MORBID JEALOUSY FROM AN EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGICAL

PERSPECTIVE

by

Judith A. Easton

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of

The Charles E. Schmidt College of Science

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts

Florida Atlantic University

Boca Raton, Florida

August 2006 Morbid Jealousy from an Evolutionary Psychological Perspective

by Judith A. Easton

This thesis was prepared under the direction of the candidate's thesis advisor, Dr. Todd Shackelford, Department of Psychology, and has been approved by the members ofher supervisory committee. It was submitted to the faculty of The Charles E. Schmidt College of Science and was accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts.

SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE: ~

~cA-LMdr- chairmen, Department of Psychology

ege of Science

!r· J. 0~ Date

11 Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge Lucas Schipper for his help with data collection and entering and the other members of the Evolutionary Psychology lab at F AU for their valuable insight into this project.

111 ABSTRACT

Author: Judith A. Easton

Title: Morbid Jealousy from an Evolutionary

Psychological Perspective

Institution: Florida Atlantic University

Thesis Advisor: Dr. Todd Shackelford

Degree Master of Arts

Year 2006

Individuals diagnosed with morbid jealousy have hypersensitive jealousy mechanisms that cause them to have irrational thoughts about their partners and to exhibit extreme behaviors. Because morbid jealousy is defined as a malfunction of evolved jealousy mechanisms such that they produce increased chances of perceiving partner infidelity, research guided by an evolutionary psychological perspective can add insight to the understanding of the disorder. The present research tested eleven evolutionarily relevant hypotheses about jealousy, in an attempt to improve the understanding ofthe etiology of morbid jealousy. To investigate a large enough sample, I created a database of all the morbid jealousy case histories published in English. Chi-square analyses were used to test all eleven hypotheses. Results for seven hypotheses were significant. By illustrating that there may be an adaptive purpose for some of the associated behaviors and for jealousy, the results of this study can aid clinicians in treating morbid jealousy.

IV TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ...... vi

Chapter One: Introduction ...... 1

Chapter Two: Method ...... 17

Chapter Three: Results ...... 21

Chapter Four: Discussion ...... 23

References ...... 27

Appendix A: List of Case History References ...... 38

Appendix B: Morbid Jealousy Coding Sheet...... 46

Appendix C: Codebook for Morbid Jealousy Database ...... 51

v LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Morbid Jealousy Cases by Country...... 36

Table 2: Comparisons of Proportions ofMorbidly Jealous Men and Women for 11

Hypotheses ...... 3 7

VI CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Jealousy is a natural emotional response in both sexes to perceived partner infidelity. Because both men and women invest heavily in long-term romantic relationships and have much to lose if their partner is unfaithful, jealous responses serve the adaptive regulatory purpose of attempting to prevent the costly act of actual partner infidelity (e.g. Buss, 2003). In general, regulatory mechanisms work to maintain stability in a specific system of an organism. This specific monitoring allows for responses to be tailored and therefore more effective than if there were general purpose regulatory mechanisms (Nesse, 2005a; Nesse & Williams, 1994). Regulatory mechanisms are costly to express; however, the expression must be less costly than allowing the system to become unstable, otherwise it would have been selected out of the population. Because of the high costs associated with instability, regulatory mechanisms work whenever there is a perceived threat to the system, regardless of the accuracy of that perception. Inaccurate perception of threats creates false alarm responses-responses that occur when no threat is present. These false alarm responses are still less costly than mechanisms that miss an actual threat (Nesse, 2005a; Nesse & Williams, 1994).

It is likely that the functioning of regulatory mechanisms varies among individuals. Specifically, jealousy mechanisms may be hyposensitive or hypersensitive to perceived threats (Buss, 2000). An individual with jealousy mechanisms that were not sensitive enough would potentially miss important cues indicating a partner's unfaithfulness. If these individuals were in a relationship with an unfaithful partner, they

1 would be more likely to experience the associated costs of the partner's infidelities. For

example, men might be at a higher risk for cuckoldry, in which they would be investing

in another man's offspring. Women might be more likely to experience loss of resources,

as men tend to invest resources in partners with whom they are currently having sex or with whom they have sired offspring (Buss, 2000; Buss, Larsen, Westen, & Semmelroth,

1992). Cuckolded men and women without resource investment may be less likely to

successfully raise offspring to reproductive age. It is therefore unlikely that this type of malfunction of the jealousy mechanisms would be passed on to future generations and therefore it is likely to occur only rarely.

In contrast to an individual with normally operating or hyposensitive jealousy mechanisms, an individual with hypersensitive or overly-sensitive jealousy mechanisms may be more likely to misperceive innocent cues as threats of partner infidelity, or

perhaps might be more aware than normal individuals of potential infidelities. Because these individuals might be less likely to be cuckolded or to lose resources, it would

appear as though this might be a beneficial malfunction, and therefore might continue to propagate through future generations of offspring. There are, however, potential costs

associated with overly-sensitive jealousy mechanisms. For example, individuals that constantly accuse their partners of infidelity might risk their partners leaving the

relationship. It also may happen that these individuals are so focused on potential partner

infidelity that their daily functioning suffers. Both of these costs do seem to be present in

individuals diagnosed with Delusional Disorder, Jealous Type (American Psychiatric

Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 2000), more commonly referred to as morbid jealousy.

2 Morbid Jealousy

Individuals diagnosed with morbid jealousy have hypersensitive jealousy mechanisms that cause the individuals to have irrational thoughts about their partners and to exhibit extreme behaviors (AP A, 2000). Morbidly jealous individuals tend to constantly accuse their partners of infidelities and often these accusations are unwarranted or at least unverified (e.g. Kingham & Gordon, 2004; Shepard, 1961;

Vauhkonen, 1968). Along with the accusations, morbidly jealous individuals tend to constantly monitor their partner's behaviors, doing such things as phoning them incessantly, following them, questioning them about their whereabouts, or not allowing them to leave the house. Individuals with morbid jealousy also misinterpret everyday actions and objects as cues to their partner's infidelity. Examples of these misinterpretations include letters from strangers perceived to be love letters, cars driving by perceived to be lovers checking the partner's availability, and sexual frigidity of the partner perceived to indicate that the partner receives sexual satisfaction from a lover

(e.g. De Silva & De Silva, 1999; Enoch & Trethowen, 1979; Kingham & Gordon, 2004;

Vauhkonen, 1968).

It is sometimes the case that morbidly jealous individuals use non-physical and physical violence against their partners (Buss, 2000; Kingham & Gordon, 2004; Mowat,

1966). These attacks often occur during accusations of infidelity (Buss, 2000; Daly &

Wilson, 1988; Hilberman & Munson, 1977-1978; Mowat, 1966). Morbidly jealous individuals often experience mood swings when thinking of their partner's infidelity; it could be that these changes in mood are the proximal origin for bouts of violence

(Mowat, 1966; Mullen, 1990; Mullen & Martin, 1994). Sometimes these violent attacks

3 lead the morbidly jealous individual to kill his or her partner (Buss, 2000; Kingham &

Gordon, 2004; Mowat, 1966; Mullen & Maack, 1985).

Clinical psychologists and psychiatrists have been treating morbidly jealous individuals for decades with varying success. Often these individuals are first diagnosed in in-patient facilities. They are typically hospitalized because their ruminations and extreme behaviors have caused an interruption in their normal daily functioning (AP A,

2000). Morbid jealousy has been successfully treated in some individuals with psychotropic medication, including pimozide and fluoxetine (e.g., Prozac; Byrne &

Yatham, 1989; Gross, 1991; Lane, 1990) and with various types oftherapy, including cognitive behavioral therapy and marital therapy (e.g., Bishay, Peterson, & Tarrier, 1989;

De Silva, 1997; 2004; Dolan & Bishay, 1996; Tarrier, Beckett, Harwood & Bishay, 1990;

Wylie, 1994). For most individuals diagnosed with morbid jealousy, it appears that the most successful treatment may be a combination of medication and therapy. The highest rates of success seem to occur when the treatment decreases or eliminates the jealous thoughts and obsessions (e.g., Cobb & Marks, 1979). It is likely that treatment of morbid jealousy could be enhanced by a better understanding of what causes normal jealousy to become delusional. Although morbid jealousy has been examined clinically for several decades, a thorough understanding of the causes of the disorder is lacking (e.g., Mullen &

Maack, 1985). The use of an evolutionary psychological perspective may help to fill this void.

An Evolutionary Perspective

Full comprehension of cognitive mechanisms requires examining why the mechanisms evolved and what functions the mechanisms have been selected to perform

4 (Wakefield, 2005). Evolution is a remarkably slow process. Therefore, modem humans possess mechanisms that were adaptive in the environments of ancestral humans; these same mechanisms may not be adaptive in modem environments. For example, it has been suggested that humans have evolved a taste preference for fatty foods because of the need for the nutrients, such as calories, these foods can provide. In ancestral environments, foods high in fat were not as prevalent as in modem society; now humans can easily obtain foods high in fat at their local grocery store. In modem sedentary societies, diets high in fat pose serious health risks, but because natural selection works slowly, the evolved taste preferences of humans have not changed to match the rapid changes in lifestyles (e.g. Nesse & Williams, 1994).

Using this perspective of examining the evolved function of mechanisms may provide insight into the causes of psychological disorders. Wakefield (1999, 2005) has proposed that disorders may be considered harmful dysfunctions: disorders are failures of mechanisms to perform their properly selected functions in the environments for which they were selected. Along with understanding the harmful dysfunction of mechanisms, it is also important to examine proximate explanations for disorders, such as brain damage

(Nesse & Williams, 1994). For example, the psychological disorder of depression can be thought of as a malfunction of the mechanisms for sadness. Sadness usually occurs when individuals experience losses associated with reproductive resources, such as the loss of a mate. The loss of resources may be an indication that maladaptive behaviors are occurring, and the accompanying sadness may function to alter future behaviors to avoid further losses (Nesse, 2000, 2005b; Nesse & Williams, 1994; Watson & Andrews, 2002).

5 A parallel argument might be applicable to morbid jealousy. Successful treatment would be enhanced with a better understanding of its causes and this understanding comes from investigation of the normal functioning of jealousy mechanisms. Because morbid jealousy is currently defined as a malfunction of evolved jealousy mechanisms such that these mechanisms produce increased chances of perceiving partner infidelity, research guided by an evolutionary psychological perspective can add insight to the understanding of the disorder (Buss, 2000; Schlager, 1995). In this regard, the present research tested several evolutionarily relevant hypotheses about jealousy, using published morbid jealousy case histories, in an attempt to improve the understanding of the etiology of morbid jealousy.

Jealousy and Types ofInfidelity

Sexual jealousy has been extensively studied by evolutionary researchers, and has been shown to be a normal emotional reaction to perceived or actual partner infidelity.

This research has provided evidence that there are sex differences in jealousy, as well as an explanation for why the sexes have different reactions toward infidelity. (Buss, 2000;

Buss et al., 1992)

There are two broad qualitative types of infidelity that an individual can commit against their regular, long-term romantic partner: sexual infidelity and emotional infidelity (Buss, 2000; Buss et al., 1992). Committing sexual infidelity involves the individual having sexual intercourse with an extra-pair partner. Ancestral men and women might have benefited from engaging in sexual intercourse with an extra-pair partner. A key benefit for men is the potential of producing another genetic offspring in which minimum investment will be required on their part, whereas women may benefit

6 by obtaining good genes for their offspring (Buss, 2000, 2003; Buss & Schmitt, 1993;

Gangestad, Thornhill, & Garver-Apgar, 2005; Greiling & Buss, 2000). Emotional infidelity involves spending time and resources (including emotional and monetary resources) on an extra-pair partner (Buss, 2003). Men can benefit from committing emotional infidelity by ensuring that any offspring sired with an extra-pair partner will have increased chance of survival, and women may benefit by obtaining immediate resources for current offspring (Buss, 2000, 2003; Buss & Schmitt, 1993; Gangestad et al., 2005; Greiling & Buss, 2000).

Female sexual infidelity can be costly to her in-pair male partner. If a man's partner engages in extra-pair copulations when she is fertile and likely to become pregnant, he risks being cuckolded. He would then be investing precious and limited resources in offspring which are genetically not related to him (Daly, Wilson &

Weghorst, 1982). On the other hand, male emotional infidelity can be especially costly to the in-pair female. She risks the loss of investment ofher partner's resources, reducing the fitness of her offspring. Therefore, jealousy may function to attune the in-pair man to threats ofhis partner's sexual infidelity and the in-pair women to threats of her partner's emotional infidelity (Buss, 2000; 2003; Schiitzwohl, 2004, 2005; Schiitzwohl & Koch,

2004; Shackelford & Buss, 1997).

Previous research suggests this is the case. When asked which type of partner infidelity would be more upsetting, men are more likely to select sexual infidelity and women are more likely to select emotional infidelity (Buss et al., 1992; Buss,

Shackelford, Kirkpatrick, Choe, Lim, Hasegawa et al., 1999; Schiitzwohl, 2004, 2005;

Schiitzwohl & Koch, 2004; Shackelford, Buss, & Bennett, 2002; Shackelford, Voracek,

7 Schmitt, Buss, Weekes-Shackelford, & Michalski, 2004). As morbid jealousy can be considered hypersensitive jealousy, it is hypothesized these sex differences also will be found in morbidly jealous individuals. Specifically, I hypothesized that a greater percentage of morbidly jealous men than morbidly jealous women will focus on a partner's sexual infidelity (Hypothesis 1), and that a greater percentage of morbidly jealous women than morbidly jealous men will focus on a partner's emotional infidelity

(Hypothesis 2). Furthermore, it is expected that the reported obsessions and delusions of the morbidly jealous individual will be categorized in the same manner, such that a greater percentage of morbidly jealous men than morbidly jealous women will obsess on the details of a partner's sexual contact with other men (Hypothesis 3). A greater percentage of morbidly jealous women than morbidly jealous men will obsess on the details of a partner's emotional contact with other women (Hypothesis 4).

Jealousy and Sexual Rivals

In addition to reporting greater upset to different types of partner infidelity, men and women differ in reports of the particular qualities or characteristics of potential rivals that produce jealousy. This difference can be linked to the different characteristics that men and women prefer in potential romantic partners, differences that are explained by sex differences in the minimum parental investment required to produce and raise offspring successfully. Trivers's (1972) theory of parental investment and sexual selection hypothesizes that the sex that invests more in offspring at a minimum will not only be choosier when it comes to selecting potential mates but also will prefer mates who will be able to provide for any offspring produced. Human males are the lesser investing sex; at a minimum, their investment in the production of offspring is a few

8 moments oftime and the costs associated with a single ejaculate. Therefore, men can afford to be less choosy when selecting potential mates. Human females are the greater investing sex. At a minimum, their investment in the production of offspring includes nine months of gestation. Because of the relatively great minimum parental investment of women, it benefits them to be choosy about with whom they mate. Previous research supports the existence of these sex differences. Women report preferring to mate with fewer partners and in fact actually do mate with fewer partners over their lifetimes than do men, indicating that women are more selective in their mating habits (Buss & Schmitt,

1993; Schmitt, 2003; Schmitt, Shackelford, & Buss, 2001; Schmitt, Shackelford,

Duntley, Tooke, & Buss, 2001).

Mate preferences are produced by the evolved mechanisms that determine the characteristics according to which men and women choose their mates (e.g. Buss, 2003).

Because of their differential minimum parental investment, women are more selective than men in their preferences for mates. Women demonstrate choosiness by preferring mates who will invest, either directly through parental care or indirectly through fmancial support and resources, over those mates who are not able or not willing to provide such support. Men are not as selective as women regarding with whom they mate, except for the traits of health and fertility (Buss, 1989, 2003; Buss & Schmitt, 1993; Kenrick,

Sadalla, Groth, & Trost, 1990; Li, Bailey, Kenrick, & Linsenmeier, 2002; Schmitt,

Couden, & Baker, 2001 ). Health and fertility (indexed by physical attractiveness and youth) in a prospective mate are important to men today because, over evolutionary history, our ancestors are those males that selected as mates healthy, fertile women who

9 would be most likely to become pregnant and to subsequently live through multiple pregnancies and be able to live long enough to ensure offspring survival.

Because of these differences, it is expected that men and women feel threatened by rivals that have these particular characteristics or qualities (Buss, 2000). Men are more likely to experience jealousy when a potential rival has more resources to invest, because a woman is more likely to want a partner with the best capabilities for investment.

Women may be able to determine a potential mate' s ability to invest by his occupation, salary, social status or by the amount of money he spends on her (Buss, 2003). Therefore, men can be expected to be more upset by potential rivals who have better jobs, make more money, have higher social status, or who are willing to spend more money on the partner. Prior research supports this hypothesis; when asked to identify the characteristics of a potential rival that are more upsetting, men are more likely to identify rival characteristics related to resources (Brase, Caprar, & Voracek, 2004; Buss, Shackelford,

Choe, Buunk & Dijkstra, 2000).

On the other hand, because men prefer women who are healthy and fertile, women should be more upset by potential rivals who display characteristics that index health and fertility. Health in women may be advertised as physical attractiveness; women with "good genes" are more likely to have high levels of symmetry, which research demonstrates men use as a marker for attractiveness (Gangestad & Thornhill,

1999; Gangestad, Thornhill, & Yeo, 1994; Manning, 1995). Fertility may be advertised as youth; younger women are more likely to be able to successfully produce multiple offspring (Buss, 1989, 2003; Symons, 1995). Thus, women will be more upset by potential rivals who are younger and more physically attractive. Prior research suggests

10 that this is the case, with women reporting greatest upset when confronted with potential rivals displaying youth and physical attractiveness (Brase et al., 2004; Buss et al., 2000).

It can be hypothesized that these sex differences also will be observed in individuals expressing morbid jealousy. Specifically, I hypothesized that a greater percentage of morbidly jealous men than morbidly jealous women will focus on indicators of a rival's status and resources (Hypothesis 5) and that a greater percentage of morbidly jealous women than morbidly jealous men will focus on a rival's youth and physical attractiveness (Hypothesis 6).

Jealousy and Sperm Competition

Differential minimum parental investment also leads to sex differences in certainty of parental relatedness to offspring. Because human females are fertilized and gestate offspring internally, they know for certain that their offspring are genetically related to them. Men, however, can never be certain that offspring produced in a relationship are their genetic offspring. This paternal uncertainty is due to the fact that human females have relatively concealed ovulation, and a man can never be certain that it is his sperm that fertilized a woman's egg. Male sexual jealousy may function to prevent cuckoldry, in which the man invests in offspring that are not his; women, however, have no risk of cuckoldry (Buss, 2000, 2003).

In men, sexual jealousy appears to trigger defenses against partner infidelity in order to prevent being cuckolded (Buss, 2000, 2003). One such defense may be inseminating a partner as soon as possible and thereby entering into sperm competition, in which the sperm of the in-pair partner compete with the sperm of the extra-pair partner to prevent fertilization by the extra-pair partner (Baker & Bellis, 1993a, 1993b, 1995).

11 Sperm competition occurs within the female reproductive tract, and so must happen before the sperm of the extra-pair partner either reach the egg or die from exposure to the acidic environment of the vagina. In-pair males may have physical and psychological mechanisms that work to combat the threat of sperm competition. One such mechanism may be the shape of the human penis, which has a coronal ridge larger than other primate species. This larger ridge may function to remove rival sperm from the vaginal tract during copulation. Along with the physical shape of the penis, changes in copulatory behaviors after the perceived threat of partner infidelity may function to combat sperm competition. For example, males may increase the duration and depth of penile thrusting in an attempt to displace rival sperm (Gallup & Burch, 2004; Gallup, Burch, Zappieri,

Parvez, Stockwell, & Davis, 2003; Goetz, Shackelford, Weekes-Shackelford, Euler,

Hoier, and Schmitt, 2005). But for these adaptations to work, the in-pair man must have mechanisms that create increased desire to copulate with his partner near to the time she has been or might be sexually unfaithful. This desire also increases relative to the amount of time the in-pair partners have been apart since their last copulation; the more time a woman is away from her in-pair partner, the more opportunities she has to be unfaithful

(Baker & Bellis, 1993a, 1995; Shackelford, LeBlanc, Weekes-Shackelford, Bleske­

Rechek, Euler, & Hoier, 2002; Shackelford, Pound, & Goetz, 2005; Shackelford, Pound,

Goetz, & LaMunyon, 2005).

Research indicates that men who have spent a greater amount of time away from their partners since the pair's last copulation rate their partner as more attractive, more desirable, and express greater interest in copulating with their partner (Shackelford et al.,

2002). Therefore, because morbidly jealous individuals have hypersensitive jealousy

12 mechanisms, I expect that morbidly jealous men also will express these desires.

Specifically, I hypothesized that a greater percentage of morbidly jealous men than morbidly jealous women would display increased interest in copulating with their in-pair partner (Hypothesis 7). This is because women are not subject to sperm competition and, therefore, I do not expect women to express an increase in their desire to copulate with their partner.

Men at risk of cuckoldry may not always be able to engage in consensual intercourse during the time needed to compete with or to displace a rival's sperm. In these cases, to prevent cuckoldry, men may resort to sexual coercion, including forcing sex on their partner (Buss, 2003; 2000; Malamuth, Huppin, & Paul, 2005; Shackelford &

Goetz, 2004; Thornhill & Palmer, 2000). This might be especially characteristic of morbidly jealous men, given that a common complaint of these men is the sexual

"frigidity" or disinterest of their partners (e.g. Enoch & Trethowen, 1979; Vauhkohen,

1968). Therefore, I hypothesize that a greater percentage of morbidly jealous men than morbidly jealous women will attempt to force sex on their partner (Hypothesis 8). This sex difference is hypothesized because women do not face the risk of cuckoldry and, therefore, should not have to resort to sexual coercion to prevent sperm competition.

Jealousy and Violence

Because of the costs associated with a partner's infidelities, men and women use various tactics to attempt to retain their mates and to prevent infidelities. Some of these tactics are positive and include bestowing benefits on a partner, such as buying gifts or jewelry for a partner, or asking a partner to get married. Some of these tactics are negative and include inflicting costs on a partner, such as inflicting physical violence

13 against a partner (Buss, 1988, 2000, 2003; Buss & Shackelford, 1997; Goetz et al., 2005;

Shackelford, Goetz, Buss, Euler, & Hoier, 2005; Wilson, Johnson, & Daly, 1995).

Whether positive or negative, these tactics are used to prevent infidelity, to prevent infidelity from happening again, or to prevent a partner from leaving the relationship for the extra-pair partner (Buss 2003, 2000; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Wilson & Daly, 1996).

Previous research indicates that sexual jealousy and the threat of infidelity are key predictors of violence against partners (Buss 1988,2000, 2003; Daly & Wilson, 1988;

Daly et al., 1982; Shackelford et al., 2005). This may be particularly true for men due to the substantial costs of cuckoldry over human evolutionary history. For example, in one study of 60 battered women, 57 reported their partners to be extremely jealous

(Hilberman & Munson, 1978). Morbidly jealous men also can be considered extremely jealous individuals and therefore should be likely to use violence against their partners

(Buss 2000; Enoch & Trethowan, 1979; Kingham & Gordon, 2004; Mowat, 1966;

Mullen & Maack, 1985; Vauhkonen, 1968). Women are less likely to use violence against their partners even when threatened with perceived partner infidelity (Daly &

Wilson, 1988); therefore, a sex difference in the use of physical violence is expected.

Specifically, I hypothesize that a greater percentage of morbidly jealous men than morbidly jealous women will use physical violence against their partner (Hypothesis 9).

In addition to functioning as a key predictor of physical violence against a partner, sexual jealousy also is a key predictor of partner homicide. Partner homicide usually occurs after evidence or threat of infidelity or when a partner is threatening to leave the relationship (Buss, 2000; 2003; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Shackelford, 2000). As with physical violence in a relationship, the risk of partner homicide is greater for women than

14 for men, as men may have more to lose reproductively from cuckoldry than women risk losing from resource diversion (Buss 2000; 2003; Daly & Wilson, 1988) and, therefore, it can be hypothesized that men will commit partner homicide more than women. Research supports this; women are more likely to murder their partner in defense as opposed to in anger (e.g. Daly & Wilson, 1988). This pattern also is expected to be evident among morbidly jealous individuals who are, by definition, obsessed and consumed with a partner's infidelities (AP A, 2000; Buss, 2000; Enoch & Trethowan, 1979; Kingham &

Gordon, 2004; Mowat, 1966; Mullen & Maack, 1985; Vauhkonen, 1968). Specifically, I hypothesize that a greater percentage of morbidly jealous men than morbidly jealous women will have attempted to kill their partners (Hypothesis 10). Furthermore, I hypothesize that a greater percentage of morbidly jealous men than morbidly jealous women will in fact kill their partner (Hypothesis 11 ).

The present study examined all published case histories in English of individuals with morbid jealousy to test the above hypotheses about the causes and correlates of jealousy. To summarize, it was hypothesized that a greater percentage of morbidly jealous men than morbidly jealous women will be focused on the sexual infidelity of partner (Hypothesis 1), the sexual contact of the partner with rivals (Hypothesis 3), and indicators of the potential rival's status and resources (Hypothesis 5). A greater percentage of morbidly jealous women than morbidly jealous men, in contrast, will be focused on the partner's emotional infidelities (Hypothesis 2), the emotional contact of the partner with rivals (Hypothesis 4), and indicators of the potential rival's health and fertility, as indexed by her youth and attractiveness (Hypothesis 6). Additionally it was hypothesized that a greater percentage of morbidly jealous men than morbidly jealousy

15 women will display increased sexual interest in their partner (Hypothesis 7), will be more

likely to force or attempt to force sexual intercourse on their partner (Hypothesis 8), and will be more likely to use violence, attempt to kill, or actually kill their partner

(Hypotheses 9, 10, and 11, respectively).

..

16 CHAPTER TWO: METHOD

Participants

To investigate a large enough sample of individuals diagnosed with morbid jealousy, I created a database that included all case histories of morbid jealousy published in English. This produced a sample of 398 case histories (298 men and 100 women) published during the years 1940 to 2002. Ages of the morbidly jealous individuals ranged from 18 to 98 years (M=43.52, SD=12.04). The age ofthe morbidly jealousy individual was not reported for 27 cases. One-hundred and seven of the morbidly jealous individuals were psychiatric out-patients, 276 were psychiatric in-patients, six were drawn from other, non-specific populations and nine of the cases did not include any information about the population from which the morbidly jealous individual was drawn. The individuals comprising the sample of cases resided in various countries, with the majority residing in England (see Table 1). At the time of initial interview, 310 ofthe morbidly jealous individuals were married, four were cohabiting, and nine had some type of other relationship. Seventy-five cases presented no information on the individual's relationship

status. Sixty-five individuals reported being in a previous relationship. Relationships varied in length from 4 months to 51 years (M=l5.48, SD=10.43). Current relationship length was not reported for 129 cases.

Materials

The database was created by identifying and securing all morbid jealousy case histories published in English (see Appendix A for references for all case histories

17 included in the database). I then constructed a coding sheet to be used for each case history (see Appendix B for coding sheet). The coding sheet contains demographic information including sex and age of the individual, sex and age of the partner, type of relationship and length of relationship. Further information collected on the coding sheet was based on theories of sexual jealousy from evolutionary psychology and included information regarding the mate value of both individuals in the relationship, the sexual history of the couple, sexual fidelity, sexual rivals, mate guarding, and violence in the relationship. From the coding sheet, a spreadsheet database was created to allow for statistical analyses designed to test the hypotheses. A codebook was then generated to diminish potential for error in data entry (see Appendix C for codebook). The codebook contains information regarding every variable created in the database.

Procedure

I first identified all published case histories using the search terms "pathological jealousy," "morbid jealousy," "conjugal paranoia," and "Othello Syndrome" in the

PsyciNFO and the MEDLINE/PubMed databases available online. These databases provide publication data that covers the years 1806 through 2005 for PsyciNFO and

1896-2005 for MEDLINE/PubMed, inclusive, as of July 2005. Case histories were selected by reviewing individual article abstracts to determine if a history was present in the article. All abstracts that provided any information that indicated the inclusion of a case history were obtained in full form. Using these case histories and previous evolutionary psychology research, I generated a coding sheet. During this process I solicited the help of two other coders who are trained in evolutionary psychology. These coders helped generate the coding sheet, to ensure it was as inclusive as possible. Once

18 all three coders were in agreement on this initial coding sheet, two coders independently used the coding sheet to code three case histories which varied in length, in the sex of the morbidly jealous individual, and in the years of publication, and then met to compare answers. The reliability ofthe two coders at this initial meeting was 95%. The coding sheet was then revised based on areas of confusion and the two coders independently coded five additional cases which varied on the same characteristics as the first three cases. Reliability of coding for these five cases was close to 100% ; the two coders met with the third coder, who is well trained in the generation of questionnaires and surveys as well as in morbid jealousy, to resolve any differences in answers. The coding sheet underwent one more revision to fix questions that created confusion in the coders. The two coders then coded five cases (Seeman, 1979) together to verify reliability would remain high when the coders worked independently. Because of the high levels of inter­ rater reliability, the list of 398 cases was split equally in half; with each coder responsible for only coding half the cases; cases were split randomly. The coders then coded all 398 cases.

I met with a second researcher to create the spreadsheet database according to the fmal code sheet. From the database, a codebook (See Appendix C) was generated to minimize confusion during data entry. Two coders trained in data entry then independently entered five cases (Seeman, 1979) into the database using the codebook.

Inter-rater reliability was close to 100%; all differences were resolved without the use of a third party. Fifteen individuals were then trained intensively on how to enter the data from the coding sheet. These individuals met one-on-one with the second coder or myself to learn how to use the database and how to enter the data. We then observed them enter

19 a case in its entirety to help them with any potential questions. Their reliability at data entry was investigated by having them first enter the same five cases the independent coders entered. Mistakes were minimal, and individuals were re-trained on questions where mistakes were made. In an attempt to diminish further mistakes, researchers verified each entry entered into the database.

20 CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS

It was hypothesized that a greater percentage of morbidly jealous men than morbidly jealous women will be focused on the sexual infidelity of partner (Hypothesis

1), the sexual contact ofthe partner with rivals (Hypothesis 3), and indicators of the potential rival's status and resources (Hypothesis 5). A greater percentage of morbidly jealous women than morbidly jealous men, in contrast, will be focused on the partner's emotional infidelities (Hypothesis 2), the emotional contact of the partner with rivals

(Hypothesis 4), and indicators of the potential rival's health and fertility, as indexed by her youth and attractiveness (Hypothesis 6). Additionally it was hypothesized that a greater percentage of morbidly jealous men than morbidly jealousy women will display increased sexual interest in their partner (Hypothesis 7), will be more likely to force or attempt to force sexual intercourse on their partner (Hypothesis 8), and will be more likely to use violence, attempt to kill, or actually kill their partner (Hypotheses 9, 10, and

11, respectively).

Chi-square analyses were used to test all 11 hypotheses. Hypotheses 1 and 2 were analyzed using the question "If yes, what type of infidelity?" on the morbid jealousy coding sheet. Hypotheses 3 and 4 were analyzed by examining the number of sexual cues to infidelity reported (Hypothesis 3) and the number of emotional cues to infidelity reported (Hypothesis 4). Hypotheses 5 and 6 were analyzed using the question "How does the MJ describe the rival (be as specific as possible)?" Hypothesis 7 was analyzed using the question "What is the current sexual interest of MJ in his/her partner?"

21 Hypothesis 8 was analyzed using the question "Any report of forced sex in the relationship?" Hypothesis 9 was analyzed using the question "Is there a history of physical violence?" Hypotheses 10 and 11 were analyzed using the questions "Has one partner attempted to kill the other?" and "Has one partner in fact killed the other?" respectively (see Appendix B). Table 2 reports the percentages for both men and women for each hypothesis and also displays the z-scores for the differences between the percentages. The results were evaluated at a= .05 (one-tailed). For each analysis, cases that did not report a response for that particular question, or questions that were not applicable for that case (e.g. if no rival was mentioned, there could be no rival description) were excluded from analyses. The number of cases left after the above exclusions for each hypothesis is included in Table 2. All results were statistically significant except for emotional cues (Hypothesis 4) and increased sex (Hypothesis 7), although both sex differences were in the right direction and approached significance.

Results for forced sex (Hypothesis 8) and attempt to kill (Hypothesis 9) could not be generated as there were not enough cases of morbidly jealous women after the exclusions to examine sex differences.

22 CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION

It was hypothesized that morbidly jealous men and women would exhibit similar behaviors to individuals who express normal sexual jealousy. This was the case for seven ofthe 11 hypotheses generated. I hypothesized that a greater percentage of morbidly jealous women than morbidly jealous men would be focused on their partner's emotional contact with other women and while this was not significant, the result was in the right direction. On the morbid jealousy coding sheet, there was space to write in numerous reported cues and these were compiled into five variables for analysis, meaning there could have been up to 2000 cases for analysis. Excluding cases that had no cues reported removed 1500 cases from analysis; ofthe cues that were left, only 44 were cues concerning emotional contact, which is not a large number of cases. I expect that had more cases reported emotional cues, this result would have been significant. Emotional cues may not have been reported in greater numbers because therapists, doctors, or the general public may not consider these types of cues important. The majority of the morbid jealousy cases in the present study reported jealousy about their partners' perceived sexual infidelities and as such the individuals may not have reported emotional cues or they may have but their doctors may not have considered the cues relevant to the case history.

I also hypothesized that a greater percentage of morbidly jealous men than morbidly jealous women would display an increased interest in having sex with their partner; although this result was not significant, it was also in the right direction. There

23 were only 39 cases that reported the morbidly jealous individual had an increased interest in having sexual intercourse, again not a large number for analysis. As with the emotional cues, I expect that had more cases reported the sexual interest of the morbidly jealous individual, this would have been a significant result. The lack of reporting sexual interest may be due to the publication dates of the majority of cases, which were published before

1970. In the older cases, the morbidly jealous individuals may not have talked about sexual interest or may have but the clinicians determined the information was not relevant to the morbid jealousy case history.

The other two hypotheses that did not produce significant results were not able to be analyzed due to the number of cases for morbidly jealous women being too small after exclusions. I hypothesized that a greater percentage of morbidly jealous men than morbidly jealous women would display attempts to force sex on their partners and there were only 12 cases that had any report of forced sex in the relationship; of those only two were morbidly jealous women. Previous research has documented that men often underreport the amount of in-pair violence, including sexual coercion, they commit

(Dobash, Dobash, Cavanagh, & Lewis, 1998) and so it is possible that more morbidly jealous men did force sexual intercourse on their partners but did not report it.

Unfortunately, most of the morbid jealousy cases did not report information from partner interviews, so I cannot confirm the potential amount of forced sex.

I also hypothesized that a greater number of morbidly jealous men than morbidly jealous women would attempt to kill their partners. After excluding cases with no report of attempted murders, there was only one morbidly jealous woman who attempted to murder her partner, a number too small for a chi-square analysis. Although the analysis

24 could not be completed, it should be noted that there were 48 cases of morbidly jealous men who attempted to kill their partners; out of a total of 188 cases of morbidly jealous men who reported whether or not incidents of attempted murder occurred. So in some instances of morbid jealousy, as hypothesized, men who perceive their partners have been unfaithful are in fact attempting to kill their in-pair partner.

The current study was limited by reports in the published case histories. Careful effort was made by the trained researchers to not use conjecture or to make assumptions about what was being reported. It is possible that, because of this extreme caution, there are other cases that could be included in analyses but were excluded from the present analyses. For example, the older cases often used a vernacular that is uncommon in present language, which made for difficult coding at times. Also, many cases were not included in analyses because they reported very specific cues or rival descriptions that could not be fit into one of the researcher-generated categories for analysis. Further research using this database could examine the cases that have unique responses to determine if they could be included in future analyses.

Even with the limitation, this is the first investigation of morbid jealousy using an evolutionary perspective, and may serve the important purpose of creating a model that researchers could use to examine other mental disorders. I have presented results that add insight to the corollary behaviors that appear in individuals with morbid jealousy and which, to this point, have not been empirically examined in this population. The current study also lends empirical support to previous research on sex differences in jealousy mechanisms using a population that previous researchers have offered conjecture about but have not investigated empirically (i.e., Buss, 2000). By illustrating that there may be

25 an adaptive purpose for some of the associated behaviors and for jealousy, the results of this study can aid clinicians in treating morbid jealousy, which has been historically difficult to treat (i.e. Kingham & Gordon, 2004).

However, this study is only a beginning to a more complete understanding of morbid jealousy. Wakefield (1999; 2005) has suggested that mental disorders are harmful dysfunctions; meaning mechanisms fail to perform the function they were naturally selected to do in the environment in which they were selected to perform. I suggested that morbid jealousy could be considered a dysfunction of normally functioning jealousy mechanisms because of increased sensitivity to perceptions of partner infidelity. It could be argued, however, that it is not a dysfunction of normal jealousy mechanisms, as morbid jealousy is still functioning to prevent or stop partner infidelity. Therefore, if morbid jealousy is not a dysfunction, it is possible that it is not a clinical disorder as defmed by the harmful dysfunction model (Wakefield, 1999; 2005). Future research should use the hypotheses generated by this model to further examine and understand morbid jealousy (i.e., Easton, Schipper, & Shackelford, in press).

As demonstrated by the current study, using an evolutionary perspective can bring insight to mental disorders. This has previously been done for highly prevalent disorders such as depression (i.e. Nesse & Williams, 1994), but never before on a delusional disorder with the format employed by the current study. Although using published case reports did have limitations, it did allow access to a large, cross-cultural sample. It is my hope that other researchers will employ the method I have used here to bring further understanding to other mental disorders.

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35 Table 1

Breakdown ofMorbid Jealousy Cases by Country

Country #of Cases Percentage

England 222 55.8

Norway 45 11.3

United States 30 7.5

Australia 12 3.0

Sri Lanka 10 2.5

Other 31 7.8

Not reported 48 12.1

36 Table 2

Comparisons ofProportions ofMorbidly Jealous Men and Women for 11 Hypotheses

Hypothesis Men N Women N z-score

Sexual infidelity 95.86 169 80.00 65 3.89***

Emotional infidelity 4.14 169 20.00 65 3.89***

Sexual Cues8 31.25 352 21.88 128 2.01 *

Emotional Cues8 7.95 352 12.50 128 1.53

Rival Description Social Statusb 29.27 41 13.51 37 1.68*

Rival Description Attractivenessb21. 95 41 51.35 37 2.70**

Increased Sex 44.78 67 31.03 29 1.26

Forced Sexc

Physical Violence 92.22 90 69.23 13 2.51 **

Attempt Murderc

Murdered Partner 18.77 52 8.79 8 2.24* •calculated from combination of 5 variables for cues reported by morbidly jealous individual. bCalculated from combination of 3 variables describing rivals of morbidly jealous individual. csample size for women was too small to calculate chi-square analysis for these hypotheses.

*p < .05. **p <.Ol. ***p < .0001.

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45 Date Completed: ___ Initials of Coder: Appendix B

Morbid Jealousy Coding Sheet The initials MJ will be used to represent the morbidly jealous individual whom the case history concerns. For questions asking details that are not mentioned in history please circle N/R for not reported. For questions that are not applicable, please leave blank. Source: (author & title of article) ______ID#: ______

Case History Background Information

Total# of case histories included: ---- N/R #of Males: ___ N/R #of Females: N/R How were the case histories selected? ------

N/R From what population is the case history (i.e., psychiatric patients, prison population)? ______N/R What is the name of the hospital/prison (if provided)? ______N/R What country is the case history from?-----'------N/R What range of years do the case histories cover? ______N/R

Biographical Information Sex ofMJ: Male Female N/R Sex of Partner/Spouse: Male Female N/R Age ofMJ:__ years old N/R Age of Partner/Spouse:__ years old N/R What year(s) was the data collected for this case history? ______N/R Were there any follow-up interviews? YES NO N/R If yes, how many? N/R How long after the initial interview? ______N/R Nature of Relationship between MJ and Partner/Spouse: Cohabiting Married Other N/R If other, please indicate: ______What is the length of the relationship (please be as specific as possible)? ______N/R Are there any children? YES NO N/R If yes, how many? ___ Are any from a previous relationship? YES NO N/R If yes, how many? ____ Whose previous relationship? MJ Partner/Spouse N/R Is there a question of paternity? YES NO N/R Is there any evidence in the history to suggest the question is legitimate? YES NO N/R Does the MJ have a history of alcohol abuse? YES NO N/R Drug use? YES NO N/R

Previous Relationship Information Does the MJ report any previous relationships? YES NO

Case ID # ______46 Did the MJ exhibit jealousy in previous relationships? YES NO N/R Did MJ suspect prior partners of being unfaithful? YES NO N/R If yes, were partners actually unfaithful? YES NO N/R Was there a history of physical violence in prior relationships? YES NO N/R Was there a history of nonphysical violence in prior relationships? YES NO N/R

Sexual History in Current Relationship Does the MJ describe partner/spouse's physical attractiveness? YES NO N/R If yes, please describe N/R Does the partner/spouse describe physical attractiveness ofMJ? YES NO N/R If yes, please describe------N/R Is there any evidence of a discrepancy in mate value between partners? YES NO N/R If yes, please provide specific details ______N/R What is the current sexual interest ofMJ in his/her partner (i.e., has it increased or decreased)? ______NIR What is the historical sexual interest ofMJ in his/her partner (if reported)? ______N/R What is the current sexual interest of the spouse/partner in MJ (increase/decrease)? ______N/R What is the historical sexual interest of the spouse/partner in MJ (if reported)? ______N/R Has there been a change in potency (i.e., erectile function) for the male? YES NO NIR If yes, is this a decrease or increase in potency? INCREASE DECREASE N/R If yes, when did this change occur?------N/R Is there a history of impotence? YES NO N/R If yes, how frequently does this occur? N/R Does the male in the relationship report fluctuations in his timing of ejaculation? YES NO If yes, how often do the fluctuations occur? N/R If yes, does he report premature ejaculation or delayed ejaculation or both? ______

When does either timing change occur (e.g. after partner absence)? ______N/R Does the female in the relationship discuss her ability to orgasm? YES NO

Case ID # ------47 If yes, can the female reach orgasm? YES NO N/R If yes, how often does she orgasm? ______N/R Are the orgasms with her partner/spouse or an extra-pair partner? ______N/R If no, has the female ever been able to reach orgasm? YES NO N/R Has the female experienced or is she currently experiencing menopause? YES NO N/R How long has this been occurring? ______N/R Is there a report of fertility problems? YES NO Which partner? ______If yes, please provide details------N/R

Sexual Fidelity Information Does the MJ report being unfaithful to his/her partner? YES NO If yes, how often has this occurred?------­ N/R Does the partner/spouse report being unfaithful to MJ? YES NO If yes, how often has this occurred? ______N/R Which partner was unfaithful first? ______N/R

Has either partner accused the other of infidelity? YES NO N/R Which one? ------N/R If yes, do the accusations appear to be excessive? YES NO N/R If yes, please specifically describe the accusations ______N/R If yes, what type of infidelity? EMOTIONAL SEXUAL BOTH N/R Does either partner report fmding cues to the other's infidelity? YES NO If yes, which one (or both)?------N/R What cues are reported by the individual (e.g. condom wrapper)? ______

N/R Is there any indication to suggest these cues are imagined by the individual? YES NO N/R Has either partner been caught being unfaithful? YES NO N/R If yes, which one (or both)? N/R Does one partner report being unfaithful as retaliation for the other's infidelity? YES NO If yes, please explain------N/R Are there any children from infidelity? YES NO N/R How many of the couple's children? N/R

Case ID # 48 Sexual Rival Information Does the MJ mention sexual rivals? YES NO N/R If yes, who is( are) the rival(s)? ______N/R How does the MJ describe the rival (be as specific as possible)? ______

Mate Guarding Evidence Please provide any evidence of mate guarding by the MJ (be as specific as possible) ______

NIR

Violence/Abuse Information Is there a history of non-physical (emotional, psychological, verbal) violence? YES NO N/R If yes, how often? N/R

When does this violence occur? ------NIR

Which partner is the offender? ______N/R Victim? ------N/R What happens in these incidents (be as specific as possible)? ______

NIR Is there a history of physical violence? YES NO NIR If yes, how often? ______NIR

When does this violence occur? ------NIR

Which partner is the offender? ______NIR Victim? ------NIR What happens in these incidents (be as specific as possible)? ______

NIR Any report of forced sex in relationship? YES NO NIR If yes, how often? ______N/R When do these incidents occur (i.e. after partner absence)? ______NIR What happens in these incidents (be as specific as possible)? ______

Case ID # ______49 N/R Has one partner attempted to kill the other? YES NO N/R

Which partner is offender? ______N/R Victim? ------N/R When did this occur (i.e. after infidelity)? ______N/R Whmhappened? ______

N/R Has one partner in fact killed the other? YES NO N/R

Which partner was the offender? ______N/R Victim? ---- N/R When did this occur (i.e. after infidelity)? ______N/R Whmhappened? ______

N/R

DSM-IV Criteria for MJ Does the MJ exhibit delusions? YES NO N/R If yes, do these delusions focus on partner infidelity? YES NO N/R Does the MJ suffer from hallucinations? YES NO N/R If yes, are they related to MJ's delusions? YES NO N/R Aside from delusions, does the MJ appear to function normally? YES NO N/R Does the MJ have any medical conditions? YES NO N/R If yes, please list ______N/R Does the MJ exhibit fluctuations in his/her mood? YES NO N/R If yes, do these occur during or right after delusions? YES NO N/R Are they of shorter or longer duration than the delusions? SHORTER LONGER N/R

Other Information (Please provide any other information from case history not asked for above)

Case ID # ------50 Appendix C

Codebook for MJ Database

Left side of codebook presents number of variable in SPSS and variable name as in SPSS. Right side presents what variable actually is, any instructions for coding, and any pertinent codes.

N/A- Not Applicable NIR- Not Reported

1. ID Identification Number Enter exactly as on code sheet including O's and dashes (i.e. 01-01)

2. totalcase Total# of case histories included Enter exactly as on sheet

3. totalmales Total #of male case histories Enter exactly as on sheet 888 Not Applicable 999 Not Reported

4. totalfemales Total# of female case histories Enter exactly as on sheet 888 Not Applicable 999 Not reported

5. caseselect How were case histories selected? Enter whatever is written on sheet (it will be most likely be sentences, phrases, etc)

6. population What population are case histories? Enter one of the following: 1 Psychiatric Out­ Patient 2 Psychiatric In­ patient 3 Prison Population

51 4 Other 999 Not Reported

7. facilityname Name of facility Enter whatever is on sheet 999 Not Reported

8. country Country of case histories Enter one of the following: 1 United States 2 England 3 Australia 4 Norway 5 Germany 6 Sri Lanka 7 Other 999 Not Reported

9. yearrange Range of years case histories cover Enter whatever on sheet 999 Not Reported

10. mJsex Sex of morbid jealous individual Enter one of following: 1 Male 2 Female 999 Not Reported

11. mjage Age of morbid jealous individual Enter age on sheet or 999 Not reported

12. partnersex Sex of partner/spouse Enter one of following: 1 Male 2 Female 999 Not reported

13. partnerage Age of partner/spouse Enter age on sheet or 999 Not reported

14. yearsdata Years data collected for case history Enter whatever on sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

52 15. followup Any follow-up interviews? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

16. followup# Number of follow-up interviews Enter whatever on sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

17. followup 1 Length oftime (in months) follow-up 1 Enter whatever on took place sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

18. followup2 Length of time (in months)follow-up 2 Enter whatever on took place sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

19. followup3 Length of time (in months) follow-up 3 Enter whatever on took place sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

20. relstatus Relationship status MJ and partner Enter one of following: 1 Cohabiting 2 Married 3 Other 999 Not reported

21. rellength Length of relationship (in years) Enter whatever on sheet or 999 Not reported

22. children Are there any children? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

23. children# How many children? Enter # on sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

53 24. childprev Are children from previous relationship? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

25. childprev# How many from previous relationship? Enter whatever on sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

26. whoseprev Whose previous relationship? Enter one of following: 1 MJ 2 Partner/Spouse 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

27. quespater Is there question of paternity? Enter one of following: I Yes 2 No 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

28. queslegit Paternity question legitimate? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

29. mjalcohol MJ have history of alcohol abuse? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

30. mjdrug MJ have history of drug abuse? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

54 31. mJprev MJ report previous relationship? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No

32. jealprev MJ exhibit jealous in prior relationship? Enter one of following: I Yes 2 No 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

33. mjsuspect MJ suspect prior partners? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

34. prevpartfaith Previous partner unfaithful? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

35. prevphys History of physical violence Enter one of in previous relationship? following: 1 Yes 2 No 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

36. prevnonphys History of nonphysical violence Enter one of in previous relationship? following: 1 Yes 2 No 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

37. mjattract MJ describe partner physically? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

55 3 8. mj attractdesc Description positive or negative? Enter one of following: 1 Positive 2 Negative 3 Neutral 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

3 9. partattract Partner describe MJ physically? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

40. partattractdesc Description positive or negative? Enter one of following: 1 Positive 2 Negative 3 Neutral 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

41. matevalue Discrepancy of mate value? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

42. mvdetail Specific mate value discrepancy? Enter one of following: 1 MJ higher than partner 2 Partner higher than MJ 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

43. mJsexcurr MJ current sexual interest in partner Enter one of following: 1 MJ increase 2 MJ decrease 3 increase not specific 4 decrease not specific

56 5 no change from before 6 satisfactory/normal sexual relations 7 Other 999 Not reported

44. sexfreq Current frequency of sex Enter number on sheet (i.e. 3 for 3x/week) or 999 Not reported

45. mjsexhist MJ historical sexual interest in partner Enter one of following: 1 MJ high 2 MJ low 3 high not specific 4 low not specific 5 other 6 satisfactory/normal sexual relations 7 other 999 Not reported

46. sexfreqhist Historical frequency of sex Enter # on sheet (i.e. 3 for 3x/week) or 999 Not reported

4 7. partsexcurr Partner current sexual interest in MJ Enter one of following: 1 Partner/spouse mcrease 2 Partner/spouse decrease 3 increase not specific 4 decrease not specific 5 no change from before 6 satisfactory/normal sexual relations 7 other 999 Not reported

57 48. partsexhist Partner historical sexual interest in MJ Enter one of following: 1 Partner/spouse high 2 Partner/spouse low 3 high not specific 4 low not specific 5 satisfactory/normal sexual relations 6 other 999 Not reported

49. potency Change in potency for male? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

50. potenchange Change an increase or decrease? Enter one of following: 1 Increase 2 Decrease 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

51. whenchange When did change occur? Enter one of following: 1 After surgery /illness 2 After spouse cheated - thought spouse cheated 3 Due to old age 4 After alcohol use/abuse 5 Other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

52. impotence History of impotence? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

58 53. impotfreq Frequency of impotence? Enter one of following: 1 Always 2 Very often 3 Often 4 Not often 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

54. ejactime Timing of ejaculation fluctuate? Enter one of following: I Yes 2 No

55. ejacfluc Frequency of fluctuations? Enter one of following: 1 Always 2 Very often 3 Often 4 Not often 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

56. ejactype Type of fluctuations reported? Enter one of following: 1 Premature ejaculation 2 Delayed ejaculation 3 Both 888 Not applicable

57. whenfluc When do fluctuations occur? Enter one of following: 1 Partner absence 2 Partner infidelity or suspicion of infidelity 3 Age 4 New partner 5 Alcohol/drug use 6 Other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

59 58. orgasm Female report ability to orgasm? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No

59. orgreach Can female reach orgasm? Enter one of following: I Yes 2 No 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

60. orgfreq Frequency of orgasms? Enter one of following: 1 Always 2 Very often 3 Often 4 Not Often 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

61. orgpart With whom does she have orgasms? Enter one of following: 1 Partner/spouse 2 Extra-pair partner 3 Both 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

62. orgever Has she ever been able to orgasm? Enter one of following: I Yes 2 No 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

63. menopause Female experiencing menopause? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

60 64. menolength How long has this been going on? Enter whatever on sheet (code in months) or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

65. fertprob Report of fertility problems? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No

66. fertpart Which partner has problems? Enter one of following: 1 MJ 2 partner/spouse 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

67. fertdesc Description of fertility problems Enter whatever on sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

68. mjfaith MJ report being unfaithful? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No

69. mjfaithfreq Number of times unfaithful? Enter whatever on sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

70. partfaith Partner report being unfaithful? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No

71. partfaithfreq Frequency of partner unfaithful? Enter whatever on sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

61 72. faithfirst Which partner unfaithful first? Enter one of following: 1 MJ 2 Partner/spouse 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

73. accuse Has one accused other of infidelity? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

74. whichaccuse Which partner accused other? Enter one of following: 1 MJ 2 Partner/spouse 3 Both 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

75. accussexcess Accusations appear excessive? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

76. accusedesc Description of accusations Enter whatever on sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

77. infidtype Type of infidelity Enter one of following: 1 Emotional 2 Sexual 3 Both 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

78. infidcues Partner report finding cues Enter one of to other's infidelity following: 1 Yes 2 No

62 79. whichfind Which partner report cues? Enter one of following: 1 MJ 2 Partner/spouse 3 Both 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

80. cues# How many cues have been found? Count # of cues reported or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

81. cue1 What is first cue found? Enter one of following: 1 Telephone #/phone calls 2 Other people tell about infidelity 3 Partner looks at or talks to people of opposite sex 4 Condom wrapper or other contraceptive found 5 Alleged love letters 6 Change in partner appearance 7 Arriving home late or partner absence 8 Strange stains on partner's clothing 9 Partner has more $ or new clothes or jewelry 10 Partner's behavior (not specific) 11 New sexual technique or pattern 12 evidence/proofs not specific 13 Decline in sexual desires or frigidity

63 14 partner/spouse potsomng or drugging MJ 15 Venereal disease 16 Paternity Uncertainty 17 rival behavior or comments 18 MJ reports seeing or hearing partner w/lover 19 Objects/furniture moved around or new objects in house 20 signals between partner & lover 21 Inability to please partner sexually 22 Partner admits attraction to another person 23 other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

82. cue2 What is second cue found? Enter one of following: 1 Telephone #/phone calls 2 Other people tell about infidelity 3 Partner looks at or talks to people of opposite sex 4 Condom wrapper or other contraceptive found 5 Alleged love letters 6 Change in partner appearance 7 Arriving home late or partner absence 8 Strange stains on partner's clothing

64 9 Partner has more $ or new clothes or jewelry 10 Partner's behavior (not specific) 11 New sexual technique or pattern 12 evidence/proofs not specific 13 Decline in sexual desires or frigidity 14 partner/spouse po1somng or drugging MJ 15 V enerea1 disease 16 Paternity Uncertainty 17 rival behavior or comments 18 MJ reports seeing or hearing partner w/lover 19 Objects/furniture moved around or new objects in house 20 signals between partner & lover 21 Inability to please partner sexually 22 Partner admits attraction to another person 23 other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

83 . cue3 What is third cue found? Enter one of following: 1 Telephone #/phone calls 2 Other people tell about infidelity

65 3 Partner looks at or talks to people of opposite sex 4 Condom wrapper or other contraceptive found 5 Alleged love letters 6 Change in partner appearance 7 Arriving home late or partner absence 8 Strange stains on partner's clothing 9 Partner has more $ or new clothes or jewelry 10 Partner's behavior (not specific) 11 New sexual technique or pattern 12 evidence/proofs not specific 13 Decline in sexual desires or frigidity 14 partner/spouse poisoning or drugging MJ 15 Venereal disease 16 Paternity Uncertainty 17 rival behavior or comments 18 MJ reports seeing or hearing partner w/lover 19 Objects/furniture moved around or new objects in house 20 signals between partner & lover 21 Inability to please partner sexually

66 22 Partner admits attraction to another person 23 other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

84. cue4 What is fourth cue found? Enter one of following: 1 Telephone #/phone calls 2 Other people tell about infidelity 3 Partner looks at or talks to people of opposite sex 4 Condom wrapper or other contraceptive found 5 Alleged love letters 6 Change in partner appearance 7 Arriving home late or partner absence 8 Strange stains on partner's clothing 9 Partner has more $ or new clothes or jewelry 10 Partner's behavior (not specific) 11 New sexual technique or pattern 12 evidence/proofs not specific 13 Decline in sexual desires or frigidity 14 partner/spouse pmsomng or drugging MJ 15 Venereal disease 16 Paternity Uncertainty 17 rival behavior or comments

67 18 MJ reports seeing or hearing partner w/lover I9 Objects/furniture moved around or new objects in house 20 signals between partner & lover 21 Inability to please partner sexually 22 Partner admits attraction to another person 23 other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

85. cue5 What is fifth cue found? Enter one of following: 1 Telephone #/phone calls 2 Other people tell about infidelity 3 Partner looks at or talks to people of opposite sex 4 Condom wrapper or other contraceptive found 5 Alleged love letters 6 Change in partner appearance 7 Arriving home late or partner absence 8 Strange stains on partner's clothing 9 Partner has more $ or new clothes or jewelry 10 Partner's behavior (not specific) II New sexual technique or pattern

68 12 evidence/proofs not specific 13 Decline in sexual desires or frigidity 14 partner/spouse p01somng or drugging MJ 15 Venereal disease 16 Paternity Uncertainty 17 rival behavior or comments 18 MJ reports seeing or hearing partner w/lover 19 0 bj ects/furni ture moved around or new objects in house 20 signals between partner & lover 21 Inability to please partner sexually 22 Partner admits attraction to another person 23 other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

86. cues1mag Indication cues are imagined? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

87. caughtfaith Either partner been caught being Enter one of unfaithful? following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

69 88. whichcaught Which partner was caught? Enter one of following: I MJ 2 Partner/spouse 3 Both 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

89. faithretal Was one partner unfaithful Enter one of as a retaliation to other partner? following: I Yes 2 No

90. childinfid Any children from infidelity? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

91. childinfid# How many of the children? Enter # on sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

92. rivals Does the MJ mention rivals? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

93. whorival1 Who is the 1st rival? Enter one of following: I Any person (not specific) 2 Sibling of MJ 3 Sibling of partner/spouse 4 Relative of MJ 5 Relative of partner/spouse 6 Neighbor 7 Friend 8 Ex-partner of partner or spouse 9 Co-worker of partner or spouse

70 10 Boss/supervisor of partner or spouse 11 co-worker of MJ 12 Current lover of partner/spouse 13 Lodger at house or roommate 14 Service provider 15 Partner's customers 16 Prostitute 17 Son or daughter of couple 18 Stranger or foreigner or unknown person 19 Other 888 Not Applicable 999 Not Reported

94. whorival2 Who is the 2nd rival? Enter one of following: 1 Any person (not specific) 2 Sibling of MJ 3 Sibling of partner/spouse 4 Relative of MJ 5 Relative of partner/spouse 6 Neighbor 7 Friend 8 Ex-partner of partner or spouse 9 Co-worker of partner or spouse 10 Boss/supervisor of partner or spouse 11 co-worker of MJ 12 Current lover of partner/spouse 13 Lodger at house or roommate 14 Service provider 15 Partner's customers

71 16 Prostitute 17 Son or daughter of couple 18 Stranger or foreigner or unknown person 19 Other 888 Not Applicable 999 Not Reported

95. whorival3 Who is the 3rd rival? Enter one of following: 1 Any person (not specific) 2 Sibling of MJ 3 Sibling of partner/spouse 4 Relative ofMJ 5 Relative of partner/spouse 6 Neighbor 7 Friend 8 Ex-partner of partner or spouse 9 Co-worker of partner or spouse 10 Boss/supervisor of partner or spouse 11 co-worker of MJ 12 Current lover of partner/spouse 13 Lodger at house or roommate 14 Service provider 15 Partner's customers 16 Prostitute 17 Son or daughter of couple 18 Stranger or foreigner or unknown person 19 Other 888 Not Applicable 999 Not Reported

72 96. rivaldescl First description of rivals given Enter one of following: 1 Older 2 Wealthy 3 Younger 4 Physically attractive 5 Sexually promiscuous 6 Mentally/physically stronger 7 Sexual ability/penis SIZe 8 Non-specific derogation 9 Other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

97. rivaldesc2 Second description of rivals given Enter one of following: 1 Older 2 Wealthy 3 Younger 4 Physically attractive 5 Sexually promiSCUOUS 6 Mentally/physically stronger 7 Sexual ability/penis SIZe 8 Non-specific derogation 9 Other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

98. rivaldesc3 Third description of rivals given Enter one of following: 1 Older 2 Wealthy 3 Younger 4 Physically attractive

73 5 Sexually promiSCUOUS 6 Mentally/physically stronger 7 Sexual ability/penis SIZe 8 Non-specific derogation 9 Other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

99. mateguard 1 First mate guarding/mate retention behavior Enter one of following: I Follows partner everywhere or hires private detective 2 Monitors phone calls/mail 3 Won't let partner leave house alone 4 Attempts to restrict partner's behaviors 5 Checks partner's clothes or purse or drawers 6 Questions partner about whereabouts 7 Calls partner at work/home 8 Goes to partner's work 9 Threatens/attempts to kill partner 10 Threatens to kill self 11 Domination or physical or non­ physical abuse against partner 12 Came home to check on partner 13 Threaten to attack, kill, confront

74 lover or potential lovers 14 Derogated mate 15 Spying/watching partner 16 Apologetic, overly affectionate, begs forgiveness 17 Derogation of rival/lover 18 Other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

100. mateguard2 Second mate guarding/mate retention behavior Enter one of following: I Follows partner everywhere or hires private detective 2 Monitors phone calls/mail 3 Won't let partner leave house alone 4 Attempts to restrict partner's behaviors 5 Checks partner's clothes or purse or drawers 6 Questions partner about whereabouts 7 Calls partner at work/home 8 Goes to partner's work 9 Threatens/attempts to kill partner I 0 Threatens to kill self II Domination or physical or non­ physical abuse against partner I2 Carne home to check on partner

75 13 Threaten to attack, kill, confront lover or potential lovers 14 Derogated mate 15 Spying/watching partner 16 Apologetic, overly affectionate, begs forgiveness 17 Derogation of rival/lover 18 Other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

101. mateguard3 Third mate guarding/mate retention behavior Enter one of following: 1 Follows partner everywhere or hires private detective 2 Monitors phone calls/mail 3 Won't let partner leave house alone 4 Attempts to restrict partner's behaviors 5 Checks partner's clothes or purse or drawers 6 Questions partner about whereabouts 7 Calls partner at work/home 8 Goes to partner's work 9 Threatens/attempts to kill partner 10 Threatens to kill self 11 Domination or physical or non­ physical abuse against partner

76 12 Carne home to check on partner 13 Threaten to attack, kill, confront lover or potential lovers 14 Derogated mate 15 Spying/watching partner 16 Apologetic, overly affectionate, begs forgiveness 17 Derogation of rival/lover 18 Other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

102. mateguard4 Fourth mate guarding/mate retention behavior Enter one of following: 1 Follows partner everywhere or hires private detective 2 Monitors phone calls/mail 3 Won't let partner leave house alone 4 Attempts to restrict partner's behaviors 5 Checks partner's clothes or purse or drawers 6 Questions partner about whereabouts 7 Calls partner at work/home 8 Goes to partner's work 9 Threatens/attempts to kill partner 10 Threatens to kill self 11 Domination or physical or non-

77 physical abuse against partner 12 Carne horne to check on partner 13 Threaten to attack, kill, confront lover or potential lovers 14 Derogated mate 15 Spying/watching partner 16 Apologetic, overly affectionate, begs forgiveness 17 Derogation of rival/lover 18 Other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

103. nonphysvio History of nonphysical violence? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

104. nonphysfreq How often does this occur? Enter one of following: 1 Always 2 Very often 3 Often 4 Not often 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

105. nonphyswhen When does nonphysical occur? Enter one of following: 1 After alcohol/drug use 2 After partner infidelity or supposed infidelity 3 During arguments/fights

78 4 During interrogations of partner 5 After partner absence 6 Other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

106. nonphysoff Who is the offender? Enter one of following: 1 MJ 2 Partner/spouse 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

107. nonphysvic Who is victim? Enter one of following: 1 MJ 2 Partner/spouse 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

108. nonphysdesc Describe what happens Enter description on sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

109. physvio History of physical violence? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

110. physfreq How often does this occur? Enter one of following: 1 Always 2 Very often 3 Often 4 Not often 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

79 111. physwhen When does this occur? Enter one of following: 1 After alcohol/drug use 2 After partner infidelity or supposed infidelity 3 During arguments/fights 4 During interrogations of partner 5 After partner absence 6 Other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

112. physoff Who is offender? Enter one of following: 1 MJ 2 Partner/spouse 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

113. physvic Who is victim? Enter one of following: 1 MJ 2 Partner/spouse 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

114. physdesc Describe what happens Enter description on sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

115. forcesex Report of forced sex? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

80 116. forcefreq How often does this occur? Enter one of following 1 Always 2 Very often 3 Often 4 Not often 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

11 7. forcewhen When does this occur? Enter one of following: 1 After alcohol/drug use 2 After partner infidelity or supposed infidelity 3 During arguments/fights 4 During interrogations of partner 5 After partner absence 6 Other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

118. forcedesc Describe what happens Enter description on sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

11 9. attkill Has one partner attempted to Enter one of kill other partner? following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

120. attkilloff Who is offender? Enter one of following: I MJ 2 Partner/spouse 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

81 121. attkillvic Who is victim? Enter one of following: 1 MJ 2 Partner/spouse 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

122. attkillwhen When did this occur? Enter one of following: 1 After alcohol/drug use 2 After partner infidelity or supposed infidelity 3 During arguments/fights 4 During interrogations of partner 5 After partner absence 6 Other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

123. attkilldesc Describe what happened Enter description on sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

124. kill Has one partner killed the other? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

125. killoff Who is offender? Enter one of following: 1 MJ 2 Partner/spouse 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

82 126. killvic Who is victim? Enter one of following: 1 MJ 2 Partner/spouse 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

127. killwhen When did this occur? Enter one of following: 1 After alcohol/drug use 2 After partner infidelity or supposed infidelity 3 During arguments/fights 4 During interrogations of partner 5 After partner absence 6 Other 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

128. killdesc Describe what happened Enter description on sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

129. mjdelus Does MJ exhibit delusions? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

130. delusinfid Delusions focus on infidelity? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

83 131. mjhall Does MJ suffer from hallucinations? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

132. halldelus Are they related to delusions? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

133. mJnorm Does MJ function normally? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

134. mjmed Does MJ have medical condition? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

13 5. meddesc Please list medical condition Enter whatever on sheet or 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

136. mjmood Does MJ exhibit mood fluctuations? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 999 Not reported

137. mooddelus Do this occur during/after delusions? Enter one of following: 1 Yes 2 No 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

84 138. moodlength Duration of mood fluctuations? Enter one of following: 1 Shorter 2 Longer 888 Not applicable 999 Not reported

139. otherl Other information 1 List whatever on sheet

140. other2 Other information 2 List whatever on sheet

141. other3 Other information 3 List whatever on sheet

Very Often: Frequently, a lot, most of the time

Often Sometimes, mid point

Not Often Rarely, infrequent, occasionally

85