Cross-Cultural Exchange in the Atlantic World: Angola and Brazil During the Era of the Slave Trade Roquinaldo Ferreira Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-86330-8 - Cross-Cultural Exchange in the Atlantic World: Angola and Brazil during the Era of the Slave Trade Roquinaldo Ferreira Index More information

Index

Abreu, José Martins, 231–2, 239 Alvarez, 76 adultery, 198 Amado, Sebastião, 109–10 Afonso, Tomé Fernandez, 204–5, 239–40 Ambaca (presídio), 24, 33, 61–3 African: cultural traits in Americas, 246–8; Ambriz, 145–6 customary law, 5, 12–14, 37–8, 74, 78, Ambuila (Luandan), 35–6 82, 86, 103–4, 106–7, 111–12; influence Ambundo, kingdom of, 23–4, 44–6, 175. on whites, 188 See also Holo; Matamba African diaspora, 12, 243 Amona, Njinga, 23–4 Africans: and military (guerra preta), 22, Amuquiama (dembo), 40–1 215–16 Ana (Barreto’s slave), 160–1 African workers: enslaved, 53, 56–7; Ana (slave), 98 solidarity against enslavement, 55–6 Andrada e Silva Menezes, Joaquim José Agostinho, 155–6 de, 59 Agostinho, Hiume, 116–18 Andrade, Elias Vieira de, 218 Agostinho, João, 116–18 Andrade, Francisco Rego de, 200 Agostinho, Lourenço, 198 Andrade, Father Francisco Rezende, 108 Alarcão, Henrique Figueiredo, 190, 193 Andrade, Francisco Zuzate de, 108, 200 Albuquerque, José Antônio de, 34 Andrade Câmara, Pedro Matoso de, Albuquerque, Manoel Vieira de, 218 197, 200 Albuquerque, Paulo Caetano de, 172–3 Andre, Antonio, 80 alcohol: and caravan trips, 52–3; and André, João, 110 healing ceremonies, 178; and taverns, Angela (slave), 157 146; used to purchase slaves, 53. See also Angélica (slave), 167–8 rum (Brazilian) jeribita Angélica, Josefa, 161 Alencastre, Antônio, 159–60 Angola: pawnship in, 77–81, 87; Alencastro, Luiz Felipe de, 7 Portuguese influence upon, 12; Alexandria, Mario de, 63 relationship with Brazil, 7–8, 245; Almeida, Alexandre da Gama, 73–5 relationship with Portugal, 7–8 Almeida, Antônio de, 73–5 Angonga, Malengue, 196 Almeida, Manoel Joaquim Pinto de, 34–5, animals: and sacrifices, 5, 175, 178, 182, 214 184, 198 Almeida, Plácido José de, 34–5 Anjo, Antonio Lopes, 217–18, 219–21, Almeida Barboza, José de, 213–14 223–5, 238–40 Almeida Loba, Josefa de, 213 Antonia (free), 163

249

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-86330-8 - Cross-Cultural Exchange in the Atlantic World: Angola and Brazil during the Era of the Slave Trade Roquinaldo Ferreira Index More information

250 Index

Antonia (slave), 166 Bengo, 135, 139 Antonia, Maria, 123–4 Benguela: Africans enslaved in, 56–7, António (slave), 161 68, 169–71; anticipated Portuguese António, Francisco, 163 attack, 230–1; Brazilian influence António, Luis, 101–2 in, 8, 245; Brazilian sympathizers in, Antonio, Luiz, 116–17 236–7, 241; donas in, 1; extortion by António, Manoel, 162 officials, 72–3; freemasonry in, 231–2; Antônio, Sebastião, 110 gangas in, 183; itinerant traders in, Antunes, Felipe, 208–9 62; juntas in, 234, 238; licenses to Antunes da Cunha, Manoel, 37–8 trade in, 34–5; merchants in, 214–18; apelidar liberdade (plea for freedom), 81, petitions to administration, 69–70, 76–7, 84, 100–2, 108, 112–13 102–3, 116–18; political instability, Aqua, João, 116–17 225, 229–30; quimbares in, 59; royal Aragão, José Antonio de, 155–6 treasury in, 209–10; slaves imprisoned Araújo, José Caetano de, 217–18 in, 109–10; slaves sent from, 227; slaves Araújo Soares, João Feliciano, 53 shipped from, 1, 73–5; sobas in, 39, Arnoso, Antonio Leitão, 167 53; street vendors in, 133–5; and ties to Arruda, Dionisio Gomes de, 116–18 Brazil, 203–4; tribunal de mucanos in, Assamba, Nbomba, 56–7 99–101, 104–5, 108; weapons imported Assazala, Miguel, 62–3 to, 45–8 Assunção, Domingos Ferreira, 37–8, 43–4 Benguela, Roza, 161 Assunção Mello, José de, 34 Bennett, Herman, 12–14, 90, 125, 243 “Atlantic Community,” 12 Berlin, Ira, 246–8 Atlantic history: macro-structural, 244–5; Bernardo (carpenter), 156 micro-historical, 245 Bibiana, Dona, 33–4 Atlantic Ocean: mobility across, 5, 159–63, Bicovo (African man), 72–3 245, 246 Bié, 198 Avelino Dias, Cristovão, 203–4 Bight of Benin, 12, 77–8 Bight of Biafra, 70 Babo Pinto, José de, 146 Bishop of Luanda, 173–4 Bahia: anti-colonial revolt, 233–4; and Bissau, 20 connections with Bight of Benin, 12; blacks, free: and anti-pawnship law, 79–80; exiles from, 192; mulattoes recruited as exiles, 192; illegal enslavement, 96–8, from, 153–5; Portuguese troops in, 113; and itinerant trade, 59; and licenses 229–30; slave trade to, 96, 109 to travel abroad, 162–3; as servants, Bailundo, 53, 56, 214–15 94–5; and wage labor, 120. See also Baltazar, Ambrózio, 199 military, Henriques battalion; mulattos Baltazar, João, 199 (mixed race) ; quimbares ; quissongos Bangi, Axila (soba), 78–9 Boelhower, William, 2 baptism, 107–10, 121–2, 123–5, Bonatte, Bartolomeu dos Santos, 111–12 153–5, 181 bookkeepers, 131–2 Barbeiro, Raimundo, 139–40 Borges, Catarina, 181 barbers, 95, 131–2, 182 Botelho, Alexandre José. See Botelho de Barboza, Dona Antonia, 176–7 Vasconcellos, Alexandre José Barboza, José Oliveira: as governor, 42–3, Botelho de Vasconcellos, Alexandre José, 101–2 34, 153–5 Barreto, Henriques, 160–1 branding, 121–2, 157–9, 210 Barros, Antônio José de, 207, 210, 223, Bravo, Manoel Pereira, 62–3 224, 225 Braz de Estrada, Pedro (bandit), 29–30 Barros, Feliciano José de, 218 Brazil: commodities from; deportation to, Barros, Gaspar de, 105–6 155–9; education in, 163, 221; exiles Bebiana, 62–3 from, 188, 191; family networks with

Index 251

Benguela, 221–2; goods imported from, networks, 70–1; and tribunal de 223–5; and independence from Portugal, mucanos, 101–2, 103–4, 106–7 203–4, 225–40, 241, 246; merchants Capuchin missionaries, 139, 149–50 from, in Luanda, 34–5; relationship Caquiloange, Quiloange with Angola, 7–8, 245; and textile Quiacassange, 196 trade, 8 caravans, trading, 39, 52–3, 206 bribery, 225, 237 Carmo (convent), 89–92, 93–4, 102–3, 156 Briova (African), 77 Carneiro, Father Gervasio Antonio Brique Esperança (ship), 109 Pereira, 108 Brique Maria (ship), 221 carpenters, 120, 130, 131–2, 152, 156, Brito, Joana Correâ de, 213 208–9 Brito, Marcos José de, 231–2 Carrilha, Francisca, 89–92 Brito, Mathias Joaquim de, 218 Carvalho, João Teixeira de: accuses M. brotherhoods, 91–2, 94–5, 181 Fernandes of witchcraft, 169; inquisition Brown, Vincent, 178, 186, 243 of, 171–2; and M. Fernandes, 18–19, Bulhões, Bartolomeu, 90 173–4; and slave trade, 169–71 burglaries, 144, 153 Carvalho, José António de, 35–6, 224–5 Bushnell, Amy Turner, 243 Carvalho, Narcizo Alves de, 146 Carvalho, Rita de, 94–5 Cabala, Roza, 69–70 Carvalho Costa, José Coelho de, 153 Cabangayala, Lourenço Cambuta, 78–9 Carvalho Costa, José de: as governor, 26–9 Cabinda, 145–6 Carvalho Matozo, Alvaro de, 157 Caboco, André, 41–2 Casanje: relationship with Luanda, 49–51; Cabo Negro, 207–8, 215–16 relationship with Portugal, 23, 50–1, Cacabaca, Caculo, 82 195; slave market (feiras), 23, 39–40, Cacahenda, Caculo, 139–40 47–9, 50–1, 196; and slave trade, Cacahongo, Caculu, 40–1 20–2, 47–9 Caconda (presídio), 37, 44, 73, 206, Cassule, 116–18 208, 239 Castelo Branco, Nicolau de Abreu: as Cadornega, Antonio de Oliveira, 38–9, governor, 57–8, 105–6, 110, 113, 91–2, 153–5, 195 114–15, 136–8, 145–6, 199, 230–1, 240 Caetana, Josefa Maria, 213 Castro, Dona Joana, 178 Caetano (slave), 37 Catangoa, 123–5 Calumbala, 76 Catarina (free black), 82–4 Calumbi, Joana, 169, 176 Catarina (house manager), 94–5 Calumbo, 55–6 Catholicism, 180 Cambambe (presídio), 20–2, 41–2 Catoco (soba), 55–6 Cambinza, 78–9 Catumba, Bembe (sobeta), 123–5 Camona, João, 198 Catumba, Izabel, 116–18 Camuanga, 67–8 Catumbela, 75–6, 109, 123–5, 214–15 Camuto (soba), 43–4 Cavazzi, António de Montecúccolo, 157–9 Candiango, 123–5 Cavindaraza (African), 77 Candido, Mariana, 12–14, 54, 84, Cazanga Island, 173–4 108, 114 Cazuangongo (dembo), 84 Candumbo, Camungo Caunga, 41–2 census, military, 128–9 Canega, 76 ceremonies (xinguilamentos): and clothing, Cañizares-Esguerra, Jorge, 243, 248 184, 185; death, 186; ganga, 177–88; cannabis, 149 marital, 185; oath, 197; poisonous cannibalism, 157–9 herbs, 197, 198; and witchcraft, 175–6. Canzino (soba), 40–1 See also healing, traditional capitães mores: as intermediaries, 42–4; chanting, 5 and pawnship, 79–80; and slave Chaves, Floriano Pires, 34–5

252 Index

Chaves, Manoel Pires, 160–1, 231–2, 239 Costa, José António da, 224 Chaves, Veríssimo Rodrigues, 222–3 Costa, Leonor Freire, 219–20 children: die in enslavement, 114; and Costa, Possidónio da, 212 education, 141–3; and enslavement, Costa Covellos, José da (Bahia born), 34 101–2, 105–6, 114–15, 123–5; as Costa de Andrade, José da, 26–9 healers, 12; and kidnapping, 98; and Costa de Andrade, Marcos da, 26–9 language, 139; and military recruitment, Costa Feia, Dona Catarina da, 167–8 191; mixed race, 132–3; orphaned, 211; Costa Lemos, João da, 229, 231–2 and pawnship, 79–80 Costa Menezes, Gonçalo da: as governor, china, 133–5 62–3, 101, 115, 130 Christianity: and lay brotherhoods, 91–2, Costa Pinheiro, Manoel de, 165 181; and slavery, 86–7; and traditional Costa Salinas, Marcos, 193 healing, 182 Costa Valle, Manoel da, 115–16 churches, 111–12 Cota, João Pedro, 102–3 Cidade Alta, 146–7 Cota, José Pedro, 161 class: and debt, 68; and women, 1 cows, 5, 104–5 clerics and priests, 180–1; as inquiridor das Cozinheiro, Pedro, 118–20 liberdades, 107–10 “creole island,” 246–8 clothing: ceremonial, 184, 185; loincloths, crime: burglaries, 144, 153 59–61; shoes, 59–62; slave, 152–3, 159; convicts, 144; hijacking, 194; murder, 1, washing, 95, 131–2 5, 76, 113, 120–1, 146–7, 167, 172–3; Cochrane, Thomas, 10th Earl of ransoming, 55, 83, 98, 116–17. See also Dundonald (Lord Cochrane), 230–1 exiles (degredados); punishment Coelho, Verônica Joaquina, 33–4 Cruz, Antônio Botelho da, 208–9 coffee, 146–7 Cruz, Frutuoso José da, 224 Coitinho, Ancelmo da Fonseca, 136–8 Cruz, Manoel Ferreira da, 224 Coitinho, Antonio da Fonseca, 172–3 Cruz, Manoel José da, 52–3 Colaço, Manoel Simões, 182, 198 cubatas, 150 Companhia Real de Pernambuco, 111, 153 Cunha, Antônio da: as governor, 48–9, 63, Conceição, Joana Maria da, 146 115, 121, 155–6 Conceição, Marcos Vaz da, 117 Cunha, António Gomes da, 213 Conceição, Maria Francisca da, 162 Cunha, Francisco Vieira da, 218 Conceição, Tereza Joaquina da, 9 Cunha, João Paulo, 201 Confederação of Equador, 233–4 Cunha, João Pereira da, 44, 94–5, 98 Congo: slaves supplied to, 23–4 Cunha, Manoel Atanzio da, 76–7 Contreiras, José Vaz, 67–8 Cunha, Sebastião José da, 213 convents: Carmo, 89–92, 93–4, 102–3, customs. See African, customary law 156; as refuge for slaves, 89–92, 93–4 Cordeiro, Manoel José, 162 Damião, Antônio, 66–7 Cordeiro de Almeida, Suely Creusa, 99 dancing: and drumming party, 183; and Corrêa, João, 101–2 gangas, 5; and oath ceremony, 198 Corrêa, Silva, 150 Dande (near Luanda), 80, 135, 140, 199 Correia, Sebastião Fernandes, 72–3 death: ceremonies, 186; enslaved children, Cosme, Francisco Damião, 121–2 114. See also mortality Cosme, Jacinta, 123–4 debt: defuntos e ausentes, 211–14; Costa, Ana Correa da, 198 and effect on mucanos, 103–4; and Costa, António José da, 214–15, 224 enslavement, 66–8, 78 Costa, Antônio Simão da, 109–10 defuntos e ausentes, 211–14 Costa, Dona Leonor Pereira da, 209 degredados (exiles). See exiles (degredados) Costa, Florência da, 117–18 dembos, 37–8, 40–1, 42–3, 82–4 Costa, Francisco Honorato da, 122–3 Desengano Feliz (ship), 135, 219–20 Costa, Joaquim, 117–18 Desterro, José, 57–8

Index 253

Dias, Cristovão Avelino, 229–30, 231 Felipe, Simão (slave), 44, 94–5 Dias, Domingos Correia, 75–6 Fernandes, Inácio, 167 Dias, Jerônimo Corrêa, 52–3, 58 Fernandes, Manoel Alexandre, 61–2 Diniz, Domingos Pereira, 208, 237–8 Fernandes, Marcelina José, 62–3 Diogo, Manoel Felipe, 123–4 Fernandes, Mariana: arrested by Dionizia (slave), 161 Inquisition, 18–19, 166, 174–7; discipline. See punishment and ganga ceremonies, 177–88; divorce, 167–8 investigation of, 167; jailed in Dombe Grande, 99–101, 113–14, Luanda, 177; romantic liaisons, 116–17, 209 167–8, 173–4 Domingas, 117–18 Fernandes, Sebastião Alexandre, 61–2 Domingos, Miguel, 67–8 Ferreira, Antônio Francisco, 117 Dominguede, 98 Ferreira, Joaquim António, 160, 161 Domingues, José Joaquim, 116–17 Ferreira, José Gomes, 206 Domingues, Marsal, 217–18 Ferreira, José Nicolau, 160–1 Dondo, 33 Ferreira, Maria, 134 dowries, 185 Ferreira, Miguel Domingos, 109–10 drumming parties (batuques), 148–9, 175, Ferreira, Pedro, 37–8 183, 185 Fidélis, José, 159–60 Dunlo, 123–5 Figueira, João, 76 Filgueira, Antonia, 115–16 education: in Brazil, 163, 221; children, fish, 120, 121–2, 133–5, 230–1 141–3; tutors, 9, 141–3, 174, 221 flogging, 40–1, 113, 149, 157 eighteenth century: enslavement Florência, 77 during, 67–8 Florinda, 118 Eltis, David, 95–6 Fonseca, Joaquim Bento, 232, 237–9 Encoje, 33 Fonseca, José Ferreira da, 218–19 enslavement: and debt, 66–8; and Fonseca, Pascoal da, 63 ransoming, 55, 83, 98, 116–17 food: African, 59–61; beef, 209; Brazilian Esperança (Mulupa), 99–101 influence on, 9; dried fish, 133–5; for Esteves, Manoel José, 217–18 enslaved, 65–6, 121–2; fish, 120, 121–2, Estrela, 229 133–5, 230–1; hunger, 66, 112–13, Eugênia, Maria, 146 114; manioc flour, 26, 120, 121–2, 210, Euzébio (slave), 152 230–1; shortages, 181, 236–7; sold by exiles (degredados): from Bahia, 192; taverns, 144 from Brazil, 188, 191; free blacks, France, 47, 226–7 192; gypsies, 193; missionaries, 194; Francisco, Joaquim, 162 mulattos, 192; from Pernambuco, 192; Francisco, José, 162, 221–2 political, 228; from Portugal, 190, 192; Francisco, Pedro, 163 staff Angolan administration, 8; Franco, Francisco José, 200 whites, 192 Franco, João da Silva, 164 freemasonry, 231–2, 240 Faria, Bento Bernardo de, 160 Freitas, Francisco de, 193 farms, 135, 156–7 Freitas, Simão de, 192 fazendas (goods): carried by foreign merchants, 31, 33–4; and licenses Gabriel, Angela, 169, 176 to trade, 34–5; from Lisbon, 223–5; Galanga (soba), 76–7, 206–26 rejected, 56–7 Galvão, Antônio de Freitas, 171–2, 183 feirantes, 109–10 Galvão, Natarcia, 183 Felicia (slave), 161 Gama, Caetano Gonçalves da, 135 Felipa (free black), 96–8 gambling, 144, 147 Felipe (barber), 94–5 Games, Alison, 3, 7, 246–8

254 Index

gangas: in Benguela, 183; ceremonies, Guimarães, Manoel de Souza, 224 177–88; and dancing, 5; as healers, 5, Gumbe, 123–5 12, 178, 182, 185, 186; and marriage, gunpowder: illegally imported, 218; 185; and missionaries, 179, 185; and purchased by African rulers, 66; used to oath ceremonies, 197; and whites, 186; purchase slaves, 7, 31–2, 45–8, 53 and women, 186 Gunvulo, 66–7 Gaspar, Florinda José, 209 Gunvuro, 116–17 Gaspar, Gregório Pascoal, 182 Gunza, Luiz, 41 Gaspar, Joannes José, 209 Gurgel, Fernando Martins do Amaral: Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, 228 career of, 18–19; and juramento de Geertz, Clifford, 6 ndua, 197; relationship with Fernandes, gentios (sobas), 39–40, 73, 85 166, 177 Gil, André Ferreira, 167–8, 173–4 gypsies: as exiles, 193 Gilroy, Paul, 12 Góes, Guiomar de, 163 Haiti: revolution, 233–4 gold: and price of slaves, 96; shipped from Hall, Gwendolyn, 246–8 Brazil; stimulus to slave trade, 26–9; Halla (African), 77 trade hammocks, 131, 167–8 Gold Coast: European control of, 77 Hanha, 206 pawnship in, 77–8 Hawthorne, Walter, 71 Golungo (Luanda region), 42–3, 63 healing, traditional: ceremonies, 5, 178; Gombe, 77 and gangas, 5, 12, 178, 181, 184, 185, Gomes, António Francisco, 161 186; sought by Angolans, 5, 12; sought Gomes, Fernando, 63 by Christians, 182. See also herbs Gomes, Francisco Ferreira: administrative health and illness: abortion, 166; and career of, 209–14; and Benguela trading barbers, 131–2; casuto, 182; depression, community, 19, 33–4, 206–26; born 157–9; of enslaved Africans, 65–6; as slave, 206–07; marriage of, 209; epidemics, 181; smallpox, 26, 130, 192. merchant career of, 214–18; military See also healing, traditional career, 207–9; and secessionist plot, hemp, 149 203, 204–5, 225–40; shipping network, herbs: healing, 178, 186; poisonous, used 135–6, 206, 218–25, 246; slave dealer, in ceremonies, 197, 198; to ward of 73–5 zumbi, 181 Gomes, José Ferreira, 68, 211, 221, 240 Herskovits, Melville, 246–8 Gomes, Luis Antonio, 219–20 Heywood, Linda, 246–8 Gomes, Miguel Ferreira, 226–07 Holo, 20–2, 36–9, 45, 50–1 Gomes Ribeiro, Luiz, 214 Hombo, 70 Gonçalves, Hobardo, 69–70 homens de mar em fora (expatriate Gonçalves, Marcos, 116–17 merchants), 26–9 Gonga, Marcos, 146–7 Honorato, Francisco, 58 Graça, Francisco Paulo da, 223 housing, 150 Graça, José Joaquim Marques da, 62–3 Graham, Richard, 233–4 Ignácia, Francisca Joaquina, 74, 122–3 Great Britain, 47, 206–7 Imbangala, 11, 23 Grinberg, Keila, 136–8 Inácio, Francisca: asserts free status, Guerra, Felipe de, 76 96–8; as ladino, 89–92; and sale of her Guerra, Manoel Joaquim da, 160–1 husband, 92–5, 125; treated as a slave, Guimarães, Antonio Vieira, 29–30 95–6; and tribunal de mucanos, 17–18 Guimarães, Francisco Gomes Pereira, Inácio, Jorge: enslavement of, 17–18, 111–12 88–9, 95, 120, 125; free status of, 96–8, Guimarães, José Pereira da Silva, 32 120–5; works as free person, 120 Guimarães, Manoel da Cunha, 146 Inácio, José, 182

Index 255

ingênuos (born of free womb), 12, 15, kinship ties: and enslavement, 55–6, 101–2, 72–3, 84–7, 118–20 115–16, 123–5; families and pawnship, inquiridor das liberdades: in Benguelan 77–8, 81; and judicial proceedings, legal system, 54, 107–10, 112–13 70–1; and mucanos trials, 102–3; ivory, 53 and punishment among kin, 155–6; Izabel, 114–15 used to punish enslavers, 116–18; and Izabel (Simão’s daughter), 179 witchcraft, 72 knives, 127, 149, 159, 223–5 Jacinta, 115–16 jaga (Casanje ruler), 49–50 Lacerda, José Maria Arsénio de, 224 Januário, Marcelino, 55–6 ladinos (slaves), 89–92, 94, 125, 130, Jardim, Manuel Gonçalves, 218–19 155–6, 160–2 Jesuit College, 141, 182 Lambert, David, 7 Jesuits, 60–1, 89–92, 93–4, 139, 141–3 language: Brazilian influence on,9 ; Jesus, Josefa Maria de, 221–2 Portuguese, 139–41; of pumbeiros, Jesus, Tereza de, 175, 178 59–61; Quicongo, 112; Quimbundo, 18, João (free black), 102–3 99–101, 107–8, 139–41, 166–7, 186, João (Luanda slave), 146 196; and tribunal de mucanos, 107–10, João (murder victim), 113 112 João, Ana, 67–8 Languenda, Francisco, 116–17 João, Antonio, 105–6 Law, Robin, 12, 77–8, 85, 246 João, Caetano, 113 laws: anti-pawnship (1770), 77–8, 79–80, João, Domingas, 67–8 81–2; efeitos próprios (1784), 220; João, Jacinto, 162 knives (1747), 159; weapon (1747), 149. João, Manoel, 162 See also African, customary law João, Marta, 115–16 lawyers, 111–12 João, Pedro, 113 Lazaro, Josefa, 152 João, Sebastião, 80 Leal, Antonio Martins, 156 João, Suzana de, 198 legal system, 197, 198. See also African, Joaquim (black man), 35 customary law; tribunal de mucanos Joaquim (Marcelina’s slave), 62–3 Leiras, José Joaquim, 53 Joaquim (slave; Manoel de Salvador’s leis gentílicas. See African, customary law friend), 127–8, 152–3 Leitão, Caetano Mathias, 126–8, 152–3 Joaquim, António, 34–5 Leitão, Manoel Corrêa, 32, 49–50, 196, Joaquim, Francisco, 76 197, 200 Joaquina (free), 163 Lembo (Luanda hinterland), 31, 33 Joaquina (slave), 161 Lemos, Silvestre de, 167 Joaquina, Maria, 146–7 Lester, Alan, 7 Jongo, 99–101 letters of freedom, 123–4 Jorge, Antonio, 98 Levi, Giovanni, 6 José, Caetano, 160, 161 liberto, 146–7 José, Damião, 109–10 Lima, Diniz Vieira de, 1, 12 José, Francisco, 219–20 Lima, Diogo Vieira de, 73–5 José da Silva, Alexandre, 33–4 Lima, Roque Vieira de, 58, 108 Josefa, 94–5, 98 Lima, Suzana Vieira de, 33–4 Juliana, 55–6 Lima e Quina, José Maria de, 136–8 juramento de ndua, 197, 198 Lisboa, Antonio José da Silva, 161 Lisboa, António Pontes, 213 Kafuxi, Ngola, 40–1 Lisboa, João Cidade de, 186 kidnapping: and children, 98; as means of Lisbon: control of Benguelan politics, 226; enslavement, 15, 96–8; and pawnship, cortes in, 234; courts in, 115–16; slaves 78, 80, 87 in, 136–8

256 Index

Lobato, Lucrécia Teixeira, 33–4 Manoel (buys rum from Quicuto), 99–101 Lopes, Ana, 176 Manoel, João, 162 Lopes, Domingos Rodrigues, 63 Manoel, José, 224 Lovejoy, Paul, 246–8 Mapollo, Caquepunda, 85 Luanda: administration of, 82, 133–5, Margarida, 183 145–6; Africans imprisoned in, 56–8; Maria (African woman), 66–7 and African vassals, 58–9; anti-colonial Maria (captive), 67–8 revolt, 231, 241; Brazilian influence Maria (petitioner), 117–18 in, 8, 9, 245; Brazilian merchants in, Maria, Ana, 162 34–5; government expedition of, 22–3; Maria, José, 58 governors in, 225; itinerant traders in, Maria, Josefa, 162 62; juntas in, 234; juramento de ndua Mariana (Bahia slave), 221–2 in, 198 Mariana (slave), 161 lay brotherhoods in, 91–2, 94–5; and legal Mariana, Dona, 76–7 reform, 111–12 Mariano, Silvério, 231–2 legal system in, 78–9; and linguistic Marimbondo, 77 dynamics, 18; market vendors in, 133–5; marketplace, 133–5. See also slave markets Pereira Bravo family in, 92–5; petitions (feiras) to administration, 116–18; police force Marma, 76 in, 126–8, 144; Portuguese control of, Marques da Graça, José Joaquim, 218 24–5, 102–3; public safety in, 148–52; marriage: adultery, 198; bigamy, 63; as racial makeup of, 132–3, 153–5; condition of freedom, 89–92, 94–5; relationship with Casanje, 49–51; divorce, 167–8; and gangas, 185; relationship with Matamba, 23–4, 44–6, infidelity,167–8 ; inter, 35–6, 153–5, 209; 47–9, 50–1; royal treasury in, 210–11; and juramento oath, 199 slave markets (feiras), 32, 33; slave Martins, Francisco, 152–3 population in, 128–9; slaves imprisoned Martins, João, 164–5 in, 112–13; slaves shipped from, 1, 96, Massanga (female slave), 146–7 166–7; support for sobas, 41–2; taverns Massangano (Luanda hinterland), 31, in, 143–8; trading community in, 26–9; 57–8, 63, 186 tribunal de mucanos in, 101–2, 105–6, Matamba: relationship with Luanda, 23–4, 107–8; weapons stockpiled at, 45–8; 44–6, 47–9, 50–1; relationship with women in, 153–5. See also ladinos Portugal, 23–4, 44–6, 50–1; and slave Lembo (Luanda hinterland) ; Massangano trade, 20–3 (Luanda hinterland) Mateus, Antonia, 67–8 Lüdtke, Alf, 6–7 Mateus, Maria, 114 Luiz, Joana, 63 Matory, Lorand, 246 Lunda Empire, 48–9, 93 Matta, Henrique Francisco da, 155–6, 164 Mattos, Custódio Manoel de, 34–5 MacGaffey, Wyatt, 72 Mbwila, 63 Machado, Andreza Bernardo, 63 Medeiros Bittencourt, Angela de, 156 Machado, Manoel José, 35–6 Mello, Cláudio José de, 139–40 Machado, Mezia, 63 Mello, Miguel Antonio de: as governor, macotas (aides), 22, 39–41, 104–5 15, 47, 59–61, 86–7, 99–101, 110–11, Madalena, Maria, 163 112–13, 115, 130, 131–3, 141–3, Magalhães, João Jacques de, 36–7 149–50, 157, 194, 210–11; and housing Mahori, 99–101 reform, 151 Maia, José Rodridgues, 215–16 Melo, Manoel Abreu de, 109–10 Malagueta, 228–9 Mendes, Luis Antonio de Oliveira, 69 manioc flour, 26, 120, 121–2, 210, 230–1 Mendes, Manoel Garcia, 210 Mann, Kristin, 12, 246 Mendonça, Maria, 178 Manoel (Ambacan man), 66–7 Meneses, Luis Cezar de: as governor, 96

Index 257

Menezes, Joaquim José de Andrada e Silva, murder, 76, 120–1, 146–7, 167, 172–3; of 59, 216–17 João, 113; of Lima, 1; and spells, 5; and Menezes, Rodrigo Cesar de, 26; as witchcraft, 1, 173 governor, 36 Muxicongo, Engrácia, 175, 176 merchants, 211–14 Muxiloanda, 120 Merola, Jerônimo, 131–2, 180 Muxima, 43, 61 Mesquita e Almeida, Alexandre de, 120 micro-history, 3, 6–7 Namboangongo (dembo), 82–4 Miguel (sailor), 165 Nbulica, 109 Miguel, Pedro, 101–2 Ndala, Ngola (soba), 40–1 military: census, 128–9; degredados in, Ndongo kingdom: aided by Brazil, 8; 189, 190, 208; expedition to Luanda, presídio in, 24 22–3; guerra preta, 22, 215–16; Ndumba, 76 Henriques battalion, 113, 192, 207–9 negros calçados, 60–2 mulattos in, 153–5; recruitment in, 191; Netherlands: and Gold Cost, 77 soldiers, 85–6 newspapers: Brazilian, 228–9 Miller, Joseph, 66–8, 78, 242 Ngolome (soba), 40–1 Minas Gerais, 153–5 Nguerepete, 116–17 Miranda, Antonio Martins de, 212 nineteenth century: enslavement Miranda, Joaquim Pinto de, 213 during, 73–5 Miranda, Manoel Pinto de, 213 Noronha, Fernando Antonio de: as missionaries: in Angola, 102–3, 180–1; governor, 84, 86–7, 149 Capuchin, 149–50; on exiles, 194; and Noronha, João Manoel de, 26–9; as gangas, 179, 185; and language, 139; governor, 30–1 slaves work for, 210 Nossa Senhora da Madre de Deus Moledo, Manoel Gonçalves, 223, 225 (ship), 25 Monteiro, Bernardo José Carneiro, 214 Nossa Senhora da Misericórdia, 111–12 Monteiro, Miguel Antonio, 223–5 Nossa Senhora da Piedade (ship), 219 moradores (native merchants), 26–9, 30–1 Nossa Senhora do Rosário Santo António e Moraes Joaquim, Inácio José de, 160 Almas (corveta), 219 Morgan, Philip, 14, 136 Nossa Senhora dos Remédios (church), mortality: during imprisonment, 40–1; and 93–4, 128, 134–5, 188 slave ships, 220; and witchcraft, 72, 179. Nossa Senhora of Pópulo, 204–5, 239 See also murder Nova Colônia de Sacramento, 88–9 Mosher, Jeffrey, 233–4 Nquinhenguenena, 76 Mossamedes, 131, 141–3, 213 Nwokeji, Ugo, 70 Mota Feo, Luiz, 61–2 mothers, 123–5 olimbo, 99–101 Motta, Anacleto José da, 118–20 Oliveira, Francisco Dias de, 215–16 Moura, Francisco Luciano Santos, 123–5 Oliveira, Francisco Marques de, 161 Mouto, Thomaz Filgueira Bultran, 115–16 Oliveira, Joaquim Aurélio de, 76–7; as mucanos. See tribunal de mucanos governor, 230–1 Muganguelas, 171–2 Oliveira, Joaquim Vaz de, 123–4 Muhululu, 99–101 Oliveira, José Joaquim de, 157, 167–8 mulattos (mixed race): banned from Oliveira, Mario Antônio de, 246–8 sertões, 31, 33; children, 132–3; to Oliveira de Figueiredo, Manoel de, colonize Angola, 155; as exiles, 192; 37–8 and licenses to travel abroad, 162–3; olive oil, 144 in Luanda, 153–5; merchants, 216–17; Ornelas, Francisco Paim de Câmara, slaves, 132–3 f364.140 Munamuenho, 70 Our Lady of the Rosary, 91–2 Muniz, José da Costa, 209 Ouweneel, Arij, 6–7

258 Index

Pacheco, Clemente, 192 to, 118–20; and regulation of legal Pacheco, Francisco Antonio, 117–18 system, 103–4; and relationship with Palhares, Manoel da Silva Machado, 126–8 African rulers, 41–2; and relationship palm oil, 133–5, 167 with Brazil, 7–8; and relationship with Passos, António Teixeira, 224 Casanje, 23, 50–1, 195; and relationship Paula, Francisco de, 136–8 with Matamba, 23–4, 44–6, 50–1; and Paulo, Francisco de, 161 soba partnerships, 39–40; trade policies pawnship: in Angola, 77–81, 87; and of, 8; and West Africa, 77. See also enslavement, 77–81; on Gold Coast, “creole island” 77–8; and kidnapping, 78, 80, 87; law, Portuguese, 107–10, 139–40, 166–7, 209 79–80, 81, 86; and tribunal de prostitution, 131 mucanos, 81–2 pumbeiros (traders): enslaved, 62–3; Paz, Maria da, 160 enslaved free blacks, 63–6, 68; and Peçanha, Francisco Xavier de Lobão Luanda taverns, 143, 146–7; numbers Machado, 118–20 of, 62; role of, 59–61; slave networks of, Pedrinha, Manoel Gonçalves, 213–14 16, 38, 47, 50–1 Pedro, Engrácia, 123–4 Pungo Andongo (presídio), 24–5, 33, Pedro, Francisco, 80–1 39–40, 59–61, 84, 123–4 Pedro, Joana, 114 punishment: among kin, 155–6; and Penedo (fort), 47, 155 anti-pawnship law, 79–80, 81, 86; Pensamento Feliz (ship), 223 beating, 118; branding, 121–2, 157–9, Pereira, Francisco Coelho, 25–6 210; corporal, 72–3; deportation as, Pereira, Jerônimo, 219–20 157–9; of enslavers, 116–17; flogging, Pereira, Manoel Corrêa, 32 40–1, 113, 149, 157; public, 75; during Pereira, Margarida, 176 sixteenth century, 70; of sobas, 40–1; Pereira, Narcizo Luiz Alvares, 224–5 and weapon law, 149 Pereira Bravo, Francisco, 92–6; opposes Pussich, João António, 236–7 Inácio’s departure, 96–8; treats Francisca Putnam, Lara, 5–6, 246 as slave, 95–6 Pereira Bravo, Marçal, 93 Quango River, 48–9 Pereira Bravo, Marcos, 93 Quango Valley, 20–2, 87 Pereira Bravo, Simião, 93 Quanza, Barra do (region), 80–1 Pernambuco: anti-colonial revolt, 227–8, Quanza River, 22–3, 35 229–30, 233–4; exiles from, 192; and Queen Njinga, 29–30 slave trade 96, 109, 153–5 Queiroga, Pasqual Rodrigues de, 186 Picanço, Inácio Corrêa, 111–12 Quiaculo, 105–6 Pimenta, Father, 107–10 quibangos, 181 Pimentel, Belchior Raposo, 42–4 Quibuta, 206 Pingue, 76 Quicongo, 112 Pinheiro Neto, António, 26–9 Quicuto, 99–101 Pinheiro Neto, Francisco, 26–9 Quigangeganga, 116–17 Pinto, João Joaquim, 136–8 Quigaranganga, 73–5 piracy, 227 quilambas (traders), 59 Pontes, António de, 213 Quilengues, 34–5, 73–5, 80, 210 Portela, Bernardo Nunes, 138–40 Quimbala, 117–18 Porto, Francisco Lopes, 183 Quimbanda, 206 Portugal: bans weapons importation, 45–8; quimbares (traders), 22, 59 and Brazilian independence, 203–4, Quimbundo, 18, 99, 107–8, 139–41, 241; exiles from, 190, 192; inquisition, 166–7, 186, 196 174–7; law, in Angola, 82; law to abolish Quime, 99–101 slavery, 136–8, 246; military expedition quino, 240 to Luanda hinterland, 22–3; petitions Quiombela, 170–1, 183

Index 259

Quipate, 85 Sacramento e Souza, Manoel de, 163 Quisangi (ruler), 55–6 sailors, 31–2, 146–7 Quissamas, 35, 61, 66, 72–3, 84–7 Salava, 117–18 Quissengi, Francisco, 116–17 Saldanha Gama, Antônio de: as governor, quissongos, 59 15, 56–7, 149 quitandas, 133–5 Saldanha Menezes, Ayres de, 190 quitandeiras (market vendors), 133–5 Salvador: anti-colonial revolt in, 233–4; Quitexi (dembo), 37–8 Portuguese troops in, 229–30; and Quituque, Lourenço, 72 textile trade, 8 Quixuca, 116–18 Salvador, Manoel de: accused of burglary, Quizamba (soba), 76 153, 155; arrest of, 126–8; criminal activities in Luanda, 18; deported to race: and capitães mores, 37–8; and Brazil, 155–9, 246; legal status of, 163; identity, 59–61; and revolt, 233–4; and testimony against, 152; visits tavern, status, 59. See also blacks, free; mulattos 143–8 (mixed race) ; whites Sambalundo, 66–7 ransoming, 55, 83, 98, 116–17 Santa Casa de Misericórdia, 38, 111, Rebello, Mariana, 176–7 159–60 Recife, 8, 214, 230 Santos, António Francisco dos, 219–20 Reis, Francisco Xavier dos, 221–2 Santos, Catarina Madeira, 99 Reis, Justiniano José dos, 231–2, 240 Santos, Custódio Dias dos, 109–10 religion: African, 181; Catholicism, 180; Santos, Francisco do, 62–3 Christianity, 86–7, 91–2, 180, 181; Santos, Joana dos, 57 churches, 111–12; Jesuits, 60–1, 89–92, Santos, João dos, 127 139, 141–3. See also convents; gangas Santos, Joaquim Lopes dos, 236–7 revolts, 149–50 Santos, José dos, 136–8, 231–2 Ribeiro, Inácio Leitão, 35–6 Santos, José Pinheiro dos, 223–5 Ribeiro, Marcos da Silva, 214 Santos Moreira, Bernardino José dos, 55–6 Rio de Janeiro: and ownership of slave seamstresses, 131–2 ships, 219–20; slaves shipped to, 88–9, senzalas (African dwellings), 75–6, 150, 96, 126–8; and slave trade, 109, 166–7; 229 and textile trade, 8 sertanejos: financial obligations of, 68; and rituals: circumcision, 196; genital, 175–6, Luanda taverns, 143; robbed, 39–40; 185 sailors as, 31–2; slave networks of, 16, Rocha, João Rodrigues da, 182 50–1; trade of, 31–6, 44–50; Rodrigues, Father Pantaleão, 107–8 women, 33–4 Rodrigues, Francisco Barboza, 211–12 sertões: colonial officials in, 104–5; Rodrigues, João Barboza, 62–3 legal system in, 112–13; and mucano Rodrigues, Margarete, 77 jurisdiction, 106; Portuguese spoken in, Rodrigues, Sebastião, 69–70 139–40 Rodrigues, Vicência, 188 sex: premarital, 199 Rodrigues da Silva, Francisco, 212 ship captains, 25–6 Romão, José Nunes, 109, 112–13 Sidbury, James, 243, 248 Rosário, Manoel do, 150 Silva, Amaro Velho da, 223–5 Roza (African woman), 111–12 Silva, Ana Pelarte da, 102–3 Roza, Joaquim António da, 221–2 Silva, Antonio José da, 120 rum (Brazilian) jeribita: purchased by Silva, Cristina Nogueira da, 136–8 African rulers, 66; as ransom, 98; on Silva, Domingos Caetano da, 116–18 slave ships, 121–2; tainted, in taverns, Silva, Domingos José da, 224 144; used as currency, 201; used to Silva, Domingos Martines da, 68 purchase slaves, 7, 31–2, 47 Silva, Dona Maria da, 120 Russell-Wood, A. J. R., 111–12 Silva, Dona Maria Ferreira da, 1

260 Index

Silva, Estevão Fernandes da, 32 also branding; ingênuos (born of free Silva, Francisca da, 1, 5, 12–14 womb) ; punishment, flogging Silva, Francisco (bandit), 29–30 slave ships, 109 Silva, Francisco Infante de Siqueira Correa slave trade: ban on, in Benguela, 236–7; da, 220–1 and France, 226–7; and Great Britain, Silva, Francisco Pereira da, 153–5 226–7; and ship captains, 25–6 Silva, Ignácio Paulo da, 183 smallpox, 26, 130, 192 Silva, João, 146 smuggling: of slaves, 207–9, 226–7; of Silva, Joaquim José de, 34–5 weapons, 45–8 Silva, José Antonio da, 229 Soares, Manoel, 115–16 Silva, José Carneiro da, 218–19 sobas (rulers), 38–44; and tribunal de Silva, Luiz Lobo da, 190 mucanos, 101–2, 106–7 Silva, Thomas, 1 social control, 148–52 Silva Corrêa, Elias Alexandre da, 128–9, social mobility: and transatlantic travel, 1, 139–41, 143, 145–6, 150, 180 9, 27, 218–25. See also status; wealthy Silva Falcão, Father José Ferreira da, 108 social stratification: and slave ownership, Silva Franco, João da, 155–6 128–9 Silva Monteiro, Francisco, 155 Socoval, 73–5, 210 Silva Teixeira, José da, 135–6 Sofia, 116–17 Simão (Cahoge), 126–8 soldiers. See military Simão (slave), 167, 173, 179 Soma, 116–17 Simões, Dona Maria, 118–20 souls. See zumbi (soul) Simões, Manoel, 184 Sousa, José de, 219–20, 221–2 Siqueira, Inês Rodrigues de, 96–8, 120, Souto, Francisco Roque: appointed capitão 122–3 mor, 36–9; arrested, 44–6; expedition slave markets (feiras): caravans to, 39, to Holo, 20–2, 50–1; marriage of, 35–6; 52–3; in Casanje, 23, 39–40, 47–9, 50–1, petitions Portuguese government, 20; 196; at Dongo, 84; Luanda controlled, settles in sertões, 31–6; as ship captain, 32, 33; trade outside of, 59–61 25–6 slave owners: Jesuits, 93–4 Souza, Fernão de, 103–4, 194 slavery: 1761 law to abolish, 136–8; Souza, Izabelinha de, 174 and legal solutions ( See tribunal de Souza, Joaquim Vieira da, 221–2 mucanos); urban, 89–92; and witchcraft, Souza, Lázaro Teixeira de, 68, 160–1 71–7, 82–4. See also ingênuos (born of Souza, Manoel de, 225 free womb) Souza Coutinho, Francisco Inocêncio de: as slaves: activities of, in Luanda, 129–32; governor, 33, 45–8, 77–8, 104–5, 132–3, confiscated from Portuguese; and 141–3, 145, 186, 194, 223, 225 education, 141–3; escaped, 39–40, spells (feitiço): and murder, 5 122–3; as farm laborers, 135; female, status: and class, 1, 68; hereditary, 85; and 131, 133–5, 142; held for slave trade, race, 59; and upward mobility, 214–18, 121–2; and hereditary status, 85; 241; and witchcraft, 72 illegal enslavement, 96–8; and lay Studnicki-Gizbert, Daviken, 26–9 brotherhoods, 91–2; and licenses for sumaca Olinda (ship), 218 Atlantic crossing, 160–2; mixed race, supernatural. See witchcraft 132–3; mortality, 26; numbers of, Sweet, James, 5, 130–1, 178, 186, shipped from Angola, 95–6; price of, 96; 189, 245 and revolts, 149–50; runaway, 139–40, 149, 156, 207–9; as sailors, 135–8; tailors, 131–2 shipped to Brazil, 1, 206; smuggling of, tattoos, 174–7 207–9, 226–7; travel licenses requested Tavares, Lourenço Pereira, 58 by, 161; used as payment, 104–5. See Tavares, Manoel, 200

Index 261

taverns, 143–8; and alcohol, 146; food Vansina, Jan, 72, 78, 199 sold at, 144; in Luanda, 143–8; and Vasconcellos, José Maria de Almeida sertanejos, 143; violence in, 146–7 Machado e: as governor, 226 taxes: for Benguela hospital, 209; and Vasconcelos, Antonio Rebelo de Andrade: branding of slaves, 121–2; collected by as governor, 108 sobas, 39; on imported liquor, Vasconcelos, Manoel de Almeida e: and 141–3; on slaves, 26–9, 214, anti-pawnship law, 79–81; clash with 219–20 Namboangongo, 82–4; as governor, 39, Teixeira, Father Antonio, 108 42–4, 61–2, 113–14, 118–20, 199, 223; Teixeira, José da Silva, 135–6 and legal protections for slaves, 81–2; Teixeira, José Joaquim, 117–18 opposes arbitrary enslavement, 84–7 Teixeira, José Luiz, 224 Vasconcelos de Carvalho, José de Almeida: Teixeira, José Rodrigues, 213 as governor, 49–50, 53, 58, 104 Teixeira, Manoel, 148–9 vassals: freeborn, 16; legal rights of, Teodora (slave), 161 85, 87 Tereza (slave), 126–8 Vianna, Bernardo Lourenço, 224 Tereza (mother of Pedro João), 113, 159 Vianna, Manoel Antonio, 102–3 textiles: in Brazil, 8; purchased by African Victorino, Joaquim, 118–20 rulers, 66; sold in taverns, 144; used to Vieira, Aurélio Veríssimo, 219–20 purchase slaves, 7, 53. See also textiles Vieira, Francisco, 116–17 (Indian) Vieira, Mathias Rodrigues, 213 textiles (Indian), 31–2, 133–5, 223–5, 227 vinegar, 144 Thornton, John, 15, 246–8 Vitoria (healer), 182 tobacco, 223–5, 230–1 Vivêncio, 101–2 Torres, João Manoel de, 105 volantes (slave ship traders), 145–6, 222–3, Torres, José Pereira, 218–19 236–7 Tovar, Manoel Vieira de Albuquerque e, 43–4, 228 warfare: and enslavement of Africans, traders, itinerant: and African vassals, 52, 14–16 58–9 washers, 95, 131–2 Trajano (ship), 219–20 water, 121–2 treaties: between Matamba and Luanda, wealthy: estates of, 211, 212–14; on 23–4, 44–6 Luanda city council, 92; merchants, tribunal de mucanos: and anti-pawnship 129, 223; and private militia, 120–1; law, 81–2; in Benguela, 53, 99–101, and slaves as gifts, 93–4; transatlantic 104–5, 108; and capitães mores, mobility of, 1, 9, 27, 218–25 113–15; and documenting freedom, weapons: held by slaves, 149; purchased 110; and eighteenth century, 107–8; by African rulers, 66; used to purchase and enslavement, 68–71, 101–2, 106–7; slaves, 7, 45–8, 53 expansion of, 118–20; and F. Inácio, weather: in Angola, 26; drought, 66, 73–5, 17–18; and junta das missões, 102–3, 181; natural disasters, 66 104; language, 107–10, 112; and legal West Africa: waning Portuguese influence,77 assistance, 111–12; as legal protection whipping (lashes), 40–1, 113, 149, 157 for slaves, 12–14; in Luanda, 101–2, whites: in African ceremonies, 186; African 105–6, 107–8; origins of, 99–101; and influence on,188 ; and anti-pawnship ouvidor, 110–11; shortcomings of, law, 79–80; in Benguela, 204–5; as exiles, 112–13; unstructured nature, 104–6 192; feared as cannibals, 157–9; as feirantes, 59–61; and gangas, 186; and lay Uiaxiba, Quitamba, 196 brotherhoods, 91–2; and mulattos, 153–5; Umbelina, 160 pumbeiros perceived as, 59–62; and Upper Guinea, 71 trading in Angola, 20–2, 29–30, 31, 33

262 Index

witchcraft: and Angolan belief system, 62–3, 131; sobas, 78–9; and social class 5; and case of M. Fernandes, 167; (donas), 1; travel abroad, 163 deportation as punishment, 155–6; and enslavement, 71–7; and juramento, Xaquigue (soba), 41 199; and kinship ties, 72; and mortality, Xavier, Francisco Manoel, 111–12 72, 179; and murder, 1, 173; and slavery, 71–7, 82–4; spells (feitiço), Yanvo, Muata, 93 5; and status, 72. See also ceremonies (xinguilamentos); gangas Zamba (soba), 39 women: active in business, 120, 133–5; Zamzumba, 77 and education, 141–3; and enslaved Zombo, Álvaro, 163 spouses, 94–5; enslavement of, 58–9; Zombo, Garcia, 163 and gangas, 186; and pawnship, 77–8; Zombo, Pedro, 163 population of, in Luanda, 153–5; as zumbi (soul), 5, 179, 181, 182, sertanejos, 33–4; as slave owners, 184, 186