape, physical abuse and contraband trafficking.  In murder investigations it deals with which insects eggs when and where, and in what order they appear in dead bodies.  This can be helpful in determining a post mortem interval (PMI) and location of a death in question.  Since many insects exhibit a degree of endemism (occurring only in certain places), or have a well- defined phenology (active only at a certain season, or time of day), their presence in association with other evidence can demonstrate potential links to times and locations where other events may have occurred.  Another area covered by medicolegal forensic entomology is the relatively new field of entomotoxicology. This particular branch involves the utilization of entomological specimens found at a scene in order to test for different drugs that may have possibly played a role in the death of the victim.

Faunal Succession – what is it? ► Insects arrive on a corpse in a predictable sequence depending on the stages of decomposition. This is called insect succession or faunal succession.

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► Forensic entomologists study this process to aid legalinvestigations. Primarily, forensic entomologists areemployed by crime investigators to determine thetime of death of a person. Time of death is estimatedas the post mortem interval (PMI). ► Insect succession of cadavers is fairly predictable andresults from controlled experiments can be used toestimate PMI of a corpse in a crime investigation.Environmental factors that affect succession include: ► Season (daily temperatures), sun exposure, whetherthe body was found inside a building, immersed inwater or in urban vs. rural area. Bodies that are buried,left in vehicles, found in enclosed spaces, hanged orburnt are also subject to varying insect successionpatterns.

Insect types

► There are many different types of insect studied in forensic entomology. ► The insects listed below are mostly necrophagous (corpse-eating) and are particularly relevant to medicolegal entomological investigations. ► This is not a full list, as there are many variations due to climate. The order in which insects feed on a corpse is known as faunal succession.

1. First Wave: Blowflies-

► First to arrive at the scene, They are member of the Calliphoridae family and Metallic in appearance. Usually blue, green, or black.10-12 mm in length. Ability to “smell” death 10 miles away.

2. Second Wave: Flesh Flies-

► Flesh flies are a part of the second wave. They belongs to the member of the Sarcophagidae family. They breed in carrion, dung, or decaying material .Some breed in open wounds of mammals.

3. Third Wave: Dermestid Beetles-

► Member of the Coleoptera family. Common names include: larder beetle, hide beetle, carpet beetle, and kharpa beetle. Some species cause millions of dollars worth of damage to fibers. Life cycle is about 45 days. 4. Later Waves: Mites- ► Belongs to subclass Acarina .Have existed for over 400 million years.Over 45,000 species of mitesUsually found in warm locations.

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Protocol for forensic entomology investigation Scene inspection, Weather Data collection., Collection at crime sceneShipment of evidence to lab and Analyzed by forensic entomologist 1. Scene Inspection ► Includes observing: general habitat and surrounding area, surrounding foliage and flora,Sun and shade conditions, Proximity to outdoors if scene is indoors. All information should be noted. Photos should be taken.

2.Weather Data Collection

► Ambient air temperature, Maggot mass temperature, Ground surface temperature, Temperature between body and surface, Temperature of soil underneath body. ► Weather data from 1-2 weeks prior including rainfall and maximum and minimum temperatures.

3. Collection at Crime Scene:

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3.a.Flies and Beetles

► Adult Flies and beetles: move quick and disperse when disturbed.Net : regular insect netting ► Killing Jar : cotton swabs soaked in ethyl acetate, Ethyl Alcohol: 75% ► Label: geographical location, date and hour of collection, case number, location to where body was moved, name of collector (in graphite pencil, placed inside vial. Second exterior label also necessary).

3.b. Collection at Crime Scene: Larvae

► Search for presence of eggs, Collect largest larvae, Collect representative sample of 50-60 larvae ► Place directly in killing solution or ethyl alcohol,To preserve: boil for 30 seconds within 48 hours ► Each Maggot mass is treated as separate sites.

3.c. Collection at Crime Scene: Live Sample

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► After collection of primary samples, duplicate samples for live shipment. Place in specimen container. Place beef liver or pork meat in moist environment. Seal and create air holes.

3.d.Collection at the Crime Scene: After Body Removal

► Collect preserved and living samples, Collect soil samples, Collect litter samples ► Collect 2-3 inches of top soil,All samples placed in cardboard container for shipment.

4. Shipment of evidence to lab

► All samples should be promptly shipped to forensic entomologist. ► Overnight express using USPS (US Mail) or United Postal Service (UPS) ► Fed Ex and other services do not ship preserved or live insects.

5. Analyzed by forensic entomologist.

Modern techniques

 Many new techniques have been discovered and used in order to more accurately gather evidence, or possibly introduce an entire new way to look at old information.  Forensic entomology not only uses arthropod biology, but it pulls from other sciences, introducing fields like chemistry and genetics, exploiting their inherent synergy through the use of DNA in forensic entomology.

1. Scanning electron microscopy

 A study in 2007 demonstrates a technique that can use scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to identify key morphological features of eggs and maggots.  Some of the morphological differences that can help identify the different species are the presence/absence of anastomosis, the presence/absence of holes, and the shape and length of the median area.  The SEM method provides an array of morphological features for use in identifying fly eggs;  The SEM method is good if ample time and resources to determine the species of the particular fly egg are plentiful.  The ability to use these morphological differences gives forensic entomologists a powerful tool that can help with estimating a post mortem interval, along with other relevant information.

2. Potassium permanganate staining

 Sometimes scanning electron microscopy is not available and a quicker and lower cost technique can be found in potassium permanganate staining.  This process involves a few basic steps. Once the eggs are collected, they are rinsed with a normal saline solution and then moved to a glass petri dish.

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 The eggs are then soaked in a 1% potassium permanganate solution for one minute. Then the eggs are dehydrated and mounted onto a slide for observation.  These slides can be used with any light microscope with a calibrated eyepiece to compare various morphological features.

3. Mitochondrial DNA

 In 2001, a method was devised by Jeffrey Wells and Felix Sperling to use mitochondrial DNA to differentiate between different species of the subfamily Chrysomyinae.  This is particularly useful when working on determining the identity of specimens that do not have distinctive morphological characteristics at certain life stages.

4. Mock crime scenes

 A valuable tool that is becoming very common in the training of forensic entomologists is the use of mock crime scenes using pig carcasses.  The pig carcass represents a human body and can be used to illustrate various environmental effects on both arthropod succession and the estimate of the post mortem interval.

5. Gene expression studies

 Although physical characteristics and sizes at various instars have been used to estimate fly age, more recently a study has been conducted to determine the age of an egg based on the expression of particular genes.  This is particularly useful in developmental stages that do not change in size, such as the egg or pupa, where only a general time interval can be estimated based on the duration of the particular developmental stage.

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Forensic Mental Health: An Overview

What is Forensic Psychiatry?

 Forensic Psychiatry is a specialized branch of psychiatry that involves the application of medical psychiatric expertise in legal contexts.Forensic psychiatry is a subspecialty of psychiatry.Involved in the assessment and treatment of individuals who come into conflict with the law. Brief History of Forensic Psychology 1908 Hugo Munsterberg publishes “On the Witness Stand”

1917 William Marston develops first modern polygraph

1921 State v. Driver: First time a psychologist testifies as an expert witness in an American court

1922 William Marston becomes the first faculty member in forensic psychology (American University) 1931 Howard Burtt publishes Legal Psychology, the first forensic psychology text book

1968 Martin Reiser becomes first full-time police psychologist (LAPD)

2001 APA recognizes forensic psychology as a specialty

What does Forensic Psychiatry deal with? The field is comprised of three distinct but overlapping areas that deal with different issues:

 Forensic Psychiatry: Criminal Areas: - Expert Witness/Testifying, - Dangerous or Long Term Offender Applications, - Fitness to Stand Trial ,- Probation and Parole and - Review Boards

Civil Areas: - Divorce & Custody Evaluations, - Negligence & Malpractice, - Personal Injury, - Workman's Compensation Boards and - Workplace Violence

 Clinical Criminology - Developmental Delay Issues within the forensic mental health framework - Impulse Control Disorders , - Interpersonal Violence - Major mental illness within the forensic framework (psychosis, schizophrenia, mood disorders, etc) - Paraphilias & Sex Offending , - Personality Disorders with the forensic mental health framework - Psychopathy, - Substance Abuse within the forensic mental health framework 32

-Risk Assessment & Risk Management, - Treatment Programming within the forensic mental health framework

 Psychiatry & Law - Capacity: to consent to treatment, to manage property, to consent to emergency treatment, etc. - Community Treatment Orders- Consent - informed, consent to treatment, etc. - Consent & Capacity Board - Confidentiality of Patient Records - Duty of Care - Duty To Warn - Involuntary Hospitalization - Mental Health Act, in general - Patient Rights under the Mental Health Act - Substitute Decision Making

Although the area is highly specialized and requires a specific knowledge that transcends the boundaries of general mental health, a solid grounding in general psychiatry and major mental illness is essential for those working in the field. Forensic Psychiatrist.

 A forensic psychiatrist is a fully trained psychiatrist (medical school plus 5 years of psychiatric training followed by a comprehensive specialty examination) who usually has at least one additional year of training & study specifically in Forensic Psychiatry.  Forensic Fellowships in Canada can last from one to two years and are offered at a select number medical schools across Canada. Usually there is only one Forensic Fellowship position in each program, although there are exceptions.  A number of other professionals work within the broader scope of Forensic Mental Health, each certified by their own professional governing bodies: forensic psychologists, social workers, nurses, psychometrists, occupational therapists, behavioral therapists, recreational therapists, and others.

Case report  In August 2009 Phillip Garrido (58 years; California, USA) was charged withabducting a female child and keeping her as a sex slave for 18 years.  In 1975 (24 years) he was convicted of a brutal rape. On that occasion Garrido wasexamined by forensic psychiatrist Dr Lynn Gerow who found that, the defendant “didnot lack substantial capacity either to appreciate the wrongfulness of his conduct or toconform his conduct to the requirements of law”.  The current charges have not been heard in court. The matter is mentioned herebecause the 1975 assessment gives an example of the application of as the M‟Naghten rules.

Forensic Odontology

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• Forensic Odontology, also known as forensic dentistry, is the study of teeth, jaws, bite marks, and the analysis of oro-facial trauma in relationship to the legal system.

Scope of Forensic Odontology-

Forensic dentists are responsible for six main areas of practice:

 Identification of found human remains  Identification in mass fatalities  Assessment of bite mark injuries  Assessment of cases of abuse (child, spousal, elder)  Civil cases involving malpractice  Age estimation

Historical back ground  49 A.D. - Identification by teeth - Agrippina, wife of Roman emperor Claudius, identified her husband's former mistress by her teeth  1066 A.D. - William the Conqueror - secured his mail with sealing wax imprinted with his bite, so he could verify the authenticity of his documents.  The first formally reported ease of dental identification was that of the 80 years old warrior John Talbot, Earl of Shrews bury, who fell in the battle of Castillon in 1453.  1849 - First dental evidence admitted to U.S. court

– Dr. Parkman was murdered and his body burned. Dr. Keep identified Dr. Parkman due to a partial denture he had fabricated for Parkman.This led to the conviction of Dr. Webster.

• 1952 - the first use of bite mark evidence in the U.S. court that resulted in conviction

– Doyle v. Texas - Doyle left a bite mark in partly eaten cheese found at the scene of a burglary

Famous Cases Solved by Forensic Odontology • John Wilkes Booth (assassin of President Lincoln),Adolf Hitler (mastermind of genocide of Jewish people), Lee Harvey Oswald (assassin of President Kennedy) • Jeffrey Dahmer (Milwaukee cannibalistic serial killer whose victims were identified by Dr. Thomas Johnson). Ted Bundy - serial killer identified in part by bite marks discovered on one of his victims. Anatomy of tooth- • In humans approximately 32 teeth were present . They may fall in to 4 tooth types

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– Incisors, Canines, Premolars and Molars. 1. Body Identification

A body is identified by comparing teeth and bone structures of the body to the dental records of the suspected individual. A body is identified in 3 steps: a. Postmortem examination of the body, b. Locating the antemortem dental records c. Comparing the body to the dental records. a.Postmortem Examination:

 May examination teeth while in the body (if body needed for funeral) (or) May remove jaw (using bone saw) and remove soft tissue using hydrogen peroxide.  Each tooth or socket is examined individually and the following is recorded: 1. Presence/absence of tooth 2. Socket present or healed . Healed socket = past removal, Present socket = recent removal . 3. Erupted vs. Unerupted and 4. Filling or Crown Material . . Also record any diseases and the general anatomy.

. After examination of teeth, they should be photographed and X-rays should be taken. b. Locating the antemortem dental records

. If body is known, dental records can usually be recovered from his or her dentist.

. If body is unknown, the examination results are submitted to a missing person registry. c.Comparing the body to the dental records.

Postmortem exam compared to antemortem records. A statement is made about each tooth stating Consistent,Different with explainable differences,Different with no explanation.

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Age Determination Chart

2. Identification in Mass Disasters: • Completed in the same manner as individual identification • Organization of antemortem and postmortem data is essential. Large scale problems can occur Mass Disaster Dental ID Teams • Postmortem Team--Generates dental profile and radiographs • Antemortem Team--Collects/organizes antemortem data • Records Comparison Team--Compares postmortem and antemortem data 3.Bite mark analysis • Can be used to link a suspect to a crime.Impressions left on food, skin or other items left at a scene. Characteristics of Bite Marks:

. Usually shape of two half moons (upper/lower).Usually composed of 6 upper / 6 lower teeth. . Antemortem (diffuse bruise)--Perimortem (defined bruise) and Postmortem (no bruise). . Only persists 8 hours on living person Collection of Bite Marks

1. Identify as potential bite mark

2. Collect 3 swabs--ABO blood test, amylase detection, DNA analysis and Microorganism analysis

3. Photograph bite mark. And 4. Make an impression of bite mark

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Analysis of Bite Marks • Bite marks are photographed with a scale – Bite marks on skin are taken over repeated intervals • Casts of impression are taken, Impression traced onto transparencies, Casts of suspects teeth are taken and Comparison between suspect cast and bite mark. Forensic engineering DNA analysis.

• Forensic Engineering is the investigation of materials, products, structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property. • The consequences of failure are dealt with by the law of product liability. • The field also deals with retracing processes and procedures leading to accidents in operation of vehicles or machinery. • Used to locate cause or causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a court in determining the facts of an accident. • It can also involve investigation of intellectual property claims, especially patents.

What is Forensic Engineering/Fault Analysis?

 The detection and analysis of problems in technical systems.  By means of a scheme in which one or more computers monitor the technical equipment to signal any issues and designate the components responsible.

What is its importance?

• Forensic engineering organizations collect, analyze and evaluate scientific data of real world projects • Assess the risks that may result from practical problems – Also assess damage made by incorrect calculations • Groups are often found working with satellite imaging, hydrocarbon industry, coal mine & mineral deposits and seismic data. • Members of these organizations also become important expert witnesses when it comes to litigation cases in court.

History of Forensic Engineering • Early examples include investigation of bridge failures such as the Tay rail bridge disaster of 1879 and the Dee bridge disaster of 1847. • Many early rail accidents prompted the invention of tensile testing of samples and fractography of failed components. • Most often used in motor-vehicle accidents during police investigations. • Was critical in understanding the Oklahoma City Bombing in 1995. • Also helped solve the case of theSeptember 11 attacks in 2001 Investigation

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• Vital to the field of forensic engineering is the process of investigating and collecting data related to the materials, products, structures or components that failed. • This involves inspections, collecting evidence, measurements, developing models, obtaining exemplar products, and performing experiments. • Forensic art or illustration is used in accident reconstruction • Photography is also used to help understand the sequence of events, making it possible for greater scientific examination • Computer generated animations are also used to help depict the crime scene. • Able to recreate and portray the crime scene more realistically using Life-like, 3D imaging

Types of Cases That Deal With Forensic Engineering

• Fires – Electrical – Gas/Propane Explosions • Accidents – Mechanical – Corrosion related • Electrocution • Carbon Monoxide Investigations

Reconstruction of the crime scene

• Analyze the Scene Of The Accident • Obtain evidence and witness‟s accounts of the accident • Determine a sequence of events – Create a timeline of what happened at the scene

Examples

• The broken fuel pipe shown caused a serious accident when diesel fuel poured out from a van onto the road. • A following car skidded and the driver was seriously injured when she collided with an oncoming lorry. • Scanning electron microscopy or SEM showed that the nylon connector had fractured by stress corrosion cracking (SCC) due to a small leak of battery acid. • Nylon is susceptible to hydrolysis when in contact with sulfuric acid, and only a small leak of acid would have sufficed to start a brittle crack in the injection moulded nylon 6,6 connector by SCC. • The crack took about 7 days to grow across the diameter of the tube. • The fracture surface showed a mainly brittle surface with striations indicating progressive growth of the crack across the diameter of the pipe. • Once the crack had penetrated the inner bore, fuel started leaking onto the road. • The nylon 6,6 had been attacked by the following reaction, which was catalyzed by the acid:

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. Diesel fuel is especially hazardous on road surfaces because it forms a thin, oily film that cannot be easily seen by drivers. . It is much like black ice in its slipperiness, so skids are common when diesel leaks occur. . The insurers of the van driver admitted liability and the injured driver was compensated

Applications

• Most manufacturing models will have a forensic component that monitors early failures to improve quality or efficiencies. • Insurance companies use forensic engineers to prove liability or nonliability. • Most engineering disasters (structural failures such as bridge and building collapses) are subject to forensic investigation by engineers experienced in forensic methods of investigation. • Rail crashes, aviation accidents, and some automobile accidents are investigated by forensic engineers in particular where component failure is suspected. • Furthermore, appliances, consumer products, medical devices, structures, industrial machinery, and even simple hand tools such as hammers or chisels can warrant investigations upon incidents causing injury or property damages. • The failure of medical devices is often safety-critical to the user, so reporting failures and analyzing them is particularly important. • The environment of the body is complex, and implants must both survive this environment, and not leach potentially toxic impurities. • Problems have been reported with breast implants, heart valves, and catheters, for example.

Example of a Reconstruction of an Accident: Crash of Flight 587

 on November 12, 2001, Flight 587 left JFK airport headed for the Dominican Republic at 9:12 AM.  Shortly after taking off, the plane crashed at 9:16 AM, leaving over 200 dead.  The video was reconstructed of the flight path and behavior of the plane, based on the information recorded on the Flight Data Recorder and the conversation recorded on the Cockpit Voice Recorder.

Advantages

• In some cases, questions involving: liability, responsibility, and the administration of justice may be resolved by using engineering terms. ( The engineer is necessary in translating between the legal issue and the engineering statement of the problem.)

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• The courts need impartial, objective evidence and sometimes analysis from an engineer is the necessary one. • Can provide insight in accidents that no other field can provide • Reconstructions and Theoretical Models can be useful in understanding what happened •

Disadvantage: Lack of Training For Those Collecting Evidence

• Police Officers That Arrive First Misinterpret Evidence Obtained At The Scene – Accidents & Crashes – Fires/Explosions • Multiple Sometimes Contradicting Opinions of Witnesses • Evidence burned away in cases – Fire/Arson – Explosion • Corrosion of Evidence Lost in Accidents • Automobile Accidents • Crashes & Other Machine Related Accidents

Forensic Sciences: DNA testing

How does forensic identification work?

 Any type of organism can be identified by examination of DNA sequences unique to that species.  To identify individuals, forensic scientists scan 13 DNA regions, or loci, that vary from person to person and use the data to create a DNA profile of that individual (sometimes called a DNA fingerprint).  There is an extremely small chance that another person has the same DNA profile for a particular set of 13 regions. Brief History of Forensic DNA Typing  1980 - Ray White describes first polymorphic RFLP marker  1985 - Alec Jeffreys discovers multi-locus VNTR probes  1985 - first paper on PCR  1988 - FBI starts DNA casework  1991 - first STR paper  1995 - FSS starts UK DNA database  1998 - FBI launches CODIS database

Some Examples of DNA Uses for Forensic Identification

 Identify potential suspects whose DNA may match evidence left at crime scenes  Exonerate persons wrongly accused of crimes. Identify crime and catastrophe victims

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 Establish paternity and other family relationships. Identify endangered and protected species as an aid to wildlife officials (could be used for prosecuting poachers)  Detect bacteria and other organisms that may pollute air, water, soil, and food  Match organ donors with recipients in transplant programs. Determine pedigree for seed or livestock breeds. Authenticate consumables such as caviar and wine

Repetitive DNA in the Human Genome • Less than 2% codes for Proteins • 50% of the genome contains repeated sequences • No apparent function • Recombination? • Formation of new genes? • Types of repeated DNA • Tandomly repeated • Telomeres • Satellite (VNTRs) • Minisatellite (STRs) • Interspersed repetitive DNA • SINES (Alu sequences) • LINES • Transposable elements Basis of DNA Profiling  Only one-tenth of a single percent of DNA (about 3 million bases) differs from one person to the next. Scientists can use these variable regions to generate a DNA profile of an individual, using samples from blood, bone, hair, and other body tissues and products.  In criminal cases, this generally involves obtaining samples from crime-scene evidence and a suspect, extracting the DNA, and analyzing it for the presence of a set of specific DNA regions (markers).  Scientists find the markers in a DNA sample by designing small pieces of DNA (probes) that will each seek out and bind to a complementary DNA sequence in the sample.  A series of probes bound to a DNA sample creates a distinctive pattern for an individual. Forensic scientists compare these DNA profiles to determine whether the suspect's sample matches the evidence sample.  A marker by itself usually is not unique to an individual; if, however, two DNA samples are alike at four or five regions, odds are great that the samples are from the same person.  If the sample profiles don't match, the person did not contribute the DNA at the crime scene.  If the patterns match, the suspect may have contributed the evidence sample. While there is a chance that someone else has the same DNA profile for a particular probe set, the odds are exceedingly slim.

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 The question is, How small do the odds have to be when conviction of the guilty or acquittal of the innocent lies in the balance? Many judges consider this a matter for a jury to take into consideration along with other evidence in the case.  Experts point out that using DNA forensic technology is far superior to eyewitness accounts, where the odds for correct identification are about 50:50.  The more probes used in DNA analysis, the greater the odds for a unique pattern and against a coincidental match, but each additional probe adds greatly to the time and expense of testing.  Four to six probes are recommended. Testing with several more probes will become routine, observed John Hicks (Alabama State Department of Forensic Services).  He predicted that DNA chip technology (in which thousands of short DNA sequences are embedded in a tiny chip) will enable much more rapid, inexpensive analyses using many more probes and raising the odds against coincidental matches.

Objectives of Forensic DNA Testing n To link an individual to a crime scene/criminal act n To exonerate suspects n To identify victims of mass disasters Applications for DNA Testing  Crime solving – matching suspect with evidence…  Accident victims – after airplane crashes…  Soldiers in war – who is the “unknown” soldier…  Paternity testing – who is the father…  Immigration testing – are two people related…  Missing persons investigations – whose remains…  Convicted felons databases – cases solved… Challenges

• Mixtures must be resolved if present • DNA is often degraded • Inhibitors to PCR and sample contamination are often present

DNA Testing Requires a Reference Sample  A DNA profile by itself is fairly useless because it has no context…  DNA analysis for identity only works by comparison – you need a reference sample  Crime Scene Evidence compared to Suspect(s) (Forensic Case)  Child compared to Alleged Father (Paternity Case)  Victim‟s Remains compared to Biological Relative (Mass Disaster ID)  Soldier‟s Remains compared to Direct Reference Sample (Armed Forces ID)

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Crime committed Suspect developed Biological material transferred Evidence May match another Reference (K’) (Known) (Question) Database Search Steps Involved Steps Involved sample “Q” sample “K” May be Collectio SerologyCollectio Sample Q Inconcl Sample Q n Exclusion (no match) n CharacterizStorage U usive Storage U ation A due to A Extracti Q ≠ K Extracti Biology L DNA Profile Lack of L on Quantitaon I Comparison Available Quantita I Referenc Amplifiction T Amplifiction T MayQ be Q = K Ke ationSTR Y ationSTR Y A Inconcl Inclusion (match) A TechnologyMarker SeparatiMarker Separati S usive S s due to s on/ S on/ S Forensic DetectioData U Report DetectioData U Issues Interpre GeneticsInterpren R (degradatio (with statistical weight) n R Statistictation A n, mixtures, tation A low levels) Plea Court al N N Profile put on databaseJohn M. Butler (2009) Fundamentals of Forensic DNA TypingProfile, Figure put on1.3 database Interpre C C tation E E

Collection of Evidence Types of Unknown Samples: . Blood, Semen, Stains, Saliva . Hair, Tissue, Bones, Teeth Types of Known Samples: . Blood or buccal swabs from suspect or victim or other known person Beware of Contamination n Contamination occurs when DNA from another source gets mixed in with the sample being collected. n An investigator touches, sneezes, bleeds on a sample. n Wear gloves and use disposable instruments n Package items separately. n Especially, do not mix known samples (from victim or suspect) with unknown samples. Packaging Evidence . Package each item individually. . Put evidence into paper bags, not plastic. . Moisture degrades DNA; air dry samples. . Keep samples at room temperature and out of sun. 43

DNA extraction kits available-  Samples can have extremely small amounts of DNA  Available Technologies for DNA Isolation  Phenol:Chloroform Extraction (Homebrew)  Chelex (ReadyAmp™)  FTA® Paper  Qiagen  DNA IQ™ System  DNA IQ™ Reference Sample Kit for Maxwell® 16 Regulation of Labs  Forensic  FBI  Standards for Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) labs http://www.fbi.gov/hq/lab/codis/index1.htm  The Scientific Working Group for DNA Analysis Methods(SWGDAM) publishes guidelines  Paternity  American Association of Blood Banks (AABB)  http://www.aabb.org

What are some of the DNA technologies used in forensic investigations?

1. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)  RFLP is a technique for analyzing the variable lengths of DNA fragments that result from digesting a DNA sample with a special kind of enzyme. This enzyme, a restriction endonuclease, cuts DNA at a specific sequence pattern know as a restriction endonuclease recognition site.  Genetic variation in the distance between restriction enzyme sites were observed in species.  The presence or absence of certain recognition sites in a DNA sample generates variable lengths of DNA fragments, which are separated using gel electrophoresis and detected via Southern blotting  Power of discrimination in the range of 106-108 for a six probe analysis  They are then hybridized with DNA probes that bind to a complementary DNA sequence in the sample.  RFLP was one of the first applications of DNA analysis to forensic investigation. With the development of newer, more efficient DNA-analysis techniques, RFLP is not used as much as it once was because it requires relatively large amounts of DNA. In addition, samples degraded by environmental factors, such as dirt or mold, do not work well with RFLP.

Mechanisms for RFLPs

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2. PCR Analysis  Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is used to make millions of exact copies of DNA from a biological sample.

 DNA amplification with PCR allows DNA analysis on biological samples as small as a few skin cells.

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 With RFLP, DNA samples would have to be about the size of a quarter. The ability of PCR to amplify such tiny quantities of DNA enables even highly degraded samples to be analyzed.  Great care, however, must be taken to prevent contamination with other biological materials during the identifying, collecting, and preserving of a sample.  Polymerase Chain Reaction is also called as molecular Xeroxing developed by Dr. Kary Mullis  Three temperature phases, carried out in a Thermal Cycler, replicate or “amplify” the desired DNA fragment(s)  First forensic application is the DQα locus, later multi-plexed with Polymarker™ loci using dot- blot detection method.  Works with lower quantity (1-2ng), lower quality samples.  Power of discrimination goes from 102-106...not good enough for databasing Multiplex PCR  16 Loci Are Copied at Once  Sensitivities to levels less than 0.5 ng of DNA  Ability to Handle Mixtures and Degraded Samples  Different Fluorescent Dyes Used to Distinguish STR Alleles with Overlapping Size Ranges

3.Short Tandem Repeats (STRs) Introduction  Currently the most used of all forensic markers, Individual identification possible  Type of data used in the FBI CODIS database, People differ in length at these loci . Are located in the nuclear DN A (chromosomes)  Short tandem repeat (STR) technology is used to evaluate specific regions (loci) within nuclear DNA. Variability in STR regions can be used to distinguish one DNA profile from another.  The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) uses a standard set of 13 specific STR regions for CODIS. CODIS is a software program that operates local, state, and national databases of DNA profiles from convicted offenders, unsolved crime scene evidence, and missing persons.  The odd that two individuals will have the same 13-loci DNA profile is about one in a billion.  Non-coding, tetra nucleotide sequences which vary greatly from person to person in the number of repeating units.Requires <1ng of DNA to type 13-15 STR loci..Power of discrimination ranges from 1014-1023. World population is 109 so bring on the database!

What are STRs?  Short Tandem Repeats (STR) are repetitive sequences:  Tetranucleotide: AAAG AAAG AAAG AAAG  Trinucleotide: CTT CTT CTT CTT CTT  Dinucleotide: AG AG AG AG AG AG  Tetranucleotides are favored in human identity  Good balance of “ease of interpretation” and “variability found in nature”

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Short Tandem Repeats

(STRs) AA TG ~ 7 ~ repeats ~ 8 ~ • Repeat region is variable repeats (polymorphic) – Each variant is referred to as an allele • Flanking region is constant Homozygote = both alleles are the same KEY: Alleles are distinguished by length length Heterozygote = alleles differ and can be resolved from one another

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Short Tandem Repeats

Advantages  Plentiful  Small amounts of sample required  Discrete, easily assigned alleles using allelic ladders  Digital recording of data  Rapid DNA purification methods available  Low molecular weight DNA may be used  Non-radioactive detection  Small, defined size ranges allow mutliplex detection  Potential for automation

Disadvantages  Care required to avoid contamination  Amplification may produce artifacts  Less polymorphic than Southern-based VNTR loci

Locus—the Both physical position chromosomes of of an STR and a homologous its associated pair contain this flanking locus sequence

The allele contained on either chromosome can be the same or different lengths (homozygous or heterozygous)

Separating and “Seeing” STR’s  Electrophoresis  Separates amplification products based on size 48

 Fluorescent detection  Amplification products have a fluorescent “label” attached to the primer  Label is seen through excitation via a laser and corresponding emission captured with a camera DATA ANALYSIS  Controls  Negative control devoid of amplification products  Compare positive control 9947a with locus-specific ladder  STR Allelic Ladders  Comparison with samples allows precise assignment of alleles  Fluorescent Ladder (CXR)  Internal Size Standard

Statistical Analysis  Analysis based on population statistics and data  Probability that the evidence matches the suspect

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“Suspect” “Evidence” Known (K) Sample Question (Q) Sample 11 12 13

1112 11 12

1112 No result (or a complex

Advantages for STR Markers mixture)  Small product sizes are generally compatible with degraded DNA and PCR enables recovery of information from small amounts of material  Numerous alleles per locus aid mixture interpretation  Multiplex amplification with fluorescence detection enables high power of discrimination in a single test  Commercially available in an easy to use kit format  Uniform set of core STR loci provide capability for national (and international) sharing of criminal DNA profiles

4. Mitochondrial DNA Analysis  Mitochondrial DNA analysis (mtDNA) can be used to examine the DNA from samples that cannot be analyzed by RFLP or STR.  Nuclear DNA must be extracted from samples for use in RFLP, PCR, and STR; however, mtDNA analysis uses DNA extracted from another cellular organelle called a mitochondrion.  While older biological samples that lack nucleated cellular material, such as hair, bones, and teeth, cannot be analyzed with STR and RFLP, they can be analyzed with mtDNA.  In the investigation of cases that have gone unsolved for many years, mtDNA is extremely valuable.  All mothers have the same mitochondrial DNA as their offspring. This is because the mitochondria of each new embryo comes from the mother's egg cell.  The father's sperm contributes only nuclear DNA. Comparing the mtDNA profile of unidentified remains with the profile of a potential maternal relative can be an important technique in missing- person investigations.

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Forensic DNA Analysis > Mitochondrial

Mitochondrial DNA is only [compared to 3 billion16,569 in lette rs

nuclearTherelong isDNA] a 900 base pair region with a 1.7% difference [D

loop]

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Forensic DNA Analysis > Mitochondrial

Double Helix Double Helix

46 One Ring Chromoso Multiple One copy copies in mes Multiple per cell mitochondriaeach in MtDNA used for oldmitochondri or degraded each cell samples a

Forensic DNA Analysis > Mitochondrial

Extraction:

AmplificationSeparates DNA from or samplePCR:

Sequencing:Amplifies small portions of DNA

5. SequenceY-Chromosome(STR Analysis regions) of letters for amplified

fragments 53

 The Y chromosome is passed directly from father to son, so analysis of genetic markers on the Y chromosome is especially useful for tracing relationships among males or for analyzing biological evidence involving multiple male contributors. ~99% of violent crimes are committed by men  DNA Mixtures of male suspect and female victim can pose an analytical challenge,  especially when the female contribution is much greater than the male = preferential amplification  Test for markers found only on the Y-chromosome. Only male DNA is amplified!  Lower power of discrimination - paternal relatives all share the same Y-STR haplotype.  10% of Central Asian males share the same Y-STR haplotype.

6.Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) • Point mutations (base substitutions) found in 1% or more of the population • 1.8 million identified in human genome • Detected on micro-array plates with fluorescent tags (all or nothing response) • ~50 SNPs provides same power of discrimination as 13 STR loci • Certain SNPs used as predictors of ancestry/ethnicity by a private sector lab (DNA Witness)

DACTYLOSCOPY(The Forensic Science of Fingerprint Identification)

Introduction.

• Dactyloscopy: (dak til os kop e) (Noun): The examination of fingerprints in order to establish identity. (Greek dactylos – finger, skopein – to watch).

• ―Fingerprints‖ are the patterns visible on human fingers, palms and the soles of feet.

• More technically they are ridge patterns on friction ridge skin that are created by the arrangement of various elements (such as sweat glands, nerves, blood vessels and fat cells) within the dermis.

• These Friction ridge prints are the results of accidental arrangements that occur during gestation.

• They are unique and individual (even between identical twins).

• They are also unchanging save for serious physical damage to the relevant area of skin.

• Fingerprints are reproductions of the patterns formed by the papillary ridges located on the palm side of the fingers and thumbs.

The anatomy of a fingerprint

• Fingerprints are unique. No two fingers have the same ridge characteristics. • The individuality of a fingerprint is not determined by its general shape or pattern, but by the ridge characteristics, known as minutiae.

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Use of fingerpri nt  Perso nal identi ty: the disast er area victims of stray identities; personal electronic system login; immigration control.  Substitute of seal: certain statutory effect to the fingerprint on the marriage certificate, a suicide note, the electoral rolls, and other documents.  Crime Investigation: the suspect with the crime scene fingerprint matching, crime scene reconstruction. 55

 Divination: using fingerprint lines to indicating your life and fortune

Fingerprint patterns • Henry's system is based on four distinct groups of patterns, with each group possessing the same basic characteristics and resemblances. • Within each major group there exist sub-groups containing similar differences among patterns in that particular group. • Henry„s four types of pattern groupings and their interpretations are as follows: • Fingerprints are divided into four main groups of patterns: • arches, loops, whorls, and composite. • There are variations of each pattern. 1.Arch • In arches, the ridges of the finger run continuous from one side of the finger to the other with no recurving. • There are two sub-groups that further define the archpattern:

1.Plain Arch---this pattern has a consistency of flow to it.

 It starts on one side of the finger, and then the ridge cascades upward slightly, almost resembling a wave out on the ocean.  The plain arch then continues its journey along the finger to the other side.  The plain arch is the simplest of the fingerprint patterns to discern.

2.Tented Arch---this pattern is similar to the plain arch

 in that it starts on one side of the finger and flows out in a similar pattern to the other side.  However, the difference in the tented arch lies in the ridges in the center, which are not continuous as in the case of the plain arch.  The ridges, which adjoin each other in the center, converge and thrust upward, giving the impression of a pitched tent.

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Arches

Arches are the simplest type of fingerprints that are formed by ridges that enter on one side of the print and exit on the other. No deltas are present. Spike or “tent”

Plain Arch Tented Arches Ridges enter on one Similar to the plain

side and arch,

exit on the other side. but has a spike in the 2. Loop

 In loops, the ridges make a backward turn but do not twist. center. This backward turn, or loop, is differentiated by how the loop flows on the hand.  The imprint on the fingerprint card is similar to the reverse image we see when we look in the mirror at ourselves.  There are two sub-groups that Henry identified in this category:  Radial Loop---  these are loops that flow toward the radius bone of the hand or, in other words,  when the downward slope of the loop is from the direction of the little finger toward the thumb of the hand.  Ulnar Loop---  these are loops that flow toward the ulna bone of the hand or, in other words,  when the downward slope of the loop is from the direction of the thumb toward the little finger of the hand

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Loops Loops must have one delta and one or more ridges that enter and leave on the same side. These patterns are named for their positions related to the radius and ulna bones.

Delt a

Ulnar Loop Radial Loop (Right Thumb) (Right Thumb) Loop opens Loop opens toward toward the NOTE: On the left hand, a loop that opens to the left right or the ulna left or the radial would be an ulnar loop, while one that opens to the bone. bone. right would be a radial loop.

3. Whorls • There are four sub-groups of whorls: 1.Plain Whorl--- • in these whorls, the ridges make a turn of one complete circuit and, therefore, are circular or spiral in shape. • The plain whorl is the simplest form of whorl and the most common. • There are at least two deltas • and a ridge whose circuit may be spiral, oval or circular in shape. 2.Central Pocket --- • in these whorls, one or more of the simple recurves of the plain whorl recurves a second time. 3.Double Loop--- • in these whorls, there are two separate loop formations.

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• In each of these formations, there are two entirely separate and distinct sets of shoulders and deltas. 4.Accidental Whorl--- • in these whorls, the composition of the pattern is derived from two distinct types of patterns with at least two deltas. • Whorls which contain ridges matching the characteristics of a particular whorl sub-grouping are classified as accidental whorls

Whorls Whorls have at least one ridge that makes (or tends to make) a complete circuit. They also have at least two deltas. If a print has more than two deltas, it is most likely an accidental. Central Plain Pocket Whorl Whorl

Draw a line between the two deltas in the plain and central pocket whorls. If some of the curved ridges touch the line, it is a plain whorl. If none of the center core touches the line, it is a central pocket whorl.

4.Composites In composites, there are patterns found in fingerprints which are combinations of arch, loop and whorl. Henry subdivided the composites into four sub-groups: 1.Central Pocket Loop---these loops recurve a second time forming a pocket within the loop.

2.Twinned Loop---also referred to as the Double Loop, these loops consist of two separate loop formations.

3.Lateral Pockets Loop---these loops are similar to the Twinned Loop except that their ridges bend sharply down on one side before recurving, actually forming a pocket. The F.B.I. finds it too difficult to locate these two loops, and classifies both kinds as Double Loops.

4.Accidental Loops---these loops are a combination of any two types of pattern with the exception on the plain arch that basically has no pattern.

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7 classes you need to know

How is identity determined from the “print”?

• From either the Prosecution or Defence‟s point of view, the most relevant process is the "identification" of the print.

• This can be simply thought of as a process of pattern matching.

• A ridge characteristic is a micro- element of the pattern of the print.

• That is, all classes of prints may contain any or all of the ridge characteristics.

• There are three basic ridge characteristics that an expert will seek to detect and then match up against the reference or sample print:

• · the ridge ending;

• · the bifurcation; and

• · the dot (or island).

• From these basic characteristics it is possible to create further ―composite‖ characteristics that result form a combination of the three basic characteristics:

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• The matching of the sample print with the reference print is an expert science with national and international standards.

• The Identification Standards generally refer to the minimum number of "minutiae" points (or detected ridge characteristics) that are able to be compared.

• It is the number of the matching minutiae found in any area of comparison that must exceed the standard minimum.

• Each minutiae point must be separately indicated and must match the test print both in terms of its positioning relative to other minutiae points AND in terms of the type of minutiae characteristics (lake, bifurcation, ridge ending, etc)

How is one print said to match another?

• When the expert considers whether one print matches another, they will be considering both dissimilarities AND similarities.

• An expert will compare prints by considering and evaluating the following:

• · the likeness of the general pattern type • · the pictorial likeness of the impressions (eg: ridge width, ridge spacing, ridge flow) • · the qualitative and quantitative likeness of the ridge characteristics; • · the likeness of sequence of the ridge characteristics; • · the likeness of any scars or creases present; and • · the absence of dissimilarities. • The process of comparison of fingerprints by an expert can have only three outcomes: • Match, Mismatch or Don't know.

Factors affecting the “quality” of fingerprints • The following are discernible features of the ageing process of fingerprints: • · dulling of the sweat-grease deposit; • · loss of stickiness; • · narrowing of the fingerprint ridges; and • · loss of continuity along the fingerprint ridges. How does the criminal lawyer deal with fingerprint evidence? • From the Prosecution‟s point of view the strength and utility of fingerprints derive from the following principles:

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• · The individual friction ridges of a person are so highly variable that their characteristics are not duplicated either in another region of that person or in any region of a different person. • · The configurations and characteristics [of the friction ridges] are permanent and unchanging. • · The configuration types vary within limits which allow for systematic classification. • It is the comparison of a print found at a location or on a particular object to a reference or sample print that provides probative evidence to a court. Examination of a crime scene for example may reveal a number of separate prints, from prints of people legitimately there to the print(s) of persons unknown. It is through the exclusion of some (the persons authorised to be there) and the matching of others (the person(s) unknown) with a sample print or prints taken from databases that the print found becomes relevant evidence.

• Criminal lawyers will almost invariably come across fingerprint evidence where a Police expert will be saying that an accused‟s print was found in an incriminating location. It is evidence that establishes the identity of a person who has had contact with the surface from which the print is lifted.

• Thus the utility of the evidence will vary greatly form one case to another.

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UNIT 5: FORENSIC SEROLOGY AND TOXICOLOGY

Characterization of blood stains, stain patterns of blood, preservation of blood evidence, characterization of semen, role of toxicologist, toxicology of alcohol, techniques used in toxicology, role of toxicological findings and drug recognition experts. ______

Identification and Characterization of Blood and Bloodstains

 RBC = no DNA; WBC = yes DNA  All blood cells have blood groups on outside of cell.  Red Blood Cells contain the protein hemoglobin, which carries oxygen  Hemoglobin picks up and drops off oxygen

2. Presumptiv 3. Confirmatio 4. Determine Presumptivee Screeningscreening Tests 5. Negativen test Identifyresult means the questioned the stain is not likely blood  Positivespecies result means the questionedorigin stain is likely blood  Presumptivebloodtest tests(Is produce(whose it a color reaction or release of light  Tests(Seriously, rely on catalytic properties ofis blood it (hemoglobin presence) Color Tests(human  Applybloodblood?) chromogen (coloris changingit?) chemical)  Applyblood?) oxidizing agent (hydrogen peroxide)  Theblood?) catalyst of the reaction is hemoglobin  Rapid color change is a positive result.  This means the stain is blood.

Color Test Method  Sample stain with clean cotton swab  Add drop of chromogen  Add drop of hydrogen peroxide  Alternatively, collect stain on thread; add chromogen and hydrogen peroxide in spot plate  Remember, other non-blood substances might catalyze the reaction also.  Chemical Oxidants  Plant materials  False Positive – A positive result given by a substance that is not blood.

5 Types of Color Tests  Benzidine , Phenolphthalein, O-Tolidine, Tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) and Leucomalachite Green (LMG) 1.Benzidine  Positive result = blue color  It is a Carcinogen (cancer causing).  No longer used by sane scientists 2.Phenolphthalein  Positive result = pink  Some other substance produce colors other than pink (not blood)  Still used today 3.O-Tolidine  Positive result = blue  Similar to benzidine; still carcinogenic as it can be metabolized to benidine  No longer used; gradually replaced by TMB 4.Tetramethylbenzidine (TMB)  Positive result = Blue-green  Most common test for blood  Rub stain with moist swab  Add TMB  Add peroxidase  Look for quick blue color 5.Leucomalachite Green (LMG)  Positive result = Green  Not as sensitive as TMB or specific as phenolphthalein

Chemiluminescence and Fluorescence  Chemiluminescence – light is emitted as a product of the chemical reation  Fluorescence – light is emitted when a substance is exposed to a shorter wavelength of light  More sensitive than color tests  May damage blood stain (no blood/DNA typing  Used to locate and define areas of blood  old blood stains  cleaned floor Luminol  Method similar to color test  Luminol is combined with oxidant and sprayed over area thought to contain blood  Emits a blue-white to yellow green glow Fluorescein  Fluorescein is combined with oxidant and sprayed over area thought to contain blood  Fluoresces when treated with a UV light  Fluorescein includes a thickener; this makes it more effective on vertical surfaces  Study showed no interference with DNA analysis Confirmatory Tests  Due to the possibility of false positives with the presumptive tests, confirmatory tests are necessary  Confirmatory tests involve making crystals that detect the presence of hemoglobin Teichmann Test and Takayama Test  Small amount of blood added to microscope slide  Chemical solution is added  Slide is heated to form crystals  Crystals viewed under microscope

Species Origin Most methods test for serum proteins  Serum proteins are found in all animals, but are slightly different  Species ID methods based on antigen/antibody interactions  Antigen = serum protein  Antibody = produced when foreign serum protein is detected  Certain antibody will only attach to one species’ serum protein

Antibody is in antiserum Antigen (serum protein) is in blood sample  Human antiserum will only attach to human blood sample  Rabbit antiserum will only attach to rabbit blood sample  Dog antiserum will only attach to dog blood sample

 Blood Precipitatesample (dilute) means Antiser bloodumin top in and antiserumheavylayer species bottom match layer Human blood

Human antiserum

Not human blood  Antiserum placed in center  Several bloodstains tested at  oneWhite time line means antiserum and bloodAntiserum match Blood Stain Gel Holes

 Antiserum and Genetic Markers in Blood If a stain is blood, and it is human blood, then whose is it?  Blood Group MarkersBlood, Protein/Enzyme move Markers and DNA Blood Group Markers  ABO Markers, Lewistoward System and Rhesus each System other ABO Markers  Look at antigens on Red Blood Cells  In this case, antigens are glycoproteins and are attached to the outside of the cell

ABO blood groups found on outside of cell

 A person will have antibodies (A or B) to whatever blood group he/she doesn’t have  Otherwise, a persons blood would clump up and cause death

 Testing is similar to species test  An anti-A, anti-B, or anti-AB antiserum (containing antibodies) is reacted with the blood stain to detect blood cells  A, B, or AB blood cells are reacted with a blood stain to detect antibodies  Tests can get complicated with absorbing and releasing cells  Final step is usually testing for agglutination (blood clumping)

 A cells clump with anti-

A Protein or Enzyme Markers  Some proteins or enzymes B cells can be in different forms (different shapes)  These differences can be detected by separating the proteins in a gel by electrophoresis clump with anti- B  AB cells clump with both  O cells do not clump LadderType Type 1 Type 2 3 +

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Blood Spatter Analysis

• Used to explain events at a violent crime scene – Direction blood travels – Angle of impact – Blood velocity (manner of death) – Point of origin Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Terms • Spatter – Bloodstains created from the application of force to the area where the blood originated. • Origin/Source – The place from where the blood spatter came from or originated. • Angle of Impact – The angle at which a blood droplet strikes a surface. • Parent Drop – The droplet from which a satellite spatter originates. • Satellite Spatters – Small drops of blood that break of from the parent spatter when the blood droplet hits a surface. • Spines – The pointed edges of a stain that radiate out from the spatter; can help determine the direction from which the blood traveled.

Satellite Spatters Spines

Parent

Drop Bloodstain transfer—when a bloody object comes into contact with a surface and leaves a patterned blood image on the surface Backs patter—blood that is directed back toward the source of energy Cast-off—blood that is thrown from an object in motion Contact stain—bloodstains caused by contact between a wet blood-bearing surface and a second surface that may or may not have blood on it. • Transfer—an image is recognizable and may be identifiable with a particular object • Swipe—wet blood is transferred to a surface that did not have blood on it • Wipe—a non-blood-bearing object moves through a wet bloodstain, altering the appearance of the original stain

Blood Droplet Volume . A droplet contains approximately 0.05 cc of fluid. . Is not the same for all blood droplets, but is generally from 0.03 cc to 0.15 cc . Is directly dependent upon the surface or orifice from which it originates . The impact area is called the target.

Physical Properties • Cohesion - blood sticks together as it falls • Gravity - pulls blood downward • Surface tension - blood drops that fall on a flat surface have a curved surface • Edges may have spikes or extensions • Satellites - small secondary droplets

Types of Bloodstain Patterns • Passive Bloodstains Patterns created from the force of gravity Drop, series of drops, flow patterns, blood pools, etc. • Projected Bloodstains – Patterns that occur when a force is applied to the source of the blood – Includes low, medium, or high impact spatters, cast-off, arterial spurting, expiratory blood blown out of the nose, mouth, or wound. • Transfer or Contact Bloodstains – These patterns are created when a wet, bloody object comes in contact with a target surface; may be used to identify an object or body part. – A wipe pattern is created from an object moving through a bloodstain, while a swipe pattern is created from an object leaving a bloodstain.

Six patterns of blood spatter

1. Passive fall (90o angle to floor)– circular drops w/secondary satellites 2. Arterial spurts or gushes 3. Splashes – show position of victim 4. Smears – bleeding victim touching walls or furniture 5. Blood Trails – victim moving from one place to another 6. Blood Pools – victim bleeds heavily

• Cast off pattern: blood from a moving object coated in blood (pipe, knife) • Fine-mist spatter: high-velocity impact (gunshot) • Void: empty space; victim/attacker/object moved after attack Contact stain—bloodstains caused by contact between a wet blood-bearing surface and a second surface that may or may not have blood on it. • Transfer—an image is recognizable and may be identifiable with a particular object • Swipe—wet blood is transferred to a surface that did not have blood on it • Wipe—a non-blood-bearing object moves through a wet bloodstain, altering the appearance of the original stain

. The harder and less porous the surface, the less the blood drop will break apart. . The softer and more porous the surface, the more the blood drop will break apart. . The pointed end of the bloodstain faces the direction of travel.

The shape of a blood drop: . Round—if it falls straight down at a 90-degree angle . Elliptical—blood droplets elongate as the angle decreases from 90 to 0 degrees; the angle can be determined by the following formula.

Types of Cast off Stains • Drip: falls away from the object or blood source, very round in shape. • Swing: Falls off the weapon as it is in motion toward the target (unless backswing). • Round linear pattern with the drops being close to the same size • Cessation – falls off the weapon after it strikes the target – away from the target ALWAYS!! 3 Types of Arterial Blood Spatters • Gush – similar size drops/ the linear pattern is usually horizontal unless the victim is falling. • Spurt – similar size drops with spacing between them. Linear pattern going up and down. • Rain – blood mess (artery is completely severed) Non-Impact Spatters • Blockage – absence of a stain where there should be one • Simple direct transfer – laying something down or stepping into something • Wipe – non-bloodied surface rubs across a bloodied one (The most blood is where you first touched it.) • Swipe – bloodied surface rubs against (or across) a non-bloodied one. (The most blood is where you LAST touched it.) • Smudge – when a moving object passes through a blood stain. (Hard to identify) Impact Spatters . The more acute the angle of impact, the more elongated the stain. . 90-degree angles are perfectly round drops; 80-degree angles take on a more elliptical shape. . At about 30 degrees the stain will begin to produce a tail. . The more acute the angle, the easier it is to determine the direction of travel. Types of impact spatters • Gunshot – mist, small drops, very elongated (Distinct area of convergence) • Blunt object – no mist, small drops, more cylindrical • Exhalation – mist, can look like gunshot (Cough, breath)

Blood Spatter Types based on velocity 1. High velocity – gunshot wounds 2. Medium velocity – beating, stabbing 3. Low velocity – blunt object impact

Area of Intersection and Convergence

. The location of the blood source can be determined by drawing lines from the various blood droplets to the point where they intersect. . The area of convergence is the point of origin—the spot where the ―blow‖ occurred. It may be established at the scene by measurement of angles with the use of strings. . Determine source of blood (point of origin) . Draw straight lines down long axis of blood spatter

Crime-Scene Investigation of Blood 1. Confirm the stain is blood.  Visualization with Luminol  Kastle-Meyer test 2. Confirm the stain is human.  ELISA test 3. Determine blood type.  Antibody test

Preservation of Evidence: Blood

Biological Fluid Stain Evidence: Blood

 Biological Material must be considered hazardous!!!  Always follow Universal Precautions for handling stains.  Precautions used to collect biological evidence: – Wear latex gloves, surgical masks, and full coverage gowns. – Eye-coverings are needed for collecting liquid samples. – Keep hand out of areas that are hidden. – Label all blood samples – Package dry samples in bags, as well as stained clothing. – Add a note of precaution if biohazards like AIDS or hepatitis are suspected. – Decontaminate all non-disposable items. – Destroy tags, forms, or reports splashed with blood. – Clean up hands with diluted bleach, and dispose of contaminated clothing. – The term Universal Precautions means:  One must assume that any biological material is contaminated with biological pathogens such as HIV, Hepatitis B, or others. – Always use protective clothing, eyewear, respirator masks, latex gloves, etc.

Nature of Blood Evidence

 Blood may be encountered as physical evidence in: – Homicides – Sexual Assault – Vehicular hit-and-run – Other crimes

Preliminary Considerations  It is essential to document, collect, and preserve blood evidence.  Improperly collected and preserved blood evidence can weaken or destroy a potential source of facts in a case.  Properly collected and preserved blood evidence can establish a strong link between an individual and a criminal act.  Blood evidence or the lack of blood evidence can bolster or contradict a witness statement or any statements the suspect may have made.  Blood evidence can point the investigator in the right direction for investigative purposes  If the evidence is collected and stored suitably, it can be presented to a judge or jury several years from the time of the criminal act.  Perhaps the most powerful application of blood evidence is the ability to absolutely eliminate a person as a potential suspect in a crime.  Communication is the key to effectively processing blood evidence.  Clear and open communication must exist between a crime scene’s first responding officer, the case detective, the crime scene investigator, the forensic scientist analyzing the evidence and the assistant district attorney handling the case.  In the 1990’s, most crime labs starting relying on DNA analysis to characterize bloodstains.  A blood source can now be statistically narrowed down to one person out of several million or even several billion.  A crime scene investigator should know which method or methods of bloodstain analysis are available from his or her crime lab, the FBI lab, and private labs in the community.

Collection and Preservation of Blood Evidence  Vacutainer usage:  Yellow Top Vacutainer . – Useful for conventional serological testing and DNA testing. (personal preference)

– (contain Acid Citrate and Dextrose solution)  Purple Top Vacutainer . Useful for DNA testing; may inhibit certain conventional serological tests.  Red Top Vacutainer .  Useful for conventional serological tests:  Less useful for DNA testing:  Can be used for pregnancy and HIV testing:  Gray Top Vacutainer .  Useful for toxicological testing;  Not suitable for conventional serological analysis  May not be suitable for DNA analysis  If collecting blood from an Autopsy, collect one of each type of Vacutainer.  Should be stored in a refrigerator (not frozen) at about four degrees Centigrade until transported to the crime lab.  Most items of blood evidence will be collected in clean, unused paper containers such as packets, envelopes, and bags.  Can use plastic containers for up to 2-hours.  Key note:  Do not allow any evidence, especially blood evidence to become contaminated with other evidence at the crime scene or during transportation to the crime lab.  Remove blood evidence from the CS immediately and if wet allow to air dry at room temperature.  UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES SHOULD EVIDENCE CONTAINING MOISTURE BE SEALED IN PLASTIC OR PAPER CONTAINERS FOR MORE THAN TWO HOURS.  Moisture allows the growth of microorganism that can destroy or alter evidence.  Any evidence that can cross contaminate each other must be packaged separately.  Containers should be closed and secured to prevent the mixture of evidence during transportation.  Each container should have the collecting person’s initials, the date and time it was collected, a complete description of the evidence and where it was found, and the investigating agency’s name and file number/case number.  Before transporting, examine the items to determine if there is any loose trace evidence (hairs, fibers, paint chips, etc) that may be lost in transportation.  Collect this evidence in a paper packet and place in an envelope.  Give description that matches the original evidence where collected.  Blood evidence must never be exposed to heat or humidity.  If possible, always refrigerate until it can be transported.  Take blood evidence to the lab as soon as possible. Collecting Dried Bloodstains 1. If small and transportable, package it. – Advantage . Minimal interaction with stain by investigator. . Allows serologist to make the decisions involved in collecting the samples . Dilution and contamination potential minimized by eliminating water as the collection medium. – Disadvantage: . Bulky items require more storage space. 2. Large Items with stains: – Cut out a portion of the item with the stain. – Cut out sample portion away from stain. – Advantage: Dilution and contamination minimized. – Disadvantage: Must decide which stains and controls to collect. 3. Tape Lifting Bloodstain: – Advantage . Dilution and contamination potential minimized. . Negative control is readily collected. . Requires little storage space . Easy to perform – Disadvantage . Must decide which stains to collect. 4. Scraping bloodstains into a paper packet: – Advantage . Dilution and contamination potential minimized. – Disadvantage . Must decide which stains to collect . Stains tend to break into small, hard to handle flakes . Flakes tend to get lost easily. . Some surfaces are not easily scraped. 5. Absorbing stains onto moist ½‖ long threads – Advantage . Stains are concentrated onto a small areas. . Requires little storage space – Disadvantage . Dilution and contamination problem increases. . Must decide which stain to collect. . 70% ethanol is best to use as a dilution. 7. Absorbing onto moist ½ X ½ Cotton Square

– Advantage . Stain on small area. . Easier to handle than treads . Requires little storage space – Disadvantage . Dilution and contamination potential increased. Wet Bloodstains  If the item is small: – Package in paper bag. – Bring to a secured location – Take it out of bag and allow to air dry. – Repackage in original bag. – May then place in additional dry bag. Forensic Characterization of Semen Testing for Seminal Stains • Many of the cases sent to a forensic laboratory involve sexual offenses, • making it necessary to examine exhibits for the presence of seminal stains. • The best way to locate and at the same time characterize a seminal stain is to • Perform the acid phosphatase (an enzyme secreted into seminal fluid) color test. • A purple color indicates acid phosphatase enzyme. • Acid Phosphatase, Christmas Tree Stain

Testing for Seminal Stains  Semen can be unequivocally identified by either the presence of spermatozoa or of p30, a protein unique to seminal plasma.  Forensic scientists can successfully link seminal material to an individual by DNA typing.

Rape Evidence • The rape victim must undergo a medical examination as soon as possible after the assault. • At that time the appropriate items of physical evidence including clothing, hairs, and vaginal and rectal swabs can be collected for subsequent laboratory examination. • All outer and undergarments should be carefully removed and packaged separately in paper (not plastic) bags. • Bedding, or the object upon which the assault took place, may also be carefully collected. • If a suspect is apprehended within 24 hours of the assault, it may be possible to detect the victim’s DNA on the male’s underwear or on a penile swab of the suspect. • Items routinely collected from the suspect include all clothing, pubic hair, head hair, penile swab, and a blood sample or buccal swab for DNA typing. • The forceful physical contact between victim and assailant may result in a transfer of such physical evidence of blood, semen, saliva, hairs, and fibers.

Role of toxicologist Toxicology—the study of the adverse effects of chemicals or physical agents on living organisms. Types: Environmental—air, water, soil Consumer—foods, cosmetics, drugs, Medical, clinical, forensic

Toxicologists • Toxicologists are charged with the responsibility for detecting and identifying the presence of drugs and poisons in body fluids, tissues, and organs. • Toxicologists not only work in crime laboratories and medical examination offices, but may also reach into hospital laboratories and health facilities to identify a drug overdose or monitor the intake of drugs. History

Mathieu Orfilia • The father of toxicology was Mathieu Orfilia in the early 1800’s . • His work mainly centered around arsenic. • It was relatively easy to get because it was the rat poison of the day and was the favorite murder weapon among poor people. Intoxicant vs. Poison: • An intoxicant such as alcohol requires that a relatively large amount be added to be lethal. • A poison, like cyanide, requires a relatively small amount to be fatal.

Forensic Toxicology found in

 Postmortem—medical examiner or coroner  Criminal—motor vehicle accidents (MVA)  Workplace—drug testing  Sports—human and animals  Environment—industrial,  catastrophic, terrorism.

Toxicology- Toxic substances may: *Be a cause of death, Contribute to death, Cause impairment and Explain behavior

Aspects of Toxicity

 Dosage  The chemical or physical form of the substance  The mode of entry into the body  Body weight and physiological conditions of the victim, including age and sex  The time period of exposure  The presence of other chemicals in the body or in the dose

Lethal Dose

 LD50 refers to the dose of a substance that kills half the test population, usually within four hours.  Testing is usually done on animals that compare well to humans metabolism.  Expressed in milligrams of substance per kilogram of body weight

Role of Toxicologist

- The study of the chemical and physical properties of toxic substances and their physiological effect on living organisms.

Three Primary Responsibilities

1. Postmortem Drug Testing 2. Workplace Drug Testing 3. Identification of Contraband Materials

Deaths Investigated by Toxicologists 1. Accidental Poisonings 2. Drug Abuse Cases 3. Suicidal Poisonings 4. Homicidal Poisonings

Toxicological Analysis of Tissue

a. Collect sample of all body fluids b. Collect samples from organs and tissues c. A forensic toxicologist cannot simply look for the presence of a toxin or drug in a body, she must understand how the body processes these molecules d. Toxicological analysis must start as soon as possible after a person’s death.

General Classes of Poisons 1. Gases, 2.Metallic Poisons3. Volatile Organics and Non-volatile Organics - the major category here is what is known as an alkaloid, a drug that mimics human neurotransmitters or hormones and therefore interferes with normal body chemistryAlkaloids are derived from plants…

Alkaloids-  Common Examples:  Amphetamines – stimulants that provoke euphoria; these drugs mimic catecholamines in the human body (adrenaline, etc)  Cocaine – natural stimulant that acts as a mimic to catecholamines; metabolites are detected in urine for as many as 3 days  Opiates – depressants that reduce muscle activity, heartbeat, respiration, and the inclination to sleep; effective pain relievers and euphoria producing; opiates mimic endorphins in the human body  Cannabinoids – fast acting plant alkaloid; body mimic is unknown; metabolites can be detected in urine for months AAllkkaallooiiddss

amph adre etami nalin ne e coc serot ain onin e ecs tas y Methods of Detection 1. Color test 2. Microdiffusion test 3. Chromatography a. thin-layer chromatography (TLC) b. gas chromatography (GC) c. high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) 4. Spectroscopy a. UV light, b. visible light, c. microwave, d. X-ray and e. infrared

Example UV-vis Spectrum

Example IR Spectrum

5. Mass Spectroscopy

6. Immunoassay

Interpretation of Findings 1. Is a drug or poison present? What substance? 2. How much of the substance is present? Is it’s concentration in the body sufficient to cause death? 3. How was the drug/poison administered?

TOXICOLOGY OF ALCOHOL

Alcohol—Ethyl Alcohol (C2H5OH)  Most abused drug in America  About 40 % of all traffic deaths are alcohol-related.  Acts as a depressant  Toxic—affecting the central nervous system, especially the brain  Colorless liquid, generally diluted in water  Alcohol appears in blood within minutes;  30–90 minutes for full absorption  Detoxification—about 90 percent in the liver

Introduction

• A major branch of forensic toxicology deals with the measurement of alcohol in the body for matters that pertain to violations of criminal law.

Ethanol Toxicology

• Types of alcohol- Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol), Methanol (Methyl alcohol), Isopropanol and Ethylene glycol

• Ethanol production

– Fermentation of sugar or starch Can only achieve 20% ethanol.

– Fermentation stops at higher % of ethanol (above 20%).

– Since ethanol boils at a lower temperature than water, ethanol can be separated from an aqueous matrix by heating to a temperature above the boiling point of ethanol, but below the boiling point of water and collecting the ethanol vapors.

– In addition to ethanol and water, alcoholic beverages contain other substances broadly classified as congeners.

– Congeners may be other volatile alcohols, as well as aldehydes and ketones obtained from the fermented product. – Other congeners may also be extracted from the containers in which the distillate is aged.

– Congeners account for the different taste, smell and color of different alcoholic beverages.

– Distillation

• Distilled alcoholic beverages are usually 40 to 50% ethanol by volume (80-100 proof)

Ethanol Pharmacokinetics

• Absorption- (Absorption is mostly by diffusion in the gastrointestinal tract (75% through the small intestines) • Dermal, Inhalation, IV AND Oral • The presence of food has two major effects on the blood ethanol concentration versus time curve. • The peak ethanol concentration occurs earlier on an empty stomach as opposed to a full stomach. • In addition, the magnitude of the peak ethanol concentration is higher on an empty stomach than on a full stomach. • Food competes with ethanol for absorption sites in the small intestine, thus delaying absorption of ethanol. • The elimination of ethanol is independent of ethanol concentration such that a greater proportion of the absorbed ethanol is being eliminated when food is present. • When a single dose of ethanol is consumed on an empty stomach, the peak ethanol concentration will be reached within one hour. 30 minutes after last drink. – Gastrointestinal tract – Presence of food.

Rate of Absorption

Depends on:  Amount of alcohol consumed  The alcohol content of the beverage  Time taken to consume it  Quantity and type of food present in the stomach  Physiology of the consumer  About 5 percent is excreted unchanged in breath, perspiration, and urine

• Distribution – Gastrointestinal tract, Portal vein, Liver, Heart, Lung, Heart and Body

• Elimination – 5-10% in the urine – Saliva, expired air and sweat – Liver (enzymatic oxidation to acetaldehyde, acetic acid and carbon dioxide) – Greater than 90% of the ethanol is eliminated by the liver. – The average rate of elimination is 15 mg/dL per hour for men and 18 mg/dl per hour for women. – Alcoholics have a greater elimination than social drinkers or non-drinkers. – Athletic individuals who do not drink have the slowest ethanol elimination rates.

Ethanol Effects on the Body • Cardiovascular system, Central nervous system, Gastrointestinal tract, Kidney, Liver. • After moderate ethanol consumption, there is no significant effect on blood pressure, cardiac output and cardiac contractile force • CNS Depressant. • At high enough levels the respiratory system center in the brain may become depressed sufficiently to cause coma and death. • Consumption of alcohol in combination with meals stimulates the production of gastric juices rich in acid. • Concentrated ethanol in the stomach can irritate mucosal membranes which may lead to gastritis.

Alcohol & Circulatory System

• Humans have a closed circulatory system consisting of a heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries.

• Alcohol is absorbed from the stomach and small intestines into the blood stream. • Alcohol is carried to the liver where the process of its destruction starts. • Blood, carrying alcohol, moves to the heart and is pumped to the lungs. • In the lungs, carbon dioxide and alcohol leave the blood and oxygen enters the blood in the air sacs known as alveoli. • Then the carbon dioxide and alcohol are exhaled during breathing. • Like any depressant, alcohol principally effects the central nervous system, particularly the brain.

Alcohol Levels

• Then the alcohol concentration slowly decreases until a zero level is again reached. • Factors such as time taken to consume the drink, the alcohol content, the amount consumed, and food present in the stomach determine the rate at which alcohol is absorbed. • Elimination of alcohol throughout the body is accomplished through oxidation and excretion. • Oxidation takes place almost entirely in the liver, while alcohol is excreted unchanged in the breath, urine, and perspiration. • The extent to which an individual may be under the influence of alcohol is usually determined by either measuring the quantity of alcohol present in the blood system or by measuring the alcohol content in the breath. • Experimental evidence has verified that the amount of alcohol exhaled in the breath is in direct proportion to the blood concentration.

Alcohol and Law

• The American Medical Association and the National Safety Council have been able to exert considerable influence in convincing the states to establish uniform and reasonable blood-alcohol standards. • Between 1939 and 1964 a person having a blood-alcohol level in excess of 0.15 percent w/v was to be considered under the influence, which was lowered to 0.10 percent by 1965. • In 1972 the impairment level was recommended to be lowered again to 0.08 percent w/v. It remains there today. • To prevent a person’s refusal to take a test for alcohol consumption, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration recommended an ―implied consent‖ law. • Adopted by all states by 1973, this law states that the operation of a motor vehicle on a public highway automatically carries with it the stipulation that a driver will submit for a test for alcohol intoxication if requested or be subject to loss of the license.

Breath Testers • Many types of breath testers are designed to analyze a set volume of breath. • Theory-Henry’s law • The captured breath is exposed to infrared light. – Ethanol in breath Vs ethanol in blood • 2100 to 1 ratio • 2300 to 1 ratio • Types of analyzers – Chemical • Reaction of ethanol with potassium dichromate/sulfuric acid solution • Colored solution that results is measured spectrophotometrically – IR spectrophotometry – Electrochemical oxidation - fuel cell Breath Testers working principle • Breath testers that operate on the principle of infrared light absorption are becoming increasingly popular within the law enforcement community. • It’s the degree of the interaction of the light with alcohol in the captured breath sample that allows the instrument to measure a blood alcohol concentration in breath. • Some breath testing devices also use fuel cells.

Field Testing

• Law enforcement officers typically use field sobriety tests to estimate a motorist’s degree of physical impairment by alcohol and whether or not an evidential test for alcohol is justified. • The horizontal gaze nystagmus test, walk and turn, and the one-leg stand are all considered reliable and effective psychophysical tests. • Chemical • Screening • Quantitative • Disadvantage - aldehydes and ketones will interfere with the test • Enzymatic • Conversion of NAD to NADH by ethanol (serum, urine and whole blood) • Measured spectrophotometrically at 340 nm • Same reaction with a blue dye (thiazoyl blue) (serum, urine, fresh blood and postmortem blood) • Measured with a fluorometer • Gas Chromatography • Can measure ethanol in a wide range of specimens • Can distinguish ethanol from other alcohols, aldehydes and ketones • Two common methods • Head space • Direct injection Gas Chromatography Testing • Blood must always be drawn under medically accepted conditions by a qualified individual. • It is important that a nonalcoholic disinfectant be applied before the suspect’s skin is penetrated with a sterile needle or lancet. • Once blood is removed from an individual, its preservation is best ensured when it is sealed in an airtight container after an anticoagulant and a preservative have been added and stored in a refrigerator. • Gas chromatography offers the toxicologist the most widely used approach for determining alcohol levels in blood.

The Confirmation Step • The GC separates the sample into its components, while the MS represents a unique ―fingerprint‖ pattern that can be used for identification. • Once the drug is extracted and identified, the toxicologist may be required to provide an opinion on the drug’s effect on an individual’s natural performance or physical state. • IR Spectrophotometry • Based on absorbance of light by the ethanol molecule • Mainstay in evidential breath testing devices • Electrochemical Oxidation • Oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid • Also used in evidential breath testing Assessment of Ethanol Impairment • In a British study: – Detectable deterioration of drivers at between 30 – 50 mg/dL – Obvious deterioration observed at between 60 – 100 mg/dL • In another British study: – Pilots exhibited impairment at 40 mg/dL • Blood alcohol concentration: – 10-50 mg/dL: Impairment detectable by special tests – 30-120 mg/dL: Beginning of sensory-motor impairment – 90-250 mg/dL: Sensory-motor incoordination; impaired balance – 180-400 mg/dL: Increased muscular incoordination; apathy; lethargy • Blood alcohol concentration: – 250-400 mg/dL: Impaired consciousness; sleep; stupor – 350-500 mg/dL: Complete unconsciousness; coma – 450 and greater mg/dL: Death from respiratory arrest

Techniques used in Forensic toxicology

 Describe techniques that forensics toxicologists use to isolate and identify drugs and poisons.

Screening Tests-  Use TLC, GC, Immunoassay  Immunoassay – very different  Based on specific drug antibody reactions  Ability to detect small concentrations  Best for detecting marijuana

Confirmation Tests  GC/MS  One step test of unequaled sensitivity and specificity  Drug testing not related to criminal matters

Drugs in Hair  Drugs remain in  Bloodstream – 24 hours  Urine – 72 hours  Tested in Private labs, typical for workplace screenings  Hair nourished by blood flowing through capillaries near root  Drugs diffuse through capillary walls and become permanently entrapped in hair’s protein structure  Drug’s location becomes historical marker for delineating drug intake

Heavy Metals  Group of poisons  Arsenic, Bismuth, Antimony, Mercury, Thallium  Reinsch Test  Dissolve body fluid or tissue in hydrochloric acid solution then insert copper strip to solution  Appearance of silver or dark coating on copper indicates presence of heavy metal  Confirm with inorganic analysis

Carbon Monoxide  One of the most common poisons  Primarily absorbed by red blood cells  Combines with hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin  Not enough hemoglobin left to carry oxygen to tissues  Causes asphyxiation

Basic Methods for Detection of CO  Spectrophotometric – visible spectrum  GC – liberates CO from blood  Calculate percent saturation  Greater than 50-60% = fatal  Fatal levels can be lower when in combination with depressants Arson Victim  High levels of carbon monoxide in blood indicate that victim breathed in products of fire and was alive when fire began  Low levels = dead before fire started  Could have been placed there to destroy evidence Significance of findings  Interpreting results is the most difficult chore  Blood concentration levels can be used to estimate pharmacological effects of drugs  Before drawing conclusions, toxicologists must consider other factors – age, physical condition, drug history, tolerance  Prolonged use can make an individual less responsive to drug’s effects  Additive or synergistic effects provided by interaction of 2 or more drugs  Concentration in urine is poor indicator because formed outside circulatory system and drug levels can build up over long periods of time  Drug can be found in urine 1-3 days after taken and long after other effects have disappeared  Best used to corroborate other findings

Postmortem Forensic Toxicology

• Qualitative and quantitative analysis of drugs or poisons in biological specimens collected at autopsy • Interpretation of findings in terms of: • Physiological effect at time of death • Behavioural effect at time of death

How might one define postmortem forensic toxicology? In terms of purpose: • The purpose of postmortem forensic toxicology is to perform qualitative and quantitative analysis for drugs and their metabolites, and poisons such as metals, carbon monoxide, and volatile substances in human fluids and tissues collected after death. • The postmortem forensic toxicologist will then evaluate the role of drugs or poisons as either determining factors or contributory factors in the death of the individual. • This includes interpretation as to what the physiological effect at time of death might have been (e.g. acute toxicity such as respiratory depression) and/or what the behavioural effect at the time of death may have been (e.g. impairment leading to drowning, motor vehicle collision or other traumatic cause of death).

Qualitative analysis – determines the presenceor absence of a drug or poison in a submitted sample

Quantitative analysis – determines the amount of drug or poison that is present in the submitted sample

Types of cases: • Suspected drug intoxication cases, Fire deaths, Homicides, Driver and pilot fatalities, Therapeutic drug monitoring and Sudden infant death (SIDS).

Samples of Forensic Interest

Issues in Specimen Collection • Selection • Multiple, varied sites of collection • Collection • Appropriate method of collection • Adequate volumes for analysis • Storage and handling Important to ensure analytical results are accurate and interpretations are sound

Hematoma case example

• A 26 year old man was found dead at the bottom of a staircase. Death was due to physical injuries. • Question as to alcohol use prior to fall down stairs • No urine available at autopsy • Alcohol not detected in femoral blood • Alcohol in hematoma blood ® 150 mg/100 mL • The deceased had been drinking prior to receiving the head trauma. • The deceased had survived for several hours after the injury. • Caution: There may be a delay between the incident which resulted in hematoma and the actual formation of the hematoma • Therefore, this alcohol concentration does not necessarily indicate the BAC at the time of the fall down the stairs. Urine

• Produced by the kidneys • Blood filtered by the kidneys • Stored in the bladder until voided • Qualitative - the presence of a drug in the urine of an individual indicates that some time prior to death the drug or poison was present in the blood of the individual

Stomach contents • Visual examination may reveal tablets • Drugs that have been orally ingested may be detected in stomach contents • Caution: drugs administered by other routes may also diffuse into stomach contents from the blood • Generally qualitative: • Stomach contents are not homogeneous • Only a portion of stomach contents collected (unmixed?) • Useful for directing further analysis

Case Example

• A 26 year old woman is found dead in bed • Numerous medications in her home: • Amitriptyline, Oxycodone, Morphine, Paroxetine, Diphenhydramine, Pseudoephedrine, Phenobarbital, Codeine, Temazepam, Diazepam • Only 3 mL of blood collected at autopsy • Qualitative analysis of stomach contents: • Amitriptyline: detected • Nortriptyline: detected • Quantitation can now be performed in blood Liver • Drug metabolism occurs in the liver • Both parent compounds and metabolites may be present in higher concentrations in the liver than in the blood  ease of detection • Limitation is that drugs are not uniformly distributed throughout the liver  confounds interpretation

Bile • Digestive secretion • Continuously produced by the liver • Stored in the gallbladder • Qualitative - the presence of a drug in the bile of an individual indicates that sometime prior to death, the individual was exposed to the drug

Vitreous humor • Fluid that occupies the space between the lens and the retina of the eye. • Sequestered from putrefaction, charring and trauma, microorganisms. • Useful in cases where decomposition is advanced, body is exhumed or in fire deaths • Limitation is blood:vitreous ratio may not be known

Role of toxicological findings and drug recognition experts.

Drug Recognition Expert

History and Development

 A DRE is a police officer who is trained to recognize impairment in drivers who are under the influence of drugs other than, or in addition to, alcohol. The International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) coordinates the National Drug Evaluation and Classification (DEC) Program; the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) funds it.

 The Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) originated the program. In the early 1970’s, LAPD officers noticed that many of the individuals they arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol registered very low or zero alcohol concentration readings. The officers reasonably suspected that the arrestees were under the influence of drugs, but lacked the knowledge and skills to support their suspicions.

 In response, two LAPD sergeants collaborated with various medical doctors, research psychologists and other medical professionals to develop a simple, standardized procedure for recognizing drug influence and impairment.

 Their efforts culminated in the development of a multi-step protocol and the first DRE program. The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and several countries around the world employ the DEC Program.  1970s, toxicology unit developed and tested clinical and psychophysical examinations that police officers could use to identify and differentiate between types of drug impairment  Evolved into national program  Standardized methods  Not a substitute for toxicology testing . Officers trained in the detection of drivers who are under the influence of drugs besides alcohol . 12 step post arrest evaluation in controlled environment o Field Sobriety tests o Eye examinations o Clinical signs o Signs of ingestion DRE Training and Certification

 Many police departments handpick all DRE candidates. DRE candidates must be certified in, and proficient in, the administration of the standardized field sobriety tests (SFSTs), including the HGN test, prior to their acceptance into the DRE pre-school.  DRE candidates undergo over 100 hours of intensive classroom instruction and formal training, including a basic overview of field sobriety tests, human physiology and drug pharmacology, and an internship period where the DRE conducts actual drug evaluations under the tutelage of a certified DRE instructor.  To achieve certification as a DRE, the candidate’s opinions must be confirmed by laboratory analysis of biological specimens collected during the training examinations.  At the DRE pre-school and school, DREs receive nine days of specialized DRE training concerning the effects ofalcohol and other drugs on the human body.  They also participate in several alcohol workshops and must pass a final exam before graduation. After graduation, DREs undergo a lengthy certification process.  During this process, prospective DREs must perform a minimum of 12 supervised evaluations.  The laboratory must corroborate their opinions 75 percent of the time before they can be certified.

The DRE Protocol

The DRE protocol is a standardized and systematic method of examining a Driving under the Influence of Drugs (DUID) suspect to determine:

(1) Whether the suspect is impaired; and if so; (2) Whether the impairment relates to drugs or a medical condition; and if drugs; (3) The category or combination of categories of drugs that is the like-ly cause of the impairment.

 The process is systematic ―because it is based on a complete set of observable signs and symptoms that are known to be reliable indicators of drug impairment.  A drug recognition expert never reaches a conclusion based on any one element of the examination, but instead on the totality of facts that emerge.  The DRE evaluation is standardized because ―it is conducted in exactly the same way, by every drug recognition expert, for every suspect‖ whenever possible.  Standardization is important because it makes the officers better observers, helps to avoid errors, allows for easy comparison of DRE evaluations, and promotes professionalism.

The 12 Step Protocol

The DREs utilize a 12-step process to assess their suspects:

1. Breath Alcohol Test-

 The arresting officer reviews the subject’s breath alcohol concentration (BrAC) test results and determineswhether the subject’s apparent impairment is consistent with the subject’s BrAC. If the subject’s impairment is consistent with the BrAC, the officer will not call a DRE. If the impairment is not explained by the BrAC, the officer requests a DRE evaluation.

2. Interview of the Arresting Officer-

 The DRE commences his or her investigation by reviewing the BrAC test results and discussing the circumstancesof the arrest with the arresting officer(s).The DRE asks about the subject’s behavior, appearance, anddriving pattern.The DRE also asks whether the subject made any statements and whether the arresting officer(s) found any other relevant evidence, like a small pipe or a baggie.

3. Preliminary Examination and First Pulse

 The DRE conducts a preliminary examination, in large part to ascertain whether the subject may be suffering from an injury or other condition unrelated to drugs.  Accordingly, the DRE asks the subject a series of standard questions relating to the subject’s health and recent ingestion of food, alcohol and drugs, including prescribed medications.  The DRE observes the subject’s attitude, coordination, speech, breath and face.  The DRE also determines whether the subject’s pupils are of equal size and whether the subject’s eyes can follow a moving stimulus and track equally.  If there is greater than 0.05 millimeters difference in the subject’s eyes, he or she may be suffering from a neurological disorder, disease or brain injury.

4. Eye Examination-

 The DRE examines the subject for horizontal gaze nystagmus (HGN), vertical gaze nystagmus (VGN) and a lack of ocular convergence.  A subject lacks convergence if his or her eyes are unable to converge toward the bridge of his nose when a stimulus is moved in.  Depressants, inhalants, and phencyclidine (PCP), the so-called DIP drugs, may cause HGN. In addition, the DIP drugs may cause VGN when taken in higher doses.  The DIP drugs, as well as cannabis (marijuana), may also cause a lack of convergence.

5. Divided Attention Psychophysical Tests

 The DRE administers four psychophysical tests: the Romberg Balance, the Walk and Turn, the One LegStand, and the Finger to Nose tests. The DRE can accurately determine whether a subject’s psychomotorand/or divided attention skills are impaired by administering these tests.

6. Vital Signs and Second Pulse

 The DRE takes the subject’s blood pressure, temperature and pulse. Some drug categories may elevate thevital signs. Others may lower them.  Vital signs thus provide much valuable evidence of the presence and influence of a variety of drugs.

7. Dark Room Examinations  The DRE estimates the subject’s pupil sizes under three different lighting conditions with a pupilometer to determine whether the pupils are dilated, constricted, or normal.  Some drugs increase pupil size. Others may decrease pupil size. The DRE also checks for the eyes’ reaction to light. Certain drugs may slow the eyes’ reaction to light.  Finally, the DRE examines the subject’s nasal and oral cavities for signs of ingestion.

8. Examination for Muscle Tone  The DRE examines the subject’s skeletal muscle tone. Certain categories of drugs may cause the muscles to become rigid.  Other categories may cause the muscles to become very loose and flaccid.

9. Check for Injection Sites and Third Pulse  The DRE examines the subject for injection sites, which may indicate recent use of certain types of drugs.The DRE also takes the subject’s pulse for the third and final time.

10. Subject’s Statements and Other Observations  The DRE typically reads Miranda, if he or she has not done so previously, and asks the subject a series ofquestions regarding the subject’s drug use.

11. Analysis and Opinions of the Evaluator  Based on the totality of the evaluation, the DRE forms an opinion as to whether the subject is impaired. Ifthe DRE determines that the subject is impaired, the DRE indicates what category or categories of drugsmay have contributed to the subject’s impairment.The DRE bases these conclusions on his or her trainingand experience and the Drug Symptomatology Matrix.

12. Toxicological Examination  The DRE requests a urine, blood and/or saliva sample from the subject and sends the sample to the toxicologylab for analysis.

UNIT 6: APPLIED FORENSIC STATISTICS Probability population and sampler, weight of evidence and the Bayesian likelihood ratio,Transfer evidence application of statistics to particular areas of forensic science, Knowledgebase systems, Quality base of system.

POPULATION AND SAMPLING

Populations consists of all elements – individuals, items, or objects – whose characteristics are being studied. • Homogeneous Population All the units have similar characteristics • Heterogeneous Population A selection of units with dissimilar characteristics • SAMPLE A portion of the population selected for study is referred to as a sample • Representative sample. A sample that represents the characteristics of the population as closely as possible • PURPOSE of Sampling : is to estimate the value of a parameter of interest , EX: such as mean difference in the results b/w two repetitions of a breath test for alcohol. • RANDOM SAMPLE. A sample drawn in such a way that each element of the population has an equal chance of being selected is called a random sample. • Knowledge-Based Sampling Sampling of a population based on tactical decisions such as selecting the items likely to give the most information regarding the question being asked

STRATIFIED POPULATION

The population is divided into sub populations, or strata andsampling is conducted within the strata . ex: in a survey of paints fragments from motor cars the population may be stratified by -- different layers by different car or -- paint manufactures

RELEVENT POPULATIONS The relevant populations are those persons who could have been involved • Some times it can be established that the crime must have been committed by a particular class of persons --- on the basis of age ----sex,occupation Reasons for Sampling • too large to submit to the laboratory as a whole item • cost effectiveness and efficiency by refraining from doing unnecessary • Sampling for identification • Sampling for identification and quantification • To minimise the total number of required analytical determinations • To answer relevant questions by examination of a portion of the population • Tactical based selection process to target potential evidence • For multiple testing /reproducibility determination • Time constraints

Bayesian likelihood ratio

• LR = likelihood ratio = "the ratio of two probabilities of the same event under different hypotheses.“ Probability of evidence if G Probability of the evidence if G Where G=guilty,G=not guilty

• Net benefit of declaring a match Gain-Loss>0 Where, • Gain = [probability of guilt] X [benefit of convicting the guilty] • Loss = [probability of innocence] X [cost of convicting the innocent]

Deriving equation for Gain

• GAIN is given by [probability of guilt] X [benefit of convicting the guilty] • Now probability of guilt depends on – δ = prior probability of guilt – r = test result – probability the test reads “r” if you’re guilty – probability the test reads “r” if you’re innocent, –

• Therefore to get the equation for GAIN [probability of guilt ] X [benefit of convicting the guilty]

• Loss can also be given as follows [probability of innocence] X [cost of convicting the innocent]

• Net benefit of declaring a match Is given by Gain-Loss>0

Scheme of sampling in a forensic context

A) Sampling Strategy

Build on: ---the aim of the investigation ---,the question(s) asked and --- the end use of the results.

B)Population Determination

• refers to the number of units under discussion. • Multiple unit populations can be homogeneous or heterogeneous. • When determining a population, it is necessary to take into consideration all forms and quantities in which materials appear

C)Sampling Plans

• They can be divided into -- 1.numerically based --- 2.non-numerically based 1.Numerical Sampling • Statistical Sampling • Random Sampling • Non-Statistical Sampling

i)Statistical Sampling • based on probability-based approaches • Statistical sampling plans, Bayesian methods iii)Non-Statistical Sampling • numerical sampling plans • One in five or one in ten etc., test the square root of the population, test the square root of half thepopulation, • 2.Non-Numerical Sampling i)Tactical / Knowledge Based Sampling selecting samples/items from a crime scene based on the possibility of them being important. ii) Judgement Sampling • Judgement sampling occurs where every unit of the population may be selected based on traits they have in common with other items in the case • Selecting shoes from a suspect that have similar shoe pattern to the shoe prints found at the scene of a crime • voices selected for analysis based on similarities they have with the suspect voice pattern, iii)Bulk Sampling

D)Sampling Protocol

• Having decided on the sampling plan to be followed, • needs to be documented

The following are the aspects that need to be covered: 1 The objective of the analysis must be defined. 2 The scope of what the protocol covers must be included. 3 Any definitions that are used in the protocol should be explained. 4. The details of the method of analysis/ testing must be included 5.If sample pre-treatment is required this must be documented • All equipment used for sampling, and the procedures for operating, maintaining and calibrating the equipment must be documented. • The sampling equipment must be constructed from a suitable material such that it will not contaminate the sample. • All quality control measures (including controls and blanks) employed at every stage of the sampling process should be identified in the sampling protocol • Any special training that the expert must undergo to perform the sampling procedure should be outlined.

APPLICATION OF STATISTICS TO PARTICULAR AREAS OF FORENSICS

• 1.DNA fingerprinting • 2. Probability of paternity

Estimation of probabilities for multi-allele DNA finger printing systems

• A typical DNA case involves the comparison of two samples • important to know How strong is the evidence • it is essential to have some idea as to the probability that a match would occur by chance. • below is a statistical analysis done in a population sample of 216 people to determine the allele frequency which can be used for comparison.

At locus CSF1PO • The allele 10 at the locus CSF1PO was observed 109 times in a population sample of 432 alleles (216 people). • Therefore it is reasonable to estimate that there is a chance p=0.25 that any particular CSF1PO allele, selected at random, would be a 10. • Similarly, the chance is about q=0.31 for a random CSP1PO allele to be 11. • Prior to typing the suspect, if we assume that he is not the donor of the evidence then we can think of him as someone who received a CSF1PO allele at random from each of his parents. • The chance to receive 10 from his mother and 11 from his father is therefore pq, and to receive 11 from mother and 10 from father is another pq, so the probability to be 10,11 by chance is 2pq. • Hence about 16% of people have the 10,11 genotype at the CSF1PO locus

At the TPOX locus

• Here since both alleles are the same there is only one term – pp or p2, which represents the combined probability of inheriting the allele 8 from each parent. • Hence about 28% of people have the same TPOX genotype as does the evidence

Probability/likelihood of paternity

• child's genetic material (alleles) come from the mother + while the other half is contributed by the father. • (loci) are analyzed in an attempt to ascertain the biological father of a child. • Each genetic system in a person has two allele, • these alleles are numerically labelled. , the alleles from the child are compared to those of the "parents" to determine if it is possible for either or both parents to have contributed the particular alleles present in the child. • DNA (alleles) from the mother, child, and alleged father are extracted, amplified, and identified. • A series of mathematical calculations are then used to estimate of probability of his paternity (POP) • Paternity Index ----The paternity index (PI) ---- compares the likelihood that a genetic marker (allele) that the alleged father (AF) passed to the child to the probability that a randomly selected unrelated man of similar ethnic background could pass the allele to the child.

Combined Paternity Index

• (CPI) is determined by multiplying the individual PIs for each locus tested. • indicates how many times more likely it is that the alleged father is the biological father than a randomly selected unrelated man of similar ethnic background.

Knowledgebase systems,

Introduction  Crime investigation is a complex task involving huge amounts of information and requiring many differenttypes of expert knowledge.

 KBS is a computer based programs which capture and preserve expertise.  It also makes use of knowledge obtained from other knowledge sources.  A KBS can be used as an aid tool to solve very complicated knowledge which may not be statically and mathematically defined  To understand and develop computational models to be used in forensic science

An inference engine is -----a computer program that tries to derive answers from a knowledge base.

The knowledge base ----- will not only contain information or data -----but also rules by which decisions can be made

Best known expert systems is MYCIN, ---it is a system designed to diagnose then prescribe treatment for an infectious disease, particularly a bacterial infection of the blood. Application of these systems to forensic science problems, however, is relatively new

Example: • in a toxicological case, • the analyst may prepare post mortem samples, inject the sample into a chromatographic system, and enter into the computer various case-specific details • knowledge-based system + linked to a gas chromatography + mass selective detector • Could detect • -- a chemical, • -- identify it, • --and come to some decision as to its influence regarding the cause of death • witness ------ technician, • true expert ------computerized system. •

The need for Knowledge Based System

1.Weak implications: Domain experts and knowledge engineers have the difficulty to form a solid correlation between IF -THEN parts of the rules.

2.Imprecise language: Naturally, we describe facts with such terms as often and sometimes, frequently and hardly ever.

3. Unknown data: When the data is incomplete or missing, the only solution is to accept the value ’unknown’ and proceed to an approximate reasoning with this value.

4. Difficulty of combining the views of different experts

PROBABILITY METHOD

 A well-defined and unique probability distribution can resolve problems in reasoning for probabilistic logics.  In forensic science, uncertainties evaluation usually based on forensic evidence that described inferences. Forensic scientists have to consult in the evaluation of uncertainties within their state of Knowledge  Therefore, probability theory can be applied in forensic science to do the reasoning process

Example: A dead body of a man named John is found in his house. His dead body is hanging and some evidences are found at the scene: i. John’s hanging dead body => evidence 1 ii. Signs of petechiae on John’s eyes => evidence 2 iii. John’s cause of death was suffocation caused by hanging => evidence 3. iv. Cutting instrument was found near John =>evidence4. v. John’s body has defensive injuries => evidence5. vi. John has a severe injury on the head => evidence 6.

Given the crime scene scenario, the hypotheses of cause of death can be suicide, homicide and accident: H1=suicide H2=homicide H3=accident H={H1,....Hn} List of evidence which are related to those hypotheses are evidence 1, evidence 2, evidence 3,evidence 4, evidence 5, evidence 6. En={E1, E2, E3, E4, E5,E6}

If we calculate the probability of hypothesis suicide given evidence 1 and evidence 2: Pr(H1|E1,E2)= Pr(H1)Pr(E1|H1)Pr(E2|H1)

Pr(E1,E2)

Advantages of KBSEvery given piece of

Dynamic Conversationevidence will calculate the The biggest advantage of a knowledge base is that it allows a variety of users to contribute to the knowledge base results in live documentation and generate a dynamic, relevant conversation. Also, because it includesprobability contributions from development, using tech Baye's support and endrule. users, those doing online research can explore the same problem from several different viewpoints, possibly leading them to a solution that The they numerical wouldn't have probability considered on their own.

Prominence of Informationcan be referred to The most important information is likely to make itself prominent, while the less important information will be buried, giving knowledge bases a natural sorting function. If poorly-written or incorrect informationas is submitted,a supportive other users can bury element it by replacing init with better information or can flag it for deletion/review by an administrator.

decision-making

Disadvantages of KespeciallyBS in uncertain

Inconsistent Documentsconditions when  The different writing styles and knowledge levels of contributors often result in a non standardizedone document, piece which is one of of theevidence biggest disadvantages could of a knowledge base.  Redundancy becomes the rule rather than the exception, and the same mistakes may be added to the knowledgelead base several to times many over.  Dedicated maintenance is thus required.

 Overall, thehypothetical result shows that the decision conclusions. maker in forensic unit can calculate the probability hypothesis of cause of death by entering evidences.

 The calculated probability will assist decision making process among forensic scientist by suggesting the most probable situation that might be happen in the crime scene.

Quality base of system.

Quality Assurance Guidelines for Laboratories Performing Microbial Forensic Work Preface  The Scientific Working Group on Microbial Genetics and Forensics (SWGMGF) has developed the following quality assurance guidelines to provide laboratories engaged in microbial forensic analysis with a framework to implement a quality assurance program.  This document provides guidance to laboratories that carry out microbial forensic analysis to support the judicial system.  Consideration may be given to alternate methods of achieving the intent of these quality assurance practices as outlined in these guidelines.  A quality program is always evolving, and likewise, this document should be considered a living document.  It is the intent of SWGMGF to modify this document as quality assurance practices in microbial forensics advance. Introduction  The Quality Assurance Guidelines for Laboratories Performing Microbial Forensic Work provides a baseline from which laboratories may structure their quality assurance practices.  Many of the recommendations outlined in this document will be familiar to laboratories already meeting ISO 17025 and CLIA '88 requirements.  It is the intent of SWGMGF to provide the community with a source document for quality practices in the microbial forensics field. References American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors-Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD/LAB), ASCLD/LAB Accreditation Manual, April 2001. Federal Bureau of Investigation, Quality Assurance Standards for Forensic DNA Testing Laboratories (1998). International Standards Organization (ISO)/International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), ISO/IEC 17025, General Requirements for the Competence of Testing and Calibration Laboratories (1999) American National Standards Institute, New York, New York. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories, Fourth Edition, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, April 1999. Scope  These guidelines describe quality assurance activities that a laboratory should follow to ensure the competency of the laboratory and the quality and integrity of scientific data.  A laboratory, in the context of these guidelines, is defined as a facility in which microbial forensic testing is performed.  These guidelines do not preclude a laboratory, by itself or in collaboration with others, from participating in research and development, or from using procedures that have not yet been validated by standard means for purposes other than forensic testing. Definitions As used in these guidelines, the following terms have the meanings specified:  Administrative review - is an evaluation of examination documentation for consistency with laboratory policies and for editorial correctness.  Analytical procedure - is an orderly step-by-step procedure designed to ensure operational uniformity and to minimize analytical drift.  Attribution- is the information obtained regarding the identification or source of a material to the degree that it can be ascertained.  BMBL - is the Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories  CDC - is the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.  Chain of custody - is the tracking and documentation of physical control of evidence.  Control samples or known samples - are test materials whose identity, type, or values have been established. (e.g., blind samples, negative and positive controls).  Derivative evidence - is material having originated from the original evidence (e.g., grown cultures, amplified DNA).  Examination documentation - encompasses any documentation generated as a result of the analysis of submitted evidence. This may include technical notes, worksheets, charts, graphs, printouts, spectra, photographs, and other data or records used by examiners/analysts to support their reported conclusions.  Examiner/analyst (or equivalent role, position, or title as designated by the laboratory director)- is an individual who conducts and/or directs the analysis of samples, interprets data, and reaches conclusions, and may eventually testify to those findings or conclusions.  Expert testimony is an opinion rendered by a qualified individual based on technical expertise or training.  Quality assurance - is the system of management activities designed to ensure that a process, item, or service is of the type and quality needed. This includes monitoring activities that are intended to verify whether practices and test results are providing reliable and relevant information.  Quality control - is a mechanism or laboratory activity intended to verify whether test conditions are functioning appropriately to yield reproducible results.  Quality manual - is a document stating the quality policy, quality system, and quality practices of an organization. Validation - is a process by which a procedure is evaluated to determine its efficacy and reliability for analysis and includes the following: Preliminary validation- is the acquisition of limited test data to enable an evaluation of a method used to assess materials derived from a biocrime or bioterrorism event. Internal validation - is an accumulation of test data within the laboratory to demonstrate that established methods and procedures perform within determined limits in the laboratory.

3. Quality Assurance Program 1The laboratory should establish and maintain a documented quality system that is appropriate to the testing activities. The quality manual should address, at a minimum, the following: Goals and objectives  Organization and management,  Personnel qualifications and training,  Facilities and security ,  Sample control,  Validation,  Analytical procedures,  Calibration and maintenance,  Proficiency testing,  Corrective action,  Documentation and report writing,  Review of reports,  Safety  And Audits Organization and Management  A laboratory should have a managerial staff with the authority and resources needed to discharge their duties and meet the criteria of the guidelines in this document.  Have a technical manager who is accountable for the technical operations.  Specify and document the responsibility, authority, and interrelation of all personnel who manage, perform, or verify work affecting the validity of microbial forensic analysis.  Laboratory should have a procedure for document control. Personnel qualifications and training  Laboratory personnel should have the education, training, and experience necessary to perform examinations and provide testimony.  The laboratory should have written job description(s) for personnel that include responsibilities, duties, and required skills.  Have a documented training program for assuring the competence of all technical laboratory personnel.  Have a documented program to ensure technical qualifications are maintained through continuing education. Facilities and security  The laboratory should have a facility that is designed to provide appropriate levels of security, safety, and minimize contamination.  Laboratory management should ensure that: o Access to the laboratory is controlled and limited. o Evidence is appropriately secured and stored when not under examination. o Pre amplification materials and activities are separated by time or space from post amplification products and activities. o The laboratory follows written procedures for monitoring, cleaning, and decontaminating facilities and equipment. o When CDC (BMBL) and/or USDA guidelines for biolevel containment are employed, appropriate protocols and records should be maintained. o Laboratory should document waste management requirements to ensure that appropriate decontamination and disposal measures are in accordance with federal and/or state law. o Laboratory should consider measures to address the following: Backup power sources for power outages to protect evidence from temperature fluctuations, when appropriate. o Twenty-four-hour emergency notification procedures are advisable. o Computer security and backups for data and case documentation records. Sample control  The laboratory should have and follow a documented sample inventory control system.  Samples are marked with unique identifiers.  Documentation of sample identity, receipt, storage, and disposition is maintained.  The laboratory follows documented procedures that minimize sample loss, contamination, and/or deleterious change.  The laboratory has secure areas for sample storage including environmental control consistent with the form or nature of the sample.  Sample collected from an individual: If available, type of sample (method of collection and anatomical site from which collected), age, gender, population affinity, weight, body temperature, current medications, who collected sample, time and date of collection, and post collection and transportation conditions.  When multiple samples are collected from the same individual, appropriate delineation should be provided to distinguish samples.   Sample location and condition of location at time of sample collection should be recorded.  Conditions of storage and transport should be documented.  The laboratory should maintain a chain of custody for forensic samples from the time of receipt in the laboratory. Validation  The laboratory should use validated methods and procedures for analyses.  Developmental validation should be appropriately documented and should address specificity, sensitivity, reproducibility, bias, precision, false-positives, false-negatives, and determine appropriate controls. Any reference database used should be documented.  Preliminary validation is the acquisition of limited test data to enable an evaluation of a method used to provide investigative support to investigate a biocrime or bioterrorism event.  Internal validation should be performed and documented by the laboratory.  The procedure should be tested using known samples.  The laboratory should monitor and document the reproducibility and precision and define reportable ranges of the procedure using control.  Material modifications made to analytical procedures should be documented and subjected to validation testing commensurate with the modification and have documented approval Analytical procedures  Laboratory should have and follow written analytical procedures reviewed and approved by the laboratory management/technical manager.  The laboratory should have a documented procedure for each analytical technique used.  The procedures should include a list of equipment and reagents, step-by-step instructions, quality controls, test calculations, limitations, interpretation criteria, and literature references.  The laboratory should have a policy whereby a deviation from an analytical procedure is documented and approved.  The laboratory should identify critical reagents, if any, and evaluate them prior to use (e.g., restriction enzymes, primers, antibodies, growth media prepared in the laboratory). Calibration and maintenance  Laboratory should use equipment suitable for the methods employed.  The laboratory should identify critical equipment and should have a documented program for calibration and, when appropriate, monitoring of instruments and equipment.  The frequency of the calibration should be documented for each instrument requiring calibration. Such documentation should be retained in accordance with appropriate federal and state law.  The laboratory should have and follow a documented program to ensure that instruments and equipment are properly maintained.  New critical instruments and equipment, or critical instruments and equipment that have undergone repair or maintenance, should be calibrated before use.  Written records or logs should be kept for maintenance service performed on instruments and equipment.  Such documentation should be retained in accordance with federal and state law. Documentation and report writing  The laboratory should have and follow written procedures for generating and maintaining documentation for tested samples.  The laboratory should have written procedures for the release of tested sample information.  Laboratory report should include the following: o Name of submitting agency o Date the sample(s) was received in the laboratory o Brief description of all evidence submitted, including the indicated source of the sample, when available (e.g., lungs, circulatory, water source, debris) o Statement to address the specific request made of the laboratory o General statement of analytical method used o Analytical results and interpretive statement to provide clarity of result o Statement of negative results, when appropriate o Statement of recommended additional testing, when appropriate (e.g., additional testing after 6 and 12 days is suggested so as to determine exact exposure date) o Laboratory location (city, state) o Identity of the person responsible for the technical conclusions of the laboratory report o Identification of all components of the analysis completed using subcontractors  The laboratory should maintain, at a minimum, the following examination documentation: Analyst- and technician-generated notes, to include identity of person generating notes Review of reports  Laboratory should have and follow written procedures for technically reviewing all tested sample information and results.  The technical review is conducted by a technically qualified individual other than the preparer of the report, notes, data, and other documents under review.  All reports should be administratively reviewed.  The laboratory should have a documented mechanism in place to address discrepant interpretations and/or conclusions between analyst(s) and reviewer(s) and a mechanism to address unresolved conclusions/interpretations.  The laboratory should have a practice in place to review and address reports of noncompliance (e.g., findings resulting from audit reports, contamination logs, controls not functioning properly). Proficiency Testing  Examiners and other personnel designated by the technical manager who are actively engaged in analysis should undergo annual proficiency testing.  The test samples should be processed and analyzed in the same manner as casework. Successful completion of annual testing is required to continue casework.  In accordance with appropriate federal and state law, the laboratory should maintain the following proficiency test documentation: o Identity of the test participant o Distribution date and due date o Date of analysis and completion o All data and notes supporting the conclusions o Proficiency test results o Any discrepancies noted o Corrective actions taken o Date test samples were prepared Corrective Action  The laboratory should establish and follow procedures for corrective action whenever analytical errors and/or proficiency testing discrepancies are detected.  The laboratory should maintain documentation for the corrective action. Such documentation should be retained in accordance with appropriate federal or state law. Audits  The laboratory should conduct audits annually in accordance with the guidelines outlined herein.  Audit procedures should address, at a minimum, the following: Quality assurance program o Organization and management o Personnel o Facilities and security o Sample control o Validation o Analytical procedures o Calibration and maintenance o Proficiency testing o Corrective action o Documentation and report writing o Review of reports o Safety o Previous audits  The laboratory should retain all documentation pertaining to audits in accordance with applicable federal and state laws.  Second agency should conduct an external audit once every two years. Safety  The laboratory should have and follow a documented environmental health and safety program.  This program should include a documented ongoing safety training program for laboratory personnel and should be in accordance with applicable federal and state laws.  The laboratory should identify an individual as the safety officer.  Laboratories employing biosafety level 2 or higher should meet applicable current CDC (BMBL) and/or USDA guideline