The Jewish Father: Past and Present/59

':lttempt tofinda moralsubstitutefor "Iter. In this dilemma lies much ofthe

,. Morris Rosenfeld's song "Mayn -ritten in 1887, once again makes The Jewish Father: Past and Present ?iddish culture verypopulararound -::hoes ofa man's footsteps trudging Chaim I. Waxman i lower eastside to standby his son's INTRODUCTION

In Jewish history and tradition, the family is considered to be the most I important institution for shaping ethnic and religious identity and transmitting Judaism's basic norms and values.! Indeed, the family and the synagogue are the only two institutions referred to in traditional Jewish literature as mikdash me 'at, or "sanctuaryin miniature," sharingthe responsibility for handingdown both Jewish law and Jewish values. The family has been the setting, ifnot the focal point, for much of Jewish religious tradition. And, in the view of many present-day observers, it is the institution primarily responsible for Jewish continuity. In light of this emphasis, it is interesting to explore the role of the Jewish father in the Jewish tradition and the historical experience of Jews in different societies and cultures, and to see what elements in that role are particularly pertinent to contemporary Jewish life. Inevery society,individuals have a numberofdifferentroles-theyare male or female, parents, sons or daughters, husbands or wives, and so on. And role carries with it certain defined behavioral expectations that apply to all incumbents, and are internalized, through socialization, by everyone who belongs to the society. Since roles are socially defined,they often vary from society to society and are subjectto change within a particular society overtime. Furthermore, in the process of social change, some roles may become less clearly dermed than before, leaving the incumbents of such roles uncertain about how they are ~upposed to behave.l(If such conditions become widespread, the resulting anomie, or normlessness, can threaten the stability of the society as a whole. Such widespread anomie is, fortunately, very rare; but some uncertainty about roles is fairly typical during periods of rapid social change, and it is helpful, during such periods, to review society's traditional patterns and expectations.. Modem society has experienced a great deal of rapid social change, not only in the United States and the geographical West, but throughout the world. The role of women, particularly, has undergone dramatic change that ) 60/From Generation to Generation

/:"'N I) bears heavily onmarital and family relationships. Given the preeminence ofthe As indicated earlier, it canno" family in Jewishcontinuity,it is importantto know how these changes affect not most, Jewish fathers in the Talmudi. only the Jewish family in general, but each ofits component parts. These pages prescriptions set down by the rabbis. will concentrate on both the traditional and the changing role of the Jewish passage in Tractate Bava Batra, whie father. periods when fathers were the sole te- We begin by examining the role of the father in traditional Jewish Rabbi Judah said in the name ofRa literature-by reviewing how Jewish law and ethics define his duties, respon­ blessed,that is Joshua ben Gamla.Vi sibilities, rights and privileges.Itshould be remembered,however,thatreal-life been forgotten from Israel (Baby1011 experience does not necessarily conform to the ideal set down in the normative literature. On the contrary, our knowledge of human behavior tells us that it is Apparently, there were tim· highly doubtful that actual performance ever lived up to these high standards. completely and solely the obligation e Nevertheless, it is reasonable to assume that in a highly traditional society, the founded a school in order to provide fc general patterns of behavior reflect normative definitions, even if few indivi­ so doing, he did not free fathers from t· duals actually manage to live up to the ideal. the principle thatthe communitywas r teach them. Except for obligations of f; THE RABBINIC-TALMUDIC PERIOD Kiddushin, the primary focus ofrabbo obligat~ons "'\11 ... '1\ father is more on the and The Talmud is quite brief in its delineation of the duties and respon­ parents--obligations, firstl6nuhciatec sibilities of the father. One small passage in the tractate Kiddushin declares: several times in the Bible, elaborated i . . . (if'! r.. /\ 'i ~r . the subject of lengthy discussions The father IS reqUired to Circumcise his son; to redeem him [referring to the literature throughout the centuries.3• frrst-born son, as per the Biblical passages in Numbers 18: 15-16]; to teach him Torah; to assure that he marries; and to teach him a trade. Some say he When we tum our attention: must also teach him to swim. Rabbi Judah says, whoever does not teach his Jewish literature to his role in historic ~ son a trade teaches him robbery (Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Kiddushin , very few of a growing number of stu p. 29a). munities include discussions offamily Rashi (Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac, 1040-1105), the famous com­ development and organizational stru mentator on the Bible and the Talmud, explains that Rabbi Judah meant that a their relations with other Jewish and n father who does notteach his son a trade is as tt.tp~ble as ifhe had taught him to to note that where discussions offami steal, since without a trade, the son cannot earn money to buy food and must :with the status of women in the co~ deduced from the m9re general discu inevitably tum to robbery. tah-~tched Reflectingthe clear divisions between sex roles in traditional Judaism, It seems to suppos. the Talmud briefly notes that the father is required to clothe his daughter and historical analyses ofthe father's role provide her with all she needs in order to get married. Within Biblical and The more likely explanation is that his Rabbinic Judaism, study and trade and the public sphere were male ptovinces, by the strongly patriarchal communi" while the female province was the home. According to several traditionalist studying them. This gap in our knowle, in fact, very little is known about the Tor~h scholars today" the changes in modem society and culture make it not L!)-1 • 'bl b .!'l).) ,1 • • .Nash points out, one reason why it i= onI y permlssl e ut ImperatIve thatwomen be as learned in Torah as men.2 In that light, it is interesting to speculate whether the father is now obligated to rearing in earlier times is that before teach torah to his daughter as well as to his son. thought there was any reason to single The Jewish Father: Past and Presentl61

t ,-..'"j 1-) As indicated earlier, it cannot be automatically assumed that all, or mships. Given the preeminence ofthe most, Jewish fathers in the Talmudic period conformed with the normative :to know how these changes affect not . prescriptions set down by the rabbis. On the other hand, there is a revealing h of its component parts. These pages and the changing role of the Jewish passage in Tractate Bava Batra, which indicates that there were indeed some periods when fathers were the sole teachers oftheir sons:

~ of the father in traditional Jewish Rabbi Judah said in the name of Rav: Verily the name of that man is to be • and ethics define his duties, respon­ blessed,that is Joshua ben Gamla. Were it not for him the Torah would have e remembered,however,thatreal-life been forgotten from Israel (Babylonian Talmud, Bava Batra 21a). to the ideal set down in the normative Apparently, there were times when the children's education was ~e ofhuman behavior tells us that it is ~ver lived up to these high standards. completely and solely the obligation of fathers, and Rabbi Joshua ben Gamla :hat in a highly traditional society, the founded a school in order to provide for the education offatherless orphans. In native definitions, even if few indivi­ so doing, he did not free fathers from teaching their sons; he simply established the principle that the community was responsible for boys who had no fathers to deal. teach them. Except for obligations of fathers mentioned in the passage from ~MUDIC PERIOD Kiddushin, the primary focus ofrabbinic discussions regarding the role ofthe father is more on the obligattons and responsibilities of children toward their ]11 c' J\ delineation of the duties and respon­ parents-obligations, first\~mibciatedas the Fifth Co~~ridment,repeated in the tractate Kiddushin declares: several times in the Bible, elaborated upon in many places in the Talmud, and the subject of lengthy discussions in rabbinic codifications and responsa J\ 1/ "f son; to redeem him [referring to the literature throughout the centuries.3 gesinNumbers 18:15-16];toteach When we turn our attention from the role of the father in traditional ld to teach him a trade. Some say he _ah says, whoever does not teach his Jewishliteratureto his role in historicJewishexperience,we soon discoverthat ::mian Talmud, Tractate Kiddushin , very few of a growing number of studies dealing with historic Jewish com­ munities include discussions offamily life. The majority are concernedwiththe development and organizational structure of the communities studied, and aac, 1040-1105), the famous com­ xplains that Rabbi Judah meant that a their relations with other Jewish and non-Jewish communities. Itis interesting is as ~rp~ble as ifhe had taught him to to note that where discussions offamily do occur, they are most likely to deal '~ith not earn money to buy food and must , the status of women in the community, leaving the status of men to be deduced from the ~p~e general discussions.4 -' It seemsfarfetched to suppose that the reason there have been so few tween sex roles in traditional Judaism, historical analyses ofthe father's role in family life is that it was insignificant. is required to clothe his daughter and The more likely explanation is that his significance was taken for granted, both • to get married. Within Biblical and by the strongly patriarchal communities themselves, and by the researchers he public sphere were male pfuvinces, studyingthem. This gap in our knowledge is not unique toJewish communities; _e. According to several traditionalist in fact, very little is known about the father role in general history. As Jotm odern society and culture make it not Nash points out, one reason why it is not easy to deduce the nature of child "llen be as learned in Torah as men.2 In rearing in earlier times is that before the eighteenth century hardly anyone '"lhether the father is now obligated to thought there was any reason to single out children as a special group ofpeople. ) his son. 62IFrom Generation to Generation

"Even the extensive history of children by Aries gave few data on patterns of and congratulations gatherings beca be congratulated, and very much so fathering (and little about mothering). It is more a social history ofchildren as and he will live and may God mak~ part of the economic system than a history of childrearing."s May God strengthen your arm th As a result, we are forced to confine our analysis to two groups of honored position and fulfull in your I historic Jewish communities-those in Arab countries duringthe Middle Ages, be your sons, you will make them i= "l o,lravert from you and from him the effi and those in the shtetl,the small town and village in Eastern Europe during the ) me hear anything undesirable abou. late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Only when we reach the twentieth century do we find more sources for analysis of the father's role in various The birth of a daughter in the Jewish cultures and subcultures. as auspicious an event as the birth of assume that it was not a happy even­ fathers loved their daughters deeply, ; THE MIDDLE AGES sons, possibly because it was acce them. The most complete and systematic historical study of the Jewish In keeping with the Talmudic family is Shlomo Dov Goitein's multi-volume work, A Mediterranean in their sons' Jewish education and oc Society.6 Based upon documents in the Cairo Genizah, the large repository of the letter of the law released them t discarded writings discovered in Egypt in the late 18008, this work meticu­ puberty (Babylonian Talmud, Ketub lously analyzes the Jewish communities in Islamic countries during the period that, in practice, fathers continued known as the "High Middle Ages."7 In contrast to many historical studies that adolescence. rely almost exclusively on materials about the elite segments ofthe society, this one is·based on documents that also reflect the middle and lower strata. In the Hhili Middle Ages, being a Jewish father, and especially having THE: '"l:1i> I' ~l'N. , sons, "formed a prominent, central and, so to say, pub IC compunent 10 a man s During the nineteenth centur: ~u~tomary .s~et~ty Reaso~s ~or life to a far higher degree than is in our own ."8 the shtetl, a community which, as Ir having children were many: rehglOus and moral, utl1itanan, and egoIstic. warm, loving and joyful as the one n ~IYA' Marshall Sklare has referred to "nachasfun kinder," orjoy from children, as a Roof.J2 Nor did it have the permaner feature that distinguishes Jewish parents from other American parents.9 Self­ Life Is With People ,l3 By the beginniJ fulfillment through children, as expressed in the stereotypical American Jewish "a community in the process of dis. reference to "my son the doctor," was even more characteristic ofthe medieval, disintegration varied from region to Jewish communities of the Arab countries. A father would quite typically and from group to groUp."14 The maj speak of "my son, the joy ofmy eye," and "the dearestto me ofall mankind." cities.1sNevertheless,mostEastEurc Sons, both small and adult, were frequently referred to by their fathers as "the States between 1880 and 1920, and lovely flower," ''the blossoming rose" and "muhja" ("lifeblood"). And "the 1910, did come from shtetlach; and most common word ofendearment for sonJs hamud, 'delight,' so common that culture with a shared religion, langual the Hebrew letter h stands, in memorial and other lists, simply for 'son and sense of belonging. JO J~ M' of.'''10 Shtetl Jews fully internalized A letterfrom a TunisianJew congratulating his brotherinEgypton the man to be alone," and the fuj~ction birth of his child underscores the central importance of having sons: children and family life were among tl: and it was the sacred responsibili1 Your letter containing the great news and joyful tidings about the blessed, blissful, and auspicious Il,ewborn has arrived. We had here muchjoy,music, mentshen, to tum children into peop: The Jewish Father: Past and Present/63

.by Aries gave few data on patterns of and congratulations gatherings because ofthis ...Yes ,my brother, you are to be congratulated, and very much so. May God bestow on me that both you l is more a social history of children as and he will live and may God make him a brother of "seven or even eight." lory of childrearing."5 May God strengthen your arm through him and establish by him your ~onfine our analysis to two groups of honored position andfulfull in yourcase: "Instead ofyour fathers there shall be your sons, you will make them princes allover the country." May God \cabcountries duringthe Middle Ages, " O,J{avert from you and from him the effects ofthe evil eye and may He never let ld village in Eastern Europe during the me hear anything undesirable about the two of you all my life. 1I tries. Only when we reach the twentieth :nalysis of the father's role in various The birth of a daughter in these Middle Eastern communities was not as auspicious an event as the birth of a son; nevertheless, it would be wrong to assume that it was not a happy event. The Genizah documents indicate that fathers loved their daughters deeply, and some actually preferred them to their tLEAGES sons, possibly because it was acceptable to openly express affection for them. matic historical study of the Jewish In keeping with the Talmudic mandate, fathers played the central role dti-volume work, A Mediterranean in their sons' Jewish education and occupational training. Moreover, although Cairo Genizah, the large repository of the letter of the law released them from this obligation when boys reached : in the late 18008, this work meticu­ puberty (Babylonian Talmud, Ketubot 49b), the Genizah documents reveal . in Islamic countries during the period that, in practice, fathers continued to educate their sons well into their :ontrast to many historical studies that adolescence. Iltthe elite segments ofthe society, this nect the middle and lower strata. a Jewish father, and especially having THESHTETL com~6nent so to say, public in a man's Duringthe nineteenth century,the world ofEastEuropeanJewry was _ary in our own so~iety ."8 Reasons for the shtetl, a community which, as Irving Howe points out, was not quite so and moral, uirlfiaitan, and egoistic. warm, loving and joyful as the one nostalgically portrayed in Fiddler on the fun kinder," orjoy from children, as a Roo/.12 Nor did it have the pemiaience implied in the anthropological study, 9 s from other American parents. Self­ Life Is With People,13 By the beginning ofthe twentieth century, theshtetl was j in the stereotypical American Jewish "a community in the process of disintegration, though the exact degree of -en more characteristic ofthe medieval disintegration varied from region to region, from community to community, tries. A father would quite typically and from group to groUp."14 The majority of Jews in Eastern Europe lived in ld "the dearest to me of all mankind." cities .15 Nevertheless,most EastEuropeanJews who immigratedtothe United :ltly referred to by their fathers as "the States between 1880 and 1920, and especially those who emigrated before :md "muhja" ("lifeblood"). And "the 1910, did come from shtetlach; and it is therefore valid to speak of a shtetl )8 is hamud, 'delight,' so common that culture with a shared religion, language, values, norms, institutional structure, rial and other lists, simply for 'son and sense of belonging. ..fJ J~,)f' .)I ~ )I) Shtetl Jews fully internalized the biblical dictum that "Itis not goodfor 19ratulatinghis brother in Egyptonthe man to be alone," and the fuj~ction to "be fruitful and multiply." Marriage, importance of having sons: al children and family life were among the most important values and institutions, and it was the sacred responsibility of parents tzu makhen fun kinder and joyful tidings about the blessed, rived. We had here muchjoy,music, mentshen, to tum children into people,16 By mentshen, they meant obedient, 64/From Generation to Generation

ISll ~ respectful, and refined human beings-sheyneh yidn, fine Jews, who would that there has never been a parallel! bring honor to their parents. A child's responsibilities toward his or herparents lasted throughout their lives, and the obligation to care for elderly parents TWENTIETH-eENl prevailed even when, as was often the case, they were reluctant to accept such care. Although there are no full-sl Marriage was not a matter of individual choice; it was carefully several limited studies include some arranged by the parents, often through the intermediary services of the strongly patriarchal traditional Jewis shadkhen, or matchmaker. Although it was assumed that "parents always believe that respect for the father i want the best for their children" and children usually went along with a match, patriarchy and religious traditionali~ the now prevalent notion that the children had no say in the choice of their Landis indicates otherwise.20 spouse and were often forced into marriages against their will is not quite Landis's study of Protestanl accurate.17 Since traditionalJewish religious lawdoes not recognize a marriage that there was, in fact, a greater r. J() , " as valid unless both the bride and groom agree to it, Zborowski and Herzog's obserlance and the closeness of sc observation that ''those who object, .. succeed in winning their point," is between such commitment and their IS undoubtedly correct. the father's central role in establishi Sex roles, in general, and husband/father-wife/mother roles in par­ respect accorded him. ticular, were clearly delineated in shtetl culture. The husband's major re­ At first glance, these data sponsibility involved learning, economic pursuits or, more often, both. While it respectfor fathers is a function ofreli was true that many men devoted themselves entirely to sacred learning while /,'·r'lone may be related to a decline in thl theirwives assumed economic responsibility for the family, this was nottrue for religiosity correlated positively with all, or even most, husbands and wives. Most husbands were either full- or part­ families where either the father or the time breadwinners, and women who were the sole providers were the exception, characterized by religious indifferen.: though many worked alongside their husbands out ofeconomic necessity, and In t~ connection, an earil some worked so that their husbands could spend at least part of each day in .. .\) [t. tJ.o .. Boston IS also lDstructive. Inthis stud: sacred learning. boys placed on independence and To his son, the shtetl father was a remote authoritarian figure and a egalitarian parental roles ,21 Very dOlT rather formal teacher, but he was likely to be easygoing, emotional and indulgent than strong and assertive mothers tc toward his daughter, in whose life the mother played the more authoritarian sons, As Strodbeck sees it, this findin. role. Jewish father's traditional and histor: However, while the shtetl family was formally patriarchal, it differed the traditional Jewish community, A! sharply from the tradition.al nQn-Jewish European family in which patriarchy a.)I.J-' ----"'",I, AM'IIJ -d more secular, this role was reinterp: included the explicit su15ordination of wives and mothers. In the day-to ay father's dedication to his work and to activity of the Jewish home, the mother clearly played the major role, though children. she often held the father up to the children as the court oflast resort. Itwas the Whether or not one fully mother who provided the children with affection. "The stereotype of the evidence concerning the socioecon. 'Yiddisheh mammeh,' familiar in many lands, has firm roots in the shtetl. No suggests thatAmerican Jewish father matterwhatyoudo,nomatter whathappens,she will love you always. She may work. Apparently, however, the pric. have odd and sometimes irritating ways ofshowing it, but in a hazardous and , weakening of the father's role in the unstable worldthe beliefabout the mother's love is strong and unshakable."19 always an authoritative presence, ev The father, by contrast was first and foremost the teacher; it is no coincidence day. With the help ofthe mother,the The Jewish Father: Past and Presentl65

-sheyneh yidn, fine Jews, who would that there has never been a parallel stereotype of the ''Yiddisheh tatteh." :sponsibilities toward his or her parents obligation to care for elderly parents TWENTIETH-CENTURY UNITED STATES ase, they were reluctant to accept such Although there are no full-scale studies of American Jewish fathers, tf individual choice; it was carefully several limited studies include some enlightening examples. In analyzing the 19h the intermediary services of the strongly patriarchal traditional Jewish communities,one might easily be led to it was assumed that "parents always believe that respect for the father is a function of religious tradition, that Jdren usually went along with a match, patriarchy and religious traditionalism go hand-in-hand. A study by Judson jren had no say in the choice of their Landis indicates otherwise.20 UTiages against their will is not quite Landis's study of Protestant, Catholic and Jewish families revealed ~ous law does not recognize a marriage that there was, in fact, a greater relationship between degree of religious :n agree to it, Zborowski and Herzog's ob~nJ.~ce and the closeness of sons and daughters to their fathers, than .. succeed in winning their point," is between such commitment and their closeness to their mothers. Apparently, the father's central role in establishing religious patterns was a factor in the band/father-wife/mother roles in par­ respect accorded him. 'etl culture. The husband's major re­ At first glance, these data appear to support the assumption that e pursuits or,more often,both. While it respect for fathers is a function ofreligious traditionalism, and that a decline in .elves entirely to sacred learning while )~n; ~may be related" to a decline in the o~~ril~ndis also found, however, that bility for the family,this was nottrue for religiosity correlated positively with egalitarian parental roles, and that those tdosthusbands were either full- or part­ families where either the father orthe mother dominated were more likely to be 'e the sole providers were the exception, characterized by religious indifference. ,sbands out ofeconomic necessity, and In t~( c(;mnection, an earlier study of Jewish and Italian boys in )uld spend at least part of each day in Boston is alsd in~tructive.Inthis study, Fred Strodbeckfound thatthe valuethe boys placed on independence and achievement correlated positively with .as a remote authoritarian figure and a egalitarian parental roles .21 Very do~~atipgfathers, he found, were less likely ::> be easygoing, emotional and indulgent than strong and assertive mothers to in~till a desire for achievement in their mother played the more authoritarian sons.As Strodbeck sees it,this finding suggests an American adaptation ofthe Jewish father's traditional and historic role as the link between the family and ily was formally patriarchal, it differed the traditional Jewish community. As the Jewish community in America grew ::l European family in which patriarchy more secular, this role was reinterpreted, and it now manifests itself in the wives and mothers. In the day-to-day father's dedication to his work and to instilling the values ofachievement in his :r clearly played the major role, though children. :oen as the court oflast resort. Itwas the Whether or not one fully accepts Strodbeck's interpretation, the jth affection. "The stereotype of the evidence concerning the socioeconomic achieve~ntrof American Jews22 {lands, has firm roots in the shtetl. No suggests thatAmerican Jewish fathers are, indeed;z~~1Mslydedicated to their pens,she will love you always. She may work. Apparently, however, the price ofthis occupational striving has been a -s ofshowing it, but in a hazardous and weakening of the father's role in the home. In the shtetl home, the father was :her's love is strong and unshakable."19 always an authoritative presence, even if he was not there during most of the remost the teacher; it is no coincidence day. With the help ofthe mother, the children were constantly reminded ofhis 66/From Generation to Generation importance and socialized to conform to the standards he set. They were taught sample included only 85 families, Sec that he was fulfilling the religious obligation of learning, and that they must gaps between the two groups mad~ honor his wishes that they internalize the norms and values of traditional differences were rooted in ethnicity OJ Judaism. His economic work was seen as a means rather than as an end in itself; Yosef's findings reveal fewer differ~ it supported the family and made it possible for them to maintain religio­ similarities, cultural norms and values and be respectable members of the community, In another limited study, Sha Ashkenazi, Iraqi and Moroccan youn; 168 children of various ethnic backg CONTEMPORARY ISRAEL origins affected their perceptions of 1 The Jewish community in the United States is made up, for the most Moroccan families elder brothers seeJ part, of third- or fourth-generation Americans, overwhelmingly of East relation to younger siblings, whereas J European ancestry, and predominantly middle class,23 Israeli Jewry is com­ Moroccan families, the older brotht posedoftwobroadethnic,orsubethnic,groupings: the Sephardim,numerically therefore more feared than the Ashken the majority, whose ancestors came from Islamic countries; and the Ashkenazim, younger siblings are more likely than numerically a minority but socially and economically dominant, whose their older brothers rather than their ancestors came from northern Europe and the Americas. Another significant Significantly, in their percepl subsociety, the kibbutz, is unique in its family patterns. children focused on their parents' tn While it is generally asumed that there are many differences in the especially to progress at school. The family pattemsof Sephardim and Ashkenazim, there is little empirical emphasized family harmony especi 'd ...... N"'\,~\tT eVI ence to sUDstantiate this assumption. Virtually the only study of role brothers to be unapproachable, and differences in Israel's urban families was conducted by Rivka Bar Yosef, and it Sabbath celebration and watching tele' is based on limited samples from two ethnically and class-differentiated areas. Among Israel's many ethnic. The Ashkenazi sample was drawn from the middle-class neighborhood of the oldest Diaspora communities, StlU Rehavia and the Sephardim sample from the lower-class area ofNahalaot, both centuries of persecution, Yemenite Je in Jerusalem.24 Bar Yo~efs primary goal was to discover the patterns of and religiously observant (except fo authority in the respective family systems-how husband/father and wife/ eighteenth century), and the Holy Lan mother roles are ascribed, and the authority patterns ofeach. When itcame to religious and culturallife.28 • housekeeping, both groups demonstrated clear sex-role divisions. But in child In Yemenite Jewish families,1 rearing, there were both differences and similarities between the groups, For son within the home always was the I example, among both the Ashkenazim and Sephardim, the mother was seen as mother, usually illiterate, tended to tl the dominant agent of primary socialization and the parent responsible for generally strict and harsh, Sons spen1 m~eting the child's daily needs, However, distinct differences emerged on company. enga&in2 in many religiou. -' /'N /I ).::t issues related to the children's education. When it came to choosing a school, synagogue, circumcisions, Bar Mitzv: 90 percent of the Rehavia parents made the decision jointly, whereas in mourners, and so on.29 Nahalaot only 50percentdid so (in the other 50percentthe decision was made On the Sabbath and holidays bythe mothers). Punishmentwas far more frequently the father's responsibility filling in where they felt it was deficienl wJ}b~r~-re: among the Sephardim of N ahalaot than among the Ashkenazi families of week fathers would use th, Rehavia, where it was likely to be meted out by mothers, or by both parents. holidays to explain and elaborate UI= In sum, while Bar Yosefs study found some clear differences in roles Thus, the father was, first and foren between the two groups, three important facts must be kept in mind. First, the virtually no references to any relationsl The Jewish Father: Past and Present/67

the standards he set. They were taught sample included only 85 families. Second, the subcultural and socioeconomic ~ation of learning, and that they must, gaps between the two groups made it difficult to determine whether the the norms and values of traditional differences were rooted in ethnicity or class. Finally, and most important, Bar :s ameans ratherthan as an end in itself; Yosef's findings reveal fewer differences between the groups than overall lOSsible for them to maintain religio­ similarities. __ :ctable members of the community. In another limited study, Shalva Weil interviewed a small number of Ashkenazi, Iraqi and Moroccan youngsters who were part of a larger sample of 168 children of various ethnic backgrounds, in order to see how their ethnic .ARYISRAEL origins affected their perceptions of their families. 25 One finding was thatin United States is made up, for the most Moroccan families elder brothers seem to assume something ofa father ro!~ itt !'\mericans, overwhelmingly of East relation to younger siblings, whereas Ashkenazi elder brothers do not. Thus, in ~ middle class.23 Israeli Jewry is com­ Moroccan families, the older brother often metes out l?J1.niphment, and is groupings: the Sephardim,numerically therefore more feared than the Ashkenazi older brother. Cdilv&sely, Ashkenazi Islamic countries; and the Ashkenazim, younger siblings are more likely than their Moroccan counterparts to tum to and economically dominant, whose their older brothers rather than their parents when they have a problem. and the Americas. Another significant Significantly, in their perceptions of family relationships, Ashkenazi ; family patterns. children focused on their parents' trust in them and the attention they pay, that there are many differences in the especially to progress at school. The Moroccan children, on the other hand, ~shkenazim, there is little empirical emphasized family harmony especially among siblings, found their elder :ion. Virtually the only study of role brothers to be unapproachable, and reported that they enjoyed the family . 26 IS conducted by Rivka Bar Yosef, and it Sabbath celebration and watching television together on weekday evenings. hnically and class-differentiated areas. Among Israel's many ethnic Jewish groupings, the Yemenites, one of om the middle-class neighborhood of the oldest Diaspora communities, stand out for a variety of reasons .27 Despite othe lower-class area ofNahalaot,both centuries of persecution, Yemenite Jews have remained staunchly traditional goal was to discover the patterns of and religiously observant (except for a brief period around the tum of the tems-how husband/father and wife/ eighteenth century), and the Holy Land has always played a central role in their ority patterns ofeach. When it came to religious and culturallife,28. ed Clear sex-role divisions. But in child In Yemenite Jewish families, the religious and cultural education ofthe ld similarities between the groups. For son within the home always was the responsibility of the father, whereas the and Sephardim,the motherwas seen as mother, usually illiterate, tended to the boys' physical needs. The father was ization and the parent responsible for generally strict and harsh. Sons spent many hours of the day in their father's 'ever, distinct differences emerged on compan~1 Jing~giJlj in many religious rituals, including daily prayers in the m. When it came to choosing a school, synagogue, Cfrcumcisions, Bar Mitzvahs and weddings, visits to the homes of lade the decision jointly, whereas in mourners, and so on.29 other 50percentthe decision was made On the Sabbath and holidays, fathers would test their sons' learning, >te frequently the father's responsibility filling iJ\",here they felt it was deficient. Since most formal education during the 1an among the Ashkenazi families of week walibh~~: fathers would use the relaxed atmosphere ofthe Sabbath and :d out by mothers, or by both parents. holidays to explain and elaborate upon what had been learned in school.30 ly found some clear differences in roles Thus, the father was, first and foremost, a teacher to his sons. (There are ot facts must be kept in mind. First, the virtually no references to any relationships between fathers and their daughters.) 68IFrom Generation to Generation

THE KIBBUTZ and carefree as possible . . . Their r: childen's need for security and love. Be in much the same way and playa COlD Although only a small proportion of Israelis live on kibbutzim, they take a lively interest in t1}eir children ar: enjoy a respected position in Israeli ideology, and their unique lifestyle has them. Mothers have closer contacts generated worldwide interest. Thus, the kibbutz is a magnet for social scientists fathers come into the picture very earl: effect either.35 the world over, and is probably the most studied social phenomenon in Israel. It should be borne in mind that kibbutz life is quite uncharacteristic of Jewish Although there is far less differe community life elsewhere, both historically and today. the kibbutz than elsewhere, some differe On the other hand, something may be learned from an analysis ofhow much closer to the children and their sc the father role has developed in the kibbutz setting precisely because, in its deariliness and health and, when pare early stages, the kibbutz was opposed to the nuclellf family. This position ~ore frequently takes the lead. stemmed from both the ideology of social revolution and collectivism that spawnedthe kibbutz, and the social purpose it was designed to serve. Implicit in The father is less involve~d in these pre the ideologies of the various kibbutz movements was a deep commitment to ally in cases ofexaggerated concern wi. the eyes of the growing child, the fat equality between the sexes)l Because the traditional family was seen as sentative of the Kibbutz and its value! fostering and perpetuating sexual inequality, the collective took over many of acts primarily as the representative of the roles ascribedtoparents,includingthe day-to-day care ofchildren,virtually from the moment of their birth, as well as their education and socialization. In a comprehensive study of ~ Unlike other children, for whom parental influence is dominant, at interviews with 300 preadolescents frc least when they are small, kibbutz children grow up with "an incredibly strong Edward Devereux and his colleague~ attachment to ... peer group," to the point of "their willingness to give their involved than tllose of the kibbutz in lives for the boys and girls they grew up with. This is their deepest, most abiding meting out such_punishments as tempe attachment and the focus ofpowerful feelings about emotional events they have threats ofphysical punishment when ch shared with their groUp."32 In earlier years, the kibbutz strove not only to were no less gen~rous than city paren. relieve parents of the more tedious aspects of family life, including child­ behavior; in fact, they were significantl rearing, but to eliminate, as much as possible, the institution of the family. with their homework, for example. Deve Indeed, children normally address their parents by their given names rather "the overall balance of the parent role than referring to them as "abba" (father) and "imma" (mother). positive and supportive."37 But neithc In recent years, however, traditional family patterns and sex roles have comparative father roles and mother rc reemerged on the kibbutz.33 Even traditional celebrations with extended kin 34 groups are now quite common. And even before young kibbutz children CONCLl returned to sleeping in their parents' quarters instead of in children's houses, there was evidence of strong emotional and affectual ties between parents and Depending on historical and cu their children. Describing in colorful detail the characteristics of child care in are many variations in the roles of Jewi the kibbutz, the late Yonina T almon-Garber indicated that this was because the their role was or is radically different fr main disciplinary aspects of child rearing is the task of the metap[ot, kibbutz theless, one fact does stand out. Until functionaries who care for children's daily needs rather than the parents: expected to, and did, playa distinctive duty, moreover, was fulfilled not merely The petty quarrels and persistent disagreements which often pester parent­ was also expected to socialize his chil child relationships in other types of families are quite rare here. Parents endeavor to make the few hours their children spend with them as pleasant munity, and to represent its values ; The Jewish Father: Past and Present/69

and carefree as possible . . . Their main function is to minister to their childen's need for security and love. Both ofthem interact with their children in much the same way and playa common protective role. Fathers usually lion of Israelis live on kibbutzim, they take a lively interest in their children and participate actively in looking after ieology, and their unique lifestyle has them. Mothers have closer contacts with babies and small children but kibbutz is a magnet for social scientists fathers come into the picture very early. Sex of the children has no marked :studied social phenomenon in Israel. It effect either.35 life is quite uncharacteristic of Jewish Although there is far less difference between father and mother roles in cally and today. the kibbutz than elsewhere, some differences do exist even there. The mother is nay be learned from an analysis ofhow much closer to the children and their schools and is more likely to guide their :bbutz setting precisely because, in its cleaD}iness and health and, when parental discipline is applied, the mother i to the nucleli1' family. This position ~ore frequently takes the lead. ocial revolution and collectivism that )()se it was designed to serve. Implicit in The father is less involved in these problems and the child may fmd him an lovements was a deep commitment to ally in cases ofexaggerated concern with them onthe partofthe mother ...In e the traditional family was seen as the eyes of the growing child, the father emerges gradually as the repre­ sentative of the Kibbutz and its values within the family, while the mother -ality, the collective took over many of acts primarily as the representative ofthe family in the Kibbutz.36 le day-to-day care ofchildren,virtually as their education and socialization. In a comprehensive study of socialization practices, encompassing )I}1 parental influence is dominant, at interviews with 300 preadolescents from kibbutzim and 300 from Tel Aviv, ren grow up with "an incredibly strong Edward Devereux and his colleagues found that city parents were more 10int of "their willingness to give their involved than tllOse of the kibbutz in all aspects of discipline especially in ...ith. This is their deepest, most abiding meting out such_punishments as temporary withdrawal of companionship or lings aboutemotional events they have threats of physical punishment when children misbehave. But kibbutz parents years, the kibbutz strove not only to were noless gen~rous than city parents when it came to general supportive spects of family life, including child~ behavior; in fact, they were significantly more involved with helping children lossible, the institution of the family. with their homework, for example. Devereux and his colleagues concludedthat r parents by their given names rather "the overall balance of the parent role in the kibbutz thus tends to be more :r) and "imma" (mother). positive and supportive."37 But neither their data nor analysis dealt with onal family patterns and sex roles have comparative father roles and mother roles. tional celebrations with extended kin even before young kibbutz children CONCLUSIONS -alters instead of in children's houses, :md affectual ties between parents and Depending on historical and cultural experience, there have been and tail the characteristics of child care in are many variations in the roles of Jewish fathers, but we cannot assume that "ber indicated thatthis was because the their role was or is radically different from that of non-Jewish fathers. Never­ 19 is the task of the metaplot, kibbutz theless, one fact does stand out. Until very recently, the Jewish father was lily needs rather than the parents: expected to, and did, playa distinctive role as the educator of his sons. This duty, moreover, was fulfilled not merely by financing their formal education; he I'eements which often pester parent­ was also expected to socialize his children into the life of the Jewish com­ amities are quite rare here. Parents ltildren spend with them as pleasant munity, and to represent its values and interests within the home. This

" 70/From Generation to Generation educational component of the father's role appears to have been uniquely developments and policy proposals rc stressed in Jewish tradition and culture, and indeed was"d~e~ed essential to the bearing on these prospects. Ironical religious and cultural survival of the Jewish people. ments is the change in the role OfWOI Perhaps the most concentrated manifestation ofthis role ofthe Jewish massive entry into the labor force ofI father is seen in the Seder ceremony, the most celebrated of all Jewish rituals ofthe most significant social phenorr among American Jews. More than any other holiday, Passover, and especially !' for the same reasons men do; that i: the Seder, is a family celebration. Everyone is expected to participate actively, ! personal satisfaction. Thus, Kamel and each role is clearly delineated in the Haggadah, a microcosm ofthe roles restructure the relationship between within the family throughout the year. The father is simultaneously the king, the emphasizes the impact on women, I leader of the service and, above all, the teacher. He transmits knowledge restructuring on men 0 ., whether asked for it or not, as evidenced in recital of the portion of the If,however,the traditional rl Haggadah about "the four sons." He also teaches by example, and his children restructured, a restructuring of the '>l\i\,">lTh 0 0 0 °d look to him to guide their behavior all through the Seder. may ensue. ere IS mcreasmg eVI The Israeli philosopher, Eliezer Schweid, has succinctly summarized and women's domains has been uns the family aspects of the Passover celebration: women 0 Joint efforts to develop pt services to strengthen family and con The family is the majortheme ofthe holiday. Itis realized through the family. men to move beyond the occupation: And throughout, the holiday sustains the family because it makes real in an worth, as women move beyond the: ideal fashion the unity of the family. Each family member has a role which American men, in general, reconnec indicates his place (status) within the family, and the family perceives itself n,~r "l' .... 0 as a unit when it fulfills a religious obligation (mitzvah) that transcends it. have the chance to retrieve therr role: The family bond becomes, thus, a religious bond, and the religious bond a To the obvious question, "V 38 family bond. doing something." Jewish fathers·c But, ~s Schweid points out, all holidays'provide the family a way to groups and/or along with their chi <;L,~"r:h O express anu-jJ real1ze t e re IatIons 0 hIpS among its members, thus• binding them holidays as meaningful Jewish fan together and connecting them to the larger community and people.39 traditions within the family setting; 1 However, for most of world Jewry today, much of this dynamic no community activities-in short, by longer exists. There has been a major transformation in the structure of the with their children 0 Jewish community. Inthe past,the synagogue was the central institution ofthe organized Jewish community and there was an integral bond between the' family and the synagogue. Since World War I, however, a dramatic secular­ Notes ization has transformed the synagogue intojustone component among many in 1. See Chaim I. Waxman,Americas Je" the Jewish community. Press, 1983), pp. 180-83. @ Cf. Saul Berman, "The Status ofWomen Formal Jewish education has also fallen to a record low, while secular 1973), pp. 5-28; Chana K. Poupko and Dev education among Jews is higher than among any othir group ofAmericans.40 Orthodox Response," ibid., vol. IS, no. 4 (: With Jewish fathers moving increasingly into the professions, and the Jewish "The Obligation ofTalmud on Women Acco 1981), pp. 122-30. community becoming increasingly secular, the historically unique role of the 3. For a sophisticated and systematic ana: Jewish father has disappeared and Jewish fathers have become like other Mother: Filial Responsibility in Jewish La middle-class American fathers. 41 1975). 4. Cf. H. Z. (J. W.)Hirschberg,A History I t~~ . It would appear the a\?JPects for reviving the unique role of the 1974), pp. 183-90. Jewishfather range from dlsrif'al{(, niL 42 However,a number ofrelatively recent 5. John Nash, "Historical and Social Chm The Jewish Father: Past and Present/71

s role appears to have been uniquely developments and policyproposals regarding the Jewish family may have some ~ and indeedwast\d~e~ed essential to the bearing on these prospects. Ironically, the most significant of these develop­ ewish people. ' ments is the change in the role ofwomen.As Sheila Kamerman points out,the ~ manifestation ofthis role ofthe Jewish massive entry into the labor force ofmarried women with young children is one be most celebrated of all Jewish rituals ofthe most significant social phenomena in this century.43 Women work today other holiday, Passover, and especially for the same reasons men do; that is, mostly to earn a living, and to achieve yone is expected to participate actively, " personal satisfaction. Thus, Kamerman argues, there is an urgent need to Ie Haggadah ,a microcosm ofthe roles restructure the relationship between work and family life. While Kamerman "he father is simultaneously the king, the emphasizes the impact on women, I would stress the positive impact of such a restructuring on men. the teacher. He transmits knowledge ) =:nced in recital of the portion of the If,however,the traditional relationship between work and family life is Iso teaches by example, and his children restructured, a restructuring of the traditional sources of identity and status through the Seder. ma~~~st~. There is increasing evidence that the traditional division of men's =:r Schweid, has succinctly summarized and women's domains has been unsatisfactory to many men as well as many ~bration: women. Joint efforts to develop public and private policies, programs and services to strengthen family and communitymay yetprovide the possibility for .liday.Itis realized through the family. men to move beyondthe occupational realm for their sense ofidentity and self­ the family because it makes real in an worth, as women move beyond the limits of the home to broaden theirs.44 As Each family member has a role which family, and the family perceives itself American men, in general, reconnect with home and family, Jewish men may )ligation (mitzvah) that transcends it. have the chance to r6trfe~~ their roles as Jewish educators for their children. Iigious bond, and the religious bond a - To the obvious question, "Where does one begin?" the answeris, "By doing something." Jewish fathers can begin by studying, in adult education J holidays provide the family a way to groups and/or along with their children; by setting aside the Sabbath and among its members, thus binding them holidays as meaningful Jewish family celebrations used to explore Jewish I1'ger community and people.39 traditions within the family setting; by engaging, with their children, in Jewish 'ewry today, much of this dynamic no community activities-in short, by thoughtfully sharing Jewish experiences , transformation in the structure of the with their children. agogue was the central institution ofthe :re was an integral bond between the .d War I, however, a dramatic secular­ Notes intojustone component among many in I. See Chaim I. Waxman, America sJews in Transition (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983), pp. 180-83. @ Cf. Saul Berman, "The Status ofWomen in Halakhic Judaism," Tradition, vol. 14,no. 1(Fall llso fallen to a record low, while secular 1973), pp. 5-28; Chana K. Poupko and Devora L. Wohlgelerenter, "Women's Liberation-An mong any other group ofAmericans.40 Orthodox Response," ibid., vol. 15, no. 4 (Spring 1976), pp. 45-52; and Warren Zev Harvey, ~y into the professions, and the Jewish "The Obligation ofTalmud on Women According to Maimonides,"ibid ., vol. 19, no. 2 (Summer ular, the historically unique role of the 1981), pp. 122-30. 3. For a sophisticated and systematic analysis, see Gerald Blidstein, Honor Thy Father and ewish fathers have become like other Mother: Filial Responsibility in Jewish Law and Ethics (New York: Ktav Publishing House, 1975). . lects (or reviving the unique role of the 4. Cf.H.Z. (J. W.)Hirschberg,A HistoryojtheJews in North Africa. voU (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1974), pp. 183-90. !However,a number ofrelatively recent 5. John Nash, "Historical and Social Changes in the Perception ofthe Role ofthe Father, "in 72IFrom Generation to Generation

Kibbutz in Israel," Studies o/Israeli Society (: Michael E. Lamb, ed., The Role o/the Father in Child Development (New York: Wiley, 1976), 0/ the Kibbutz, Ernest Krausz, ed. (New BI" 68-69. Family and Community in the Kibbutz (Cm 6. SD. Goitein, A Medite"anean Society, vol. 3: The Family (Berkeley: University of Menachem Gerson, Family, Women and S alifornia Press, 1978). C2 Lexington Books, 1978). 7. Idem,A Medite"anean Society, vol. 1: Economic Foundations (Berkeley: University of 34. Orit Ichilov and Shmuel Bar, "Extended California Press, 1967). Introduction. in Veteran Kibbutzim in Israel,"Journal o/Me. 8. Goitein,op. cit., p. 224. pp. 421-26. The reasons for this developmentb 9. Marshall Sklare,AmericasJews (New York: Random House, 1971), p. 87. Spiro, Gender and Culture: Kibbutz Womell 10. Goitein,op.cit.,p.225. Lionel Tiger and Joseph Shepher, Women in tho 11. Ibid.,p.226. 1975); Yaffa Schlesinger, "Sex Roles and Soc: 12. Irving Howe, World o/Our Fathers (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976), p. the Family, vol. 34, no. 4 (November 1977), 10. 35. Talmon-Garber,op. cit.,p. 2&9. 13. Mark Zborowski and Elizabeth Herzog, Life Is With People: '1)Ie Culture o/the Shtetl 36. Ibid., pp. 269-70. (New York: International Universities Press, 1952). 37. Edward C. Devereux, Ron Shouval, Urie 14. Bernard D. Weinryb, "Jewish Immigration and Accommodation to America," in Marshall Vanaki, Elizabeth Kiely and Ester Karson, ,. Sklare, ed., The Jews: Social Patterns 0/an American Group (New York: Free Press, 1958), Peers in Israel: The Kibbutz Versus the City,' p.15. 38. Eliezer Schweid, Judaism and the SO' 15. ArthurRuppin,TheJewso/theModern World (l934) (New York:Arno Press, 1973),pp. (Hebrew). 32-36. 39. See Also Chaim I.Waxman, "The Sabbll 16. Zborowski and Herzog,op. cit., pp. 335-38. vol. 31, no. I (Winter 1982), pp. 37-44. 17. Ibid.,p.275. 40. Waxman,America:SO Jews in Transition_ 18. Ibid. 41. Cf. Lawrence H. Fuchs ,Family Matters. 19. Ibid.,p.293. Fathers and Families: The Jewish Experienci TiO\ Judson T. Landis, "Religiousness, Family Relationships and Family Values in Protestant, 42. Idem, "The Jewish Father for a Chang. 'btTholic and Jewish Families," Marriage and Family Living, vol. 22 (1960), pp. 341-47. 50. 21. Fred L. Strodbeck, "Family Integration, Values and Achievement," in A.H. Halsey, Jean 43. Sheila B. Kamerman, "For Jews and 0tI Floud and C. Arnold Anderson, eds., Education, Economy and Society: A Reader in the and Family Policies," in Marshall Sklare, ed., I Sociology o/Education (New York: Free Press, 1961). N J.: Transaction Books, 1982), p. 149. . 22. Waxman, op. cit., chap. 6. 44. Cf. ChaimI.Waxman, The Stigma O/POI 23. Ibid. 2nd ed. (New York: Pergamon Press, 1983),' 24. Rivka Weiss-Bar Yosef, "Role Differentiation in Urban Israeli Families," in Rivka Bar Yosef and lIana Shelach, eds., The Family in Israel (Jerusalem: Akademon, 1969) (Hebrew). 25. Shalva Weil, "The Effect of Ethnic Origin on Children's Perceptions of Their Families" (Jerusalem: The Hebrew University, Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology, 1982) (unpublished faculty paper). 26. Ibid.,pp.8-11. 27. See YehudaNini, Yemen and Zion: The Jews o/Yemen, 1800-1914 (Jerusalem: Hasifriyah Haziyonit [W.Z.O.], 1982). 28. The first of several waves ofaliyah (immigration to the Holy Land) occurred in 1882. The most famous of these aliyot was the last, known as "Operation Magic Carpet," which carried the entire Yemenite Jewish population to Israel soon after the establishment of the Jewish State. See Itzhak Ben Zvi, The Exiled and the Redeemed (philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1961), chapA. 29. Yehuda Ratzaby, The Yemenite Jews (Tel Aviv: Israel Defence Forces, Department of Education, 1978), p. 36 (Hebrew). 30. Ibid., p. 38. 31. Muki Zur, Tair Zevulun and Hanina Porat, The Beginning 0/ the Kibbutz (Tel Aviv: Hakibbutz Hameuhad and Sifriyat Poalim, 1981) (Hebrew). 32. Bruno Bettelheim, The Children o/the Dream: Communal Childrearing and American Education (New York: Macmillan, 1969), pp. 109,256. 33. See Yonina Talmon-Garber, "The Family in a Revolutionary Movement: The Case ofthe The Jewish Father: Past and Present/73

Child Development (New York: Wiley, 1976), Kibbutz in Israel," Studies ofIsraeli Society (Israel Sociological Society), vol. 2: The Sociology of the Kibbutz, Ernest Krausz, ed. (New Brunswick, N J.: Transaction Books, 1983); idem, vol. 3: The Family (Berkeley: University o( Family and Community in the Kibbutz (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972); Menachem Gerson, Family, Women and Socialization in the Kibbutz (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1978). ~onomic Foundations (Berkeley: University of 34. Orit Ichilov and Shmuel Bar, "Extended Family Ties and the Allocation ofSocial Rewards in Veteran Kibbutzim in Israel,"Journal ofMarriage and the Family, vol. 42,no. 2 (May 1980), k:Random House, 1971),p. 87. pp. 421-26. The reasons for this development have also been discussed and debated by Melford E. Spiro, Gender and Culture: Kibbutz Women Revisited (New York: Schocken Books, 1980): Lionel Tiger and Joseph Shepher, Women in the Kibbutz (New York: HarcourtBrace Jovanovich, 1975); Yaffa Schlesinger, "Sex Roles and Social Change in Kibbutz," Journal ofMarriage and IV York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976), p. the Family, vol. 34, no. 4 (November 1977), pp. 771-79. 35. Talmon-Garber,op. cit., p. 269. ~ife Is With People: The Culture ofthe Shtetl 52). 36. Ibid., pp. 269-70. and Accommodation to America," in Marshall 37. Edward C. Devereux, Ron Shouval, Urie Bronfenbrenner, Robert R. Rodgers, Sophie Kav­ lerican Group (New York: Free Press, 1958), Vanaki, Elizabeth Kiely and Ester Karson, "Socialization Practices of Parents, Teachers and Peers in Israel: The Kibbutz Versus the City," in Ernest Krausz, ed.,op. cit., p. 313. Jrld (1934) (New York:Arno Press, 1973),pp. 38. Eliezer Schweid, Judaism and the Solitary Jew (Tel Aviv: Am Oved, 1974), p. 43 (Hebrew). 3. 39. See Also ChaimI.Waxman, ''The Sabbathas Dialectic:The Meaning and Role,"Judaism, vol. 31, no. 1 (Winter 1982),pp. 37-44. 40. Waxman ,America SJews in Transition, op.cit., chap. 8. 41. Cf. Lawrence H. Fuchs ,Family Matters (New York: Random House, 1972), chap. 5, and Fathers and Families: The Jewish Experience (in press). ~Iationships and Family Values in Protestant, amily Living, vol. 22 (1960), pp. 341-47. 42. Idem,. "The Jewish Father for a Change," Moment, vol. 1, no. 3 (September 1975), p. dues and Achievement," in A.H. Halsey, Jean 50. 9n, Economy and Society: A Reader in the 43. Sheila B. Kamerman, "For Jews and Other People: An Agenda For Research on Families 1961). and Family Policies," in Marshall Sklare, ed., Understanding American Jewry (New Brunswick, NJ.: Transaction Books, 1982),p.149. 44. Cf. Chaim I.Waxman, The Stigma ofPoverty:A Critique ofPoverty Theories andPolicies, :ion in Urban Israeli Families," in Rivka Bar 2nd ed. (New York: Pergamon Press, 1983), chap. 5, 6. ;ael (Jerusalem: Akademon, 1969) (Hebrew). on Children's Perceptions of Their Families" of Sociology and Social Anthropology, 1982)

5 ofYemen, 18OD-1914 (Jerusalem: Hasifriyah

!ltion to the Holy Land) occurred in 1882. The - "Operation Magic Carpet," which carried the If'terthe est8.blishmentofthe Jewish State. See hiladelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of

Aviv: Israel Defence Forces, Department of

_t, The Beginning ofthe Kibbutz (Tel Aviv: • (Hebrew). ram: Communal Childrearing and American '9,256. :l a Revolutionary Movement: The Case of the