Index

Abaca fiber scale patterns microscopic characteristics of 217 coronal 153–4 optical properties of 331 imbricate 153–4 uses of 220 spinous 153–4 Abbe refractometer 35–6 Anions, tests for 265, 268, 270 Absorbance equation 309 carbonate 270 Aberration 347 chlorine 270 Absorption spectrum 298, 300–1, 308 nitrite 270 Acetate fiber sulfate 270 melting point 316 Anisotropic 41, 43–4, 46, 48, 50, 53–4, 251, 256,347, optical properties 333 354, 356 polymer composition 228 Annular stop 31–2, 36, 347, 350 Achromatic objectives 347 Antelope hair 153, 161 Acrylic fiber color banding 161 melting point 316 root shape 161 optical properties 333 scale pattern 161 polymer composition 229 Anthophyllite fiber types of 333 optical properties 331 Actinolite fiber Aperture 347 optical properties 331 angular 15–6, 347 Acute bisectrix (Bxa) 257, 261, 354 numerical 14–6, 257, 353 Additive retardation (addition) 54–5, 234, 257–8, 260 substage 19, 50, 195, 255, 349 Akund fiber Apochromatic objective 347 microscopic characteristics of 216 Aramide fiber uses of 220 melting point 316 Alumina silicate glass 194 optical properties 333 fiber polymer composition 229 polymer composition 220 types of 333 Amosite fiber 219 Arch optical properties 331 filament 94–5 Amphetamine 278–9, 282–3 plain 104–5 Anagen phase 151, 180, 186–8, 190 tented 104–5 root 180, 186–8 COPYRIGHTEDAsbestos MATERIAL fiber 210, 212–3 Analyzer 36, 39–44, 46–7, 49–50, 52, 254, 259, 347, microscopic characteristics of 218 350, 352, 355 optical properties of 331 Angular aperture (AA) 15–6, 347 Axis, crystallographic 347 Animal fibers 210–1, 217–8, 220, 331 Azlon fiber morphological properties of 217 melting point 316 optical properties of 331 optical properties 333 Animal hair see specific animal also polymer composition 228 examinations 149–50, 152–158, 160–8 medulla 154 Back focal plane 4, 13, 15–6, 42, 71, 255–6, 347, 351 root 161 Ballistics see firearms

Practical Forensic Microscopy: A Laboratory Manual Barbara P. Wheeler and Lori J. Wilson © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd 358 INDEX

Barrier filter 59, 62–3, 347, 351 scale pattern 163 Bear hair Catagen phase 151, 180 medulla type 163 root 186–9 scale pattern 163 Cations, tests for Beaver hair ammonium 270 medulla type 162 calcium 270 Becke line method 30–2, 34, 36, 48–51, 54, 73, 193–4, potassium 270 196–7, 210, 219, 222–3, 231, 233, 260, 347, sodium 269 348, 351 Cellulose-based fibers Beer-Lambert Law 309 types of 228 Bertrand lens 16, 19, 36, 39–40, 42, 255–7, 260–1, 348 Central stop 31–2, 36, 348, 350 benzphetamine 278, 283 Chemical-based fibers Biaxial crystals 251, 253, 355–7, 259–262, 348, 354, types of 228–30 355 Chinchilla hair Biaxial interference figures 258, 261, 352–3 medulla type 162 Billinghame test 215, 220, 224 Chlordiazepoxide HCl 278 Binders 144, 300, 325 Christmas Tree stain 290–1 infrared data 300 Chromatic aberration 348 Biological samples 69, 289, 291 Chrysotile fiber Birefringence 348, 355 optical properties 218–9, 331 crystal/mineral 251, 254, 257, 270 Class characteristics 77, 83, 111–3, 116–7, equation 43 131, 133 equation of fiber 49 Cleavage 251, 348 fiber 48–9, 53–4, 56, 210–1, 219, 230–1, 233, 238, Cobalt thiocyanate 278, 281 331–5 Cocaine 278–9, 281, 285 polarized light and 41, 43–4, 46 Codeine 278 Body tube 3, 348 fiber Borosilicate glass 194, 326 microscopic characteristics of 217 uses of 220 Solid braid 84 Cold shock 96–7 Diamond braid 84 characteristics 97 Twisted braid 84 Color Breech mark 116, 120 assessment 307–8, 311 Brightfield illumination 348 fiber characteristics 209–11, 230 Buckling 151, 170–1 glass characteristics 193, 326–7 Burn test 215, 220–2, 224, 231, 235 hair characteristics 150–6, 160–4, 180–1, 187 inherent 352 Caliber 116 interference 43, 48, 54, 257, 268, 352 Calibration light properties 32, 43–4, 234 ocular 20–3 paint characteristics 143–5, 325 Camel fiber soil characteristics 243–5, 251 microscopic characteristics of 218 Color tests 124–5, 277–9 antimony 124 medulla type 162 barium 125 scale pattern 162, 218 Cobalt Thiocyanate 278, 281 Caribou hair copper 127 color banding 161 Diphenylamine 126 root shape 161 Dithiooxamide (DTO) 127 scale pattern 161 Duquenois-Levine 278, 280 Harrison-Gilroy 125 examinations 84–87 lead 124 knitted 84 Mandeline 278, 282 tufted 84–5 Marquis 278, 282 worksheet 90 Mecke 278, 283 woven 84–5 modified Greiss 125–6 Cartridge case 115–6, 118 nitrates 125 Cashmere fiber Sodium Rhodizonate 124 microscopic characteristics of 218 Comparison microscope 348 Cat hair fiber 238 medulla type 163 firearms 117 root shape 161,163 parts diagram 119 INDEX 359

hair 182 Delta 104–6 tool marks 113 Delustering agnet 211 Compensation 348 Density Compensator 39,-40, 53–4, 211, 231 equation 195 full-wave plate (first-order red) 54, 349 glass 193, 195, 318 quarter-wave plate 54, 349 hair 151, 170, 180 quartz wedge 54, 349 minerals 243, 245–6 tilting (Berek) 54, 349 refractive index and 33 Compound light microscope 13–38, 349 Depth optical path 15 of field 3–4, 6, 13, 39, 60, 68, 325, 350 parts diagram 17 of focus 6, 325, 350 Concentric fractures 202–3 Diamond braid 84 Condenser 13–5, 38, 41–2, 59, 61, 67, 69–70, 256–7, Dichroism 350 310, 349 Diphenylamine (DPA) 126 Confirmatory test 43, 139, 265, 277, 290 Dithiooxamide test 123, 127 Conjugate foci 16, 349 Dispersion 31, 194, 350 Conoscopic observation 16, 50, 251, 255–7, 347 equation 31 optical path 256 plot 31, 317 Contamination Dispersion staining 29, 31–2, 219, 350 of microcrystalline tests 268, 278 colors 32 of refractometer 35 graph 339 Contrast 69–70, 132, 325, 349, 355 objective optical path 32 Controlled substances see specific drug Distance determination 123, 126 Convolution 43, 210, 216 DNA 104, 186 Cortex 150–1, 153, 155, 160, 180, 187 and hair 187–9 Cortical fusi 152–3, 180, 188–9 mitochondrial 187–8 Core 104–5 nuclear 187–8 fiber Dog hair microscopic characteristics of 216, 270 medulla type 163 optical properties of 43, 331 root shape 161, 163 Cow hair Double refraction 350 medulla type 163 Drugs see specific drug root shape 161,163 Duct tape examinations 83, 86 Coyote hair worksheet 91 color banding 164 Duquenois-Levine test 139, 278, 280 medulla type 164 Dye 209, 211, 220, 230,-1, 227–8, 311 scale pattern 164 Crimp 161–2, 210 Ejector marks 116 Crocidolite fiber 219 Elastoester fiber optical properties 332 polymer composition 230 Critical angle 349 Elk hair Cross-section color banding 161 fiber 210–2 root shape 161 hair 151, 169–2, 180, 215–7, 220, 227, 230–1, 238 scale pattern 161 paint 144, 326 Emission spectroscopy 299, 309, 323, 326 rope 85 Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) 324–6 wood 139 Epi-illumination 350 Crystalline 43, 48, 54, 251, 349 Ermine hair Crystallographic axis 347 color banding 163 Curvature of field 350 medulla type 163 Cuticle 150–2, 155, 160, 170, 180, 187, 217 scale pattern 163 types of 152–3 Excitation filter 39, 62–3, 350 Cystolithic hair 138 Extinction see microscopic characteristics for specific fibers also Darkfield illumination 350 oblique 351 Darvan fiber parallel 44, 351 optical properties 333 points 41, 43, 210, 212, 302, 311, Deer hair 350 color banding 161 symmetrical 351 root shape 161 Extraordinary ray (e-ray) 43, 38, 252, scale pattern 153, 161 254 360 INDEX

False projectiles 115–6, 122 Becke line 351 propellants 115, 122–3 negative 279 shotshell 122 positive 279 Firing pin 115–6, 122, 326 Fast ray 49, 54–5, 257, 351 Flat glass 201 Ferret hair fiber medulla type 164 microscopic characteristics of 216–7 scale pattern 164 optical properties of 331 see specific fibers also uses of 220 animal 217 Float glass 201 birefringence of 48–9, 53–4, 56, 210–1, 219, 222, Fluorescence Microscope 59–66, 211, 215, 220, 227, 230–1, 233, 238, 331–5 230–1, 237–8, 308, 351 cellulose-based 228 optical path 62 chemical-based 228 parts diagram 64 classification of 210 Fluorite objective 351 color 209–11, 230 Fluorocarbon fiber comparisons 237–8 melting point 316 cross sections of 211, 230 optical properties 333 dyes and pigments 211, 230 polymer composition 230 examinations 209, 219 Focal length 5–6, 16, 231, 351 fluorescence 231 Focal point 14, 351 FTIR analysis of 297, 301 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrophotometer (FTIR) man-made 210, 227–236 297–306 melting points (hot stage) of 315–6 fiber 297, 301 Microspectrophotometry of 307, 311 functional group locations 299 mineral 218 paint 144, 300 natural 210–221 Fox hair optical properties of 331, 333 color banding 163 refractive index of 210, 219, 230, 331, 333 medulla type 163 sign of elongation of 211, 220, 231, 331, 333 scale pattern 136 solubility of 311, 221, 231 types of 163 worksheet 214 Full wave plate 349, 351 Field diaphragm 14, 16, 350 Field of view 3, 6, 13, 35, 39, 43, 60, 112, 117, 181–2, Gauge 116 194, 238, 351 Glass Filament breakage 193 aged 94–5 colorants 193, 327 broken 966–7 components of 193, 326–7 burnout 94–5 cracks (fractures) characteristics of 95–7 concentric 202–3 cold shock 94, 96–7 radial 202–3 discoloration 96 density 193, 195 distorted 95–6 elemental 326–7 examinations 93–102 examinations 193–208 halogen 94 refractive index 30–1, 193–5, 317–8 hot shock 95–6 types of 194 worksheet Wallner markings 203–4 double filament 101 Glass fiber single filament 100 optical properties 333 Fingerprint polymer composition 230 components of 104 Goat hair examinations 103–110 medulla type 164 Firearm root shape 164 cartridge cases 115–6, 118 scale pattern 164 class characteristics 116 Gold chloride 284–5 distance determination 123, 126 Greiss test, modified 126 examinations 113–121 Grooves 116 firing pin 115–6, 122, 325 Ground hog hair gunshot residue (GSR) 122–130 color banding 164 individual characteristics 116 medulla type 164 primer 116, 122–3 scale pattern 164 INDEX 361

Gunshot residue real 351 distance determination 123,126 virtual 2, 352 elemental 325 Immersion objective 290, 352 examination 122–130, 325 Impressed action marks 116 Impression evidence Hair fingerprints 103–110 animal 160–168 firearms 115–121 DNA 186–192 shoe print 131–6 examinations 149–192 tire print 131–6 human 169–177 tool mark 111–4 known 176 Incandescence 93, 96 unknown 177 Indicatrix 251 general microscopic characteristics 149–159 Individual characteristics 77, 83, 111, 116, structure of 150 131 worksheet 159 Inherent color 41, 43, 352 Harrison-Gilroy test 123, 125 Ink examinations 307, 311 Hartmann Net graph 317 Interference Hematoxylin-Eosin 290, 292 color 43, 48, 54, 257, 268, 352 fiber constructive 299, 352 microscopic characteristics of 216–7 destructive 67, 70, 299, 352 optical properties of 331 Interference figures uses of 220 biaxial 251–3, 255–8, 261, 348 Heroin 278, 284–5 uniaxial 251–4, 256–60, 356 Herzog test 215, 220, 224 Isogyres 257–8, 352 Hog hair 164 Isotropic 41, 43, 46, 48, 218, 252–3, 255, Horse fiber 352 microscopic characteristics of 218 Horse hair fiber medulla type 164 microscopic characteristics of 216–7 root shape 164 optical properties of 331 Hot shock 95–6 uses of 220 characteristics 96 Hot stage Kapok fiber fibers 315–6 microscopic characteristics of glass 315, 317–8 216 Human hair optical properties of 331 artificial treatments 151, 179–81 uses of 220 color 150–6, 160–4, 180–1, 187 fiber cortex characteristics 150–1, 153, 155, 160, 180, 187 Optical properties 331 cuticle characteristics 150–2, 155, 160, 170, 180, 187, Knitted carpet 84 217 Kohler¨ illumination 16, 18, 351 diseases 181 Setting up 18 environmental and acquired traits 181 Laminated glass 202 examinations 149–192 Lamp filaments see filament medulla characteristics 150–2, 154–5, 170–1, 180, Lands 116 187–8 Latent print 107 pigmentation characteristics 151, 153, 155, 180, Leaded glass 194, 326 187–8 Light microscope 13–20, 326 racial group characteristics 169–72 fiber root characteristics 150–1, 155, 160–3, 171, 180, 186–8 microscopic characteristics of 218 shaft characteristics 150–1, 154–5, 160–4, 170–1, Loop 180–1, 188 radial 105 somatic origin characteristics 149, 169, 171, 178, 181 ulnar 105 tip characteristics 150–1, 154, 161, 164, 171, 180–1 Lumen 210, 216, 220 Lynx hair Illumination color banding 163 diffuse 16, 351 medulla type 163 Kohler¨ 16, 18, 351 scale pattern 163 Nelsonian 16, 351 fiber oblique 193–5, 197, 351 optical properties 333 Image 3–4, 13–5, 39, 41–2, 61, 67, 69, 112, 255, 323 polymer composition 228 362 INDEX

Magnification 5 types of 334 empty 353 fiber maximum useful (MUM) 353 microscopic characteristics of 218 total 6 Monochromatic light 34, 299, 353 Man made fibers see specific fiber also Moose hair cellulose-based 228 color banding 161 chemical-based 228 root shape 161 Mandeline reagent 278, 282 scale pattern 161 Marijuana Morphine HCl 278, 283 color test 278, 280 Mountain lion hair examinations 137–9 color banding 164 microscopic characteristics 138 medulla type 164 Marquis reagent 278, 282 scale pattern 164 Mecke reagent 278, 282 Mounting samples Medulla 150–2, 154–5, 160–4, 170–1, 180, dry mount 25–7 187–8 wet mount 25–8 types of 154 scale casts 25–8 Medullary Index 150, 154 Munsell color value 244, 281 Melamine fiber Muskrat hair polymer composition 230 color banding 162 Melanin see pigment medulla type 162 Melatope 257–8, 353 scale pattern 162 Metallic fiber polymer composition 230 Nanometer (nm) 353 Methamphetamine 278, 282 Natural fibers Melting points 316, 319 animal 217–8 Michel-Levy´ chart 54, 210–1, 220, 231, mineral 218–9 337 plant 216–7 Microchemical tests see color test Negative crystals 353 Worksheet Negative retardation (subtraction) 53–4, 211, 220, 231, known 272 256, 354, 356 negative 273 Nicol prism 353 unknown 374 Normal aged lamp 94 Microcrystalline tests Normal lamp burnout 94 for antimony 124 Normal new lamp 93 for barium 124 characteristics 95 for lead 124 Novoloid fiber for nitrites 125 melting point 316 Microscopy terms 347 optical properties 335 Microspectrophotometer 307–314 polymer composition 230 fibers 311 Nuclear DNA 187 ink 311 Numerical aperture (NA) 14, 16, 257, 353 optical path 310 fiber paint 311 melting point 316 Mineral fibers microscopic characteristics 229 optical properties of 210, 218 optical properties 334 Mink hair polymer composition 228 color banding 162 types of 334 medulla type 162 Nytril fiber scale pattern 162 optical properties 333 Minutia polymer composition 230 Bifurcation 106 Short ridge 106 Objective Ridge ending 106 achromatic 347 enclosure 106 apochromatic 347 Mitochondrial DNA 187–8 centering 18 Mock case scenario 341 dispersion-staining 29, 31–2, 219, 350 fiber fluorite 351 melting point 316 immersion oil 352 optical properties 334 parfocal 354 polymer composition 229 Oblique illumination method 193–5, 197, 351 INDEX 363

Ocular (eyepiece) 3–6, 13–6, 20–2, 39, 41–2, 59–63, paint 144 67–9, 112, 117, 182, 210, 238, 255–7, 310, infrared data 300 348–9, 351, 353–6, 20–22 Plain arch 104–6 calibration Plane polarized light 42, 49, 217–9, 228–9, 354 Olefin fiber Plant fibers melting point 316 morphological properties of 216 optical properties 334 optical properties of 351 polymer composition 230 uses of 220 types of 334 Pleochroism 41, 44, 230, 238, 311, 355 Omega vibration direction (ω) 252, 354 Polarized light 47–9, 53, 210, 217–9, 229, 254–6, 268 Opiates 278, 283 Polarized light microscope 39–58, 238, 355 Opossum hair optical path 42 color banding 164 parts diagram 45 root shape 164 Polarizer 39–44, 49, 254, 355 scale pattern 164 Polyacrylostyrene fiber Optic axial optical properties 334 angle 256, 354 fiber see nylon plane 354 fiber Optic axis 252–4, 257, 260–1, 354 melting point 316 Optic sign 251, 256–7, 259–61, 354 microscopic characteristics 229 Optical properties optical properties 334 of biaxial minerals 255 polymer composition 229 of glass 194 types of 334 of man-made fibers 333 Positive crystals 355 of natural fibers 331 Positive fiber 355 of isotropic minerals 252 Presumptive test of uniaxial minerals 254 for drugs 277, 279 Ordinary ray (o-ray) 43, 48 for semen 290 Orthoscopic observation 16, 256–7, 354 Primer setting up 18 firearms 115–6, 122–3, 326 Otter hair paint 144 color banding 162 Privileged direction (of a polarizer) 355 medulla type 162 Procaine 281, 284–5 scale pattern 162 Propxyphene 277, 283 Ovoid bodies 152–3, 163, 180 Projectile 115–6, 122 Oxycodone HCl 278, 283 Propellant 115, 122–3 Paint Quarter wave plate 39, 54, 349, 355 components of 144 Quartz wedge 37, 54–5, 349, 355 cross sections 144 Rabbit fiber elemental 323, 325,-6 microscopic characteristics of 218 examinations 143–8 FTIR 297, 299–301 medulla type 162 absorption band locations-binders 300 scale pattern 162 absorption band locations-pigments 301 Raccoon hair microscpectrophotometry 307–9, 311 color banding 162 pigments 300 medulla type 162 solubility 144–5 scale pattern 162 PBI fiber Racial group microscopic characteristics 169–70, 172 polymer composition 230 Radial fractures 202–4 Phase annulus 67, 69–71, 354 fiber Phase contrast microscope 67–74 microscopic characteristics of 217 optical path 70 optical properties of 331 Phase plate 67, 69–71, 354 uses of 220 Physical match fiber examinations 77–82 melting point 316 using edge shape 78 microscopic characteristics 228 using surface features 78 optical properties 334 using mirror images 78 polymer composition 228 Pigment types of 334 hair 151, 153, 155, 180, 187, 188 Real image 349, 351 364 INDEX

Reflected light 3–5, 61 printing of 134 Reflectivity equation 309 Shotgun shell 122 Refraction 5, 26, 29–30, 350, 355 Shouldering 151–2 Refractive index 21, 26, 30–1, 355 Sign of elongation 53–5, 209–11, 227, 230–1, 331, Becke line method 30, 34, 41, 43, 48–9, 53–4, 194, 333, 356 197, 210, 219–22, 231, 238, 252–5, 348, Silica quartz glass 194 density and 33 fiber dispersion staining method 31, 36, 350 microscopic characteristics of 218 Emmons double variation method 317–8 optical properties of 331 equation 30 Simple hair 138 equation of dispersion 31 Sink float method 195, 198 negative 353 fiber oblique lighting method 193–7 microscopic characteristics of 216–7 of isotropic materials 48, 352 optical properties of 331 of anisotropic materials 48, 347 uses of 220 phase contrast method 67–94 Skunk hair positive 353 medulla type 164 temperature and 33 scale pattern 164 Relative refractive index 31 Slow ray 49, 54–5, 257, 356 Relief 26, 49, 251, 254, 317, 355 Snell’s Law 30 Resolving power 14, 16, 355 Soda-lime glass 326 Retardation Sodium Rhodizonate test 123–4 additive 54–5, 234, 257–8, 260 Soil equation 43 color 244–5 negative 53–4, 211, 220, 231, 256, 354, 356 components of 245–6 Rib markings see Wallner lines density 245–6 Rifling action marks 116 examinations 243–264 Rope minerals 244, 251–5 braided 84 moisture content 245 examinations 83–4 particle size 245 twisted 84 texture 245 worksheet 89 Solid braid 84 Solubility Sable hair fibers 211, 221, 231 medulla type 163 paint 143–5 scale pattern 163 Somatic origin of hair Saran microscopic characteristics for 169–72 melting point 316 fiber optical properties 335 melting point 316 polymer composition 230 optical properties 355 Scale casts 25, 28, 155–6, 161–4, 217 polymer composition 230 Scale patterns see specific animal/human hair also Species identification coronal 153–4 hair 150, 155, 160–6 imbricate 153–4 sperm 290 spinous 153–4 wood 139 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 323–330 Sperm glass 326 Christmas Tree stain 291 gunshot residue 326 examination 289–294 paint 325 Hematoxylin-Eosin stain 292 Seal hair slide preparation 291 medulla type 162 Squirrel hair scale pattern 162 medulla type 164 Semen see sperm scale pattern 164 Sheep hair Stereomicroscope 3–12, 356 medulla type 162 Common Main Objective 3–4 scale pattern 162 optical path 5 Shoe print examinations Greenough 3–4 casting of 133 parts diagram 7 class characteristics 131 Steroids 278, 282 examinations 131–6 Subtractive retardation (negative) 53–4, 211, 220, 231, Individual characteristics 131 256, 354, 356 INDEX 365

Sulfar fiber Uniaxial crystals 251–60, 356 optical properties 335 Uniaxial interference figures 257, 260 polymer composition 230 Unpolarized light 356 Sunn fiber microscopic characteristics of 217 Vicara fiber uses of 220 optical properties 333, 335 Surface dye 211 Vinal fiber Synthetic fiber see man-made fiber melting point 316 optical properties 335 Telogen phase 151 polymer composition 230 root 181, 186–9 Vinyon fiber Temperature coefficient of refractive index 33, 194, melting point 316 198, 356 optical properties 335 Tempered glass 201 polymer composition 229 Tented arch 104–5 types of 335 Thermal microscopy examinations Virtual image 5, 352 315–322 Tire print Wallner lines 202, 204 casting of 133 Whorl 104–5 class characteristics 131 plain 105–6 examinations 131–6 central pocket 105–6 individual characteristics double loop 105–6 131 accidental 105–6 printing of 134 Wolf hair Tool mark medulla type 164 casting of 113 Wood class characteristics 111 hard 139 examinations 111–4 soft 139 individual characteristics 111 fiber Total magnification 6 microscopic characteristics of 217–8 Transmitted light equation 309 optical properties of 331 Tremolite fiber Working distance 4–7, 31, 210, 231, 356 optical properties 331 Worksheets Triacetate fiber carpet 90 melting point 316 circle template 345 optical properties 335 double filament 101 polymer composition 228 duct tape 91 types of 335 fiber 214 Tubelength, mechanical 356 hair 159 Tufted carpet 84–6 human hair known 176 types of 86 human hair unknown 177 Twist microchemical known 272 S (left laid) 84, 220 microchemical negative 273 Z (right laid) 84, 220 microchemical unknown 274 Right 116 report of forensic laboratory examination 344 Left 116 request for evidence examination 343 Twisttest220 rope 89 Twisted braid 84–5 single filament 100 Type line 104 Woven carpet 84–5