International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies Volume 6, Issue 11, 2019, PP 1-12 ISSN 2394-6288 (Print) & ISSN 2394-6296 (Online)

The Evolution of ’s Foreign Policy: From the Pre- Independence and Post-Independence Perspectives

Dr. Joseph C. Ebegbulem Department of Political Science, University of Calabar, Nigeria *Corresponding Author: Dr. Joseph C. Ebegbulem, Department of Political Science, University of Calabar, Nigeria

ABSTRACT Nigeria’s foreign policy can be traced to periods of the country’s existence. These periods are the colonial period and the post-colonial period. The colonial period, between 1914 and 1960 is when the entity called Nigeria came into existence as a united nation, even though the country was still under colonial rule. The post-colonial period is from independence in 1960 till date. This study will pay attention to the post-colonial period of Nigeria’s foreign policy since it can be rightly said that Nigeria as a sovereign state started having interest from this period. The post-colonial period saw the formation of indigenous foreign policy that was truly called Nigerian foreign policy. This study will therefore examine the evolution of Nigeria’s foreign policy before independence and review the country’s foreign policy since independence in 1960. The study will also look at the principles and objectives of Nigeria’s foreign policy; determinants of Nigeria’s foreign policy; and, the Afrocentric principles of Nigeria’s foreign policy. Keywords: Foreign policy, Afrocentric principles, Independence, Intervention, Commonwealth

INTRODUCTION was controlled by the British to serve their interest. EVOLUTION OF NIGERIA’S FOREIGN POLICY Nigeria’s external affairs were fully in the hands of the British Governor-General of Nigeria. The evolution of Nigeria‟s foreign policy could External Affairs were among the subjects be divided into two, namely colonial period and reserved for the Governor-General, a Briton. post-colonial period. The colonial period is The sessional paper on Foreign Policy (1956), when the entity called Nigeria came into which was the first serious foreign policy paper existence i.e. 1914-1960, when the country was on Nigeria was a product of the joint efforts of still under the colonial rule of the British the Governor-General, his Chief Secretary (also , while the post-colonial period is a Briton), and the British Colonial and from independence till date. This paper will Commonwealth Reactions Offices (Ofoegbu, focus on the post-colonial period of Nigerian 1998: 48). foreign policy because that is when it can be rightly said that Nigeria, as a sovereign state The post-independence period saw the started having interest. From 1914 to the later formation of a truly indigenous foreign policy part of 1960, the interest of the British was the that was truly called Nigerian foreign policy. interest of the entity called Nigeria. With the coming of successive since independence, the policy has been Not just Nigeria, other countries of the mortified. Even though there have been changes Commonwealth were content to leave the in foreign policy formulation by various diplomatic representation of their interests to governments since independence in 1960, the Her Majesty‟s government in the United objective of the country‟s foreign policy still Kingdom. According to Ayah (1998: 27) “In remains the same. Anyaele (2005) posits that the these countries, the interests of all members of protection of national interest has remained the Commonwealth are therefore watched over permanent in Nigeria‟s foreign policy, but the and protected by Her Majesty‟s Ambassador or strategy for such protection has varied from one Minister for the United Kingdom.” Ray regime to another. This means that all the Ofoegbu succinctly pointed out also that governments from independence till date have Nigeria‟s foreign policy before independence

International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies V6 ● I11 ● 2019 1 The Evolution of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy: From the Pre-Independence and Post-Independence Perspectives pursued the same goal and objective using  Respect for the sovereign equality of all different instruments. From the administration nations of Sir Balewa in the First to the present administration of Dr. Good luck  Promotion of friendship and cooperation Jonathan, the objectives of Nigerian foreign among the various countries in the world policy have remained the same.  Maintenance of the principles of non- It is not wrong to state that the evolution of interference and non-aggression in other Nigeria‟s foreign policy can be traced to when countries of the world the country got her independence as a sovereign  Promotion of the rapid de-colonisation of state. Upon gaining independence in 1960, Nigeria made the liberation of Africa the centre- piece of her foreign policy and played a leading  Maintaining a modest approach to the pursuit role in the fight against the apartheid regime in of Nigeria‟s foreign policy South Africa (Samora, 1979). Samora further stated that Nigeria‟s foreign policy was tested in  Support for a free and democratic world the 1970s after the country emerged united from  Promotion and support of cooperation and civil war and quickly committed herself to the integration among African states (Asogwa, liberation struggles going on in the Southern 2009: 78) African sub- region. Nigeria's Afrocentric foreign policy under Prime As noted earlier, Nigeria‟s foreign policy before Minister Balewa was not in doubt. Balewa was independence in 1960 was tied to the interest of committed to the decolonisation of Africa and the British. When the country got independence, the wellbeing of Africans. Under Balewa, the first major task the Balewa administration Nigeria played a leading role in the formation of had to deal with was the shaping of Nigeria‟s the Organisation of African Unity (now African foreign policy in alignment with Nigeria‟s Union) and the Basin Commission in national interest. Nigeria‟s post-independence 1964. Nigeria also contributed substantially to foreign policy was centered around the Prime the special fund of the OAU liberation Minister who dominated the foreign policy committee and played an active role in the machinery. He conducted a conservative foreign expulsion of apartheid South Africa from the policy that was pro-West even though he in 1961. Nigeria‟s professed a policy of non-alignment. While he African centered foreign policy was reiterated maintained good relationship with the West by Tafawa Balewa in his speech at the United represented by the of America and Nations on October 8, 1960, few days after Britain, he was hostile to the Eastern bloc Nigeria‟s independence. In his speech, Balewa represented by the Soviet Union. It was informed his audience thus: observed that on most international issues like the Berlin crisis of 1962, the American nuclear So far I have concentrated on the problems of test of 1962, the Vietnam conflict, the Prime Africa. Please do not think that we are not Minister leaned towards the West. The only interested in the problems of the rest of the exception was Nigeria‟s decision to break world; we are intensely interested in them and diplomatic ties with France in protest of nuclear hope to be allowed to assist in finding solutions tests carried out by France in the Sahara. to them through this organization, but being human we are naturally concerned first with When Tafawa Balewa assumed office as the what affects our immediate neighbourhood first Prime Minister of in (Tafawa Balewa’s speech at the UN, Oct., 8, 1960, he outlined what Asogwa (2009) called 1960). “broad principles” of Nigeria‟s foreign policy. The fundamental principles of Nigeria‟s foreign He frowned at the West and East bloc nations policy under Tafawa Balewa, according to using Africa as a battlefield for ideological Asogwa (2009) are: wars. This came on the heels of the Congo crisis. He was of the opinion that African  Promotion of Nigeria‟s national interest and nations are capable of playing their required world peace roles in the comity of nations only when the  Pursuance of the policy of neutrality and developed and industrialized nations stop non-alignment fermenting crisis in African states on the basis of ideology (Asogwa, 2009).

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It is instructive to note that the evolution of principles, even though she maintained a special tales Nigeria‟s foreign policy as an independent relationship with Britain and other western sovereign nation dates back to Balewa‟s countries. Her economic relationship was more administration from 1960. It can therefore be with the west as she maintained an unfriendly stated that Prime Minister Tafawa Balewa set attitude with the Eastern bloc countries as an ). U the principles of Nigeria‟s policy which has represented by the Soviet Union and China. The served as the compass for successive Nigerian government laid emphasis on the maintenance canNigeria governments, even though he recorded minimal of regional and international peace and security, success. and respect of sovereign equality of states. This ‟s ents, is a factor that motivated her active role in the OVERVIEW OF NIGERIA’S FOREIGN establishment of the Organization of African POLICY SINCE INDEPENDENCE Unity (OAU). After the military coup of 1966 even Since independence, Nigeria‟s foreign policy that saw the collapse of the first republic, critics has been characterised by a focus on Africa and argued that the government was too pro-west, by attachment to several fundamental principles. and ignored to lay a strong framework for These are: African unity and independence; decolonization and integration. peaceful settlement of disputes; non alignment According to Alli-Balogun, there was a distinct and non-interference in the internal affairs of break in Nigeria‟s foreign policy during the civil other nations; and regional economic war of 1967-1970 as the primary concern of the cooperation and development (Ogoke, 1993). government was to preserve the unity of the Nigeria hoped to achieve the above objective country. After the civil war, the country re- through her membership of, and participation in assessed her relationship with both eastern and the Organisation (UNO), the western bloc countries. She maintained a more Commonwealth of Nations, the Non-aligned pro- East and less pro-West stance considering Movement, the Organisation of African Unity the support given to her by the Soviet Union (now AU) and the Economic Community of after the West refused to provide arms to the West African States (ECOWAS). country during the civil war. At the same time, Several issues have dominated Nigeria‟s foreign Africa remained the centre-piece of the policy across various governments since country‟s foreign policy as attention was independence in 1960 with each government focused on the liberation of Southern Africa, the having distinctive priorities and style. This integration of ECOWAS, and the need for means that the country‟s foreign policy has complete economic independence throughout been pursued within broad conceptual Africa. The establishment of Economic framework since independence. Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was one of the great achievements of Nigeria in As earlier indicated, that framework situated regional policy. Africa at the fulcrum of Nigeria‟s pre- occupation and around which rotate other This informed Onyisi‟s (2011: 18) position that spokes of its relation with other countries. In “in the mid and late 1970s attention focused on effect, Nigeria's behaviour accorded due recognition the liberation of Southern Africa, on the to the totality of Africa's needs and expectations integration of ECOWAS, and on the need for in the formulation and implementation of her complete economic independence throughout foreign policy in a framework that ensures that Africa.” During the period between 1976 and Africa remains a natural habitat in which 1979, Nigeria‟s foreign policy was reviewed. Nigeria can exercise direct 'influence in the The country pursued an independent and non- pursuit of her national goals and objectives. aligned foreign policy dictated neither by the east nor by the west. This was as a result of It is therefore right to say that despite the pressure from Britain that Nigeria should follow vicissitudes of the political fortunes in Nigeria, the diplomatic vogue and continue a policy of successive governments from the Balewa non-alignment. administration have outlined the fundamental principles of Nigeria‟s foreign policy within the After reviewing Nigeria‟s position on the Non- African agenda. Aligned Movement, Ayah posits that a salient factor that influenced Nigeria to review her During the Tafawa Balewa‟s administration foreign policy and adopt the policy of non- between 1960 and 1965, Nigeria‟s foreign alignment was the non-aligned movement itself. policy had non-alignment as one of its guiding According to him, small and weak nations saw

International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies V6 ● I11 ● 2019 3 The Evolution of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy: From the Pre-Independence and Post-Independence Perspectives the goals and potentialities of the movement so alliance with and routine political support for attractive. Such goals as military the West (capitalist) or the East (communist) in disengagement, freedom from entangling the post-World War II international System. The alliances, peace in a polarised world, security of conscious rejection of any form of alliance, members and reduction of level of conflicts in particularly formal military or political alliance, East-West relations all were attractive to Nigeria constituted an important feature of Nigeria‟s (Ayah, 1998). foreign policy. Consequently, during the entire period of the Cold War, Nigeria successfully Another external pressure on Nigeria came from resisted joining either the Eastern or the Western the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) which bloc of nations in their ideological struggle for urged its members to join the non-aligned power and influence. This policy was adopted movement. In the movement African issues by Nigeria and other newly independent states became dominant, especially issues like of Africa and Asia to help promote international decolonisation, racial discrimination, neo- peace and security in view of the Cold War colonialism and imperialism. conflict between the two super power blocs of Salau and Fawole contend that the principle of NATO and Warsaw Pact. non-alignment formally characterized the In Ray Ofoegbu‟s view, Nigeria favours the foreign policy up to 1993, but in practice, it was principle of non-alignment because it makes her rather the opposite. From their point of view, the more assertive and boosts her foreign policy Murtala-Obasanjo regime, despite the non- objective of being a regional power. The aligned posture, identified more with socialist principle discourages dependency in foreign states and openly confronted the capitalist policy by asserting the right to define and world. The Shagari and Babangida exercise options in international affairs free administrations embraced western states, and from ideological impediments, and helps in the Babangida even put up an economic diplomacy shattering of unhealthy colonial ties and orients that would engage western investments in the the country, to develop new relations toward domestic economy. The Abacha regime developing countries with whom Nigeria would effectively ended the era of alignment with the likely share a wider scope of common concern west, as it began to show a bias for the isolated (Ofoegbu, 1998). nations of the Middle East and socialist bloc from 1995 (Fawole, 2004). However, scholars like Philip and Anglin perceive that Nigeria was not as non- aligned as However, Obasanjo‟s administration identified it claimed on paper. The Balewa administration with the course of non- alignment, but by this was considered to be pro- West and anti-East in time there had been a momentous questioning its policies. These pro-West images were surrounding the continued relevance of non- possibly a result of Nigeria‟s colonial alignment in the face of globalisation experience, during which educated orchestrated by the west and more controversial were socialized into western values (Philips, was whether had ever been truly non- 1964). In addition, Nigerians were nurtured in aligned. The nature of the capitalist economic all aspects of western life, albeit primarily of the development from the 1990s to date of some of British variety during the colonial period. The the founding fathers of the Non-Aligned policy actions commonly cited to substantiate Movement (NAM), such as Indonesia and the claim that Balewa was pro-West were Egypt; and the socialist economic development summarized by Anglin (1964: 54) as of some of its founding members further raised the need for a refocusing of the Non-Aligned Delaying the establishment of diplomatic Movement (Ojo and Sessay, 2001). relations with the Soviet Union; imposing restrictions on the size of the Soviet mission in From the 1990s to date, Nigeria‟s foreign policy , on travel to Soviet bloc countries has been centered on Economic Diplomacy and (especially study), and on the importation of Citizen Diplomacy. Soviet literature; discouraging Soviet bloc aid PRINCIPLES AND OBJECTIVES OF and trade; proposing a “two China” policy and NIGERIA’S FOREIGN POLICY supporting India in its dispute with China. The first principle of Nigerian foreign policy is The reasons he outlined were Balewa‟s the policy of non-alignment. It is a foreign conclusion of a defence pact with Britain, policy principle which rejects formal military permitting the establishment of “secret NATO radio station” in the country, refusing to attend

4 International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies V6 ● I11 ● 2019 The Evolution of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy: From the Pre-Independence and Post-Independence Perspectives the Belgrade Conference of Non-Aligned The global community and ‟s Nations, adopting a policy of silence on Cuba presence in Sudan is, for instance, the case of and Berlin, and the resumption of U.S. nuclear intervention which the United Nations tacitly tests. The other policies were collaborating with sanctions (UN Charter, 1945). The case of the neo-colonialists in the Congo and opposing interference however has been the US invasion the Union of African States (Anglin, 1964). of Iraq in 2003 with the purported mandate to Although the Balewa administration later “free Iraq and establish a democratic reversed some of these policies, the initial anti- government of the people. (Rosati, 2006: 78) communist policies created doubts as to its Nigeria upholds this principle of non- sincerity in the espousal of a non-aligned policy interference as it relates to its West African on East-West issues. counterparts. It has not had a case of undue The second principle is the legal equality of interference in the affairs of other African states, states. This principle is aimed at protecting the but has intervened at critical moments on many small and underdeveloped countries like Nigeria occasions. Among such instances were the and other African countries, which are highly unilateral and subsequent multilateral susceptible to control, domination and coercion intervention in the Liberian crisis from 1990 to by powerful and industrialized states. Nigeria the restoration of democratic rule in 2005, and also believes in this principle because of her her intervention in the Sierra Leonean crisis. conviction that a well-ordered and peaceful Other cases of Nigeria‟s legitimate intervention community at both regional and universal levels were the resolution of the political crisis in requires mutual and reciprocal respect for the Gambia by the Obasanjo administration, views and interests of all national actors. containment of the military attempt to dislodge Nigeria is highly committed to this principle. the democratic government of Sao Tome and Principe, the solution of the Cote d‟Ivoire The principle of legal equality of all states has conflict and the diplomatic resolution of the been justified not simply in terms of the fear of Togo and Congo crises in the early 2000s. underdeveloped countries like Nigeria being left in the periphery in the determination of world The fourth principle is that of multilateralism, affairs, but also, and more importantly, in terms that is membership of international of allaying the fears of small and weaker organisations such as the United Nations, African states. The principle underscores the Commonwealth of Nations. African Union, assumption that all states are equal in the comity Economic Community of West African States, of nations with equal opportunity to advance etc. Nigeria was an ardent and active promoter their views and interests through the media of and participant in multilateral diplomacy. This international organisations. accounts for Nigeria eagerly joining and belonging to several international organisations. The third principle is the principle of non- Nigeria‟s policy makers believe that there is interference in the domestic affairs of other safety in number and thus had no reluctance in states. Related to the principle of legal equality belonging and participating in these of states or respect for the independence and organisations. They also believe that sovereignty of states was Nigeria‟s avowed membership of these international organisations commitment to noninterference in the national will enable Nigeria pursue her interest and affairs of other nations. This was particularly contribute to the common goals of the emphasized to draw attention, and distinguish organization. Nigerian leaders as different from the of those countries that are known for meddling The fifth principle is that Africa is the centre- in the affairs of other countries. piece of Nigerian foreign policy. This is an important principle that has guided Nigerian It is however noted by Rosati (2006) that non- foreign policy since independence. The interference is not the same as non-intervention. principle emphasized Nigeria‟s commitment to According to the duo, interference itself literally the decolonization of Africa. Thus anti- means an unwelcome involvement of an apartheid and liberation groups found in Nigeria external or a second party in the national affairs the most committed and faithful ally throughout of a sovereign state. Intervention, however, is an their respective struggles for freedom and acceptable development in international politics independence. Therefore, in the pursuit of this to help a state restore peace or to save a nation afro-centric foreign policy, Nigeria has assisted from an internal crisis that is becoming liberation movements in various parts of the externalized or of a huge humanitarian concern.

International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies V6 ● I11 ● 2019 5 The Evolution of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy: From the Pre-Independence and Post-Independence Perspectives continent, thereby dismantling the last vestiges state in the international system (Russet & Stair, of colonialism. Besides, Nigeria has shown 1992: 84-85). commitment in the implementation of this Nigeria‟s foreign policy objectives are a policy through efforts at peaceful resolution of reflection of the country‟s national interest. conflicts in the continent and the championing Every foreign policy, is a dynamic process that of the struggle to uplift the socio-economic is determined by the domestic needs and wellbeing of the African people through aspirations of the country, coupled with certain continental programmes, such as the New practical economic, political and socio-cultural Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) forces in the international environment (Njoku and (ADB) assisted and Nwafor, 2006). Therefore, the major goal of sustainable economic development programme Nigeria‟s foreign policy is to protect and to (Njoku and Nwafor, 2006). promote the country's national interest. The Although some of these principles, such as objectives of Nigeria‟s foreign policy are decolonization and non-alignment are no longer enshrined in Chapter 2, Section 19 of the 1999 as relevant as they were in the 1960s and 1970s, Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria quite a number of other principles remain both under the rubric of Fundamental Objectives and relevant and crucial for any nation that seeks to Directive Principles of State Policy. These preserve and protect its sovereignty and objectives are: independence and remain a respectable member promotion and protection of the National of the international community. interest; promotion of African integration and In most analyses of Nigerian foreign policy, support for African unity; promotion of Nigeria‟s national interests have- either not been international cooperation for the consolidation clearly identified or have not been adequately of universal peace and mutual respect among all looked at. This is because there is vague nations and elimination of conception of successive political leaderships of discrimination in all its ramifications; respect the country about what constitutes Nigeria's for international law and treaty obligations as national interests, or the leaders have not been well as the seeking of settlement of international careful enough to differentiate between disputes by negotiation, mediation, articulation of Nigeria‟s national interests and reconciliation and adjudication; and promotion the actualization of national interests. Foreign of a just world economic order. (The 1999 policy objectives are a comprehensive plan and Constitution) goal values that, a country intends to achieve as Although guided by the same general principles, it relates with other members of the world. Otubanjo (1989) observed that the various Corroborating this, Obi (2006) said that foreign regimes that have governed Nigeria since policy objectives concern the goal- values that a independence have not necessarily shared the state aspires to attain in its external relations. same perception of the international system or The objectives are also referred to as the state‟s conceptualization of Nigeria‟s role in it, nor of national interest. On their part, Russet and Stair the strategies for attaining her foreign policy (1992) categorized Foreign policy objectives objectives. Inspite of their declaration of non- into core, middle range and long range partisanship in the ideological conflict between objectives. According to the duo, East and West, successive Nigerian Core values are the foreign policy aims that are governments have shown a clear preference for related to the survival of the state and its relation with the western powers and an citizens. The protection of the sovereign and antipathy towards the Eastern bloc. According territorial integrity of the nation and, the lives to Otubanjo, “all have professed non-alignment, and property of Nigerians at home and abroad although most have tilted more to the West than remain the cardinal values that constitute the to the East and all declare aspirations for a just national interest. Middle range objectives within international economic order and global peace.” the framework of Nigeria’s foreign policy (Otubanjo,1989: 10). It is instructive to note include such broad matters as economic here that Nigeria‟s foreign policy objectives development and social welfare, promotion of have since been reinforced by the international cooperation, respect for recommendations of the military-appointed fundamental rights and mutual respect among Adedeji Committee on the Review of Nigeria‟s nations. On the other hand, long range Foreign Policy. These objectives not only served objectives are the dreams and aspirations of the Nigeria‟s national interest, but were also a

6 International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies V6 ● I11 ● 2019 The Evolution of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy: From the Pre-Independence and Post-Independence Perspectives guideline which Nigeria‟s foreign policy actors market during this period. conformed to and regarded as principles guiding This informs Okoro‟s position that: Nigeria‟s leadership role in Africa. It is however uncertain whether Nigeria appreciates to be an The sudden increase in the prices of oil in the effective leader in Africa. world market in the 1970s gave Nigeria a leverage which it did not possess in the first DETERMINANTS OF NIGERIA’S FOREIGN decade of independence. More importantly, POLICY Nigeria was able to determine its own foreign Looking at the ‟s foreign policy independent of external influences. Put policy, there is no doubt that we can recognize differently, the growth of the country’s economy two major important determinants or factors that arising from the oil boom strengthened its have consistently influenced Nigeria's foreign position in relation with developed countries. policy orientations. These are internal and For instance, Nigeria’s foreign policy in Angola external factors, both of which have played and the subsequent recognition of the MPLA as some considerable roles in the determination of the legitimate government of Angola, the Nigeria‟s relations with the international nationalization of Barclays Bank and the British community. This agrees with Northedge‟s Petroleum because of the British support of the (1968) argument that the foreign policy of any apartheid policy in South Africa, Nigeria’s role state is a product of environmental factors both in the Chadian conflict as well as the strong internal and external to it. North edge argues material and moral support to the Liberation that every state has these two factors Movements Southern Africa, were influenced by conditioning her foreign policy from conception Nigeria’s improved economy, largely to formulation and implementation. occasioned by the oil boom (Okoro, 2002: 15). DOMESTIC FACTORS It can therefore be clearly stated that the role of oil in Nigeria‟s foreign policy cannot be Ibrahim Gambari has argued that there is direct underestimated. However, faced with weak relationship between domestic politics and economy after the oil boom in the 1970s, foreign policy formulation in Nigeria. Nigeria was unable to meet her domestic and According to him, the conduct of political international obligations. Okoro (2002) gives a business invariably affects the conduct of clearer picture of the implication of this on foreign policy (Gambari, 1981). The domestic Nigeria‟s foreign policy. He argues thus: factors which include the country‟s economy, the personality and character of her leaders, Nigeria’s economic downturn and the heavy geography, pressure groups and the country‟s debt burden from the 1980s to present have two constitution has great influence on the major implications on Nigeria's foreign policy. perception, formulation and implementation of First, Nigeria’s foreign policy is limited in Nigeria‟s foreign policy. The economic fortune scope because of limited financial resources of Nigeria, especially in the 1970s, influenced needed for the implementation of foreign policy the tempo of her foreign adventures. The oil decisions; second is Nigeria’s lack of freedom to boom of the 1970s motivated Nigeria‟s formulate independent foreign policy, especially commitment to the decolonization and liberation one that is at variance with the interest of struggles in Africa. This is in line with foreign investors (Okoro, 2002: 16) Soremekun‟s assertion that oil is the major As a result of this weak economic situation, driving force of Nigeria‟s foreign policy Nigeria was forced to rely on World Bank and (Soremekun, 2003). Okoro (200 2) was also the International Monetary Fund (IMF) thereby quick to point out the relevance of oil in exposing Nigeria to indebtedness. In his paper, Nigeria‟s foreign policy. According to him, “by Economic Factors in Nigeria‟s Foreign Policy, the end of the in 1970, the Fafowora clearly underscores the implications boom in the country's oil industry not only of Nigeria‟s reliance on the World Bank and accelerated the economic growth rate, but also IMF for economic turnaround. greatly enhanced its potential standing on the international arena” (Okoro, 2002: 14). By He points out that: 1975, Nigeria had a strong economic base for The direct intervention of the World Bank and development and political leverage in her IMF in the Nigerian economy also has serious external relations. This was as a result of the implications for the conduct of Nigeria’s increase in the price of oil in the world oil external relations. Severe limitations are

International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies V6 ● I11 ● 2019 7 The Evolution of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy: From the Pre-Independence and Post-Independence Perspectives inherently placed on the conduct of Nigeria’s get all these lost in a political union” (Adeyemo, relations by our massive foreign debt owed 2002: 59). largely to the Western bloc countries. How can The role of pressure groups in the formulation Nigeria now truly pursue an independent and of Nigeria‟s foreign policy cannot be non-aligned policy when its economy is also underestimated. Pressure groups are organized closely tied to the Western bloc countries, how associations with numerical and financial can it confront those Western bloc nations to strength that operate to obtain favourable which it is so deeply indebted? (Fafowora, policies from the government (Opere, 1983). 1990: 477) They exert influence on government and affect Ake (1983) attributed Nigeria‟s economic foreign policy formulation in Nigeria. decline which resulted in her reliance on the In the first republic administration of Tafawa western financial institutions for economic Balewa, some pressure groups attempted to development to pandemic corruption, exert some influence on Prime Minister mismanagement of the Country‟s resources, Balewa‟s foreign policy. Okoro (2002: 18) political instability and poor economic policies. states that: This made Nigeria to become hugely indebted and emerge as a rentier state which Western Their interests and demands were as varied in countries exploited the situation to their scope and in intensity. In the Congo crisis, for advantage. example, (which was the first foreign policy issue of the Balewa administration) the Under the personality and character of her remarkable divergence of the views of the leaders, it is believed that whatever a regime political parties, notably the three major parties does in terms of domestic or external relations is - NCNC, AG and NPC reflected ethnic divisions more or less a reflection of the Chief Executive and interests within the Nigerian society. Other of the State. The field of foreign affairs is often interest groups, such as the trade unions, regarded as the special preserve of the President student organisations, academics, etc who were (Coleman, 1963). The foreign policy of Nigeria critical of government’s Congo policy, based from independence till date can be said to have their criticisms on their perceptions and reflected to a very large extent the character of interpretation of the problem. her leaders. In foreign policy formulation, “decision makers in most cases allow their Okoro cited one notable pressure group that personal backgrounds, experiences, motivations, always tried to influence government economic learning, values, prejudices, positions, policies, the Manufacturers‟ Association of privileges, interpersonal relations and Nigeria (MAN). Their foreign policy position, perceptions to influence the making and conduct according to him, has been based on the belief of foreign policy” (Okoro, 2002: 25). The in self-reliance which was aimed at influencing ideology of these leaders has tremendous government decisions on imports that could influence on the foreign policies of their states. hinder the growth of their infant industries. It is “For example, where rulers are militants, one pertinent to say here that the efficacy of pressure can expect a radical foreign policy stance from groups is not quite clear, but because their belief their states. Murtala Mohammed of Nigeria is a and interests are generally shared by the national typical example. But where the rulers are interest of self-reliance as a condition for conservative with aristocratic background like economic development, the policy decisions on Balewa, a moderate and cautious foreign policy foreign economic issues may appear to reflect can be expected.” (Adeyemo, 2002: 69) their views. However, a closer study of pressure groups as a factor in foreign policy formulation Geography is another determining factor in indicates that pressure groups do not have much Nigeria‟s foreign policy. Nigeria is the most influence on foreign policy like they do in populous country in Africa and the most domestic policies because foreign policy populous black state in the world. As the most decisions are made in secrecy. Foreign policy populous country in the continent of Africa, decisions do not result in one group within the “Nigeria‟s foreign policy makers have been population gaining at the expense of others. consistently passive and cautious about African political unity partly because many African Nigeria‟s constitution is also a visible factor that states may not be willing to surrender their hard- has influenced foreign policy formulation since won sovereignty and partly because Nigeria as independence in 1960. A constitution is a body „giant‟ in size and population would not want to of rules, regulations, customs and principles,

8 International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies V6 ● I11 ● 2019 The Evolution of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy: From the Pre-Independence and Post-Independence Perspectives which states how a nation should be governed. It East. In order not to be caught in the web of any gives power to the government and places political confusion, Nigeria adopted a foreign limitation on the power. The Nigerian policy principle of non-alignment, that is, the constitution states in clear terms what the country was neither pro-West nor pro-East. country‟s foreign policy behaviour should be. It As a principle of foreign policy of states, sets a broad ‟s foreign members of the Non-Aligned! Movement (NAM) relations. Under the Fundamental Objectives like Nigeria believed in a policy of and Directive Principles of State Policy, the independence based on peaceful co-existence, Nigerian constitution specifies the foreign non-participation in military alliances such as policy objectives of Nigeria. Nigeria is also a the North-Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) signatory to many international treaties which and Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw are automatically part of the country‟s Pact), support for liberation movements and municipal law. These treaties also shape her refusal to the Great Powers of facilities for the foreign policy formulation and implementation. establishment of military bases on the soil of the EXTERNAL FACTORS NAM” (Idang 1973: 231). The external factors are those factors from During the Cold War of the 1960s and 70s, outside the domestic environment which affects these principles were exhibited in Nigeria‟s the formulation of Nigeria‟s foreign policy. foreign policy behavior, even though they were They include Nigeria s colonial heritage, the ignored at some points. The Nigerian Cold War and Non-Alignment and Multilateral government under Prime Minister Tafawa Relations. Balewa maintained a closer relationship with the West, even to the point of signing the Anglo- The country‟s colonial heritage has affected, to Nigerian Defence Pact in 1960 (Aluko, 1981). a large extent, her relationship with other Balewa‟s government was thus considered to be countries in the international community. The pro-West and anti-East policies. Philips (1964) government of Sir Tafawa Balewa in the first believes that these pro-West images were republic was very friendly with the West due to possibly as a result of Nigeria‟s ‟s colonial relationship with Britain, experience, during which educated Nigerians even though the government declared a foreign were socialized into Western values. The policy policy of non-alignment. This pro-West foreign actions commonly cited to substantiate the claim policy posture lasted until after the Nigerian that Balewa was pro-West were summarized by civil war when the Soviet Union made a positive Anglin (1964) as: impact on Nigeria-Soviet relations after agreeing to supply arms to Nigeria for the delaying the establishment of diplomatic prosecution of the war. On the continental level, relations with the Soviet Union; imposing Nigeria maintains a robust relationship with restrictions on the size of the Soviet mission in countries that share common colonial heritage Lagos, on travel to East bloc countries with the Anglophone countries. There are some (especially for study), and on the importation of writers who have argued that the colonial communist literature: discouraging Soviet bloc history of any state is the major determinant of aid and trade; proposing a “two China” policy her foreign policy. Thus, Okunu (1971) asserts and supporting India in its dispute with China; quite conclusively that the foreign policy of any Balewa's conclusion of a defence pact with state in the continent of Africa is the function of Britain, permitting the establishment of "secret her colonial history. Even though Nigeria NATO radio station in the country; refusing to maintains cordial bilateral relations with attend the Belgrade Conference of Non-Aligned countries of the East bloc, she has maintained a Nations; adopting a policy of silence on Cuba more robust relationship with the West than the and Berlin and the resumption of US nuclear East due to her capitalist orientation which is tests (Anglin. 1964: 248). part of her colonial heritage. We can therefore, argue in this paper that The Cold War and Non-Alignment played a Nigeria‟s legacy as a former British colony, significant role as a factor that influenced combined with her energy-producing role in the Nigeria‟s foreign policy at the foundation of global economy, predisposed Nigeria to be pro- Nigeria‟s foreign policy. During the period of Western on most issues of her foreign policy, Nigeria‟s independence in 1960, the despite the desire to maintain a non-aligned international community was polarized between status. two political ideologies in the West and the

International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies V6 ● I11 ● 2019 9 The Evolution of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy: From the Pre-Independence and Post-Independence Perspectives

Finally, Nigeria’s multilateral relations have a universe, of cultural neighbourhood, of shared prominent position in Nigeria’s foreign policy. historical experiences and the ideas of pan- The country’s membership in, and commitment Africanism further lubricated the wheels of this to, several international organisations such as foreign policy conceptualization. the United Nations, the African Union, the Under the framework of an African-centered Commonwealth of Nations etc. affected her foreign policy, Nigeria got involved in the foreign policy position. decolonization struggles of Angola, Mozambique, Namibia and antiapartheid AFROCENTRIC PRINCIPLE AND NIGERIA’S struggles in South Africa and in the process FOREIGN POLICY earning for her the appellation a “frontline Nigeria‟s Afrocentric foreign policy is as old as nation”, even though she was geographically far the Nigerian state itself. The notion that Nigeria removed from the theatre of the struggles which was destined to lead the African continent and was in the Southern African region. Nigeria is champion the cause of black people all over the central to the formation of Economic world actually predates her independence in Community of West African States (ECOWAS) 1960. This conviction has remained strong in 1975. Nigeria has contained the breakdown of almost fifty four years after independence. social order in many West African States Perhaps the explanation for this tenacity is to be through her world acknowledged peacekeeping found in the leadership role conception which expertise, and provided economic life wire to most Nigerians, including the political elite, less economically resourceful countries. have about the country. The sources of this As indicated earlier, the belief that Nigeria conception are obvious enough and relate to the would play a crucial leadership role in Africa country‟s often-repeated demographic through her Afrocentric foreign policy principle preponderance, her economic and natural had predated independence. National and anti- endowments, and her staggering human colonial leaders such as Nnamdi Azikiwe who resources (Obadare. 2001). later emerged as the first Nigerian President, Prior to Nigeria‟s independence in 1960, had contended that “it should be the manifest Nigeria‟s African leadership potential was destiny of Nigeria to join hands with other anticipated internationally and locally. Foremost progressive forces in the world to emancipate Nigerian nationalist and first president, Nnamdi not only the people of Africa but also other Azikiwe, referred to Nigeria as “Nigeria- peoples, of African descent from the scourge of Africa,” a symbolism of Nigeria's inseparability colonialism” (Azikiwe, 1961). from African interest, and in January 1960, Beyond the rhetoric of connectedness of Prime Minister Tafawa Balewa noted Nigeria‟s Nigeria‟s identity and position of influence to aspirations: “Nigeria will have a wonderful the destiny and importance of Africa in global opportunity to speak for the continent of matters, section 19 of the fl979 Constitution Africa.” (Wayas 1979: 76) mandated Nigeria to “promote African unity, as The idea of Afrocentrism in Nigeria‟s foreign well as the total social and cultural liberation of policy is premised on the understanding that Africa and people of African birth Upscent Nigeria‟s engagement in the international throughout the world.” The current 1999 system will be looked at through the binoculars Constitution reaffirms such commitment. of Africa. As Hon. Aja Wachukwu averred on Analysts like Ibrahim Gambari and Kenneth the imperative of an Afrocentric policy, “charity Meagher have however seen this Afrocentric begins at home and therefore any Nigerian foreign policy posture of Nigeria as a wake-up foreign policy that does not take into call to the continent to accept the nation‟s consideration the peculiar position of Africa is benevolent hegemony (Gambara, 2008; unrealistic.” This enunciation is the Meagher, 2008). philosophical origins of Afrocentrism in Among the leadership role envisaged for Nigeria‟s foreign policy thought. The issues that Nigeria‟s adoption of Afrocentric foreign policy gave practical expression to this African- were the liberation of the African continent from centeredness were the remnants of colonialism imperialism of all kinds, fighting apartheid and on the African continent, apartheid in South racism in Southern Africa and in the Diaspora, Africa, liberation wars, ideological and proxy uniting Africans to make their voice loud conflicts among others. Outside these politically enough in global politics and using enormous pressing factors, the issue of shared racial resources of the country to: assist needy African

10 International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies V6 ● I11 ● 2019 The Evolution of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy: From the Pre-Independence and Post-Independence Perspectives states (Ojiako, 1981, Saliu, 1999). In addition, politics, much is yet expected of Nigeria today studies conducted by Akinbobola, Nweke and by African states. others have discussed the demands and In summary, it can be rightly argued that expectations emerging for Nigeria in Africa as a Nigeria‟s Afrocentric foreign policy evolved as result of her Afrocentric foreign policy. These an extension of Pan-Africanism which aimed at demands include regional security, combating promoting and defending an African agenda to increasing poverty, diseases and end colonialism and racist regimes, achieve underdevelopment (Akinbobola, 2000; Nweke, unity, stability and sustainable development in 2000), neo-colonialism (Akindele. 1998) Africa. growing indebtedness to the West (Saliu, 1991; Olusanya, 1989). CONCLUSION This informs Aluko‟s, rationalization of Africa The discussion on the evolution of Nigeria‟s as the centre-piece of Nigeria‟s foreign policy. foreign policy was divided into two, namely. He maintains that: The pre-independence (colonial) and post- independence (post-colonial) periods. During Using Africa as the centre-piece of Nigeria is rationalized on the basis that Nigeria is better the pre-independence period i.e. (1914-1960), Nigeria was still under the colonial rule of the positioned in Africa to identify with and defend British government, and the interest of the the legitimate interest of Africa than any other British was the interest of Nigeria. In other nation. The assumption has been that the words, Nigeria‟s pre-independence foreign independence of Nigeria would be meaningless policy was controlled by the British to serve if it does not lead to the total liberation of all their interest. African states. Nigeria had wished to use her population, size and resources as advantage to The post-independence Nigeria witnessed the contribute and facilitate the collective interest of formation of a truly indigenous foreign policy Africa and this mandate was consummated as that was truly called Nigerian foreign policy. It Nigeria’s historic mission (Aluko, 1981, 265). is not wrong, therefore, to state that the evolution of Nigeria‟s foreign policy can be With this therefore, Nigeria arrogates to herself traced to when the country got her independence the responsibility of catering for the well-being as a sovereign state. Nigeria‟s foreign policy of Africans wherever they may be. Saliu (1999) since independence has been pursued within the states that it is acknowledged that the well-being framework that ensures that Africa remains the of the African continent is intricately tied to natural habitat in which Nigeria can exercise Nigeria‟s. He justifies it with references to Nigeria‟s swift response to the Congo crises in direct influence in the pursuit of her national goals and objectives. 1960-62, a few; months after independence; her intervention in Chad, Liberia, Sierra Leone, It is evident that since independence, Nigeria etc. has aspired to occupy the centre stage of African affairs, using her resources, influence and power The country also led various campaigns against to achieve this aspiration and further her racist regimes and their western sponsors, national interest, especially in the West African notably offering technical, financial, material sub-region. In Nigeria‟s existence as a sovereign and general diplomatic support to anti-racist state, the influence the country wields through movements. These initiatives helped in the the instrumentality of foreign policy which establishment of majority rule in South Africa and Zimbabwe, decolonization of Angola, seeks to promote and protect her national interest can better be assessed within the context Namibia, Mozambique, Sao Tome and Principe of regional and continental leadership (Akinterinwa, 2005) aspiration. Nigeria believes that her independence would be In the implementation of her foreign policy, incomplete as long as any other African state Nigeria adopted five principles. These principles was under colonialism. Nigeria supported are: (i) the policy of non-alignment which revolutionary struggles for independence, fought rejects formal military alliance with the apartheid to a standstill and was relentless in capitalist West or the communist East; (ii) the distributing financial assistance to needy principle of legal equality of states which is African states. Akinyemi (2005) and other aimed at protecting the small and scholars including Saliu (1999), however, underdeveloped states; (iii) the principle of non- contend, that going by her pedigree in African interference in the domestic affairs of other

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Citation: Dr. Joseph C. Ebegbulem., “The Evolution of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy: From the Pre- Independence and Post-Independence Perspectives”. (2019). International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies, 6(11), pp.1-12 Copyright: © 2019 Dr. Joseph C. Ebegbulem. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

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