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Home , Great Awakening, Second Great Awakening

he religious revival that more concerned with ideological swept America in the years issues than the age of Jackson,” Tbefore our Revolution— notes historian Bertram Wyatt- known as the — Brown. This produced not only deepened our belief in human bitter electoral contention but sovereignty and equality before also struggles over the staffing of God, and was thereby a crucial government, spurts of corruption, A case study factor, historians agree, in fueling and periodic violence in our streets our struggle for independence. and town squares. Many Americans Changing Society through Civil Action A full generation later felt unsettled and uneasy. there followed a Second Great Not only our politics but our Awakening. It was even more culture seemed debased. Per capita influential in forming our national alcohol use was three to four times character and changing the current levels. (See Temperance direction of our society. While the case study.) Public spaces were America’s first awakening produced political often slimy with tobacco spit. change, the second awakening Popular pastimes included dogfights, 36 Second yielded social reform—shifting cockfights, rats-versus-dog battles, American culture in ways both and bull-baiting. A fighting style Great broad and deep. called “gouging” was a problem The bloom was off the rose during these decades. Street of politics for Americans as the brawlers grew their fingernails long Awakening began to make it easier to pop the eyeball at the end of the 1700s and out of an opponent’s head; some accelerated in the early decades filed their teeth to assist in biting of the 1800s. This was when off appendages during frequent the Articles of Confederation imbroglios. imploded, partisan hatreds Disgust with ugly politics and broke out for the first time, the culture didn’t drive solid citizens nation became embroiled again into retreat, though. To the contrary, in war, and passionate Jacksonian philanthropists—and especially the populism smashed all sorts of surging ranks of reborn evangelical national customs and forms. The Christians—decided that they had social changes of the day were a duty to help create a better and drastic, and politics was chaotic. more orderly nation. And this was “No period” of U.S. history “was history’s first religious revival that aimed to simultaneously Protestant church membership serve God and soften Caesar. in the U.S. grew twice as fast as Believers were urged to be active population over the multidecade on two distinct fronts: -saving course of the Second Great and good citizenship; personal Awakening. In areas where the character and neighborhood revival fires burned brightest, decency; abstaining from evil like upstate , religious and rooting out evils in society; activity was rampant. Even more and reform; religion impressive than the packed church and humanitarianism; individual pews, remarked newspapers like and cultural the Rochester Observer, was the improvement. It was not an “spirit of zeal and boldness” and otherworldly religion that swept “increased energy infused into America in the first half of the Christian character and exertion.” nineteenth century. Leaders like The 1853 report of a traveler Charles Finney argued that the from Sweden named Fredrika had been given to us by Bremer gives a flavor of the passion God not only to rescue but in evidence at revival peaks. She 37 to clean up our collective life. describes an immense crowd of Change was happening in mingled white and black Americans Britain at the same time. English at a nighttime Georgia . Jacksonian America was an often cruel society. Depicted here is one of philanthropist and politician Eight large altars had been built the many bloody spectacles staged at Kit Burns’s Sportsmen’s Hall in New William Wilberforce, who led in a forest. Scores of campfires York City. Classes high and low came to gamble on terriers set against 100 his nation’s crusade to abolish roared, with rings of burbling people rats, no-holds-barred human fights, bear-baiting, death matches between the slave trade, emblemized gathered around each. She records dogs, even battles between barehanded men and pit bulls. the evangelical enthusiasm for wails from the penitent as a lightning spreading religious and moral storm approaches, and describes truths to all people, regardless of joyful singing by thousands of station, while also emphasizing believers. It was, she writes, a night Powerful moral reform ended the vital need for “a of “never to be forgotten.” manners” in collective life. But the , universalized literacy, and evangelical wave swept further into Mass inner transformation cemented what we now think of as the countryside in America than it connected to outward action did in Britain, creating a surge of One of the remarkable things about the classic American virtues. social energy that left deep marks the Second Great Awakening is how on secular life. democratic it was. It was sparked and initially peopled by Methodist, words of one impressed observer. Baptist, and Presbyterian farmers, Businessmen, practical artisans, artisans, and laborers. Only after and students loved his messages. small-town residents and frontier The first aim of his frank, families had built it into a mighty dramatic preaching was to convince force did it eventually become a the listener to take the Christian gravitational influence on wealthier message to heart and change his or classes. The theology of the her own life in intimate, lasting ways. awakening centered around the His immediate second priority was equal value and wide opportunity to build a sense of what he called enjoyed by every person. It rejected “present obligation” among his all conceptions of an anointed elect, listeners. He wanted the farmers and an aristocratic church, or an elitist merchants, mechanics and mothers view of the good life. in his audience to recognize their One of the leaders who imbued responsibilities to others, and enter the movement with this accessible into service of their fellow man. This spirit was Charles Finney. An marriage of inner personal change 38 attorney prior to humanitarian action was the great to his conversion, he brought contribution of evangelical activists a democratic spirit and host of during this era. effective courtroom techniques In a series of camp meetings to his second career of lifting up conducted from 1825 to 1835, Finney Americans from the pulpit. The drew vast crowds, particularly in effect was powerful. central and . To Finney’s preaching was not build on the following he stirred only exciting and impassioned, up in small towns, fast-growing but direct, logical, and sincere. new cities, and frontier regions, He urged all pastors to speak in philanthropists like Arthur Tappan, One of the thousands of outdoor revival meetings that burst forth across America during the first half of the nineteenth century. simple cogent sentences and clear William Dodge, Anson Phelps, and Storytelling, teaching, and preaching inspired religious conversions colloquial language. He always Jonas Platt provided funding to that caused church membership to grow twice as fast used the first-person “you,” not bring his revival message to big as our population over a multi-decade period. some fuzzy third-person reference. Eastern cities including Manhattan. His precise, logical arguments They rented churches for him, hired delivered with energy, verve, and assistants, provided publicity, and informal wit resembled a great offered funds to eliminate the pew

“lawyer arguing to a jury,” in the fees that made it hard for people of Collection Lithography on Stone’ ‘America Peters T. Harry Smithsonian Institution, American History, Museum of National Life, of Home and Community Division modest income to attend services in half of the nineteenth century had a major sanctuaries. fascinating relationship to politics. “No more impressive revival As the Second Great Awakening has occurred in American history,” arrived, many secular reformers writes historian Whitney Cross in were ready for help from religious assessing Finney’s work. Charles leaders. They were finding it difficult Finney was “one of those rare to improve our tumultuous country individuals who of their own through policy alone. unaided force may on occasion is a perfect significantly transform the example. A physician and signer of destinies of masses of people.” the Declaration of Independence, Finney had lots of company he was a reform philanthropist in wedding revivalism to social who did vast good in areas like reform. His fellow preacher and improved medical care, humane reformer spent treatment of the insane, prison much of his career working to reform, and education of the poor convince fellow Americans that and neglected. He was also one was more about what of the first prominent Americans 39 they should do than about what to warn that heavy drinking was they could think. The linking of damaging our society and that religious belief to constructive alcohol consumption patterns social behavior was such a strong needed to change. He wrote a book emphasis that by the end of the on the physiological and social Second Great Awakening it had damage done by bingeing, and become a truism even of Senate worked with other humanitarians speeches. “I believe man can like philanthropist be elevated; man can become… Anthony Benezet to try to make more God-like in his character, headway against this problem. Rush and capable of governing himself. eventually concluded that churches Let us go on elevating our people, were best positioned to bring lasting perfecting our institutions,” urged reductions in drinking, writing that, Senator Andrew Johnson in 1858. Charles Finney was an attorney turned pastor who stirred up enormous religious enthusiasm during the Second Great Awakening. He was a logical from the influence of the preacher who argued like a great lawyer speaking to a jury. His marriage Bringing morality to politics and Methodists of inner personal change to humanitarian action was characteristic The new reforming religion that in checking this evil, I am of evangelical activists during this era. surged across America in the first disposed to believe that the parties were being born for of religion in such a country as the first time in human history. this.” Philanthropist and leading Dramatically different strategies for New York financier Thomas Eddy winning office and governing were insisted that people saying “we taking root, and Americans were take no interest in politics” were having to learn whole new ways of really saying “we take no interest thinking about political action. in human progress.” They were Evangelical Christians were also, he warned, abandoning the most concerned with individual freedoms of religious conscience behavior and reinforcing the moral and practice that were so hard- rules that yield success in both won by America’s founders. Other personal life and public affairs. Many leaders called an anti-political Christian reformers were wary of temper “un-Christian,” castigated political contamination of religious “the piety that is too ethereal for causes, and political corruption of the duties of citizenship,” and urged well-meant reforms. But they did that “Christians must do their duty not turn their backs on the new to the country as part of their duty 40 politics. They knew that the political to God.” Editor and Methodist arena was one of the necessary pastor James Watson suggested that forums where personal behavior true religion “sanctifies the citizen An explosion of new benevolent groups went to work against poverty, and community morals had to be and sends him to the ballot-box to… family breakdown, ignorance, and other social problems. This ecosystem of discussed and regulated. Though bless his fellow man.” volunteer societies, known as the Benevolent Empire, received total annual their consciences often tempted Historian Richard Carwardine donations rivaling the size of the entire federal budget of the day. them to opt out of politics, the vast concludes that this insistence on majority resisted and instead tried bringing religious conscience to the business must be effected was in the midst of turmoil to fashion principled codes of public creation of public policy shaped finally by religion alone. and far-reaching change. Many action that would sometimes include our politics “every bit as much as Human reason has been members of the possessing political activity. appeals to natural law and natural employed in vain…. We have classes were turning away from Yet they were clear on which rights had molded the politics of nothing to hope from the the Federalists in frustration. form of activity was the higher the Revolutionary era.” The Second influence of law in making A raw new populist streak was and subsumed the other. Instead Great Awakening pushed the men wise and sober. unfolding across public life, of arguing that “religion has a political emphasis away from naked including in the presidency of legitimate role in politics,” as is interests and the idea that “to the As the Second Great Awakening Andrew Jackson and the party often said today, Charles Finney victor belongs the spoils,” which was unfolding, American politics, machines that took over many put the horse before the cart, dominated the early 1800s, toward a like much of the rest of the country, major cities. Mass political saying that “politics are a part more morally principled approach. This shift is nicely illustrated in and blacks and Native Americans, one concrete bit of evidence. The advocacy for the rights of wives very first time that Lewis Tappan— whose husbands had abandoned the leading reform-philanthropist them, clubs that discouraged of the Second Great Awakening— profanity among children, and ever saw a win by the candidate groups that pushed businesses he supported for President was in to close on Sunday and let their 1864. Abraham Lincoln became the workers rest and worship with greatest moralist ever elected to our their families. These creations were top political office just as the social crucial in bringing cohesion, order, reforms spurred by the Awakening decency, fairness, and stability reached a high-water mark. to jam-packed cities and rough frontiers where many virtues had Grassroots activism leaked away. Much more than politics, though, Awakened citizens gave money civil society was the place and raised it from their friends, and where leaders and funders of they volunteered their time and From Andrew Jackson’s election in the Second Great Awakening put labor in vast quantities. “Members 1828 to Abraham Lincoln’s Presidency 41 their energy and resources. They were not to attempt to do good one full generation later, American created hundreds of charities, merely by pecuniary contributions, behaviors, attitudes, manners, religious associations, and action groups but especially by personal exertions practices, and political ideas were to fan out across the country and labors. Every member of the dramatically reshaped. The leadership and make conditions healthier, Society was to be ‘a working man,’” of persons of faith, forward-looking businessmen, and middle-class happier, and more wholesome. wrote the organizer of one charity donors and volunteers was crucial The products of this grassroots created to teach children. in making this happen. effort included orphanages, old- This approach characterized the age homes, houses for delinquent Second Great Awakening’s style of children, hospitals, residences and —which emphasized job-training programs for former “personal exertions” and the need Reformers didn’t possess extraordinary prostitutes, new or expanded to work for the salvation and churches, shelters for the poor, success of others. One important wisdom; they just experimented with legal defense for Native Americans sociological benefit of this was solutions to social problems and then facing removal from their lands, that it got millions of middle-class anti-alcohol self-help groups, businessmen and housewives and focused on those that worked best. Sunday schools, seminaries, new college students into direct contact colleges, schools catering to girls with the poor, slaves, drunkards, lonely seamen, abandoned widows, Many talented organizers and and disenfranchised minorities. leaders rose to the top of the The helpers thus developed real reform groups working to clean understanding and expertise in what up our society: people like the was going on in our tenements and gifted polemicist Theodore Weld, docks and servants’ quarters. the poet John Greenleaf Whittier, This led the evangelical and journalist-provocateur activists to try a vast range of William Lloyd Garrison. Though new palliatives—visiting nurses, the mores of their era kept most milk stations for children, hostels out of the limelight, many top to protect new arrivals from the charitable efforts depended country from urban corruptions, heavily on impressive women as you name it. Many individuals and the foot soldiers and line officers groups found themselves offering of their battalions, and nearly multiple kinds of help at the same all of the eventual leaders of the time: Women visiting elderly later suffrage and women’s rights people in need of company also movements were alumni of these 42 brought food. At church services in evangelical reform groups. poor neighborhoods, clothing, coal, The burst of cooperative and bread, and jobs were distributed transformative energy that poured along with and tracts. out in communities all across Missionaries who moved into our land also produced larger slums to proselytize also ended up alliances that either coordinated teaching the ABCs to young and old the local groups or operated neighbors. Reformers developed as national or international a vast arsenal of weapons for charities in their own right. Look battling irreligion, ignorance, and beneath their sometimes ornate want. “Early nineteenth-century nineteenth-century titles and you evangelicals did not possess will get a sense of the breathtaking extraordinary vision or wisdom; ambition of these associations, they merely experimented with which quickly numbered in Mothers, wives, and daughters anxious to moderate various solutions to the problems the thousands: the Society for our runaway national drinking problem would they saw and then focused their Bettering the Condition of the sometimes stage vigils at saloons, reducing alcohol consumption through energies on those that seemed Poor, Provident Society for encouragement, shame, and personal appeals. to work best,” reports historian Employing the Poor, Society for

Anne Boylan. the Promotion of Industry Among MPI / Stringer /gettyimages the Poor, American Education Puritan entrepreneurs Society, Society for Establishment Wealthy philanthropists also played and Support of Charity important roles. Ground Zero for Schools, American Temperance the interlocking reform groups was Society, Sons and Daughters of Nassau Street in lower Manhattan— Temperance, American where many of the evangelical Society, American Tract Society, charities were headquartered. Prison Discipline Society, Orphan Nassau Street begins directly in Asylum Society, American Female front of today’s New York Stock Guardian Society, American Exchange. Then as now, the Seamen’s Friend Society, American merchants and financiers whose Home Missionary Society, Board places of business packed that of Commissioners for Foreign region included many nationally Missions, American Sunday important philanthropists. School Union, American ­Anti- Generous givers among the lower- Slavery Society. Manhattan capitalists, plus other Collectively, this remarkable major donors like Stephen Van ecosystem of volunteer societies Rensselaer, Gerrit Smith, Theodore Families would descend on neighborhoods to give the poor 43 became known as the Benevolent Frelinghuysen, Elias Boudinot, Bibles, tracts, food, and clothing. Vast volunteer efforts connected citizens Empire. And empire is not too William Jay, Richard Varick, James across divides of wealth, ethnicity, faith, and region. strong a word. By 1834, when the Milnor, John Pintard, and Thomas voluntary wave was still in its Eddy, were important seed funders early days, the total annual income for many charitable efforts. even came close to having as big a Mrs. Tappan was a grandniece of donated to the major Benevolent Foremost among the spark- transformative effect on America as Benjamin Franklin, but the family Empire groups rivaled the size of plug philanthropists supporting these two philanthrocapitalists. “put on no airs, envied no one’s the entire federal budget of that the Benevolent Empire were the Arthur and Lewis Tappan grew superior status, and did not snub year. Most of the charities had Tappans. Their large family included up in a very pious home in small- those below them,” according to broad bases and were sustained by two prosperous and philanthropic town New . Their village of Wyatt-Brown. hundreds of thousands of modest brothers in Boston, another brother Northampton, Massachusetts, “was Their community was donations from contributors all who became a U.S. Senator, plus neither rich and sophisticated, stitched together by the across small-town America. “The additional siblings. But it was New nor backward and poor,” records threads of numerous voluntary real dependence of the movement,” York City merchants Arthur and one chronicler. Their modestly associations of the sort that reports Wyatt-Brown, “was upon Lewis who became the most famous successful family likewise adopted Tocqueville marveled over the middle-class farmers and of the Tappans. I suggest that from the classic middle-American during his American tours townsmen near the Erie Canal and the Wrights to the Kennedys to the perspective and avoided being at the height of our Second along the rivers of New England.” Kochs, no other pair of brothers either haughty or submissive. Great Awakening. For instance, writings of the British philanthropist and politician William Wilberforce. The ideas and example of Wilberforce were a perfect guide, he suggested, to “ardent piety and patriotism and philanthropy.” In his marriage, Arthur tapped into another public-spirited American family with a tradition of service. His bride grew up in the From the Wrights The Second Great Awakening began in the towns and New York City home of Alexander small cities of upstate New York and western Hamilton. Her father had been one to the Kennedys to the Kochs, New England, spreading along the Erie Canal and of Hamilton’s closest friends during various river valleys into the frontier communities of the Revolution, so when both of our Midwest. Later, it arrived in our major cities. no other pair of brothers her parents died by the time she There’s no doubting the was two, Hamilton stepped in as came close to having as big a Tappans were . In her surrogate father and raised her like 44 youth, Mrs. Tappan attended one of his own offspring. transformative effect on America revivals with As young men, both Arthur and other leading preachers of the and Lewis pitched in on a variety as these two philanthro-capitalists. original Great Awakening. And the of charitable causes. In his early home where she and Mr. Tappan working years Lewis became reared their flock for a period of secretary of the local benevolent years was the former residence society, served as a church Northampton’s solid citizens of fire-and-brimstone preacher treasurer, helped edit a magazine would gather before the Jonathan Edwards. Many notes called the Christian Register, and fireplace of the town inn once and tones of America’s previous volunteered as a counselor with every month and convene their spiritual crescendo echoed a temperance group. He donated Society for Detecting Thieves around Arthur and Lewis as they money, and raised it from others, to and Robbers and Bringing Them grew to adulthood. support the Deaf and Dumb Asylum, to Punishment. Their Hampton The boys had an uncle David the Hospital for the Sick, the Asylum Musical Society met in the same who was a professor at Harvard. In a for the Insane, and the Asylum building—but weekly rather letter where he mourned the political for Indigent Boys. He supported than monthly, putting the lie to disruptions and personal “infidelity, the , and the idea that Puritans were all impiety, and vice” of the early 1800s, helped start the Boston Provident grim duty and no melodious fun. Dr. David Tappan recommended the Institution—one of the very first banks created to make it easier for had very different personalities, the poor to accumulate wealth. and achieved their good works in After the textile business Lewis quite different fashions. Arthur had built to success became was taciturn, sensitive, and a overextended and went bankrupt, bit forbidding. He kept no guest he went to work in Arthur’s silk-­ chairs in his small office because selling firm as a partner. The two he believed they only encouraged labored hand-in-glove for much visitors to tarry, distracting him of the rest of their lives. When he from getting things done. saw up close the life Arthur had Lewis was much more social, created as a Christian businessman indeed a tireless extrovert, and and philanthropist in Manhattan, a powerful public speaker. He Lewis was deeply impressed. His “performed the muscular work” brother was already making a that allowed both the brothers’ remarkably wide array of deep business ventures and the scores of charitable gifts. He built libraries philanthropic projects they jointly where young apprentices newly supported to thrive. He was a relocated from countryside to city master strategist and natural leader, 45 could go to educate themselves and and showed repeated brilliance socialize off the corrupting streets. at capitalizing on current events, He was a director of the Seaman’s turning them into object lessons Friend Society that offered aid and for the American public—as in the companionship to elderly sailors. case of the Amistad trial that he Brothers Lewis (top) and He supported many churches in orchestrated into a turning point on Arthur (bottom) Tappan were lower Manhattan. Looking over his national opinion toward slavery. (See pioneering businessmen, and even more remarkable as brother’s profoundly ambitious the abolition case study.) philanthropic organizers of experiment in Christian living, Lewis Yet even at the peak of his fame, both personal transformation marveled that “this is enjoying Lewis always made time to join and social change. They riches in a high degree…in the good small prayer meetings, visit the sick, pioneered a “comprehensive” he achieves while living.” and hand out Bibles in the sterile style of civic action that left countinghouses lining Wall Street or deep imprints on America in numerous sectors. The power of a few good men the dank taverns that sprouted like Though they labored in close mushrooms along the East River — All rights reserved — parallel for decades, and agreed on wharves. There were occasions nearly all matters of principle and where he and several compatriots

Granger, NYC ­ Granger, practice, Arthur and Lewis Tappan charged into grim brothels “to to put down large sums for difficult or unpopular work. He was one of the first American philanthropists to act on a “comprehensive” scale— founding organizations where he found them wanting, sticking with recipient groups through thick and thin over decades, making huge investments in particular charities as they hit a crossroads, pursuing long- term goals. Almost without exception, Arthur left speaking and writing to others. He made his contributions by volunteering his managerial expertise behind the scenes, soliciting fellow members of his 46 New York City merchant class to pitch in for charitable causes, and making heavy gifts of his own (even when his business and income were tottering). Arthur Tappan’s main means of expressing himself, as one In 1846, when this scene at the pluck fallen women from roaring century.) Arthur was abstemious biographer put it, was “the metallic corner of Wall Street and Broad was lions who seek to devour them,” and frugal, spending almost eloquence of his money.” captured, the financial district of placing their rescues in homes nothing on himself, and modestly And that was a huge contribution. lower Manhattan was (like today) home turf for many nationally run by clergy that supplied food on his family. He viewed his “Our great benevolent system influential philanthropists. Important and clothing, Bible studies, and money as a resource entrusted owes its expansion and power charities of the “Benevolent Empire” occupational training to allow the to him by Providence, to be to his influence,” observed one were headquartered nearby women to support themselves in used accountably to improve life contemporary. “His example inspired along Nassau Street. respectable employment. on earth and lift men’s eyes to the merchants of New York… For most of their lives, Arthur higher goals. In typical seasons leading them to give hundreds and was much wealthier than Lewis, he gave away the lion’s share of thousands where before they gave and a far heavier donor. (But his yearly income. tens and fifteens.” then, he was a heavier donor than Arthur Tappan had a razor-sharp Because Arthur committed very

perhaps anyone else in his half philanthropic vision and the courage little to print, never made a public Library Public Digital Collections. York New The 1846.” N.Y., Street, “Wall Library. Public York New The Art Collection, and Picture address, and often gave in secret, it returning to New York so that is hard to be concrete in totaling his overseas business and political donations. But by the 1820s he was news collected from the crew could known as the most generous donor be published in the Journal a day or in New York City. Lewis, his business two before everyone else got it. and charitable partner, estimated Arthur’s deepest motivation that Arthur gave away roughly for starting another newspaper $50,000 every year for decades. John was his frustration that there was Pintard, a formidable businessman no available business publication and Christian philanthropist in his free of “immoral advertisements” own right, marveled in 1830 that for liquor, tobacco, Sunday “he is truly a wonderful benefactor theater entertainments, and such. and…his benefactions may amount Arthur lost $30,000 in the first few in a few years to half a million…. I years of running the paper, yet wish we had more Arthur Tappans.” continued to turn down easy ad His renown was international. money from sources he considered

After he was chosen to head the unwholesome. Eventually, his Arthur Tappan founded the New York Journal of Commerce, American Anti-Slavery Society (to journal grew into one of the era’s pictured above. He paid a heavy financial price for turning down 47 which he was the lead donor), leading financial and political papers, advertisements he considered degrading or immoral, but used innovations British philanthropists sent the demonstrating that righteous to build the paper into an economic and political force. society a note. “Your officers, with commerce was not an unpractical that indefatigably devoted, great dream. (An offshoot is still published and good man, Arthur Tappan as today, 190 years later.) your president,” they wrote, “give Both Tappan brothers were that you must conquer.” watchdog capitalists throughout their lives. After retiring, Lewis wrote Purifying business and a book titled Is it Right to be Rich? enriching the nation It was an indictment of the quick- Arthur Tappan had a razor-sharp Along with painter, inventor, and money schemes and materialism Morse-code developer Samuel that erupted after our Civil War. philanthropic vision, and the courage Morse, Arthur founded the New Arthur brought his benevolence York Journal of Commerce in 1827. right into his workplace. He tried to put down large sums for difficult or He showed additional inventiveness to assist and shelter his young here. The newspaper, for instance, apprentices and clerks—steering unpopular work. operated two fast ocean-going them to respectable rooming

History, Philosophy, and Newspaper Library at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign of Illinois at Library the University at and Newspaper Philosophy, History, schooners that intercepted ships houses and active churches, setting brothers had seen firsthand that borrowing money, buying goods on credit, and accumulating debt could tempt people to lie, exploit others, or walk away from responsibilities. A store owner from St. Louis or New Orleans could come to New York, fill a boat with wholesale goods purchased on credit, then never be seen again. There were few mechanisms for discouraging this. Disquiet over the ways that easy money could warp men eventually led the Tappans into a world- changing business venture. Lewis launched an entirely new industry— credit reporting—that married 48 their dual interests in personal character and private enterprise. His Mercantile Agency recruited correspondents in cities and towns Lewis Tappan came up with a crucial commercial innovation: credit reporting. Drawing on connections made in his all across the country—700 of them charitable work, he recruited a network of correspondents to file character reports on merchants all across the country, by 1846—to compile confidential so their qualifications for credit could be assessed. His “Mercantile Agency”—whose New York City headquarters is depicted here­­­—eventually grew into Dun and Bradstreet. reports on the reliability, honesty, and stability of merchants in their area. Arthur joined him in expanding aside a room in the company associates whom he had launched the good habits and character of this venture. headquarters for prayer and Bible into trade with his own money. merchants. As much as possible they As information sources, study, and maintaining contact Arthur and Lewis became did business in cash, or used quickly Lewis drew heavily on people of with the small-town parents who known as honest and fair dealers. redeemed promissory notes at low high ethics he knew through his entrusted their sons to him to be They set prices low, depending or no interest. philanthropic work in abolition, trained. He was generous in setting on heavy volume for their profits. Commerce in the Tappans’ day Sunday schooling, temperance, up his successful employees They both hated loans and usurious was often conducted on the honor and other causes. He particularly in independent careers, and credit—due to Biblical injunctions, system. With the country growing favored local pastors and small- eventually many of his biggest and because they believed that rapidly and morals changing, this town lawyers as correspondents.

business competitors were former borrowing money often corrupted was becoming less tenable. The Abraham Lincoln became one of Business School. Harvard Library, Baker Records, Corporation Dun & Bradstreet 1870. ca. Office, York New Agency’s of the Mercantile Engraving his agency’s Midwestern reporters; a neighbor could furnish the storekeeper Ulysses Grant another. appraisal of an applicant that a (Grover Cleveland and William creditor needed. By the 1840s, McKinley also filed reports for a the country had grown too time, making Tappan’s firm perhaps large and too populated and the only one in U.S. history to have its people were too mobile for employed four future Presidents the old sources of information while they were young men.) to function efficiently. The Mercantile Agency built, and constantly updated, an archive Subscribers soon found with brief dossiers on the economic the service indispensable, and record, personal character, and business mushroomed. The Tappan The Tappans’ credit reports were a seminal creation— simultaneously establishing new incentives for moral behavior trustworthiness of thousands of company eventually evolved into by individuals, supercharging the U.S. , traders. Merchants considering today’s Dun & Bradstreet. and cleaning up unethical business practices. Both as extending credit to a provincial Credit reporting put a rational social and commercial entrepreneurs, buyer would ask the agency for a basis beneath the distribution the brothers were mold-breakers. report on their potential partner. of capital (which is the lifeblood By rewarding honest merchants of commerce). By reducing loan 49 and punishing those who neglected defaults, it allowed lenders to responsibilities, Tappan’s lower interest rates, fueling commercial creation thus filled a American expansion. In reducing moral gap. As Lewis himself put it, the uncertainties of business this mechanism “checks knavery, transactions, credit reporting and purifies the mercantile air.” “played a vital role in building In the words of Lewis’s the twentieth-century American biographer Bertram Wyatt-Brown, economic system,” concludes Disgust with ugly politics and culture Wyatt-Brown, who compares it to His Agency was answering the telegraph, the railroad, and the didn’t drive solid citizens into retreat. a specific need that those free press in setting the stage for institutions which he so much modern prosperity. It instead drove them to create a appreciated himself—the This Tappan innovation was church, the family, and the thus able to simultaneously clean up remarkable ecosystem of charitable small-town community— American business, supercharge the were no longer capable of economy, and create new incentives organizations that transformed America. supplying. At one time, the for ethical behavior—the kind of local , a relative, or trifecta every reformer dreams of. Click here to read the second of our four case studies on how culture change was done through American history.