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Re-creation of Historical : A Legacy of the Collective Imagination of the Screen?*

Cecilia Nocilli

The aim of this paper is to cast light on the In music too, even the twentieth century has collective imagination that has formed around not escaped the fascination of this period, the phenomenon perhaps erroneously defined with the rediscovery of polyphonic as “historical” dance, and to propose a new composition techniques, together with the field of research and reading for its modal system that governs them2. interpretation. In particular, I shall analyse the Each of these revisitations, however, has as a cultural movement and its exercised a conscious or unconscious contemporary portrayal. Renaissance culture transformation of the original style. The Pre- has enticed the scholars, artists and Raphaelites and Nazarenes loved Raphael‟s intellectuals of various periods of history, early work, as also his predecessors such as highlighting the language and artistic Giotto and Beato Angelico who, at the end of expression of the fifteenth and sixteenth the Quattrocento and beginning of the centuries. For example, the Renaissance Cinquecento – the period of the painter from revival of the eighteenth century led to the Urbino – were considered archaic and their rediscovery of Palladio and his architecture; technique absolutely surpassed. In actual fact, in the nineteenth century, the Pre-Raphaelites the Pre-Raphaelites were not interested in and Nazarenes undertook an almost Raphael‟s aesthetic canons, strongly linked to philological recomposition of Raphael‟s those of Vasari: what I mean is that they were painting technique in order to renew the not attracted by the ideals on which Raphael artistic and social message of the period, created his best masterpieces. Carlo Blasis while Carlo Blasis designed dancers‟ was not interested in the art of Giambologna, movements according to the aesthetic ideal of or in the physical culture of the sixteenth Renaissance statues and pictures: century, but only in the forms and lines of his That particular position technically termed sculptures, to be imitated and adopted in the attitude is the most elegant, but at the same body of a nineteenth-century dancer. time the most difficult which dancing comprises. It is, in my opinion, a kind of Closer to our own times, the ‟sixties and imitation of the attitude so much admired in ‟seventies of the twentieth century were the Mercury of J. Bologne. A dancer that particularly eager to recover the „ancient‟ studies this attitude, and performs it in a tradition of a musical and dance repertory no chaste manner, cannot but be remarked as longer performed, or performed rarely in one who has acquired the best notions of concert halls and theatres. Between the his art. Nothing can be more agreeable to nineteenth and twentieth centuries, several the eye than those charming positions dance manuscripts had already been which we call arabesques, and which we transcribed in diplomatic editions as have derived from antique basso relievos, unpublished curiosities and even as from a few fragments of Greek paintings, complimentary publications for the wedding and from the paintings in fresco at the 3 Vatican, executed after the beautiful of some kinsman or friend . Fifteenth century designs of Raphael1. French and Burgundian manuscripts roused

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Cecilia Nocilli the interest of major musicologists in the an image gallery exhibiting their flashy ‟fifties and ‟sixties of the last century, and the costumes, a repertory and a “manager”. most important studies of the are 4 A rapid search on YouTube – the web site still today based on their interpretations . most visited for musical promotion purposes Although the phenomenon of Early Music – or on Google, utilising the terms «historical appeared slightly before that of Early Dance, dance», «», «danza storica», both coincide in the chronological period of etc., will as a rule provide results that are far our subject repertory, i.e. of music and dance from the almost philological vision of the Pre- works created between circa 1400 and 1750 5 Raphaelites or Nazarenes, and in no way or 1800 . In particular, the revival of transport our mind to the iconography of the Renaissance dance aims at reinterpreting and fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The reconstructing a forgotten repertory, both in costumes shown do not look like the paintings theory and in practice. of Carpaccio, Bellini or Bronzino. Despite The ‟seventies were especially animated with their teachers‟ reconstruction work, today‟s regard to practical productions of fifteenth historical dance groups act like pseudo Pre- and sixteenth century dance repertories6. This Raphaelites of the nineteenth century: pioneering work led to growing interest, although diligent in executing the particularly in Italy, and to the setting up of choreography, their attention is drawn by new groups within the so-called historical what they imagine to be the Renaissance, by dance movement, transforming many country the fascination that Renaissance culture has festivals into so-called historical had historically, as also its impact on commemorations or reenactments, i.e. cinematography. Although these companies collective celebrations in memory of local pay attention to executing the steps correctly, events, or even legends. At such festivals, like the Pre-Raphaelites, they are uninterested folk were often replaced by ancient in the high ideals that led men such as court dances. Domenico da Piacenza or Cesare Negri to Most members of historical dance groups are create their choreographies. dilettanti or amateurs in the original sense of Doubtless, the cinema of the ‟sixties and the word, meaning that they amuse ‟seventies also drew its inspiration from the themselves by performing this kind of dance pseudo-mediaeval and pseudo-Renaissance in their free time, and not because they are gestural art of the Romantic and neo-classical professionals or do it for gain. Despite their ballet that has come down to us7. Today, amateur status, several groups have acquired a reconstructors of the dance of the fair technique in fifteenth and sixteenth Quattrocento and the Cinquecento are aware century steps by attending courses on this of how subtle a thread separates early from repertory and have gone on to entertain folkloristic dance, with which it shares the use audiences with their skill. It must be said that, of costumes and some traditional musical as a rule, such courses teach the „greatest hits‟ instruments, as well as amateurism, in most of the repertory and are little interested in, or cases. Moreover, this ambiguity between the prepared to undertake, reconstruction, historical and the folkloristic may be based on specialist efforts notwithstanding. However, the mistaken idea that the court repertory of quite often, after a few lessons some of these the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was easy amateurs open a school, and “teach” what to perform and suited to all social dance.8 they have half-learned, transmitting defects in There is no doubt that this repertory can be technique and errors in interpretation that are defined as social dance owing to its link with difficult to correct. Many of these associations the ballroom as a venue for presentation, to also act like any dance company trying to the social nature of such choreographies and arrange bookings: they have a web page with to the fact of their being performed by noblemen, although this does not always

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Re-creation of Historical Dance mean that they are simple and easy to execute. must be admitted that most cases linking the The problem is not how the fifteenth and Renaissance and the dance are simply bad sixteenth century repertory should be defined, taste – often kitsch – to such an extent that but how we reconstructors, to use such a they are not deemed suitable for the theatre. general definition, may distort the meaning of I should like to discuss the very concept of Quattrocento and Cinquecento performance. historical that is attached to the pre-1800 For this reason, the social aspect – often dance repertory. As a rule, historical is the confused with the popular – has transformed a definition given to Renaissance and repertory like that of the bassadanza, dance, i.e. repertories whose tradition has requiring a style and technique that are come to an end. Indeed, from the anything but „easy‟ and «not for persons that 9 Quattrocento onward, dance has continually dirty the page» , into a dance routine suited to renewed its language in an on-going search the marketplace, the public stage, as well as to for independent artistic performance that those historical reenactments in which social expresses itself and moves its audience context is firmly rooted. In other words, this through the body alone. Furthermore, in the ambiguous concept has certainly helped place fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, several what was an elite repertory – unsuited to «the performances of the same work or theatre masters of trivia and the foot stompers» in the 10 show, as is customary today for “classical” words of Antonio Cornazano – in places and music, dance and theatre, would have been on sets devoted to social gatherings, as occurs unthinkable. Renaissance and Baroque in the case of folk dances, i.e. in squares and performances were for the most part unique, on streets, or on temporary outdoor stages. or for a particular celebration. Musical and This has resulted in much confusion in the dance creations were already deemed passé public mind, unable to discern the difference after their first performance. From the between the mediaeval world and the Quattrocento to the Settecento, the dance Renaissance, between the noble and the audience consisted of the court and the nobles popular, between social and theatrical, belonging to it, who, as stated above, were between a fancied and also in most cases the performers themselves. Renaissance and real history. The absence of The court, the courtier with his continually any informed judgment among audiences exhibited skill and grace and the dance master saturated with television shows is not due to serving the prince‟s education and image, no ignorance or lack of preparation, as often longer exist in today‟s world and have affirmed in a rather superficial and dismissive necessarily lost their raison d’être. manner, but to the lack of awareness and knowledge of those who stage such For such reasons, this early repertory is performances, falsely and wrongly defined as usually defined as «historical dance». It is historical. Indeed, most of the theatrical highly significant that the same adjective is elements employed in such cases are drawn, not used in parallel arts. Botticelli‟s painting, not from the iconography or sources of the Michelangelo‟s sculpture and the music of period, but from the cinema – particularly Josquin are not defined as historical, yet no American cinema – which has in turn one today paints, sculpts and composes in influenced many other cinema traditions, but their style. Certainly, their works are well first and foremost has played enormously on known, better known than they would have our imagination. been at the time. Botticelli‟s La Primavera was known to a few privileged persons at the It is impossible not to remark on the trend Court of Lorenzo the Magnificent, whereas taking place in early dance. The vulgarization today its reproduction is found everywhere. of the events linked to the dance of the Unlike pre-1800 dance, Romantic ballet has fifteenth and sixteenth centuries is not merely so far enjoyed constant public attention and a passing fashion: it requires an in-depth and theatres always keep classical and neo- conscious analysis of how dance is “made”. It

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Cecilia Nocilli classical in their repertories. Are we, text is the lack of information about the however, really certain that academic ballet dancing body of the fifteenth and sixteenth follows the same tradition today as outlined centuries. by the aesthetics of Theophile Gautier in the It may be the starting point that has to change nineteenth century? Filippo Taglioni if we do not want our performances to look composed the choreography of the Sylphides like productions seen on the Internet, or like thinking of his daughter‟s body with its over- the pseudo Pre-Raphaelites of historical dance long arms. With few exceptions, such as who followed the romantic collective Lacotte‟s reconstruction based on Taglioni‟s 11 imagination regarding the Renaissance. Not documents , can we consider or claim today only is it necessary to respect the sources, but that we are seeing the same Sylphides or the we should also reconsider the original same Giselle as in the nineteenth century? meaning of the performance. It is in such a Even the ballerina‟s body is no longer like context that deconstruction, as a reading that of Maria Taglioni or Carlotta Grisi. So strategy, can help change the point of view of why do we use the term historical only for the reconstruction15. All the ingredients of a Renaissance and ? If tradition choreography can be dissolved, separated and is the handing down, from one generation to fragmented in postulating the origin of dance another, of memories, information and 12 performances in the fifteenth and sixteenth testimony about a repertory , then the term centuries. historical should certainly be employed for classical ballet, or for most repertories that I believe that, after recovering the sources and require reconstruction after their first meticulously analysing each element in order performance, as in the case of Nijinskij‟s Le to reconstruct the steps of ancient dances, we sacre du Printemps in 191313. Have we ever reach a moment when we can propose a wondered whether what is actually the deconstruction of the related repertory that unenviable position of Quattrocento and will force us to accept other points of view Cinquecento dance is really due to this and provide a new stimulus to theoretical and mistake in terminology and consequent practical research. Deconstruction is usually ranking that opens the door to amateurism? perceived as destruction, but the concept of My analysis does not aim to demolish the deconstruction proposed by Jacques Derrida work of my predecessors and contemporaries, aims at highlighting the hidden prejudices and but merely to refocus our point of view on contradictions in both language and culture of early dance and give it a more suitable place. which we think we are wholly aware. Deconstruction is actually a reading strategy On reading an early choreographic text, not to underline the aporias and ideological everything is useful in making an accurate discontinuities in the texts and render reconstruction. Very often, the ancient uncertain the unitary and classificatory system language, the translations, the absence of of its very interpretation. The hermeneutics stage and choreographic directions lead us to employed so far on early dance texts have add our own personal interpretation that been based on exploring the inner and outer escapes any scientific and philological articulations of the choreography so as to methodology. The text brings to life the restore, together with their structure, the external scenic values, meaning the steps, historical world that fashioned them. The costumes, allusions to the gestural art, but it is Grammatology of Jacques Derrida may assist the internal scenic values produced by the us in overcoming a stage of analysis that leads deductions of the reconstructor that actually only to re-construction. Just like Derrida, it is make it possible to stage an early dance. Such essential to create a hermeneutics no longer problems of reading make one even more considered as a reading of clear and coherent aware of how little there may be that is texts, but as an analysis of caesuras, historical or authentic in the actual divergences and the fundamental non- performances14. The only “truth” in the early

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Re-creation of Historical Dance transparency of a tradition that no longer deconstruction in the Derridian sense of the belongs to us and, perhaps, never did. Jacques term, but – not by chance – he triggered a new Derrida does not consider the text as “spiritual reflection on the dance: a century later, truth”, but as material or, to use his Trissino ranked some Quattrocento terminology, as traces. Thus, hermeneutics choreographies on the same level as does not reconstruct the past, nor does it wish «Jannequin nella musica, Leonardo nella to integrate it with the present as such, as in pintura, e Omero, Dante e Petrarca nella Gadamer‟s model: on the contrary, it poesia»19. deconstructs it, marking the difference and It should be recalled, however, that distance between our interpretation and the 16 deconstruction operates beside hermeneutics early texts . The aim of this research is thus and nothing can be separated, fragmented or not only to indicate the meaning of a tradition dissolved without the original characteristics or the legitimacy of an interpretation, but of the text and related aesthetic, rather to let the “institutional” models shift, philosophical, anthropological, historical and dissolve and scatter so as to reach an sociological skills required for such an interpretation. analysis. Up to the present, the texts of the Like a new Domenico, or rather, a post- Quattrocento and Cinquecento dances have modern Domenico da Piacenza and his been interpreted through a strict aspiration to raise his discipline to that of the reconstruction that may have distracted our liberal arts, we have to re-set the dance of the focus from what was the original idea of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and to do so, dance. If we have a duty nowadays, it is not we must deconstruct it. In actual fact, that of respecting existing steps and Domenico da Piacenza is the first choreographies, but of creating new deconstructor. He deconstructed his metaphorical systems to portray the world. contemporary dance repertory in order to create a new one that could be recognised by everyone as such. Although still linked to the Middle Ages, his production is born from the separation, the fragmentation of early Notes elements to create a new and noble style17. I feel that Domenico did not create from nothing the Italian Quattrocento repertory of * The present study forms part of the the bassadanza and ballo described in his Research Project Coreografiar la historia 18 treatise De arte saltandi et choreas ducendi . europea: cuerpo, política, identidad y género Domenico probably used mediaeval dance en la danza de la edad moderna y steps as a basis, without limiting himself contemporánea funded by the Spanish exclusively to copying them. The Ministry of Ciencia e Innovación (MICIN fragmentation and separation of cognitive HAR2008-03307/ARTE). elements is an essential methodological stage 1 in deconstruction. Domenico may indeed PAPPACENA, Flavia (ed.): Il trattato di have separated out all the ingredients forming Danza di Carlo Blasis 1820-1830/Carlo a traditional mediaeval choreography so as to Blasis’ Treatise on Dance 1820-1830, (Lucca: create something new making it possible to Libreria Musicale Italiana, 2005): 202. observe that same choreography from another 2 Some twentieth-century composers have point of view and demonstrate that the dance purposely sought alternative composition is as much an art as music is. It is certainly a techniques in mediaeval modes and personal opinion and, in some way, a Renaissance polyphony. Cf., in Italy, the provocation to consider Domenico da generation of Gian Francesco Malipiero Piacenza as the first deconstructor. Clearly, (1882-1973), as well as more recently the Domenico could not have thought of Estonian Arvo Pärt (1935).

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Cecilia Nocilli

3 MESSORI RONCAGLIA, Giovanni: Della Musicologica 37 (1965): 179-88; ID.: virtute et arte del danzare et di alcune Materials for the Study of the Fifteenth opportune et necessarie particelle a quella Century Basse Danse (New York: Institute of pertinenti. Trascrizione di un manoscritto Medieval Music, 1968); MEYLAN, Raymond: inedito del XV secolo esistente nella L'énigme de la musique des basses danses du Biblioteca Palatina di Modena corredata di quinzième siècle (Berne: P. Haupt, [c.1968]). note ed appunti, for the Taviani-Santucci 5 About the term “early music” and the wedding (Modena: Tipografia concept of authenticity, cf. COHEN, Joel: dell‟Immacolata Concezione, 1885); MAZZI, Reprise: the Extraordinary Revival of Early Curzio: “Una sconosciuta compilazione di un Music (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1985); libro quattrocentesco di balli,” Bibliofilia 1, KERMAN, Joseph: “The Historical (1914-15): 185-209; ZAMBRINI, Francesco: Performance Movement”, in J. Kerman, Trattato dell’arte del ballo di Guglielmo Contemplating Music. Challenges to Ebreo Pesarese. Testo inedito del secolo XV Musicology, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard (Bologna: Gaetano Romagnoli, 1873; facs. University Press, 1985): 182-217; HASKELL, Bologna: Forni, 1968). Harry: The Early Music Revival: a History 4 CLOSSON, Ernest (ed.): Le Manuscrit dit des (London: Thames and Hudson, 1988); basses danses de la Bibliothéque de KENYON, Nicholas, (ed.): Authenticity and Bourgogne (Brussels: Société des Early Music: a Symposium (Oxford-New Bibliophiles et Iconophiles de Belgique, York: Oxford University Press, 1988); 1912); ID.: “La Structure rhythmique des Richard Taruskin, Text and Act: Essays on Basses danses du mst. 9085 de la Music and Performance , Oxford, Oxford Bibliothèque royale de Bruxelles,” University Press, 1995; SHERMAN, Bernard Sammelbände der Internationalen D.: Inside Early Music: Conversations with Musikgesellschaft 14 (1912-13): 567-78; Performers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, BLUME, Friedrich: Studien zur Vorgeschichte 1997); HAYNES, Bruce: The End of Early der Orchestersuite im 15. und 16. Music: A Period Performer's History of Hahrhundert (Leipzig: F. Kistner & C.F.W. Music for the Twenty-First Century, Oxford: Siegel, 1925); SCHOLDERER, Victor (ed.): Oxford University Press, 2007; HASKELL, L’art et instruction de bien dancer (Michel Harry: “Early music”, in Grove Music Online. Toulouze, Paris), (London: Royal College of Oxford Music Online, http://0- Physicians, 1936); BUKOFZER, Manfred: “A www.oxfordmusiconline.com.library.msmnyc Polyphonic Basse Dance of the Renaissance,” .edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/46003 in Studies in Medieval and Renaissance (accessed January 27, 2010); BUTT, John: Music (New York: Norton, 1950): 190-216; “Authenticity”, in Grove Music Online. JACKMAN, James L. (ed.): Fifteenth Century Oxford Music Online, http://0- Basses Dances (Wellesley, Massachusetts: www.oxfordmusiconline.com.library.msmnyc Wellesley College, 1964); HEARTZ, Daniel: .edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/46587 “The Basse Dance. Its Evolution circa 1450 to (accessed January 27, 2010). The Early Dance 1550,” Annales Musicologiques 6 (1958- Circle considers that «Early Dance (or th 1963): 287-340; ID.: “A 15 Century Ballo: Historical Dance) is a term that covers the Rôti Bouilli Joyeux,” in JAN LA RUE (ed.), dances current in Western Europe, in courts Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music: and country houses, in taverns and theatres, A Birthday Offering to Gustave Reese, (New from the Middle Ages up to the end of the York: Norton, 1966): 359-75; ID.: “Hoftanz 20th century. Information about these dances and Basse Dance,” Journal of the American is derived from original and reliable Musicological Society 19 (1966): 13-36; secondary sources». In CRANE, Frederick: “The Derivation of Some http://www.earlydancecircle.co.uk/. Fifteenth-Century Basse-Danse Tunes,” Acta

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Re-creation of Historical Dance

6 Important figures in reconstruction in Italy, make others believe– to be authentic or such as Barbara Sparti and Andrea historical. As a rule, no reconstructor presents Francalanci, have carried out a patient and his own work to demonstrate his aporias to a meticulous task of study and experimentation. specialist audience, such as that of a 7 In the Italian context, one of the most Conference. I hope it may serve as an significant films showing the fascination of example for further self-criticism of our own the romantic view of the Renaissance is, reconstruction work. without a doubt, Franco Zeffirelli‟s 1968 film 15 On the concept of deconstruction, cf. “Romeo e Giulietta”. DERRIDA, Jacques: Of grammatology 8 For a complete definition of social dance, cf. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998); ID.: Aporias: dying--awaiting (one BRAINARD KAHRSTEDT, Ingrid: Social Dance: Court and Social Dance before 1800, in another at) the "limits of truth" (mourir-- s'attendre aux "limites de la vérité"), International Encyclopedia of Dance, ed. by S. J. Cohen (New York-Oxford: Oxford (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, University Press, 1998), 5: 619-621. 1998); ID.: Archive fever: a Freudian impression (Chicago: University of Chicago 9 Antonio Cornazano, Libro dell'arte del Press, 1996); ID.: Dissemination (Chicago: danzare, Roma, Biblioteca Apostolica University Press, 1981); ID.: Writing and Vaticana, Capponiano 203 [1ª re-ed. 1455; 2ª difference (Chicago: University of Chicago re-ed. c. 1465]. Press, 1978). For studies on Derrida, cf. 10 Ibidem. KAMUF, Peggy (ed.): A Derrida reader: 11 between the blinds (New York: Columbia La sylphide, choreography by Pierre University Press, 1991); CAPUTO, John D. Lacotte after Filippo Taglioni, Paris, Ballet de (ed.): Deconstruction in a nutshell: a L‟Opéra National de Paris, TDK, 2005. conversation with Jacques Derrida (New 12 Vocabolario della lingua italiana. Il York: Fordham University Press, 1997); conciso, Roma, Istituto della Enciclopedia WOLFREYS, Julian (ed.): The Derrida reader: italiana fondata da Giovanni Treccani, 1998. writing performances (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998). 13 Le sacre du Printemps was re-presented to 16 the public on 30 September 1987 at Los GADAMER, Hans Georg: Wahrheit und Angeles as a ballet reconstructed by Robert Methode. Grundzüge einer philosophischen Joffrey (1930-1988) with his Company, Hermeneutik, Tübingen: Mohr, 1960 (transl. Joffrey Ballet, under the guidance of Millicent Truth and method, New York: Continuum, Hodson, an Americal dance historian, and 1993). Kenneth Archer, an English art historian. 17 Cf. the most recent study on this figure: 14 In presenting my paper «La danza histórica PONTREMOLI, Alessandro: “La danza di no es histórica: Perfil de una deconstrucción» Domenico da Piacenza tra Medioevo e at the Congreso Internacional La disciplina Rinascimento,” Il castello di Elsinore 19/53 coreológica en Europa: Problemas y (2006): 5-23. perspectivas (Valladolid, 27-29 novembre 18 Domenico da Piacenza, De arte saltandi et 2008) I showed how, in one of my apparently choreas ducendi, Paris, Bibliothèque philological reconstructions of a momería by Nationale, f. ital. 972 [c. 1450-55]. Francesc Moner, performed for the 19 inauguration of the Conference together with GIAN GIORGIO TRISSINO: “Poetica. Quinta students of the Escuela Superior de Arte divisione (1549),” in B. WEINBERG (ed), Dramático de Castilla y León, the Trattati di poetica e retorica del Cinquecento, reconstructor‟s many subjective inputs may II, (Bari: Laterza, 1970): 12 (6v). alienate us from what we believe –and wish to

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