African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

Bathymetric Mapping for Safe Navigation: A Case Study of Part of Lagos Lagoon

Tata Herbert1*, Nzelibe Ifechukwu Ogochukwu1 and Faneye, Ayodeji John2 1Department of Surveying and Geoinformatics, Federal University of Technology Akure 2HafenCity University Hamburg Überseeallee 16, 20457 Hamburg, Germany.

Abstract Lagos Lagoon, located at the south western part of Nigeria has been known for its use as a major navigational route for the transportation of people as well as goods and services. The Bathymetry of part of the lagoon was carried out to map the profile of the seabed around the channel that leads to the Lagos habour. Data acquisition was done using satellite imagery, tidal observation and depth sounding were obtained with echo sounder and the positions determined using GPS. Initial processing performed on observed bathymetric data includes noise removal, tidal correction on instantaneous depth and sorting with HYPACK 2008 software. Further processing was done using ArcGIS 10.2 Software. The processed depths were analyzed and presented in form of a Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) and Digital Terrain Model (DTM) to showcase the seabed profile. A query was performed on the acquired date to determine the deepest and shallowest portion of the lagoon. The deepest spot was found to be 19.69m while the shallowest spot was found to be 1.139m respectively. From the analysis conducted, there is an indication that vast changes on the seabed has taken place over the years as a result of dredging activities along the channel.

Keyword: Bathymetry, Mapping, Lagos Lagoon, Navigation, Sounding, Seabed

Introduction From the beginning of the earth till were a mysterious domain for now, only a small fraction of the mankind. It was only recently that seafloor has been mapped. During people started to realize that the sea most of recorded history, the oceans floor is not flat and featureless as

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they have imagined. Knowledge of the seafloor has depended on the development of bathymetry. Understanding coastal bathymetry is important for monitoring the emergence of new land, navigational channel maintenance as well as for fishing. However, the possibility of this is highly dependent on the field of study called surveying (Bates & Byham, 2001). The main operation in hydrographic surveying is bathymetric survey which corresponds to leveling in land surveying. Bathymetry determines the depth of water, bottom topography, heights and the location of fixed objects for survey and navigation purposes relative to sea level and/or a designated datum along transect line to produce a section. Sectioning has to do with obtaining record of the undulations of the ground surface along a particular line (Clarke, 1972). Bathymetry is the study of underwater depth of lake and ocean floors (Chukwu and Badejo 2015). In bathymetric survey, charts are produced to support safety of surface or sub-surface navigations which usually shows seafloor relief or terrain as contour lines (depth contours), and such chart provides exterior navigational information. The survey sets for best description of the submarine topographical features may include sound velocity and slope corrections that are more accurate but eliminate the safety bias (Chukwu et al., 2014). Bathymetric surveys are important for many purposes; such includes sedimentation purposes to check for accretion or erosion, pre and post dredging bathymetry, that is to determine the existing status of the water body or to ascertain the dredged volume. It can also be done prior to pipeline and cable (laying) positioning, fishing and other geophysical exploration exercise (Chukwu and Badejo 2015). Producing a bathymetric chart; tidal observation and reduction is a must (Chukwu and Badejo 2015) to reduce sounding depth to chart datum. Tidal observation is conducted prior to and con-currently with sounding operations period and can be done on an established gauge or temporarily on any selected position where water level hardly goes below the zero reading of the measuring device (Temporary gauge) (Chukwu and Badejo 2015).

Lagos Lagoon The Lagos Lagoon is more than 50 km long and to 13 km wide. It is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a long sand spit up to 5 km wide, which has swampy margins on the lagoon side. Its surface area is approximately 6,354.7sq km (Badejo et al., 2014). With the exception of the Commodore channel, the lagoon is fairly shallow and is not plied by ocean-going ships, 2 [email protected] 2019

but by smaller barges and boats (Badejo et al., 2014). The Lagos Lagoon averages 2-4 m deep, but is 10 m deep in the entrance at the Commodore channel. The Lagos lagoon empties into the Atlantic Ocean via the Lagos Harbor. The southern margin of the lagoon is bounded by the Five Cowrie Creek, the eastern margin by the Palaver Island and its northern border by Ikorodu (Ibe, 1988). The Lagos harbour or Commodore Channel is 0.5 km to 1 km wide and 10 km long (Badejo et al., 2014). The Lagos port is located at Apapa in a broad western branch off the main channel of the harbour. The Lagos Lagoon is tidal. Water from the Atlantic Ocean moves into the lagoon during high tides and receeds during low tides. The Lagos lagoon is affected by a powerful longshore drift. It is fed by several rivers, the most important of which are the Ogun, Ona/Ibu, Oshun, Shasha and Oni. The lagoon is fed by the rivers of Ogun, Shasha, Oshun, Agboyi and Majidun, the Ogudu creeks and Waters of Epe and Lekki Lagoons. The lagoon provides places of abode and recreation, means of livelihood and transport, dumpsite for residential and industrial discharges and a natural shock absorber to balance forces within the natural ecological system (Ibe, 1988). The Lagos Lagoon consists of three main segments and are as follows; Lagos Harbour, the Metropolitan end and Epe Division segments. On the west of the lagoon (South-west of the harbour) there are three creeks. These are the lighthouse creek, the Badagry creek and the main waterway leading to Badagry, Porto- Novo and Cotonou. There is another creek joining the northern part of the main Lagos Lagoon to the Atlantic through Victoria Island which is called five cowries. The North East of the lagoon is bounded by Ikorodu local port and leads to Epe. Also at that region, there are three inlets from River Ogun, Majidun creek, and Agboyi creek. (Nwilo, et al, 2000) The Lagos Lagoon has over the years grown to be a place for refuse disposal by the inhabitants of Lagos and its environs. Such sewage discharges are from industries within Lagos state area and from sewage sites within the state. The lagoon also receives debris and waste carried by gutters, natural drainage and storm water. The pollution of the lagoon is by both private and government establishments. In 1993 alone, the Lagos City Council dumped 25.8 million litres of untreated sewage into the lagoon. The lagoon now serves as a major sink for various pollutants including lubricating oil and other petroleum products (Nwilo et al., 2000).

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Storm and ocean surges have become a regular feature in the Lagos lagoon. These storms actually result from the Atlantic Ocean of which are attributed to sea level rise and subsidence (Nwilo, 1995). Some of the resultant effects of storm and surges include coastal erosion, flooding, inundation, destruction of roads and the beach, salinity intrusion into the lagoon and sources of water for domestic use (Nwilo, 1997).

Study Area The Lagos lagoon is a lagoon sharing its name with the city of Lagos, Nigeria, the second largest city in Africa, which lies on its south western side. The lagoon is 40 to 60km long and 3 to 13km wide with boundary coordinates of latitude 60 27’N, longitude 3023’E, latitude 60 35’42”, longitude 30 28’19.2”, latitude 60 37’4.8”, longitude 30 43’19.2” and latitude 60 33’54”, longitude 30 57’54” and has two arms; one connects the Lekki lagoon while the other leads northward into the hinter land (Allen, 1965). The lagoon is shallow with depth of 1.5-3m (Ibe, 1988) and made up of muddy and sandy bottom (Nwilo, 1995).

Figure 1. map of the study area 4 [email protected] 2018

Methodology This section covers areas such as planning, equipment requirements, instruments calibration, data processing and safety issues, and the final bathymetric observations.

Instruments Used Hardware The hardware used for the study are: i. One Single Beam South SDE-28 Echo Sounder: Measures depth of seabed from water surface. ii. One Transducer and its complete accessories: Transmits and receives pulse which measures the depth. iii. Hand held GPS 76CSx: Acquires XY-coordinates of sounding points. iv. Tide Gauges (Levelling Staff): Shows height of tides. v. Automatic level and tripod stand: To transfer datum to water surface. vi. One Laptop: For processing and display of data and results. vii. One small hydrographic vessel (Boat): For sounding operations viii. One Electric Generator: Used to power the echo-sounder offshore. ix. Detachable DC Power Cable: Connects the electric generator to the echo-sounder. x. Communication cables: Connect the handheld GPS to the echo- sounder xi. Safety Equipment: Life jackets, buoys, etc., to ensure safety of personnel.

Software i. PowerNav Software for Sea Navigation: Helps to navigate on the water. ii. Hypack 2008 Hydrographic Software: Converts data to IHO standard. iii. ArcGIS 10.2: Used in the creation of TIN. iv. AutoCAD 2008, 2009: Used in editing the data values. v. Golden Surfer 11: Used in the production of contour map and creation of DTM.

Calibration of the Echo Sounder To reduce the impact of water quality and temperature variations, the South SDE-28 single beam echo sounder was calibrated on site which involved lowering a one metre by one metre plate to a known depth directly under the 5 [email protected] 2018

transducer. Echo soundings are recorded at various depths of the metal plate and variations between the metal plate depths and the echo sounding depths are taking into consideration during data reduction so as to obtain true depths.

Tidal Observations Tidal observations were carried out before soundings commenced. This was for comparison with the predicted tide at the Lagos Harbour for the period of execution. The final tidal corrections as predicted in the Nigerian Navy Tide Tables for 2014 was adopted. The tidal data were observed every fifteen minutes for a particular period before the actual sounding started. The observed tides serve as the basis to reduce sounding depths at the study area to datum.

Sounding Data Reduction The soundings data obtained in the field were reduced to standard reference plane by subtracting from the height of the tide at the time they were taken. The predicted tidal values were used in reducing the sounding depth of this project. The predicted tidal values were obtained from the Nigerian Naval Tidal Prediction Table for the year 2014 where the times and heights of high and low water have been given. Since the datum of prediction is the Chart Datum, there was no need to apply the chart datum value after the effects of tides have been announced for which is usually done when using observed tidal values. After interpolation, the tidal values were obtained for each time of sounding; the values obtained were simply subtracted from the sounded depth obtained from the field, this is the actual value of the seafloor obtained after the removal of the effect of tide and necessary corrections and other phenomenon that constitute the raw data obtained from the sounding. Mathematically,

True Depth (TD) = D -Tp (1)

Where; D =Sounded Depth recorded at a certain period and Tp = predicted tidal Readings.

Data Processing In processing the acquired data, the following stage were adopted. i. Post processing using STONEX SDE-28 POWERNAV software which has the capability of removing the data (noise) obtained from either a false echo or error due to the echo-sounder. 6 [email protected] 2018

ii. Post-processing in Hypack: acquiring data in IHO standard iii. Post-processing in ArcGIS: acquiring (Triangulated Irregular Network) TIN. iv. Post-Processing in Surfer: used in producing of contour map and 3D of the seabed.

Figure 2. Methodology flow chart

Results and Discussion Presentation of Results Table 1: Portion of astronomical tide table. Time Height (m) 01 06 0.1 07 11 1.0 13 31 -0.1 20 09 1.0

The astronomical tide table presented in Table (1) is for the Lagos habour. For the purpose of this study, tidal observation were carried out by the UNILAG lagoon front and it takes one (1) hour for the tidal effect to get to the UNILAG lagoon front from the Lagos habour. As a result of this, one (1) hour was added to the times on Table (1). Therefore the times of these tides at the UNILAG lagoon front becomes;

Table 2: Portion of astronomical tide table adjusted. Time Height (m) 02 06 0.1 08 11 1.0

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14 31 -0.1 21 09 1.0

Chart for Tidal Observation

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4 Tide 0.3

0.2

0.1

0 9:00 9:30 10:00 10:30 11:00 11:30 12:00 12:30 13:00 13:30 14:00 14:30 15:00 15:30 Time

Figure 3. Chart showing Tidal observation

Interpolation Technique. From the astronomical tide table (Table 2), Difference in time Difference in height of tide 13hrs 31mins - 07hrs 11mins -0.1 -1.0 06hrs 20mins -1.1

Converting “06hrs 20mins” to “minutes” : - 360mins 20mins = 380mins Therefore, at time 380mins, height of tide equals -1.1 At 60mins, height of tides equals 380mins = -1.1 …… (a) 60mins = X …… (b) Cross multiplying (a) and (b), X = 60 * -1.1 / 380 X = -0.174. Therefore at time 60mins, height of tide equals -0.174, At 30mins, height of tide equals -0.174/2 = -0.087, At 15mins, height of tide equals -0.087/2 = -0.044. From the above interpolation done using the astronomical tide table, the predicted tides time interval of 15mins are indicated in figure 4:

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Chart for predicted tides

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5

Height (m) Height 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 08 08 08 08 09 09 09 09 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 13 13 11 26 41 56 11 26 41 56 11 26 41 56 11 26 41 56 11 26 41 56 11 26 Time (min and sec)

Figure 4. Predicted tides at a time interval of 15mins

In applying the interpolated tides to the depths measured, the observation started at about 10: 45:21am (figure 3) because the collection of data by the echo-sounder started at; 05:45:21 pm – 07:23:09 pm (Chinese time “+7hrs”), 10: 45:21 am - 12:23:09 pm (Nigerian time). Chinese time is referenced because the echo-sounder used was designed in China and therefore was designed with Chinese timing system.

Table 3: Extracted and sorted raw data DATE TIME EASTINGS NORTHINGS DEPTH CORR. CORR.DEPTH 26-11-14 45:21.0 542041.7 714618.2 16.564 0.604 15.96 26-11-14 45:26.0 542067.5 714575.4 12.804 0.604 12.2 26-11-14 46:26.0 542093.3 714532.5 14.564 0.604 13.96 26-11-14 46:31.0 542119.1 714489.7 12.814 0.604 12.21 26-11-14 46:36.0 542144.8 714446.8 3.284 0.604 2.68 26-11-14 46:41.0 542170.6 714404 5.044 0.604 4.44 26-11-14 46:46.0 542196.4 714361.1 4.944 0.604 4.34 26-11-14 46:51.0 542058.8 714686.8 14.434 0.604 13.83 26-11-14 46:56.0 542084.6 714644 16.394 0.604 15.79 26-11-14 47:01.0 542110.4 714601.1 17.464 0.604 16.86

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26-11-14 47:06.0 542136.1 714558.3 14.154 0.604 13.55 26-11-14 47:11.0 542161.9 714515.4 13.934 0.604 13.33 26-11-14 47:16.0 542187.7 714472.6 11.534 0.604 10.93 26-11-14 47:21.0 542213.5 714429.8 9.674 0.604 9.07 26-11-14 47:26.0 542239.2 714386.9 5.824 0.604 5.22 26-11-14 47:31.0 542101.7 714712.6 14.474 0.604 13.87 26-11-14 47:36.0 542127.4 714669.8 15.604 0.604 15 26-11-14 47:41.0 542153.2 714626.9 17.234 0.604 16.63 26-11-14 47:46.0 542179 714584.1 17.314 0.604 16.71

Figure 5: Query in GIS to show the deepest spot (A) and shallowest spot (B)

Figure 6: contour map and 3-D map of the seabed of the study area.

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Figure 7: Bathymetry map of the study area.

Discussion of Results Figure 5A and B had shown querying for the deepest spot in the study area as well as the shallowest spot which were performed using ArcGIS 10.2 Software. The query shows that the deepest sport had a value of 19.69m while the shallowest sport was 1.139m respectively. Figure 6 is the contour plot and 3D map of the study area plotted using surfer 11 software at 2 meter contour interval which showcase the nature of the seabed. Figure 7 shows the bathymetry chart depicting the true nature of the seabed within the study area. From figures 5 to 7, it can be inferred that the topography of the seabed is at a permissible level of navigation as the presence of hills or rock outcrops are not available. This therefore means that at different periods of either a low water or high water, this channel will always be a safe navigation path. Also, the Lagos lagoon is open and tidal. As a result of the impact of the tidal current of the lagoon along the Iddo shoreline, sediments from the shoreline and immediate coastal zones are often transported and deposited on the seabed which is a cause of the regular terrain which exists there.

Conclusions The study investigates part of the Lagos lagoon seabed topographical pattern. The analysis performed on the acquired data reveals that the topography of the seabed is at a permissible level of navigation as the

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presence of hills or rock outcrops were not available for obstruction. This therefore means that at different periods of either a low water or high water this channel will always be a safe navigation path. The topography of profile sections in the study area were presented and the differences on them were accessed and were attributed to the maintenance dredging which takes place along the channel. Query performed on the acquired data reveal the deepest spot be 19.69m, while the shallowest spot to be 1.139m respectively. The study has also demonstrated the unlimited use of GIS in bathymetric survey processing; from its acquisition stage to production of charts.

References Allen, J.R. (1965). Late quaternary of the Niger Delta and Adjacent Areas sedimentary Environmental and Adjacent Areas sedimentary environments and Lithofacies, AAPG 49:547-600. Badejo O. T., Olaleye, J. B. and Alademomi A. S. (2014). Tidal Characteristics and Sounding Datum Variation in Lagos State. International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies ISSN 2319- 9725 Bates, C.R and Byham, P.W. (2001). Bathymetric side-scan techniques for near shore surveying. Hydrographic Journal 100:13-18. Chukwu F. N. and Badejo O. T. (2015). Bathymetric Survey Investigation for Lagos Lagoon Seabed Topographical Changes. Journal of Geosciences and Geomatics, 3 (2), pp 37-43. Chukwu et al., (2014). Bathymetric Survey of Northern part of Lagos Lagoon Unpublished thesis, for award of Master of Science in surveying and Geoinformatics, University of Lagos, Nigeria. Clarke, D. (1972). Plane and Geodetic Surveying, Constable & Co Ltd, London, pp.245, 290-291. Onyema, I. C. (2009b). The Water Chemistry, Phytoplankton Biomass (Chlorophyll a), Episammic and Periphytic Algae of the Apese Lagoon, Lagos. Report and Opinion. 1(5): 31 – 40.

Nwilo, P. C. (1995). Sea level variation and the impacts along the Nigerian Coastal Area. PhD Thesis, Environmental Resources unit, University of Salford, Salford, UK. Nwilo, P. C., Peters, K.O and Badejo, O.T. (2000). Development of a Lagos Lagoon Information system, In: Environmental Review 3:403-409. Nwilo, P. C. (1997). Managing the impact storm surges in Victoria Island Destructive water, water-caused Natural Disasters, their Abatement 12 [email protected] 2018

and control (proceedings of the conference held at Araheim California, June 1996). IAHS 239. Ibe, A. C. (1988). Coastline Erosion in Nigeria, Ibadan University Press, Ibadan.

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African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

Abrasion Resistance of Concrete Floor; a Comparative Study of New Engineering Auditorium and Civil Engineering Classroom

Obam, S. Ogah1 and Iorliam Y. Amos Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Agriculture Makurdi, Nigeria

Abstract Civil engineering structure should perform optimally throughout its life span. The floor of classroom and laboratory of the Civil Engineering Department of the Federal University of Agriculture Makurdi, Nigeria were observed to be deteriorating, creating depressions and cracks. Abrasion caused by foot wears and dragging of machinery on surface of concrete can lead to wearing away of the top surface, spalling and other failures. This research investigated the abrasive resistance of these floors using a non- destructive Rebound Hammer Test. A total of 120 rebound number readings were taken for each of the floors. The results showed that the average hardness for the floor of the New Engineering Auditorium and the floor of Civil Engineering Classroom are 24.0 and 16.0 N/mm2 respectively. Statistical analysis showed that there is a significant difference in the mean of the rebound numbers taken from the two concrete floors. This implies that Civil Engineering Classroom is more susceptible to failure due to its low surface hardness.

Key Words: Concrete Floor, Surface hardness, Abrasion, Hardness Test.

Introduction Concrete consists mainly of the adequate curing, its compressive following ingredients: Aggregate, strength becomes high. Non- Cement, and water. Other substances destructive test is often used to (additives) could be added to fresh estimate strength of hardened concrete to alter its property either in concrete in service. The Schmidt fresh or hardened state. When fresh rebound hammer shown in Figure 1 concrete is allowed to harden under is often used for surface hardness

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test of hardened concrete. The test can also be used to establish whether the rebound number has reached a value to correspond to the desired strength. This is important in deciding when to remove false work or to put the structure into service. The rebound hammer was developed by a Swiss engineer, Ernst Schmidt, in 1948 as a non-destructive method of testing and measuring the surface hardness of hardened concrete, by the rebound principle (Gaede and Schmidt, 1964). It is principally a surface hardness tester with little apparent theoretical relationship between the strength of concrete and the rebound number of the hammer. However, within limits, empirical correlations have been established between strength properties and the rebound number. Since then, Schmidt hammer has been extended widely in finding the strength of concrete structures as well as rocks (Cargill and Shakoor 1990). Indian Standard (IS): 1331; Part 2, 1992 specified that rebound hammer method could be used for assessing the likely compressive strength of concrete with the help of suitable co-relations between rebound index and compressive strength. A semi-empirical derivation for such a relationship was attempted by the designer of the concrete rebound hammer (Gaede and Schmidt, 1964). Rebound surface hardness versus compressive strength relationships are generally non-linear; and several different types of functions such as power functions, polynomial functions, exponential functions, logarithm functions, and even linear functions have been published (Szilagyi and Borosnyoi, 2009). A linear relationship between rebound number and compressive strength of concrete at 28 day is shown in Figure 2 (Neville, 1999). Generally, water/cement ratio in addition to modulus of elasticity of aggregates contribute to strength or hardness of concrete. The strength is also time dependent (Gupta, 2004). The hardened cement paste in concrete reacts chemically with carbon dioxide (CO2). The amount of CO2 present in the atmosphere is sufficient to cause considerable reaction with the hardened cement paste over a long period of time. When hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2) reacts with CO2 to form limestone (CaCo3), the process is termed carbonation. The rate of carbonation depends on the relative humidity (RH); and was found to be greatest around 50RH (Neville, 1999). Surface hardness is considerably changed by carbonation (Wesche, 1967). Therefore, in the evaluation of rebound surface hardness test the influence of carbonation should be taken into account (Proceq, 2003). Concrete strength estimation for a given rebound index is found to be in the range ±40 to 60 N/mm2. It is possible to find estimated strengths for different concretes with 40 to 60 N/mm2 strength differences corresponding to the

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same rebound surface hardness. Statistical analysis of the surface hardness versus comprehensive strength relationship usually shows heteroscedastic behavior, i.e. increasing standard deviation in strength for increasing rebound index. Even the manufacturer of the original design concrete rebound hammer suggested increasing standard deviation to be expected for increasing rebound surface hardness. Strength estimation, based on tests carried out under ideal laboratory conditions, can provide an accuracy of ±15 to 20%; however, in a practical situation it is unlikely that a strength prediction can be made with accuracy better than ±30 to 40%. Current European Standard testing practice (EN 13791, 2007) excludes the use of the rebound surface Hardness test for strength estimation on its own due to the limited accuracy available. Testing of drilled cores together with the rebound surface hardness test is suggested for an acceptable reliability. Friction due to dragging of machinery, foot wear, etc on floor of concrete can lead to wearing away of the top surface, its spalling and other failures. Depressions, cracks and outright spalling of the floor of Civil Engineering Classrooms and Laboratory of the Federal University of Agriculture Makurdi, Nigeria were observed. The stronger the surface hardness of concrete the more it could resist abrasion (Gambhir, 1995). This necessitated this comparative investigation into surface hardness property of concrete floors of the Civil Engineering Classroom (CEC) and the New Engineering Auditorium (NEA) of the University. The latter appears to have no such defects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials The tools used for these tests are: Rebound Hammer, Rule, and Marker.

Methods The floor of the New Engineering Auditorium was washed with clean water thoroughly and allowed to dry. Four portions of the floor were marked for the test. A rectangular grid line consisting of 30 points for the application of the rebound hammer were drawn with the rule and marker. The spacing between points was 20mm apart. The Rebound Hammer was used as specified in BS 4408: part 4:1971. A total of 120 rebound numbers were taken. This process was repeated in the Civil Engineering Classroom.

Statistical Equations X X =  1 1 n 1 (1)

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X 1 is mean rebound number for NEA, X1 is rebound number for NEA and n1 is total rebound number for NEA. X X =  2 2 n 2 (2) X 2 is mean rebound number for CEC, X 2 is rebound number for CEC, n2 is total rebound number for CEC.

2 √(푥1− ) S1 = (3) 푛1

2 √∑(푥2− ) S2 = (4) 푥2 S1 and S2 are standard deviation for rebound numbers for NEA and CEC respectivel. X − X Z = 1 2 1 1 + n n 1 2 (5) Z is Test Statistic for Normal Distribution (Murray and Larry, 2011).

Null Hypothesis (Ho): There is no significant difference between the mean rebound numbers of the floors of NEA and CEC.

Alternative Hypothesis (H1): There is significant difference between the mean rebound numbers of the floors of NEA and CEC.

If |푍| > Zα/2, that is, if the absolute value of Z calculated is greater than Z, lifted from Normal Distribution Tables at 5 percent significant level ( ), then Ho is rejected and this implies that H1 is accepted.

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS The experimental values of the rebound number for the floor of the New Engineering Auditorium and that of the Civil Engineering Classroom are shown in Tables 1 and Table 2 respectively. From equation 1 and Table 1, 2 2 = 26.6. From equation 3 and Table 1, 푆1 = 14. 푆1 is the variance for the set of data in Table 1; and from equation 2 and Table 2, = 22.4. From 2 2 equation 3 and Table 2, 푆2 = 12. 푆2 is the variance for the set of data in Table 2. The summary of the statistical properties are shown in Table 3. By

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the use of equation 5, |푍| = 9.01 and from Normal Distribution Table, Zα/2 =

Z0.025 = 1.96. We therefore, reject H0. The mean of the rebound numbers for the two concrete floors are approximately 27 and 22 for NEA and CEC respectively. From Figure 2, the equivalent mean compressive strengths of the floors are 24 and 16 N/mm2 respectively. The statistical analysis showed that the null hypothesis is rejected. In other words, the mean rebound numbers of the floors of NEA and CEC differ significantly. This implies that the surface hardness of the New Engineering Auditorium is more than that of Civil Engineering Classroom. This also indicated that the later could have been constructed with low-strength concrete. This might be the cause of the deterioration observed in the classroom floor.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Conclusion Proper design and good selection of concrete materials are essential for its optimal performance. Concrete floor could fail under abrasive forces such as foot wear, dragging of heavy materials or machinery and other loads. The floor of classroom and laboratory of the Civil Engineering Department of the Federal University of Agriculture Makurdi, Nigeria were observed to be deteriorating, Non-destructive test is often used to estimate strength of hardened concrete in service. The Schmidt rebound hammer is often used for surface hardness test of hardened concrete. The test can also be used to establish whether the rebound number has reached a value to correspond to the desired strength. This is important in deciding when to remove false work or to put the structure into service. The hammer was used to test the strength of concrete floors of the New Engineering Auditorium and the Civil Engineering Classroom. It was found that the latter has lower surface hardness. The equivalent compressive strength was 16 N/mm2. The low strength could be responsible for the failure of Civil Engineering Classroom.

Recommendation It is therefore, recommended that a new concrete floor, with a minimum of 20 N/mm2 compressive strength, be constructed for Civil Engineering Classroom of the University.

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Figure 1. Sketch of Schmidt Rebound Hammer (Source: Neville, 1999)

Rebound Number

Figure 2. Relationship between rebound number and compressive strength

(Wm). Each of the emboldened arrows represents the position of Schmidt Hammer on concrete surface (Source: Proceq, 2003). The uppermost curve was used in this research.

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Table 1. Rebound Numbers for New Engineering Auditorium Floor

X 2 2 2 S/No. RN (x1) (x1- 1 ) S/No. RN(x1) (x1- ) S/No. RN (x1) (x1- ) 1 26 0.4 21 24 6.8 41 34 54.8 2 23 13.0 22 22 21.2 42 34 54.8 3 23 13.0 23 19 57.8 43 36 88.4 4 24 6.8 24 25 2.6 44 33 41.0 5 21 31.4 25 23 13.0 45 28 2.0 6 22 21.2 26 22 21.2 46 30 11.6 7 20 43.6 27 25 2.6 47 30 11.6 8 19 57.8 28 22 21.2 48 32 29.2 9 22 21.2 29 25 2.6 49 32 29.2 10 25 2.6 30 22 21.2 50 33 41.0 11 24 6.8 31 22 21.2 51 30 11.6 12 25 2.6 32 21 31.4 52 31 19.4 13 22 21.2 33 21 31.4 53 31 19.4 14 20 43.6 34 23 13.0 54 37 108.2 15 24 6.8 35 25 2.6 55 31 19.4 16 21 31.4 36 26 0.4 56 36 88.4 17 22 21.2 37 23 13.0 57 31 19.4 18 24 6.8 38 25 2.6 58 28 2.0 19 23 13.0 39 26 0.4 59 32 29.2 20 22 21.2 40 24 6.8 60 30 11.6

Table 1 Rebound Numbers for New Engineering Auditorium Floor Cont’d

2 2 2 S/No. RN (x1) (x1- ) S/No. RN(x1) (x1- ) S/No. RN (x1) (x1- ) 61 22 21.2 81 26 0.4 101 34 54.8 62 28 2.0 82 32 29.2 102 31 19.4 63 26 0.4 83 24 6.8 103 23 13.0 64 24 6.8 84 26 0.4 104 23 13.0 65 25 2.6 85 26 0.4 105 27 0.2 66 26 2.6 86 24 6.8 106 30 11.6 67 30 11.6 87 30 11.6 107 29 5.8 68 27 0.2 88 28 2.0 108 31 19.4 69 26 0.4 89 28 2.0 109 31 19.4 70 21 31.4 90 28 2.0 110 28 2.0 71 27 0.2 91 29 5.8 111 30 11.6 72 28 2.0 92 31 19.4 112 26 0.4 73 25 2.6 93 25 2.6 113 29 5.8 74 25 2.6 94 26 0.4 114 27 0.2 75 26 0.4 95 26 0.4 115 31 19.4 76 26 0.4 96 26 0.4 116 31 19.4 77 26 0.4 97 26 0.4 117 30 11.6 78 24 6.8 98 28 2.0 118 29 5.8 79 26 0.4 99 28 2.0 119 28 2.0 80 26 0.4 100 26 0.4 120 31 19.4 ∑ 3192 1652.4 Key: RN is Rebound Number

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Table 2 Rebound Numbers for Civil Engineering Classroom Floor

X 2 2 2 S/No. RN (x2) (x2- 2 ) S/No. RN(x2) (x2- ) S/No. RN (x2) (x2- ) 1 22 0.2 21 22 0.2 41 16 41.0 2 25 6.8 22 27 21.2 42 18 19.4 3 2 3 0.4 23 24 2.6 43 18 19.4 4 26 13.0 24 25 6.8 44 21 2.0 5 26 13.0 25 23 0.4 45 22 0.2 6 25 6.8 26 24 2.6 46 21 2.0 7 26 13.0 27 24 2.6 47 25 6.8 8 27 21.2 28 25 6.8 48 24 2.6 9 28 31.4 29 20 5.8 49 27 21.2 10 26 13.0 30 23 0.4 50 29 43.6 11 24 2.6 31 27 21.2 51 30 57.8 12 22 0.2 32 27 21.2 52 17 29.2 13 28 31.4 33 20 5.8 53 18 19.4 14 22 0.2 34 18 19.4 54 20 5.8 15 24 2.6 35 22 0.2 55 21 2.0 16 24 2.6 36 21 2.0 56 18 19.4 17 22 0.2 37 21 2.0 57 25 6.8 18 20 5.8 38 21 2.0 58 24 2.6 19 22 ]0.2 39 18 19.4 59 22 0.2 20 22 0.2 40 20 5.8 60 20 5.8

Table 2 Rebound Numbers for Civil Engineering Classroom Floor Cont’d

2 2 2 S/No. RN (x2) (x2- ) S/No. RN(x2) (x2- ) S/No. RN (x2) (x2- ) 61 16 41.0 81 25 6.8 101 27 21.2 62 15 54.8 82 25 6.8 102 23 0.4 63 17 29.2 83 26 13.0 103 26 13.0 64 17 29.2 84 22 0.2 104 29 43.4 65 22 0.2 85 23 0.4 105 29 43.4 66 23 0.4 86 23 0.4 106 22 0.2 67 21 2.0 87 20 5.8 107 22 0.2 68 20 5.8 88 20 5.8 108 18 19.4 69 18 19.4 89 20 5.8 109 18 19.4 70 21 2.0 90 22 0.2 110 19 11.6 71 16 41.0 91 25 6.8 111 18 19.4 72 16 41.0 92 25 6.8 112 20 5.8 73 16 41.0 93 25 6.8 113 22 0.2 74 19 11.6 94 25 6.8 114 23 0.4 75 19 11.6 95 22 0.2 115 24 2.6 76 19 11.6 96 24 2.6 116 26 13.0 77 20 5.8 97 23 0.4 117 23 0.4 78 22 0.2 98 22 0.2 118 23 0.4 79 26 13.0 99 29 43.6 119 28 31.4 80 18 19.4 100 27 21.2 120 23 0.4 ∑ 2689 1402.8 Key: RN is Rebound Number. 21 [email protected] 2018

Table 3. Summary of the Statistical Properties New Engineering Auditorium Floor Civil Engineering Classroom Floor

x̅1 = 27 x̅2 = 22 2 2 푆1 = 14 푆2 = 12 n1 = 120 n2 = 120

REFERENCES British Standard (BS) 4408: part 4 (1971). Non-Destructive Methods of Test for Concrete, surface hardness methods. Cargill, J .S. and Shakoor, A., (1990). Evaluation of Empirical Methods for Measuring the Uniaxial Compressive Strength of Rock. Int. J. Rock Mechanics Mining Science and Geomech, Pergamon Press. Abstr. Vol 27, No. 6, pp 495-503. European (EN) 13791 (2007). Assessment of In-situ Compressive Strength in Structures and Precast Concrete Components, European Standard. Gaede, K., Schmidt, E. (1964). Rebound Testing of Hardened Concrete (Deutschen Ausschussessfur Stahlbeton, Heft (German) 158, p. 37. Gambhir, M. L. (1995). Concrete Technology, Second Edition; Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi. Gupta, B. L and Gupta, A. (2004). Concrete Technology. A. K. John Publishers for Standard Publishers Distributors, NaiSarak, Delhi, India. Indian Standard (IS): 13311; Pat 2 (1992). Methods of Non-destructive Testing of Concrete; Rebound Hammer. Microsoft Encarta, 2008. Neville, A. M. (1999). Properties of Concrete, Fourth Edition; Prentice Hall, Essex, Proceq, S. A. (2003). Concrete Test, Hammer-Rebound Measurement and Carbonation. WWW.informationsheet.com. Retrieved on January 23, 2019. Muray, R. S. and Larry, J. S. (2011). Statistics, Fourth Edition, MacGraw- Hill Books, London. Szilagyi, K., Borosnyoi, A. (2009). 50 Years of Experience with the Schmidt Rebound Hammar, Concrete Structures, Vol. 10, 46-56. Wesche, K. (1967). Strength Testing of Concrete in Structures, Betonstein- Zitung, heft (German), pp. 267-277.

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African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

Hedonic Pricing Method in Determining Influence of Urban Green Space on Rental Decision in Ikeja Area of Lagos Metropolis

Ola, Olumide S. 1, Joshua S. Mangvwat 2, Ashen, M. J3, Akinluyi M. L4 1&3Department of Estate Management, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Jos 2Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Jos 4Department of Architecture, Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Ikeji-Ara keji, Nigeria

Abstract Green space is an important environmental amenity in our urban area. Evidence from literature suggests that presence of green space generally have a positive influence on housing value as they constitute positive externalities to the surrounding properties. To this end an investigation was made into the relative contributions of urban green space on rental decisions in a residential neighborhood of Lagos, Nigeria using hedonic regression model. With a response rate of 141 drawn on the basis of simple random sampling from population of 152 head of household or their representative who are 18 years of age and above, results from the study indicated that structural condition of the buildings, number of bedrooms, number of bathrooms, number of toilets, size of bedrooms, kitchen size, size of the living room, distance to shop and availability of neighborhood security are the foremost attributes influencing rental decisions in the study area. Although the occupants of such houses shows some level of appreciation of the presence of green space, nevertheless, green space has no significant impact on rental decisions in the study area. The renters/Tenant are not willing to pay higher premium for living near such environmental amenity. The findings of this investigation are of importance to investor, financiers, developers, government and real estate practitioners in that sub market. As a way of promoting green space within our urban area, the study recommends a greater awareness of the importance of keeping a green space as part of ways of ameliorating adverse effect of global warming.

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Keywords: green space, rental decision, hedonic model, environmental preservation, urban area

Introduction An attractive environment is likely Afolayan, 2006, Oduwole & Eze, to influence house prices. Evidence 2013; Bello & Bello, 2007). from developed countries where Although an urban green space nature is more appreciated indicated offers important environmental that house prices were influenced by values which includes provision of the provision of essential leisure opportunities and aesthetic infrastructures as well as the environment, most of these values presence of green space (Moracho, lacks a market price in Lagos, 2003; Tyrvainen, 199). In US for Nigeria. Noor, et al., (2015) noted instance, Morales, Boyce & Favretti, that the urban green spaces are (1976) discovered that residential usually ignored or underestimated properties with good tree cover by urban planning policy-makers. could raise total sale price by as This eventually result in gradual much as 6% to 9%. In Netherlands, encroachment of remnant urban Luttik (2002) found that pleasant green spaces by urban sprawl, and view of Lakes could bring a also being converted to other land considerable increase in property uses. To halt this dangerous practice, price by 8% - 10% and open space there is a need to urgently provide could result in an increase of 6% - quantitative information regarding 12%. Zhang et.al. (2012) also the implicit, non-market price indicated that urban green space had benefits from urban green space to positive and significant influences ensure its sustainability in our urban on neighboring property values in area. This research investigates the Beijing. However, in an emerging influence of urban green space on economy like Nigeria, this important rental decision of residential environmental amenity has attracted properties using the hedonic method. less or no attention at all as part of The objectives are (a) To weigh the attributes that determine the value comparative value of influence of (rental/sales) of properties. Instead, various others attributes on rental concentrations have been given to prices in the study area. (b)To other neighbourhood attributes that determine the influence of urban influences property/rental values green space on rentals decision (Babawale & Adewumi, 2011; within the study area.

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Literature review Effect of Green Space on Property Values Green space is any area within an urban environment that is dedicated to nature and can be used as a space for play, recreation and socialization. Green space can take a number of forms, including urban wetlands or forest canopy, parks, public gardens, playing fields, children’s play areas, foreshore areas, bush land and linear reserves, national parks, state forests and conservation reserves (McConnachie, & Shackleton, 2010; Cilliers, 2015). Though many benefits linked with public green spaces are apparently clear and easy to describe, the benefits are often much harder to quantify. Green spaces in urban and suburban areas have typically been provided amenities that have no set market price, but it has become increasingly common to evaluate them in terms of their monetary contributions to their surrounding communities in advanced countries. Nicholls (2005) suggested that there is a need, to convert the many assumptions regarding the inherent benefits of green space into objective, quantitative estimates of their worth. Increasing population as a result of continuous migration and other land use and its associated effects on land development has led to underestimating serious priority green spaces deserve in our urban area. Worthy of note is that some city planners, urban developers, and even governmental officials believe that development brings prosperity through enhanced tax revenues, and hence any land left open or undeveloped is considered a wasted asset. In addition, negative externalities which includes; invasion of the privacy of those residents whose properties directly border greenways, concern regarding the numbers of strangers who will be passing through local neighborhoods, and fears of increased noise, littering, trespass, and vandalism have been identified by opponents of green space as factors that decreases the generally believed positive impact that green spaces have on home values (Nicholls 2005). However, this perception according to Crompton (2001), can be combated through establishment of proximate principles. This principle according to Crompton (2001), suggests that the value of a specified amenity, like green space, is at least partially captured in the price of residential properties “proximate” to it. If it is anticipated that properties or homes located near an open green space are considered desirable, the additional money that homebuyers and renters are willing to pay for this location represents a “capitalization” of the land into proximate property values (Crompton, 2001). There is therefore a need to determine the economic values of green spaces in order to ensure their continuous 25 [email protected] 2018

existence and designation in our urban areas. It must however be noted that not all green spaces are the same or provide the same amenities, and thus their impact on property value may vary. However, there are ample of evidences that supports the notion that increase in property value (renter/sale) has been occasioned by presence of green spaces. This is because home owners and renters are willing to pay more to enjoy perceived benefits of living closed to green space (Crompton, 2001; Luttik, 2002; Moracho, 2003)

Benefits of green space Green spaces provide many environmental and social benefits, which are well documented in the literature (Beauchamp & Adamowki, 2013; John, 2011; Frank, 2003). Some of the benefits are: restoration of health and well- being (Cohen et.al.,2007; Hartig et. al.,2003; RICS 2011), recreational value (SDC 2010; Okunlola 2013; Wodarczic 2007), educational value (Natural England 2010; Okunlola 2013), economic benefits (RICS 2011; Martin et.al., 2013; SDC 2010) green job opportunities (Environmental Agency 2006) biodiversity and ecological response (Thomas 2013; Frank 2003), improvement of urban air quality (RICS, 2011; Milly, 2012) and, climate change and adaptation response (RICS, 2011; IPCC, 2007; Milly, 2012).

Urban green space and hedonic pricing model Measurements of the value of housing attributes can be achieved by many approaches. However; the hedonic approach remains the most reliable tool for such purposes as it reveals buyers'/renters’ perception through their actual pricing behavior (Liu & Hite 2013). It aims to explain property values on the basis of house characteristics which are: physical, locational, and neighborhood-related attributes. Hedonic method was based on the premise that the value of a good depends on the stream of benefits derived from that good. The method has since remained extensively used in empirically evaluating housing characteristics. Using regression techniques, the hedonic pricing method identifies what portion of the differences in property value can be attributed to environmental amenities, such as green space. The sales/rental value of real estate reflects the benefits that buyers/renters attach to the attributes of that property, including the trees and forest resource found near the property, along the street, and in neighboring parks and greenways. The overall assumption of the hedonic price model (HPM) with respect to real estate according to Melichar et.al. (2009), is that house prices are affected by various variables and the price of the real estate is determined by 26 [email protected] 2018

certain characteristics. The hedonic pricing model allows inferring on the value of environmental good by observing the actual behavior of individual on related market (Mahan et.al., 2000). It has been widely applied with tremendous success to estimate the value of environmental benefits from costs and prices of related market transactions (Sezhu & Diane, 2013). For instance, Nicholls (2005) uses hedonic pricing to operationalize and measure Crompton’s proximate principle in a specific location and takes into account two different desirability interpretations of green space: aesthetic appeal and physical proximity. Barton Creek Greenbelt and Wilderness Park in Austin, Texas, along with three major residential bordering neighborhoods were the greenbelt chosen for the study. The results of the hedonic analysis show that adjacency to the greenbelt produced significant property value premiums in two of three neighborhoods but in no case did visual or physical access to a greenway have a significant negative impact on surrounding property prices. Also, Anderson and West (2006) analyze the relationship between the proximity to several different types of green spaces which include; neighborhood parks, special parks, (national, state, and regional parks, arboretums, nature centers, natural areas, and wildlife refuges), golf courses, and cemeteries and property values using home transaction from Minneapolis. The result of the hedonic analysis indicated that the effect of green space on sales price depends on a home’s location and neighborhood characteristics. On a broader scale, they find that urban residents in more densely populated neighborhoods located near the CBD place a higher value on the proximity to green space than suburban residents located further away from the CBD and in less densely populated areas: in neighborhoods that are twice as dense on average, the amenity value of proximity to neighborhood parks is nearly three times higher than average, while the amenity value of special parks is two-thirds higher. However, the instances, characteristics, geographical location and peculiarity of green space analyzed above differs significantly from what is obtainable in emerging economy like Nigeria. In this study, attempt is therefore made to analyzed the effects of this environmental amenity on rental decision using hedonic method in the study area thereby contributing to the body of knowledge in this area.

Methodology The study took place in Ikeja, a part of Lagos Metropolis. Lagos Metropolis still remained the nerve centre of Nigeria’s commercial, industrial and property investment activities having moved the seat of federal government to Abuja. Lagos metropolis has the most active property market in Nigeria 27 [email protected] 2018

(Babawale, Koleoso & Otegbulu, 2012). M.K.O Abiola Gardens, formerly called Marwa Gardens was the specific study area. The Estate is located in the heart of Ikeja North Western part of Lagos state, Nigeria. The estate was chosen because of its highly strategic location and presence of noticeable green areas. This prime residential estate is perfectly appropriate for this study because according to Tse and Love (2000), in using hedonic regression a sample with similar location characteristics and income group that have the same taste should be chosen so that the net effect of various structural and locational attributes on the neighborhood are similar. The type of accommodation available in the estates are blocks of flat, duplexes, terraces houses. In this research, needed information was gathered from the occupier of 2 to 4 bedrooms flat only because it is the type of property that often attracts tenants in the study area, and the information we seek to gather are best obtained from renter as against the property owners. (Babawale &Johnson, 2012) Due to inability to access GIS for capturing, processed and analyzed needed secondary information, questionnaire survey method was therefore adopted as a surrogate in this study to capture land features such as location and distances on property characteristics, market evidences and structural attributes of block of flats in the study area. According to data obtained from marketing department of Lagos State Development and Property Corporation (LSDP), there are 152 units of 2 to 4bedroomfalts in MKO Abiola estate which form the population of the study. Purposive sampling technique was used to sample head of household or their representative who are 18 years of age and above in each flat unit and who are ready to volunteer information. Purposive sampling method was adopted because of the peculiar security consciousness of the resident of the estate at volunteering information. A total of 144 questionnaires were found usable for this study out of 152 questionnaires administered to head of household or representatives who occupy 2 to 4bedroom flat in the study area. Given the difficulty and tough circumstances surrounding the eliciting of primary data of this nature, this sample was therefore considered reasonably adequate bearing in mind the sample size of other similar studies and even the built environment research domain in particular (Famuyiwa and Otegbulu, 2012: Babawale & Johnson 2012; Oduwole and Eze, 2013). This study employed regression and correlation analysis. The independent variables originally consisted of 30 variables but due to observation of collinearity (too much dependence between variables), the variables were cut to 18 using backward elimination technique, a method that has been used in previous similar 28 [email protected] 2018

research (Gambo, 2012). The White’s test was used to detect possible heteroskedasticity. The analysis of the data on characteristics of respondent and housing attributes were presented using descriptive statistics while the relationship of urban green space and other attributes on apartment rentals were presented inferentially using the hedonic price model. All analysis was done with the aid of SPSS. Data from secondary sources, such as journal articles, technical reports and other published related materials were used for the literature aspect of the study.

Model Specification In specifying hedonic models, cognizance must be taken of the peculiarities of the players in each sub-market since residents tend to sort themselves into different groups that may perceive and value a particular housing attributes differently. According to Schnare and Struyk, (1976) cited in Babawale et.al. (2012), housing market segmentation occurs when households’ demand for particular structural or neighborhood characteristics is highly inelastic and the preference is shared by a relatively large number of households. Tse and Love (2000) also noted that housing prices are determined by the demand for attributes, not only for the dwelling units themselves, but also of the region in which the units are located. That is, each housing market or sub- market produces its own set of hedonic prices. Due to the forgoing, the attributes that that have substantial effect on the tenant rental decision along with green space were included in the hedonic equation for this study.

Functional form Selection of functional form that most suitably explains the connections between the explanatory variables and the property prices is very important to determine accurate and consistent econometric model. For instance, by choosing the most appropriate functional form, the problem of heteroskedasticity can be reduced drastically. However, there is no strong a priori notion of the correct functional form (Babawale & Johnson, 2012). Selim (2008) also observed that there is little guidance from economic theory about the proper functional relationship between housing price and its attributes. As neither economic theory nor previous studies provide clear guidance regarding the choice of functional form, this study therefore employed one out of the three models that have been most widely used in similar studies - the linear, semi-log, and the log-linear. The semi- log functional form being reputed for its easy interpretation and estimated

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parameters as possessing a direct economic meaningfulness as noted by Maurer et.al., (2004) was therefore adopted for this study.

Hedonic Variable Specification for the Study Area Table 1 gives a brief descriptions of the variables used in this study with their respective codes and measurements. The list of housing attributes that affects value is not exhaustive, but for this study, it was limited to the information found in the study area. Therefore, only those attributes which affect the rental value in the surveyed submarket are included. Due to the paucity of secondary data on accommodation dimensions, the task of getting majority of the respondents either to provide accurate measurement of their accommodation or to allow field staff to do the same and the lack of GIS resource to efficiently captured, process and analyzed variables in the study area, a number of variables that should ordinarily be measured as continuous variables were therefore either represented by approximation or by reducing them to binary variables. Thus, distances were approximated to driving time/ walking time in kilometers because this is the most convenient and easiest way respondents could provide estimate for such information in the absence of actual measurement. This same method has been used by other previous researchers in this area (Babawale,et.al., 2012, Babawale & Johnson, 2012). The effects of using such dummy variables is to allow the regression technique itself to estimate the varying influence of the affected variables rather than have them imposed by an interval scale of measurement.

Table 1: Hedonic variable and their Measurement Expected Variable Measurements S/N Variable code Description of variables Sign 1 PRICE Log of rental price of flats: Log of (rental price measured in Dependent Variable Naira) 2 NUMBDROM Number of rooms (+) Numbers of bedrooms 3 BATHROOM Number of bathroom (+) Number of bathrooms 4 PLOTSIZE Plot size (+) in m2 approximately 5 DISTFRMGREEN Distance from green space (-) in m (approximately) 6 BUILDAGE Building age (-) Age of the building in years 7 NUMFLOOR Number of floor (+) Numbers of floor 8 STRUCDITION Structural condition of Building Dummy variable 1 for good and 0 if (+) otherwise 9 AVSECURE Availability of neighborhood Dummy variable 1 for adequate and 0 security level (+) if otherwise.

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10 KCHENSIZE Kitchen sizes Dummy variable 1 for standard size (+) and 0 if otherwise. 11 DIST2WOK Distance to work in km (approximately). Available within 20 minutes’ walk = 1 otherwise (-) 0 12 DIST2SCH Distance to children school in km (approximately) Available within (-) 20 minutes’ walk = 1 otherwise 0 13 DIST2HOSP Distance to the hospital in km (approximately) Available within (-) 20 minutes’ walk = 1 otherwise 0 14 ROADCON Condition of road Dummy variable 1 for good condition (+) and 0 if otherwise 15 DIST2SHOP Distance to shop in km (approximately) Available within (-) 20 minutes’ walk = 1 otherwise 0 16 DIST2WORSHIP Distance to the worship center in km (approximately) Available within (-) 20 minutes’ walk = 1 otherwise 0 17 TOILET Number of toilets (+) Numbers of toilets. 18 BEDSIZE Size of the bedroom (+) in m2 approximately. 19 LIVINGSIZE Size of the living room Dummy variable 1 for standard size (+) and 0 if otherwise.

The dependent variable is the price of flats, while there are 18 important independent variables. These are presented in Table 1.0 above.

Result and discussions Table 2 summarizes characteristics of the respondents. Analysis from the table 2 (a) indicates that 85.5% of the respondents are males, while the remaining are females. Eighty-nine percent of the respondents are university and polytechnic graduate table 2(b). This suggests that the respondents are educated enough to provide reliable answers to questions raised. While majority of the respondents earn less than N300000 monthly. This indicates that the respondents belong to the same income group.

Table 2: Major characteristics of respondents Variable Frequency Percentage (a) Gender distribution of respondent Male 121 85.8 Female 20 14.1 Total 141 100.0 (b) Distribution of respondent by educational qualification OND/NCE 9 6.1 HND/ B.Sc 83 56.5 31 [email protected] 2018

M.Sc 34 23.1 Others 15 10.2 Total 141 100.0 (c) Distribution of respondent by average monthly income Less than 300000 99 70.2 300000-500000 35 24.8 500001-700000 4 2.8 700001-1000000 3 2.1 Total 141 100.0

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics of the Continuous variables Variable Minimum Maximum Mean Std.dev. Rental price/annum 440,000 1100000 835323.87 199189.386 Plotsize 675 3225 893.263 460.15761 Buildage 0.0000 1.0000 7.35000 2.702000 Strucdition 0.0000 1.0000 0.23000 0.425000 Numbdrom 2.0000 4.0000 3.35000 0.757000 Numfloor 0.0000 3.0000 0.60400 0.604000 Bathroom 2.0000 4.0000 0.67000 0.473000 Toilet 1.0000 4.0000 0.68000 0.468000 Bedsize 0.0000 1.0000 0.75000 0.434000 Kchensize 0.0000 1.0000 0.69000 0.465000 Livingsize 0.0000 1.0000 0.78000 0.416000 Dist2wok 0.0000 1.0000 1.99000 1.095000 Dist2sch 0.0000 1.0000 1.99000 1.072000 Dist2worship 0.0000 1.0000 1.77000 0.946000 Dist2shop 0.0000 1.0000 1.79000 1.059000 Distfrmgreen 0.0000 1.0000 83.7600 19.20000 Avsecure 0.0000 1.0000 0.62000 0.486000 Dist2hosp 0.0000 1.0000 1.77000 1.087000 Roadcon 0.0000 1.0000 0.56000 0.498000

Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics of the hedonic variables. The minimum rental value for flat in the study area is N440,000 and the maximum is N1,100,000. The mean rent is N835,328.87 while the standard deviation is N199189. Plot sizes vary with a mean of 893.263 in the study area. The bedrooms have the minimum number of 2 and maximum number of 4 with a mean of 3.350. The range of number of bathroom is from 2 to 4 with the mean value of 0.670 and standard deviation of 0.473.

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Table 4. Result of Regression and correlation Analysis using semi-log model Regression analysis Correlation Variables Coefficeient T-Statistics Analysis (R value) VIF (collinearity statistics) Constant 6.274 146.566 Plotsize .000 1.252 0.037 1.115 Buildage -.004 -3.819 -0.759 2.066 Strucdition .006 .926 0.774 2.353 Numbdrom .004 .897 0.759 1.096 Numfloor .000 -.072 0.347 1.379 Bathroom .002 .209 0.699 1.462 Toilet .004 .491 0.707 1.595 Bedsize .005 .685 0.652 2.773 Kchensize .014 2.012 0.699 2.722 Livingsize .013 1.509 0.688 1.582 Dist2wok -.005 -1.385 0.639 1.634 Dist2sch .000 -.142 0.680 2.809 Dist2worship -.009 -1.453 -0.805 2.091 Dist2shop .0081 .315 -0.714 1.157 Distfrmgreen -.004 -10.363 -0.712 1.531 Avsecure .018 2.849 0.704 2.645 Dist2hosp -.007 -1.454 -0.726 1.346 Roadcon -.011 -1.113 0.736 1.337

R2 0.914 Adjusted R2 0.833 F- Statistics 178.458 D – Waston 2.026 Std. Error 0.2279 Observation 144

The summary of the result of hedonic price model using the semi–log model is presented in table 4. Evaluating the model, an adjusted R2 statistics of 83.3% implies a good explanatory power of the model. This revealed that about 83% of the variation in renter price in the study area can be explained by the 18 explanatory variables used in this model. The maximum Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) value of 2.809 which is lower than 3 recommended by Hair et.al. (2005), further suggests the absence of multicollinearity in the model. Furthermore, the Durbin Waston statistics of 2.026 indicates that the model is free from autocorrelation. The computed F-statistics (F = 178.46) at 95% significant level, indicated that the variables were relevant and significantly different from zero.

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Evaluating each of the independent variables. The result show that out of 18 explanatory variables used, 9 that were significant at 95% and 99% significant level are; structural condition of the building, number of bedroom, number of bathroom, number of toilets, size of bedroom, kitchen size, size of the living room, distance to shop, and availability of neighborhood security level. This implies that renter value of property in the study area is mostly determined by the aforementioned variables. These parameter corroborates findings from previous research in this area (Sirmans et.al.,2005, Babawale et.al., 2012) The variable of interest in this research (DISTFRMGREEN) distance from green space was not significant and with a negative value of -0.004. This implies that closeness of residential apartment to environmental amenity such as green space does not have any significant impact on rental value in the study area. This result is however not in agreement with the findings of Noor, Asmawi & Abdullah (2014), who concluded that neighbourhood green space parks increases house prices between 3-12% in Malaysia. This result is quite worrisome considering the huge investment in providing and maintaining such amenity and not forgetting its numerous advantages. Also judging from the result of the similar correlation analysis, the number of room (NUMBDROM), the number of bathroom (BATHROOM), the bedroom size (BEDSIZE) and the kitchen size (KCHENSIZE), the living room size (LIVINGSIZE), availability of adequate neighbourhood security (AVSECURE) with R values of 0.759, 0.699, 0.657, 0.699, 0.688 and 0.704. All have a high positive correlation with rental value. The implication is that property renters would be willing to pay more for residential properties with more of the above listed features in the study area Age (BUILDAGE) which is - 0.759 is negatively correlated with price suggesting that renters pay less for older building as against new ones. Road condition (ROADCON) is positively correlated with price with an R-value of 0.739 hence property renters will be willing to pay more if the road infrastructure is adequate in terms of its state. The variable of interest (DISTFRMGREEN) is also negatively correlated with price. It R-value is -0.712. This suggests that though property renters may somewhat appreciate the existence of green space in their environment its presence nevertheless did not affect the rental value of their apartment. They will only want to enjoy the benefits of locating close to a green space but not willing to pay premium for this important environmental amenity. The functional form of the model is semi- logarithmic. The equation for multiple regressions is therefore presented as: 34 [email protected] 2018

LOGPRICE = 6.274 + .000PLOTSIZE -.004BUILDAGE +.006STRUCDI +.004NUMBDROM +.000NUMFLOOR+.002BATHROOM+.004TOILET+.005BEDSIZE+.01 4KCHENSIZE+ .013LIVINGSIZE-.005DIST2WOK+.000DIST2SCH- .009DIST2WORSHIP+.0081DIST2SHOP -.004DISTFRMGREEN +.018AVSECURE -.007DIST2HOSP -.011ROADCON.

The above model of hedonic function can thus be explained that the rental price of an apartment in the study area is made up of a basic sum (6.274) plus adjustment reflecting the structural condition of the building, size of kitchen, size of bedroom, availability of security, size of living room and other property characteristics. In particular, the model suggested that size of kitchen add approximately 14%, size of living room increases the rent by 13% and availability of security increases the rent by 18%. The size of the plot, number of floor and distances to children school has no significant impact on rental value. The model also suggested that distance from green space is negatively correlated and therefore of no importance to rental value in the study area. The result from this model contrast with what is obtainable in some countries where it has been established that green space contributes significantly to increase in price of properties (Anderson &West, 2006, Moracho, 2003; Anderson & Cordell, 1998; Tyrvainen, 1997).

Conclusion and recommendation The study used the standard hedonic price specification to demonstrate that structural, locational and neighborhood attributes have influence on the decision of rental apartment prices in the study area. Specifically, the study indicated that structural condition of the building (STRUCDITION), number of bedroom (NUMBDROM), number of bathroom (BATHROOM), number of toilets (TOILET), size of bedroom (BEDSIZE), kitchen size (KCHENSIZE), size of the living room (LIVINGSIZE), distance to shop (DIST2SHOP), and availability of neighborhood security (AVSECURE) are the foremost attributes influencing the rental decision in the study area. The coefficient of determination R2 which is approximately 80% for the study area suggested that both the explanatory and predictive performance of the model is reasonably good. Incidentally, result from variable of interest in this study distance from green space (DISTFRMGREEN) is negatively correlated with price. This suggests that though availability of green neighborhood space does have significant effect on rental decision in the study area, but the renter does not want to pay premium for its sustainability. 35 [email protected] 2018

This however portends a significant danger as regards the preservation and maintenance of green area as part of the way of curtailing the adverse effect of global warming which is currently assuming a dangerous dimension across the globe. The finding also suggests that until valuers began to reflect and account for sustainability features like green space in the values of property, investors may not be encouraged to incorporate sustainability features into property development. (Babawale and Oyalowo, 2011). Adequate pricing of externalities such as green space will therefore have impact on both people’s behavior and the improvement of the environment (Pearse, 2005). In general, the study did not only provide developers with essential information on tenant’s preferences and tastes as relates to differences in influence between various housing attributes, but also provides property taxation authority with requisite information to levy taxes based on those attributes that significantly influence rental decision. As a way of ameliorating the adverse effect of global warming on our cities and continuously keeping our environment to be more aesthetically appealing to the investors from all walks of life, consumers/renters should be shown reasons why premium should be paid for this important environmental amenity in their locality. By doing this, benefits such as (restoration of health and well-being, recreational, economic benefits Green job opportunities, biodiversity and ecological response, improvement of urban air. quality and climate change and adaptation response) which have been attributed to green space in developed clime can be equally enjoyed in developing economy like Nigeria.

Reference Afolayan, A. S. (2006). Environmental Externality and Housing Values: A study of Victoria Garden City, Lagos. Journal of Land use and Development Studies, 2, 79-90 Anderson, L.M., Cordell, H.K., (1988). Influence of trees on residential property values in Athens, Georgia (U.S.A.): a survey based on actual sales prices. Journal of Landscape & Urban Planning, 15, 153–164. Anderson, S.T. and West, S.E. (2006). Open space, residential property values, and spatial context. Regional Science and Urban Economics 36 773–789. Babawale, G.K, and Yewande A., (2011) The impact of neighbourhood churches on House Prices. Journal of Sustainable Development, 4(1): 246-253

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Babawale, G.K., & Johnson O., (2012). The specification of hedonic indexes for duplex in Lekki Peninsular area of Lagos Metropolis. Elixir Social Sciences, 45, 7689-7698 Babawale, G.K., Koleoso, H.A., & Otegulu, C.A., (2012). A hedonic model for apartment rentals in Ikeja area of Lagos metropolis. Mediterranean journal of applied sciences, 4(10), 774-778 Babwale, G.K and Oyalowo B.O. (2011). Incorporating Sustainability into Real Estate Valuation: The Perception of Nigerian Valuers. Journal of Sustainable Development 4(4) Beauchamp, P. & Adamowski, J., (2013). An integral framework for the development of green infrastructure; A literature review. European journal of sustainable development. 2(3) pp 1-24 Bello, M. O., & Bello, V. A. (2007). The influence of Consumers Behaviours On the Variables Determining Residential property values in Lagos, Nigeria. American Journal of Applied Sciences, 4(10), 774-778. http://dx.doi.org/10.3844/ajassp.2007.774.778 Bolitzer, B., & Netusil, N. (2000). “The Impact of Open Space on Property Value in Portland, Oregon. Journal of environmental management. 59:185-93. Cilliers, E.J., (2015). The Importance of Planning for Green Spaces. Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Special Issue: Planning for Sustainable Communities: Green-Spaces in Rural Areas. Vol. 4, No. 4- 1, 2015, pp. 1-5. doi: 10.11648/j.aff.s.2015040401.11 Cohen, D. A., Mckenzie, T. L., Sehgal, A., Golinelli, D. and Lurie, N., (2007). Contribution of public parks to physical activity, American Journal of Public Health 97(3). Crompton J.L. (2005). The Impact of Parks on property values: Empirical evidence from the past two decades in the United States. Journal of Managing Leisure, 10: 203-218. Environment Agency, (2006). Environmental Economy Report for the North West, Bridge Economics. Famuyiwa, F. & Otegbulu, A.C., 2012). Public water infrastructure in property prices; an environmental valuation approach. Elixir infrastructure management, 51, 11034-11038 Frank, M.S., (2003). The Benefits of Plants and Landscaping. Florida Gardening.www.floridagardening.org/download/BenefitofPlants.pdf. Garrison Freeman, A.M., (1979). The Benefits of Environmental Improvements. Resources for the Future, Baltimore, MD. Gambo, Y. L., (2012); Hedonic price modelling of the influence of violent ethno-religious conflict on Residential property value in Bauchi Metropolic, Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development. 5(9); 85-97. DOI 10.5539/jsd. v5n9p85 Grey. C. & Dcneke. F. (1978). Urban Forestry. John Wiley, Chichester.

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Hartig, T., Evans, G.W., Jamner, L.D., Davis, D.S., Gärling, T., (2003). Tracking restoration in natural and urban field setting, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23, 109–123 John, H., (2011). Benefits of Green Space, Environmental Health Research Foundation. Nonprofit Research Foundation Specializing in Health and Environmental Science. Lancaster, K.J., (1966). A new approach to consumer theory. Journal of political economy, 74 132-157 Laurie, I. (1979). The Natural Environment in the Design and Development of Urban Green. John Wiley, Chicbester. 428. Liu, S. & Hite, D., (2013). Measuring the effects of green space on property value. An application of the hedonic spatial quartile regression. Southern Agricultural Economic Association (SAEA) annual meeting, 3-5 February, Orlando, Florida. Luttik, J. (2000). The value of trees, water and open space as reflected by house prices in Netherlands. Landscape and urban Planning, 48: 161- 167. Mahan, B.L, Polasky, S., & Adams, R.M., (2000). Valuing urban wetlands: a property price approach. Land Economics, 76(1). McConnachie, M.M., & C.M. Shackleton, C.M., (2010). Public green space inequality in small towns in South Africa, Habitat International, vol. 34(2), pp. 244–248, 2010. Melichar, Jan, Voj acek, Ondrej, Rieger, Pavel, & Jedlicka, Karel. (2009). Measuring the value of urban forest using the Hedonic price approach. Regional Studies, 2, 13(20) Milly A., (2012). Green Infrastructure, Implementation Manual, Vermont Land Use Education & Training Collaborative, available at www.vpic.info. Morales, D. J., Boyce, B. N., & Favretti, R. J. (1976). The contribution of trees to residential property value: Manchester, Connecticut. Valuation, 23(2), 26–43. Morancho, A.B., (2003). A hedonic valuation of urban green areas. Lands & Urban Planning, 66, 35–41. More, T.A., Stevens, T., Allen, P.G., (1988). Valuation of urban parks. Lands & Urban Planning. 15, 139–152. Nicholls, S. (2005). The Impact of Greenways on Property Values: Evidence from Austin, Texas. Journal of Leisure Research 37(3), 321-341. Noor, N.M., Asmawi, M.Z., & Abdillah, A. (2015). Sustainable urban regeneration: GIS and hedonic pricing method in determining the value of green space in housing area. Procedia- social and behavioural science 170(2015) 669-679. Retrieve from creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0. doi 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.10.069.

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Oduwole, H.K., & Eze, H.T., (2013). A hedonic pricing model on factors that influence residential apartment rent in Abuja satellite towns. IISTE journal of mathematical theory and modelling 3(12), 2224-5804. Pearse, D. (2005). Do we understand sustainable development? Building Research and Information, Vol. 34(3) pp 201-207 RICS, (2011). Green infrastructure in urban areas, RICS information paper 1st edition www.ricsbooks.com Robinette, C. (1972). “Plants, People and Environmental Quality.” Department of the Interior. National Fark Service, Washington DC, 40 Rosen, S. (1974). Hedonic Price and Implicit Markets: Product Differential in Pure Competition. Journal of Political Economy,82(1),35-55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/260169 Selim, S. (2008). Determinants of House Prices in Turkey: A Hedonic Regression Model. Dogus Universitesi Dergisi, 9 (1), pp. 65-76 The Sustainable Development Council (SDC), 2010. Green Infrastructure, Comhar SDC Web Materials.http://www.comharsdc.ie Thomas P. Z., (2013). Environmental challenges of urbanization: A case study for open green space management. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Management Vol. 2(4) Tse, R. Y., & Love, P. E. (2000). Measuring Residential Property Values in Hong Kong. Property Management, 18, 366-374. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02637470010360669 Tyrvainen L (1997). The amenity value of urban forest: An application of the hedonic pricing method. Journal of Landscape and Urban Planning, 37:211-222. Zhang B., Xie G., Xia B and Zhang C (2012). The effects of public green spaces on residential property value in Beijing. Journal of Resource and Ecology 2(3) 243-252. doi:10. 5814lj.

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African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

Analysis of Scavenging Activities in Bauchi Metropolis, Nigeria

Bogoro Audu Gani Department of Urban and Regional Planning, AbubakarTafawaBalewa University, Bauchi, Nigeria

Abstract Scavengers play an important role in solid waste management systems in cities of developing countries; they contribute to both socio-economic and environmental benefits. In this study, 176 questionnaires were proportionately administered to scavengers in the low, medium and high incomes areas of Bauchi metropolis to determine the characteristics of scavengers and problems of scavenging in the metropolis. Data collected revealed that In Bauchi direct scavenging activity is predominantly practiced by teenagers that are basic school drop-outs and are all exclusively masculine. The driving forces that push youth in to the business is mainly poverty as a result of joblessness. It is also discovered that, by way of law, the government does not recognize them as stakeholders in solid waste management nor assign any official role to them, and the society continued to perceive them as people having ‘inferior’ and ‘polluting’ occupations leading to social stigma. With all the associated inevitable health hazards, surprisingly, 67% of the respondents don’t care about the health hazard. A big problem for all scavengers is lack of a body to coordinate their activities and talk on their behalf. This paper recommends that government shouldnot only recognize but also integrate scavengers into solid waste management programs and create favourable environment for them to develop the profession. There should be regular sensitization training on dangers of unprotected scavenging, finally, scavengers at all levels should organize themselves in to cooperative societies to coordinate and regulate their activities.

Keywords: Scavenging, Environment, Bauchi, Cooperative Societies, Recycling Industries

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Introduction Millions of people worldwide make Manila, Philippines; and 15,000 in a living collecting, sorting, Mexico City, Mexico (Medina recycling, and selling materials that 2005). Other scavengers work as someone else has thrown away sorters in recycling warehouses or as (Fischer, 1998). Vital actors in the processors in recycling plants owned informal economy, scavengers, by membership-based organizations provide widespread benefits to their (MBOs) (Dias 2010). Some are communities, their municipalities involved in cross-border activities, and the environment, Gerdesand such as the Mexican scavengers who Gunsilius 2010). However, they work on both sides the US border often face low social status, (Medina 2007, Marshall and deplorable living and working Khosrow 2013). The term conditions, and little support from “scavenging” is commonly used to local governments. The term refer to the task of extracting scavengers can be broadly defined as reusable and recyclable materials people who reclaim “reusable and from mixed wastes. Many recyclable materials from what scavengers also sort or segregate others have cast aside as waste” waste and sell it to persons or units (Boateng 1990, Georgescu 1975). further up the recycling chain Scavengers can range from poor (Ahmed et al 2004). people rummaging through garbage At the First World Conference of in search of necessities such as food Scavengers in 2008, the term to informal private collectors of “scavengers” was adopted for use in recyclables who sell to middlemen English to facilitate global or businesses, as well as organized networking: it is preferred to such waste pickers/sorters linked to derogatory terms as “waste pickers”. unions, cooperatives or associations Other languages have their own (Fahmi and Sutton 2006). terms to refer to scavengers: Scavengers may collect household “catadores” in Portuguese, waste from the curb side, “recicladores” in Spanish. commercial and industrial waste Advantages and disadvantages of from dumpsters, or litter from streets solid waste scavenging and urban waterways. Some live and Assaad (1996) argues that an work on municipal dumps – as many organized informal waste sector can as 20,000 people in Kolkata, India; greatly reduce the cost of a city’s 8,000 people in Lagos, solid waste management (SWM) Nigeria;(FMH&E,1985) 12,000 in program. Scavenging reduces the

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amount of waste that needs to be collected, transported, and disposed of, which translates into savings to local governments and extends the life of dumps/landfills3 (Moses, 2004). Using recyclable materials reduces cost of production, for example, producing copper from already segregated scrap metals requires only about one-tenth the energy required for production from virgin copper ore. Recycling magnesium results in a 97 percent energy savings, and recycling aluminum results in a 96 percent energy savings. Using scrap instead of iron ore to make new steel means a 74 percent energy savings (Johnson et al., 1984, Lee 2004). Similarly, energy is saved when paper, glass and rubber are recycled. Recycled waste is an important source of raw materials. In 1984, for instance, the Mexican paper industry used 58.3 percent wastepaper as a fiber source and by 1994 it had increased to 73.8 percent (Medina, 2000). Secondly, more than half of the waste is collected by informal workers in Cairo (Lardinois and Klundert, 1994). In Santa Cruz, Bolivia, informal collectors serve about 37% of the population (Medina, 2000). In the city of Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, the economic impact of scavenging activities has been estimated at nearly half a million dollars per month (Lowry 1990). In Hanoi, Vietnam, waste-pickers provide no-cost waste reduction in the city of around 23-40% (DiGregorio, 1995). In Surabaya, Indonesia, waste pickers recover12% of the city’s total waste, and 31% of organic recyclables (Taylor, 1999). Jakarta, Indonesia, produces 711,180 tons of garbage per month, which costs the sanitation department US$8.50 per ton for collection, transportation and disposal. 25% of the waste recycled by scavengers saves the city US$270,000-300,000 per month (D’souza, 2001). The informal sector In Bangalore, India, is claimed to prevent 15% of the municipal waste going to the dumpsite (Baud and Schenk, 1994) while in Karachi, Pakistan, the informal sector reduces municipal waste collection by 10% (Ali, et al., 1993). Another important role of scavenging is the fact that it represents an income- generating activity for the poorest and immigrants in the developing world. Recovery of materials from solid waste, if organized properly, can generate a livelihood for unskilled workers in a developing country environment. Although poverty is an important factor that causes people to become scavengers, it is not the only one. In most cities of developing countries, waste gathering extends beyond household needs as people find employment supplying the demand of small and large industries for wastes—paper, plastics, metals, rags, rubber, leather, glass and ceramics, bones— as substitutes for raw materials. Each large city manifests an intricate network 42 [email protected] 2018

of waste gathering, dealing and transportation—scavengers and itinerant "announced" collectors, sorters and processors, buyers, dealers, and manufacturers. In times of war or severe economic crises, scavenging reappears with particular intensity (Medina, 2001). Seldman (2000), states that from one to three million people live and work as solid waste scavengers in the Third World. Based on World Bank estimation, one to two percent of the population of big cities is supported directly or indirectly by the refuse generated by the upper 10-20 percent of the population (Hogland and Marques, 2000). Medina (2000), reports that, in Asian and Latin American cities, up to 2 percent of the population survives by scavenging solid waste. Again, scavengers’ earnings vary widely between regions by the type of work they do, and for women and men. For example, in Belgrade, scavengers may earn US $100 monthly on average (Simpson-Hebert et al. 2006), while in Cambodia, the earnings can be as little as one dollar a day (UNEP/GPA-UNESCO/IHE (2004). In Santa Cruz, Bolivia, about 59 per cent of scavengers earn below the minimum wage. However, although scavenging is the lowest paid part of the recycling chain in many places, these workers can earn more than the minimum wage; in Brazil and Mexico, some earn many times the minimum wage. In Brazil, RAIS database shows that a third (34%) of scavengers earn 1.01 – 1.50 times the minimum wage, 29 per cent between 1.51 to 2.00 times minimum wage; 18 per cent between 2.01 to 3.00 times minimum wage; 7 per cent between 3.01 to 4.00 times minimum wage (Crivellari et al. 2008, Malkin 2013). Recovering of resources from waste through scavenging is a major player in the reduction of our urban waste stream; it conserves our natural resources from depletion and they can also be good sources of raw materials for either artisans or i our industries. Such practices eliminate a lot of materials that may be dumped, burnt or buried as waste However on the other hand, scavenging is associated with some negative tendencies.Medina (2000), again, reported that some studies about mortality and morbidity in scavenger population. Mexico dumpsite scavengers have a life expectancy of 39 years compared with the general population’s 67 years. Another study, conducted in Port Said, Egypt, found that scavenger community had an infant mortality ratio of one to three (one death of an infant under one year out of every 3 live births). In Cairo,Egypt, one in four babies born in scavenger communities died before reaching their first year. In Manila, more than 35 diseases have been identified in scavenger communities and areas that lack refuse collection and sanitation. Scavenging 43 [email protected] 2018

has some detrimental effects on the health of the scavengers, who suffer from eye irritation; respiratory diseases, with coughing, sneezing, etc.; skin diseases, especially scabies; minor injuries from stepping on broken bottles or sharp objects in the refuse; headaches from working in the sun; and backaches from bending down most of the time (Bogoro, et al 2012). Other infections associated with waste scavenging includes, skin and blood infections resulting from direct contact with waste and from infected wounds; eye and respiratory infections resulting from exposure to infected dust; zoonosis resulting from bites by wild or stray animals feeding on wastes; and enteric infections transmitted by flies on wastes, chronic diseases like respiratory diseases and cancers resulting from exposure to dust and hazardous compounds, accidental injuries that include skeletal disorders resulting from the handling of heavy containers, infected wounds from contact with sharp items; poisoning and chemical burns resulting from contact with small amounts of hazardous chemical waste mixed with general waste; burns and other injuries from occupational accidents at waste disposal sites or from methane-gas explosions at landfill sites. Social stigma tends to discourage people from going into the businessas the society look down upon them with disrespect.

Solid Waste Generated In Bauchi Metropolitan Area Quantitatively, Turaki, (1982) reported that, residential area in Bauchi metropolis; generate an average volume of 0.003 m3/person/day for high density areas, 0.004 m3/person/day for medium density areas and 0.005 m3/person/day for high Density areas. On the other hand, Maikano, (2000) observed that in Bauchi metropolis; high-density residential areas generated an average volume of 0.006m3/person/day, medium-density areas generated 0.006 m3 person/day while low-density areas 0.009m3/person/day. In the two studies, no account of weight of solid wastes generated was considered and the second researcher, Maikano, claimed that residential density was not a strong factor in determining the quantities of solid wastes generation as asserted by the first researcher.In another development a World Bank sponsored project, World Bank, (1998) adopted weight as the standard measure for determining amount of solid wastes quantities. For instance data for thirty countries compiled by the World Bank showed that per capita wastes generation ranged between 0.6 and 1.5 kg/capita/day for low income countries and 0.8 and 2.0 kg/capita/day for industrialized countries. For Nigeria, the average per capita waste generation stood at 1.02kg/person/day. The maximum figure was 1.2kg/capita/day recorded in Port Harcourt while 44 [email protected] 2018

the lowest figure was 1.2 kg/capita/day recorded in Minna. Bauchi metropolis is not one of the high waste generators among Nigerian urban centres. The average solid waste generation for low income earners was 0.0033m3/capita/day, 0.0040m3/capita/day for medium income earners and 0.0046 for high income areas. The overall average stood at 0.004m3/capita/day. The volume of solid wastes general in Bauchi metropolis is relatively small but absence of segregation practice at the household level and ineffective evacuation were possibly the major factor responsible for the continues accumulation of solid wastes on the metropolis. Still quantitatively, this research discovered that the amount of solid waste generated in Bauchi metropolis is 0.16 kg lower than the national average per capita which is 1.02 kg/capita/day. The average solid waste generated in high density residential areas at 0.79 kg/capita/day; 0.89 kg/capita/day for medium density residential areas and 1.03 kg/capita/day low-density residential areas. The general average per capital solid waste generated was 0.86 kg/capita/day. Researchers have revealed that income level of a society determines the type of its solid waste. In general the higher a country’s level of industrialization the higher its income level and the larger its proportion of toxic, non-organic and nonbiodegradable.

35

30

25

20

15 percentages 10

5

Quantity Of Solid Waste Generation In In Generation Waste Solid Of Quantity 0 Garbage Rubbish Trash Ash Polythene Characteritics Of Solid Waste

Figure 1 Characteristics of solid waste Generated in Bauchi Metropolis

High-income earners consume more of processed and packaged than raw products, which result in a higher percentage of inorganic materials – metals,

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plastics, glass, and textile. Waste characteristics vary according to season, income level, population, social behaviour, climate, and industrial production, the size of markets for waste materials and the extent of urbanization, effectiveness of recycling, and work reduction. The higher the level of economic development, the higher the quantity of inorganic materials in the waste stream Table 2 shows a comparative analysis of municipal solid waste composition in some major cities in Nigeria. It can be seen that great majority of the total solid waste generated in Nigeria is organic.

METHODOLOGY Bauchi metropolis, the headquarters of Bauchi State, is located between latitudes 9” 00’ and 9” 30’ North of the Equator and longitudes 10” 25 and 11” 20’ East of the Greenwich Meridian. It occupies a total land area of 3, 604.0 hecteres. It is about 128km North-east of Jos and 150km West of Gombe town.Bauchi metropolis, being the study area, has a total population of 418,038people as at June 2015, population census NPC, (2017). The present Bauchi metropolis occupies a total land mass of 3,604 hectares and this is distributed among the various land use activities. Like in most urban settlements residential use accounts for up to 51.9% of the total land area and education has only 3.4% of the area, The average solid waste generation is 0.004m3/capita/day; therefore the total volume of solid waste generated is 1674m3 daily in the metropolis. The general average per capital solid waste generated was 0.86 kg/capita/day totaling to 334,430kg daily (Bogoro,2017) For the purpose of sampling,, the study area was divided into three areas, high, medium and low income areas, which form the sample frame. From each area a proportionate unit of scavengers was selected for the purpose of administering questionnaire and interview. Ball and Gall, (1971) suggested that for a social study like this, for a target population of 1000 units, a sample size of 20% should be adopted, 10% sample size for 5000 population and 5% for a population of 50,000. The sample size of this research was determined based on the target population size. Since there are 355 scavengers in the study area, 50% of 355 scavengers were taken as the sample size which is 176 scavengers. Bauchi metropolis, where population density, income level and probably occupation which to a great extent determined solid generation and characteristics, are quite varied, systematic random sampling techniques was adopted for the selection of the samples.

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These techniques are the most appropriate for a social survey because they are scientific and easy to apply.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION Socio-Economic Characteristics of Scavengers In Bauchi direct scavenging activity is predominantly practiced by minors or children of basic school age cohort and post-primary drop- outs. Their age limit falls between 5 – 19 years, while on the other hand the solid waste dealers, those who buy the waste from the direct waste pickers, are relatively advanced in age as over 80% of those interviewed are 21 years and above. The direct scavengers or waste-pickers take scavenging as temporary while most of the solid waste dealers adopt it as a permanent employment. Scavenging at all levels is exclusively masculine in nature as the socio- cultural values in the area forbid female (ladies and women) from such hectic and stigmatized activity, that is why 98% of scavengers in Bauchi are found to be male Scavenging, especially direct waste- pickers, is considered as job for the jobless. People without any form of formal education go into scavenging because of its free entry and no initial capital required. More than 75% of them do not have formal educational certificate to prepare them for future employment.as such they resorted to waste picking.

1% Educational Level

9% 14%

52%

24%

No school Informal Primary

Figure 2 Education Level Source; Field Survey, 2017

Scavenging is found to be characterized by free entry and unregulated mode of operation. Migrants and new arrivals into the city quickly go into the business as a temporary or long term means of survival. 67% of the scavengers in Bauchi are not natives.

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Table 1Indigeneship of Scavengers Indigeneship Percentages Native 33 Migrants 67 Total 100 Sourse; field survey 2017

Solid Waste Analysis in Bauchi Metropolitan Area Quantitatively, Turaki, (1982) reported that, residential area in Bauchi metropolis; generate an average volume of 0.003 m3/person/day for high density areas, 0.004 m3/person/day for medium density areas and 0.005 m3/person/day for high Density areas. On the other hand, Maikano, (2000) observed that in Bauchi metropolis; high-density residential areas generated an average volume of 0.006m3/person/day, medium-density areas generated 0.006 m3 person/day while low-density areas 0.009m3/person/day. In the two studies, no account of weight of solid wastes generated was considered and the second researcher, Maikano, claimed that residential density was not a strong factor in determining the quantities of solid wastes generation as asserted by the first researcher.In another development a World Bank sponsored project, World Bank, (1998) adopted weight as the standard measure for determining amount of solid wastes quantities. For instance data for thirty countries compiled by the World Bank showed that per capita wastes generation ranged between 0.6 and 1.5 kg/capita/day for low income countries and 0.8 and 2.0 kg/capita/day for industrialized countries. For Nigeria, the average per capita waste generation stood at 1.02kg/person/day. The maximum figure was 1.2kg/capita/day recorded in Port Harcourt while the lowest figure was 0.6 kg/capita/day recorded in Minna. Bauchi metropolis is not one of the high waste generators among Nigerian urban centres. This study discovered that the average solid waste generation for low income earners was 0.0033m3/capita/day, 0.0040m3/capita/day for medium income earners and 0.0046 for high income areas. The overall average stood at 0.004m3/capita/day. See table 2 below

Table 2 Per Capita Solid Waste Generation in Cubic Meter (M3)

Ward Density Garbage Rubbish Trash Ash Polythene Total (M3) Average (M3) Old G R A Low 0.0111 0.0057 0.0048 0.0010 0.0053 0.0297 0.0047 New G R A Low 0.0092 0.0061 0.0052 0.0008 0.0047 0.0260 0.0043 F/Mada Low 0.0100 0.0067 0.0060 0.0012 0.0060 0.0299 0.0050

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Yelwa Medium 0.0100 0.0060 0.0041 0.0041 0.0040 0.0282 0.0047 Dan Iya Medium 0.0072 0.0059 0.0052 0.0034 0.0054 0.0271 0.0045 Makama Medium 0.0052 0.0062 0.0048 0.0037 0.0049 0.0248 0.0041 I/Bako Medium 0.0070 0.0049 0.0050 0.0024 0.0046 0.0239 0.0040 Nassarawa High 0.0039 0.0047 0.0051 0.0043 0.0035 0.0215 0.0036 Dan Kade High 0.0033 0.0050 0.0045 0.0051 0.0038 0.0217 0.0036 Dawak High 0.0041 0.0032 0.0047 0.0038 0.0028 0.0186 0.0031 Dan Amar High 0.0037 0.0028 0.0037 0.0051 0.0026 0.0179 0.0030 Hardo High 0.004 0.0037 0.0044 0.0041 0.0038 0.0200 0.0033 3 Total (M ) 0.0787 0.0609 0.0575 0.0390 0.0514 0.2875 Average (M3) 0.0066 0.0051 0.0048 0.0033 0.0049 Source: Field Survey June 2011 Bogoro and Babanyara 2012

The volume of solid wastes general in Bauchi metropolis is relatively small but absence of segregation practice at household level and ineffective evacuation were possibly the major factor responsible for the continues accumulation of solid wastes in the metropolis. Still quantitatively, this research discovered that the amount of solid waste generated in Bauchi metropolis is 0.16 kg lower than the national average per capita which is 1.02 kg/capita/day. The average solid waste generated in high density residential areas at 0.79 kg/capita/day; 0.89 kg/capita/day for medium density residential areas and 1.03 kg/capita/day low-density residential areas. The general average per capital solid waste generated was 0.86 kg/capita/day. See table 3 below.

Table 3 Per Capita Solid Waste Generation In kilogramme (Kg)

Ward Density Garbage Rubbish Trash Ash Polythene Total (kg) Average kg

Old G R A Low 1.12 0.99 1.00 0.45 1.57 5.13 1.03 New G R A Low 1.28 0.90 1.10 0.30 1.44 5.02 1.00 F/Mada Low 1.02 1.11 0.80 0.65 1.31 4.89 0.98 Yelwa Medium 0. 86 0.91 1.03 0.77 0.99 4.56 0.91 Dan Iya Medium 0.76 0.83 0.91 0.64 0.87 4.01 0.80 Makama Medium 0.62 0.58 0.75 1.08 1.00 4.03 0.81 I/ Bako Medium 0.80 0.92 0.78 0.87 1.04 4.41 0.88 Nassarawa High 0.37 0.75 0.50 1.34 0.54 3.50 0.70 Dan Kade High 0.52 0.67 0.71 1.54 0.80 4.24 0.85 Dawaki High 0.41 0.82 0.49 1.66 0.61 3.99 0.80 Dan Amar High 0.52 0.54 0.62 1.47 0.48 3.49 0.70 Hardo High 0.61 0.47 0.51 1.21 0.69 3.49 0.70 Total (kg) 8.75 9.49 9.20 12.0 11.31 50.74 49 [email protected] 2018

Average (kg) 0.73 0.79 0.77 1.00 0.95 Source: Field Survey June 2011 Bogoro and Babanyara 2012 From the figure above, it can be deduced that income and quantity of solid waste generation are directly and proportionately related as high income areas like GRAs generally generate more waste

Duration in Scavenging Scavenging in Bauchi is characterized by mass entry and corresponding exit simultaneously. The scavengers, especially direct waste-pickers do mot stay long in the business. In this study it is discovered that 70% of those interviewed have stayed for five years or less in scavenging field. Those who stay in the business for more than 10 years are the few dealers who buy from direct scavengers and supply to recycling industries, they constitute only 11%of the scavengers’ population

Reason for Scavenging Waste Materials People go into for different reasons. The driving forces that push youth in to the business is mainly poverty as a result of joblessness. The study conducted reveals that 44% and 23% are forced in to scavenging due to poverty and joblessness respectively despite the fact there is no attractive market for the recovered materials, though sometimes the influence of peer group and friends lieu some teenagers into the activity as shown in the figure 1 below Reason For Scavenging

23% 44% 11%

12% 10%

poverty good market available materials friends joblessness

Figure 4 Reason for Scavenging Source; Field Survey, 2017

Average Daily Income from Scavenging In Bauchi, the data collected reveals that the daily earnings from waste picking is very low compared to other cities 77% do not earn more than one thousand naira daily from sales of their scraps. The direct waste pickers are

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highly exploited by the waste dealers, for instance the dealers buy from waste pickersa kilogram of iron at N50.00, aluminum at N200.00, copper at N800.00 and sell to the industries iron at N150.00, aluminum at N500.00 and copper at N1500.00 per kilogram

Area of Operation Researchers have revealed that income level of a society determines the type of its solid waste. In general the higher a country’s level of industrialization the higher its income level and the larger its proportion of toxic, non-organic and nonbiodegradable.High-income earners consume more of processed and packaged foods than raw products, which result in a higher percentage of inorganic materials – metals, aluminum, plastics, glass, and textile.. The higher the level of economic development, the higher the quantity of inorganic materials in the waste stream , that could be the reason why waste pickers would prefer to operate in high income areas in Bauchi metropolis than in other zones Up to 80% of the respondents scavenge in the high income area (GRAs and Fadamanmada ) than the low and medium income areas despite the police harassment in the high income zones. In high income areas like the government reserve areas (GRA) scavengers found more recyclable and useful materials than in other areas problems face by scvavengers in Bauchi as in the figure below

80

60 74 40

20 19 7 0 low income medium income high income area of operatio

Figure 4 Area of Operation Source; Field Survey, 2017 In an interview with Bauchi State Environmental Protection Agency (BASEPA), to determine the role of scavengers in solid waste 51 [email protected] 2018

managementBauchi, the agency affirmed that despite the fact scavengers are conspicuously visible in all dump sites reducing the quantity of solid waste to be evacuated, by way of law, the government does not recognize them as stakeholders in solid waste management nor assign any official role to them, as such no incentives inform of loans, grants or assistance from the government to boost their business. Due to lack of legislative rights, scavengers are particularly susceptible to violence by the police. As 88% of the of the solid waste dealers reported that they are frequently arrested by the police for allegedly buying stolen items from waste pickers or operating without legal permit They face exploitation and intimidation by security agents, Scavengers are treated as nuisances by authorities and with disdain by the public, scavengers are usually ignored within public policy processes and frequently suffer low social status and low-esteem because they are continued to be perceived as people having ‘inferior’ and ‘polluting’ occupations. They are likely to be from marginalized groups or rejected from global economic processes. Again, handling waste poses many health risks to workers. These are even greater for informal workers due to their daily unprotected exposure to contaminants and hazardous materials. Surprisingly, 67% of the respondents don’t care about the health hazard; however, this cannot be unconnected to their level of illiteracy and lack of health education while some 20% are cautious of the health implication Also, risks include contact with fecal matter, paper saturated by toxic materials, bottles and containers with chemical residues, health residues, contaminated needles, and heavy metals from batteries A lack of worker protection and poor access to health care aggravate these risks. The Bauchi state environmental policies are only in the areas of environmental sanitation, degradation and pollution control. It is vividly clear that there is no linkage between government formulated policies on environment and the activities of waste scavengers. Government has failed to recognize and formalize scavenging, despite its importance in terms of job creation and income generation to a large number of youths. 97% of the respondents blame both the federal and state governments for failure to formally recognize and protect their activities legislation; they are also agitating for empowerment and loans from government to boost their business Another worrisome problem disturbing the scavengers is the absence of a strong and organized union or cooperatives that would coordinate and 52 [email protected] 2018

regulate their operation on one hand and on the other hand present their demands to the government for assistances and empowerment to develop the occupation as a formal business.Despite the advantages of cooperativization, the task of organizing workers into cooperatives is slow and challenging, and is itself now a policy aim in municipalities pursuing waste picker. In some countries like India and China, scavengers have formidable cooperative societies that access loans from banks to expandthe business by adding value to the materials gathered. The absence of a regulatory framework for waste pickers in Bauchi, to recognize cooperatives as entities that can assume legal and institutional commitments – despite the informality of their workforce – is a significant barrier to raising productivity

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Scavenging in Bauchi is taken as temporary business by most of the scavengers. It is found that more than 65% are into the field because of poverty and joblessness. Low return, police harassment and social stigma discourage people from developing permanent interest in scavenging. It is high for government not only to recognize but also integrate scavengers into solid waste management programs. The government should also grant them all the necessary legal protection and incentives to develop the profession that would reduce unemployment and improve the environmental quality. Scavengers would openly operate with dignity and pride within the social fabric as formal profession. To improve the working condition of scavengers in Bauchi, programs to support waste pickers must afford these workers with opportunities throughout the broader economy with the development of basic literacy, job skills and social resources.. Like most people at the bottom of the economic pyramid, waste pickers seek and deserve dignity and recognition of their occupational rights,. To reduce the risk of contracting contagious disease, BASEPA in collaboration withBauchi State Ministry of Health should regularly organized a sensitization training on dangers of unprotected scavenging, the importance of adopting safety measures for all scavengers and the need of protective outfits like hand gloves, boots, nose/mouth masks etc. as a basic requirements for their operation Scavengers at all levels should organize themselves in to cooperative societies to coordinate and regulate their activities. Through these societies scavengers can collectively channel their requests and grievances to the government, and also access soft loans with low interest from banks. They can also develop a strong bargaining power for their commodities with the 53 [email protected] 2018

recycling industries at the top and minuses exploitation by the waste dealers at the bottom REFERENCES Ahmed, ShafiulAzam, and Mansoor Ali (2004) "Partnerships for Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries: Linking Theories to Realities." Habitat International 28: 467-479, 2004. Ali, S.M., Cotton, A., and Coad, A. 1993.Informal sector waste recycling. Paper presented at 19th WEDC Conference on Water, Sanitation, Environment and Development. Accra, Ghana, 153-155. Assaad, R. 1996. "Formalizing the informal? The transformation of Cairo's refuse collection system", Journal of Planning Education and Research 16: 115-126. Bauchi State Environmental Protection Agency (BASEPA 2015, Edict No. 3 (1977). Bauchi State of Nigeria, Gazette No.3. Baud, I., and Schenk, H. (eds.) 1994. Solid Waste Management: Modes, assessments,appraisals and linkages in Bangalore, Manohar. New Delhi. Boateng EA (1990). “Environmental Quality Aspect of Development” in the Environment and Sustainable Development in Nigeria, proceeding of workshop held at Nicon Hilton, FCT 25th – 26th April, (1989). FEPA. Bogoro A. G., Ali C. and Bukar A. G. (2012).Women and Solid Waste Segregation in Bauchi Nigeria.International Journal of Environment and Earth Science.Vol. 2, No.8, 2012 pg 25-45 Bogoro A. G., Mohammed T. A. and Babanyara Y. Y. (2013) Indiscriminate Solid Waste Disposal in Bauchi : Causes and Impacts on the Community and the Environment. International Journal of Environment and Earth Science. Vol. 3, No.8, 2013 Pg 40-58 D’souza Z. 2001. Feasibility and use in the recovery of solid waste. www.resourcecentre.net Dias, S.M. (2010) 'Trajectories and Memories—waste & Citizenship Forums: Unique Experiments of Social Justice and Participatory Governance', English abstract from unpublished PhD thesis, Federal University of Minas Gerais State, Belo Horizonte, Brazil . DiGregorio, M. 1995. Consultant's report on refuse collection in Hanoi, Vietnam. Unpublished report prepared for VietPro 2020 project. Fahmi, W.S. and K. Sutton (2006) 'Cairo's Zabaleen Garbage Recyclers: Multi-Nationals’ Takeover and State Relocation Plans', Habitat International 30(4): 809-837.

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Federal Ministry of Housing and Environment (FMHE, 1982).State of the Environment in Nigeria. Monograph Series, No. 2. Solid Waste Management in Fifteen Cities and Urban areas in Nigeria. Fischer‐ Kowalski, M. (1998) 'Society's Metabolism', Journal of Industrial Ecology 2(1): 61-78. Georgescu-Roegen, N. (1975) 'Energy and Economic Myths', Southern Economic Journal : 347-381. Gerdes, P. and E. Gunsilius (2010) The Waste Experts: Enabling Conditions for Informal Sector Integration in Solid Waste Management: Lessons Learned from Brazil, Egypt and India. GTZ. Hogland, W. and Marques, M. 2000. Solid waste as ore: Scavenging in developing countries.in: Grover, V, Guha, B.K.; Hogland, W; McRae, S. (eds): Solid Waste Management. Balkema, 2000. Johnson, S., Gunnerson, C.G., Huls, M., Seldman, J. and Neil, N. 1984."Integrated Resource Recovery - Recycling from Municipal Refuse", A state of the art review and annotated bibliography, UNDP Project Management Report # 1. Lardinois, I., and van de Klundert, A. 1994. “Recycling urban organics in Asia and Africa”,BioCycle. June:56-58 Lee, Shoo-In et al. (2004). Communities and hospitals: Social capital, community accountability, and service provision in US communities. Health Services Research – The Global Journal for Improving Health Care Delivery Policy, 39(5), 1487–1508. Lowry, I. S. (1990).World urbanization prospect. Population and Development Review, 16, Supplement: Resources, environment, and population: Present knowledge, future options (pp. 148–176). Available online: . Maikano AH (2001).Residential solid waste generation in Bauchi.UnpulishedB.Tech. U R P Thesis, AbubakarTafawaBalewa University, Bauchi.

Malkin, Elisabeth. (2013) For Some in Mexico, Trash is a Treasure Worth Defending. February 16,2012, (accessed 2013). http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/17/world/americas/for-somein- mexico-trash-is-a-treasure-worth- defending.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0. Marshall, Rachel E., and KhosrowFarahbakhsh (2013) "Systems Approaches to Intergrated Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries." Waste Management, 2013. 55 [email protected] 2018

Matsch M (2002). Zero Waste: A New System Approach Gaining Ground. Eco-Cycle Inc. Boulder Country’s Recycling Professionals. Grass root Recycling Network, 1996 – 2003: 4. Medina, M.1997. Informal recycling and collection of solid wastes in developing countries:issues and opportunities. UNU/IAS Working paper No 24. Medina, M. 2000. “Scavengers cooperatives in Asia and Latin America”, Resosurces,Conservation and Recycling 31: 51-69 Medina, Martin. (2005) "Serving the Unserved: Informal Refuse Collection InMexico." WasteManagement & Research, 390-397, 2005. Moses A (2004). Evaluation of Solid Waste Management options for Abuja. J. of Environ. Health 1(1): 10-14. Samson M (2009). Refusing to be cast aside: Waste Pickers Organising Around the World.WIEGO publications, Cambridge. Seldman, N.l. (2000). “Life and death in the landfill. There is a better way”. Institute for Local Self-Reliance, Washington, D.C. November, 2000 UNEP/GPA-UNESCO/IHE (2004), Improving municipal wastewater management in coastal cities. Training Manual, version 1, February 2004, UNEP/GPA Coordination Office, The Hague, Netherlands, pp. 49-81 and 103-117 World Bank, (1998),Restoring urban Nigeria: A strategy for restoring urban infrastructure in Nigeria. Washington DC: World Bank

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African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

Assessment of the Cleaning Services in Public Hospitals in Niger State

Saba, Zainab Hassan Department of Quantity Surveying, Federal University of Technology, Minna

Abstract This study entitled “Assessment of the Cleaning Services in Public Hospitals in Niger State”. Three objectives were formulated one of which was to determine cost of out-sourcing on cleaning services in public hospitals in Niger State. Three research questions were asked in line with the objectives. The study was guided by the Transaction Cost Economics (TCE) in evaluating the effects of outsourcing auxiliary services in an organization. Descriptive survey design was used. The population was 4088 made up of 290 management staff, 2675 cleaners and 107 contractors of public hospitals in Niger State. The sample constituted of 37 management staff, 249 cleaners and 14 contractors were drawn from the 3 senatorial zones in the state. The instrument for data collection was20 structured-item questionnaire. To ascertain reliability of the study, a pilot study was conducted on 40 members of the population from four 5 public hospitals at an interval of two weeks using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (PPMC), the 2 results were correlated and 0.84 was obtained which implies the instrument was reliable. Simple percentage and mean were statistical tools used for data analysis. Inadequate staff, inadequate funds, inadequate materials and equipment, inadequate effective supervision, inadequate refreshing courses for the personnel, poor governance conditions and corruption and poor project approach/planning were also found to be challenges to cleaning service in public hospitals in Niger State. It is recommended that hospital management board should provide adequate qualified personnel, adequate funds, adequate materials and equipment, effective supervision, adequate refreshing courses for the personnel for public hospitals and head of departments as well as contractors should be accountable to check financial malpractices in public hospitals in Niger State.

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Keywords: Assessment, Cleaning, Services, Public, Hospitals.

Introduction Background to the Study Hence, inadequate cleaning services In its modern concept, cleaning is a major cause of disease world- services has to do with constant and wide and improving cleaning effective sanitation of human services is known to have a surroundings which includes not significant beneficial impact on only water, air and soil but also the health both in households and across social and economic conditions communities. The word “cleaning” under which we live. The key to also refers to the maintenance of man’s health lies largely in his hygienic conditions through services environment. In fact, much of man’s such as garbage collection and ill-health can be associated with or waste-water disposal. In addition, traced to poor hygienic environmental sanitation according environmental factors such as water, to World Health Organization is the soil and air pollution, poor housing control of all those factors in man’s conditions, presence of animal physical environment which reservoir and insect vectors of exercise or may exercise a diseases which pose threats to man’s deleterious effect on his physical health. Most often, man is development, health and survival. It responsible for the pollution of his could also be seen as the principle environment through urbanization, and practice of effecting healthful industrialization and other human and hygienic conditions in the activities. environment to promote public According to the National Sanitation health and welfare, improve quality Foundation of USA, the word of life and ensure a sustainable sanitation is synonymous with environment (Alabi, 2010 cited in cleaning services which is defined as Ibanga, 2015). The essential a way of life that is expressed in the components of cleaning services clean home, farm, business, include: solid waste management; neighborhoods and community medical waste management; excreta (Park, 2011). Also, it is seen as the and sewage management; food provision of facilities and services sanitation; sanitary inspection of for the safe disposal of human urine premises; market and abattoir and faeces (UNICEF, &WHO, sanitation; adequate potable water 2012). supply; school sanitation; pest and

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vector control; management of urban drainage; control of reared and stray animals; disposal of the dead animals; weed and vegetation control; hygiene education and promotion. Consequent on the implementation of this policy objective, MDAs, including federal healthcare institutions became free to outsource some of their non-core activities such as security, laundry, and cleaning services. These onshore outsourcing activities are aimed at cutting costs and improving public service delivery by contracting specialized firms to render the services using their own human and material resources (Chzee 2014; Jennings, 2002).

Statement of the Problem In the health sector, for instance, the ineptitude and counterproductive behaviours of some doctors and other hospital workers translate to lateness in attending to patients, wrong diagnoses, wrong prescription, holding-up of patients’ treatment, unhygienic wards and lavatories, questionable billing, and negligence that often result to avoidable loss of lives. Some hospital premises are overgrown with weeds, drainages are dirty and blocked, while internal security is often compromised. All these factors translate to poor quality of service, poor customer experience and dissatisfaction. Iloh, Ofoedu, Njoku, Odu, Ifedigbo, andIwuamanam(2012) identified poor quality of service, service delay, discontinuity of care, indifferent attitude of staff, and bureaucratic procedures as some of the complaints against public health services. Though there are, understandably, structural and funding problems that contribute to poor service delivery in public hospitals in Niger State. Other issues connected to poor cleaning services in public hospitals in Niger State are poor planning, understaffing, unskillful personnel, corruption, misappropriation and mismanagement of resources. Poor condition of services coupled with low salary scale constitutes another challenge to effective cleaning services. More so, there is an ineffective or poor inspection on the service delivery of the services.

Objectives of the Study The following objectives were to guide the study: 1. Determine the cost of out-sourcing on cleaning services in public hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria. 2. Assess the cost of out-sourcing on cleaning services in public hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria. 59 [email protected] 2018

3. Evaluate the challenges of cleaning services in public hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria.

Objectives of the Study The following research questions were asked for the purpose of this study: 1. What is the cost of out-sourcing on cleaning services in public hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria 2. What is the cost of in-sourcing on cleaning services in public hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria 3. What are the challenges of cleaning services in public hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria

Theoretical Framework This study was guided by the Transaction Cost Economics (TCE) in evaluating the effects which outsourcing has on the performance of non-core functions in an organization. Besides TCE, there were other theories that could have been used in this paper but which possess certain limitations hence inadequate for the paper. For instance, Resource-Based View (RBV), assumes that firms differ although these differences could sometimes be become stable. Another theory that could have been used in this study is the Knowledge-Based View (KBV). This view may be useful in proving in- depth understanding of how individuals in organization often co-operate to create goods and services. For the purposes of this study, the TCE appeared to be more applicable. According to TCE if it reaches a point in life of an organization when some good/service can no longer be produced at a cheaper cost than if the same were supplied by a third party then, all these services/goods should be outsourced. Every time when an organization realizes that goods of same quality could be provided cheaply by outsourcing then it is advised that the organization must outsource. Those who support outsourcing put forward the argument that private sector is able to offers better services at a lower cost and also at high efficiency as opposed to the public sector (Jefferies, 1996). Outsourcing allows for the resources saved to be redirected elsewhere for the better performance of an organization. Regarding the public hospitals, outsourcing of cleaning services function would allow savings which the hospital management board could use on perfecting its core business (Ender, & Mooney, 1994). More so, if hospital management board wants to succeed in its core services, it must consider outsourcing of its ancillary services such as cleaning and 60 [email protected] 2018

security. To this end, hospital management boardin Niger State have embarked on outsourcing cleaning services which is considered support roles which is aimed at cutting down the cost and improve the quality of services as well as increase the operational efficiency. The theory is about an organization contracting out auxiliary roles in order to enable it focus on its primary responsibilities. The public hospitals outsourced cleaning services to Creative Consolidated Systems which is aimed at making the working environment tidy and/or cleaner while remaining focused on its core business of providing quality medical services and more so cut down the cost associated with cleaning services.

Research Methodology Descriptive survey research design was used by the researchers for this study. This design will be used because it permits the researcher to study small sample and later generalized the findings to the whole population. Osuala (2005) was of the view that in survey research small sample is studied and the findings are generalized to the entire population of the study.

Population of the Study The population of this study comprises all the management staff, cleaners and contractors in public hospitals in Niger State . According to statistical data from Hospital Management Board, Minna, Niger State (2018), the public hospitals has the total population of 1735 stakeholders (that is, 290 management staff, 1392 cleaners and 53 contactors). However, the distribution of the population of management staff, cleaners and contactors in Table1.

Table1 Shows Population for this Study Senatorial Management Staff Cleaners Contactors District Niger South 88 423 13 Niger East 132 667 29 Niger West 70 302 11 Total 290 1392 53

Sample and Sampling Techniques Sample size for this study consisted of 29 management staff, 140 cleaners, and 5 contactors. Multi-stage sampling technique was used by the researcher

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to select the sample for this study. The hospitals were grouped into three senatorial districts and some were randomly selected. However, according to Gay and Diehl (1992) opined that, for descriptive research, the sample size should be 10% but if the population is too small, then 20% may be required. The researcher therefore select sample size for this study using 10% as represented in the Table 2

Senatorial Management Staff Cleaners Contactors District Niger South 8.8 42.3 1.3 Niger East 13.2 66.7 2.9 Niger West 7 30.2 1.1 Total 29 139.2 5.3

Instrumentation The instrument that was used by the researcher to collect data for this study was structured questionnaire. The instrument titled “Assessment of Cleaning Services in Public Hospitals in Niger State” comprises of 20 structured items. Section one of the questionnaire was demographic data of the respondents while the remaining sections were made up of item statements to answer the research questions. More so, the items were structured on a four point likert-scale, ranges from Strongly Agreed, Agreed, Disagreed and Strongly Disagreed.

Validity of the Instrument The instrument was given to maintenance officers and linguistics for face and criterion validation. Based on their advice, some questions were modified, some dropped and others added in order to make the instrument valid.

Pilot Testing In order to ascertain the reliability of the instrument, a pilot study was conducted on 40 members of the population from five public hospitals in Niger State. The instrument was administered on 10 management staff, 25 cleaners and 5 contractors at an interval of two weeks and the data/results were correlated using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (PPMC) at 0.05 level of significance. However, the members were not part of the sample population or size.

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Reliability of the Instrument The reliability of the instrument was ascertained by using test re-test method. The instrument was used on 40 members of the population (but not part of the sample size) and after 10 days, the same instrument was used again on same group of people. The two results were correlated using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (PPMC) and the result r value of 0.84 was obtained which implies the instrument was reliable.

Method of Data Analysis The data collected for this study were analyzed through: frequency counts and simple percentage was used to analyze demographic data and mean to answer the research questions.

Data Presentation and Discussions The demographic data the respondents are presented in a table 3.

Table 3: Classification of Respondents by Status Status Respondents Frequency Percentage Location Urban 144 57.6 Rural 106 42.4 Designation of Management 5 2 Respondent Staff 7 2.7 Cleaners 243 95.3 Contractors Gender Male 136 53.3 Female 119 47.7

Table 3 revealed the status of the respondents by school where 144 (57.6%) were urban while 106 (42.4%) were respondents from rural areas. Five (2%) respondents were Management Staff, 7 (2.7%) of the respondents were cleaners while 243 (95.3%) of the respondents were Contractors. In term of gender, 136 (53.3%) were male while 119 (47.7%) were female.

Response to Research Questions The researcher used 2.5 as the mean otherwise known as decision mean since the instrument were four structured point likert scale to take decision on whether to accept or reject the research question after comparing it with the cumulative mean. Therefore, a mean score of 2.5 and above indicate positive 63 [email protected] 2018

response to the research question and accepted while a mean score below 2.5 indicate negative answer to the research question and rejected. This is shown below: SA - 4point A - 3point D - 2point SD - 1point 4+3+2+1 = 10/4 = 2.5 (Decision mean) 4 Keys :

N1=5, N2=242, N3=8

N1= number of Management Staff

N2= number of Cleaners

N3= number of Contractors

푋1 = mean of Management Staff

푋2= mean of Cleaners

푋3= mean of Contractors

푋t= average means.

Opinions of the Respondents on the Cost of Out-Sourcing on Cleaning Services in Public Hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria The opinions of Management Staff, Cleaners and Contractors were sought and analyzed on the cost of out-sourcing on cleaning services in public hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria

Table 4: Descriptive Statistics on the Cost of Out-Sourcing on Cleaning Services in Public Hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria

S/ Items X1 X2 X3 Xt Remark N 1 Contracting out enables accurate 3. 3.2 3. 3.33 Agreed calculation of costs and savings 6 2 2 Outsourcing require a less initial 2. 2.1 2. 2.2 Disagreed investment 2 3 3 There are qualified staff to make 1. 2.2 2. 2.2 Disagreed wider profit margin and force 8 1 higher cost of service on client organizations

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4 Contracting cleaning services, 1. 2.00 2. 2.00 Disagreed there is ineffective inspections 4 4 5 Client organizations’ are no 1. 1.9 2. 1.9 Disagreed usually reluctant to invest in 7 2 corporate human resource transformation since outsourcing contract is in place,

Table 4 seeks to know the opinions of respondents on the cost of out- sourcing on cleaning services in public hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria. Item 1 says that contracting out enables accurate calculation of costs and savings with average mean of 3.33 which indicates that the statement was accepted. Item 2 says that Outsourcing require a less initial investment; the average mean was 2.2 which means that the statement was rejected by the respondents. Item 3 says that there are qualified staff to make wider profit margin and force higher cost of service on client organizations with 2.2 average mean and it means that the statement was disagreed. Item 4 says that contracting cleaning services, there is ineffective inspections with average mean of 2.00 which means that the statement was rejected. Item 5 states that client organizations’ are no usually reluctant to invest in corporate human resource transformation since outsourcing contract is in place however, the average mean value was 1.9 which reveals that the statement was rejected by the stakeholders.

Opinions of the Respondents on the Cost of In-Sourcing on Cleaning Services in Public Hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria The opinions of Management Staff, Cleaners and Contractors were sought and analyzed on the cost of out-sourcing on cleaning services in public hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria

Table 5: Descriptive Statistics on theCost of In-Sourcing on Cleaning Services in Public Hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria

S/N Items X1 X2 X3 Xt1 Remark 1 In-Sources Cleaning services is 3.8 3.5 3.1 3.5 Agreed less cost 2 Cleaning services are more timely 3.4 2.9 2.8 3.1 Agreed in insourcing cleaning service

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3 Cleaners insourcing are more 3.1 3.3 3.9 3.7 Agreed courteous 4 Cleaners are more available and 2.9 3.1 3.7 3.2 Agreed dedicated to do their work 5 In-Sources Cleaners appear more 3.1 2.8 3.6 3.1 Agreed knowledgeable on their jobs

Table 5 seeks to know the opinions of respondents on the cost of out- sourcing on cleaning services in public hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria. Item 1 says that In-sources cleaning services is less cost with average mean of 3.5 which indicates the statement was accepted. Item 2 says that cleaning services are more timely in insourcing cleaning service with average mean value of 3.1 which means that the statement was agreed. Item 3 states that Cleaners insourcing are more courteous with average mean value of 3.7 and this reveals that the statement was agreed. Item 4 says that cleaners are more available and dedicated to do their work with 3.2 average mean which shows that the statement was agreed. Item 5 states that in-sources cleaners appear more knowledgeable on their jobs with average mean value of 3.1 which indicates that the statement was also agreed. Opinions of the Respondents on the Challenges of Cleaning Services in Public Hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria The opinions of Management Staff, Cleaners and Contractors were sought and analyzed on theChallenges of Cleaning Services in Public Hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria.

Table 6: Descriptive Statistics on the Challenges of Cleaning Services in Public Hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria

S/N Items X1 X2 X3 Xt Remark 1 Inadequate staff 3.3 3.5 3.8 3.6 Agreed 2 Inadequate funds 3.3 3.7 2.9 3.3 Agreed 3 Inadequate materials 3.1 3.8 3.5 3.4 Agreed and equipment 4 Inadequate effective 3.7 3.3 3.6 3.5 Agreed supervision 5 Inadequate refreshing 2.7 3.9 3.2 3.2 Agreed courses for the personnel

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6 Poor governance 3.3 2.5 3.5 3.1 Agreed conditions and corruption 7 Poor project 3.1 2.8 3.6 3.1 Agreed management and planning

Table 6 seeks to know the opinions of respondents on the Challenges of Cleaning Services in Public Hospitals in Niger State, Nigeria. Item 1 says inadequate staff with mean average of 3.6 which means agreed. Item 2 says inadequate funds with average mean value of 3.3 and this shows that the statement was agreed. Item 3 says that inadequate materials and equipmentwith average mean of 3.4 which indicates that the statement was agreed. Item 4 says inadequate effective supervision with average mean value of 3.5 meaning the statement was agreed. Item 5 says inadequate refreshing courses for the personnel with average mean value of 3.2 which shows that the statement disagreed. Item 6 says poor governance conditionsand corruption with average mean value of 3.1 which shows that the statement disagreed.Item 7 says Poor project approach/planningwith average mean value of 3.1 which shows that the statement disagreed.

Summary of Major Findings The following were discovered from this study: 1. Contracting out enables accurate calculation of costs and savings, outsourcing require a higher initial investment, there are less qualified staff to make wider profit margin and force higher cost of service on client organizations, there is ineffective inspections and that client organizations’ are usually reluctant to invest in corporate human resource transformation since outsourcing contract is in place. 2. The study also reveals that in-sources cleaning services are more timely, in-sourcing cleaners are more courteous, cleaners are more available and dedicated to do their work and in-sources cleaners appear more knowledgeable on their jobs. 3. Inadequate staff, inadequate funds, inadequate materials and equipment, inadequate effective supervision, inadequate refreshing courses for the personnel, poor governance conditions and corruption and poor project management and planning were also found to be challenges to cleaning service in public hospitals in Niger State.

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Conclusion Following the above analysis, it therefore concluded that contracting out enables accurate calculation of costs and savings and outsourcing require a higher initial investment. There are less qualified staff to make wider profit margin and force higher cost of service on client organizations and there is ineffective inspections and that client organizations’ are no usually reluctant to invest in corporate human resource transformation since outsourcing contract is in place.The study also reveals that in-sources cleaning services are more timely in insourcing cleaning service, insourcing cleaners are more courteous, cleaners are more available and dedicated to do their work and in-sources cleaners appear more knowledgeable on their jobs. Inadequate staff, inadequate funds, inadequate materials and equipment, inadequate effective supervision, inadequate refreshing courses for the personnel, poor governance conditions and corruption and poor project approach/planning were also found to be challenges to cleaning service in public hospitals in Niger State.

Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the following suggestions are hereby made to enhance effective cleaning services in public hospitals in Niger State: 1. Hospital management board in Niger State should provide Contracting out which enables accurate calculation of costs and savings, outsourcing require a higher initial investment, there are less qualified staff to make wider profit margin and force higher cost of service on client organizations, there is ineffective inspections and that client organizations’ are no usually reluctant to invest in corporate human resource transformation since outsourcing contract is in place. 2. Hospital management board should outsource cleaning services 50% and in-sources 50% so as to ensure effective service delivery in the public hospitals in Niger State. 3. Hospital management board should provide adequate qualified personnel, adequate funds, adequate materials and equipment, effective supervision, adequate refreshing courses for the personnel for public hospitals and head of departments as well as contractors should be accountable to check financial malpractices in public hospitals in Niger State.

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References Chzee, C.C. (2014). QM practices, service quality with outsourcing sustains managerial performance. Journal of Research in Business and Management. 2(9), 62-75. Ibanga, E. E. (2015). An assessment of environmental sanitation in an urban community in Southern Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Science andTechnology.9(7), 592-599. 1996-0786 Iloh, G., Ofoedu, J.N., Njoku, P.U., Odu, F.U., Ifedigbo, C.V. &Iwuamanam, K.D. (2012). Evaluation of patients' satisfaction with quality of care provided at the National Health Insurance Scheme clinic of a tertiary hospital in South- Eastern Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Clinical Practice; 15(4), 469-474. Jennings, D. (2002). Strategic sourcing: benefits, problems and a contextual model. Management Decision, 40(1), 26-34. Park JE (2011). Textbook of Preventive and Social Medicine, 21st Edition, Bhanot Publishers, India. UNICEF and World Health Organization (2012). Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: update,WHO Geneva.

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African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

Improving the Quality of TVET Instructional Program Delivery in Building Construction Technology Courses in Benue State

*Dr. Momngu Daniel Tiough & **Imborivungu, Terkimbi Emmanuel *Building Section, Department of Vocational and Technical Education, Benue State University Makurdi **University of Agriculture Makurdi, Demonstration Secondary School

Abstract The study was carried out to improve the quality of TVET instructional program delivery in building construction technology. Four research questions were raise for the study. The study adopted cross sectional descriptive survey research design with the total population of 55 respondents. There was no sampling for the study hence the population was small and manageable. A self-developed questionnaire and checklist was employed to collect data for the study. The data collected was analyesd using descriptive statistics of mean, standard deviation and simple percentage. The findings revealed that, the instructional delivery methods used by the lecturers and technologist are excursion and lecture method and that group discussion, demonstration and the use of ICT is not used. conducive workshops, material testing laboratories, materials for practical’s, interactive boards, computer simulation programs and internet facilities are neither available nor adequate and that inadequate number of lectures that are not ICT compliant, lack of materials, tools and equipment for students practical’s, poor funding and public power supply, lack of commitment of students among others are challenges confronting improvement of the instructional program delivery in building construction technology. The study recommended that lecturers and technologist should employ the use of ICT, group discussion and demonstration other than limiting themselves to lecture and excursion method as instructional delivery methods to improve instructional delivery in building construction technology. Conducive workshops, material testing laboratories, interactive boards, computer

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simulation programs and internet facilities should be made available and adequate enough by the owners of the institutions to improve instructional delivery in building construction technology.

Keywords: Vocational, Technical, Education, Training, Instructional Program, Delivery, Building, Construction and Technology

Introduction Technical and Vocational Education According to Akpotohwo (2015) and Training (TVET) is meant to TVET is designed to impart provide knowledge and skills for necessary skills and competencies employment. According to the leading to the production of Federal Republic of Nigeria, Craftsmen, technicians and National Policy on Education (NPE, technologists who will be 2013) vocational and technical enterprising and self-reliant, having education is that aspect of education the greatest potential to generate that leads to the acquisition of employment, reduce poverty and practical and applied skills as well as eliminate the idleness which breed basic scientific knowledge. It forms evil in the society. Federal Ministry a practical segment of education that of Education (FME, 2009) observed involves skill acquisition. The main that the TVET objectives have not purpose of technical vocational been fully realized due to the long education and training TVET is to period of systemic neglect and provide skilled manpower in applied discrimination which resulted to science, engineering technology and obsolete equipment, tools and commerce to operate, maintain and instructional program delivery. sustain the Nation’s economic There has been series of compliant activities for rapid socio-economic from different quarters concerning development (Keevy, Chakroun and unemployment and under- Deij 2010). TVET uses formal, non- employment in Nigeria. The print formal and informal learning media as well as electronic media process, it is recognized to be a like newspapers, radio and television crucial vehicle for social equity, stations are daily discussing inclusion and sustainable unemployment in Nigeria. development meaning that proper Unemployment has been with us for implementation of TVET programs quite some time but its rising trend will curb the increasing cases of has now assumed a worrisome unemployment in Nigeria. dimension in Nigeria. According to

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the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS, 2017) the unemployment rate started increasing from 6.4% to 9.9% in January to July 2015, 10.4% to 13.9% in January to July 2016 and 14.2 % to 18.8% in January to July 2017. Similarly, the number of people with the labour force who were unemployed or underemployed increased from 13.6 million and 17.7 million respectively in the second quarter 2017, to 15.9 million and 18.0 million in the third quarter 2017. Many people blame the increase in unemployment on economic recession while others said it is as a result of skills gap that exists between educational institutions most especially Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions and labour market. Odu, (2006) states that the labour market required graduates who have modern skills that is the 21st century skills that match the requirement of the industries. Some of the 21st century skills are communication, collaboration and creativity among others. Egboh (2009) added that the graduates in building construction technology who are the products of TVET lack the skills that enable them fit in the current world of work and cannot successfully be self employed. Egboh (2009) further assert that most of TVET institutions are still imparting obsolete technical and employability skills. Building construction courses being one of the TVET program include management of construction projects, building structures and construction technology, building services engineering, building maintenance and construction economics. According to Seminole State College (2018) the courses in building construction technology consist of principles of building construction, construction materials and methods, construction scheduling and planning, estimating fundamentals, engineering graphics drawing, blueprint reading, construction planning and scheduling, construction estimating and computer-aided design. Lisa (2012) asserts that the choice and the use of appropriate instructional program delivery method such as teacher-led method, use of cooperative learning and an inquiry method will help achieve the objective of TVET in Nigeria. However, Archer and Hughes (2011) states that lecture method which is far less effective than more stimulating active learning practices has been the preferred method of instruction delivery method used by the instructors in building construction technology. Effective handling of TVET by all stakeholders’ will pave way for sustainable development of the nation Nigeria. Odu (2010) opined that building construction technology which is one of the TVET courses in tertiary institutions is poorly taught. It is regrettable to experience that a 72 [email protected] 2018

country crying for technological breakthroughs and emancipation cannot at this crucial time of technological age impart practical skills to the recipients of TVET education as expected by the world of work. Ivowi (2000) observed that the teaching of building construction technology courses is too theoretical to the detriment of the psychomotor aspect of the programme in most of the TVET institutions. The difficulties in imparting the practical skills in building construction technology is caused by the teachers not possessing adequate skills in the subject, inadequacy of teaching materials and facilities, obsolete nature of curriculum, poor teaching strategies, lack of monitoring and supervision of the instructional program delivery among others. Improving the TVET instructional program delivery suggests enhancing skill acquisition among lecturers, technologist and learners in building construction technology. According to Arubayi, Nworgu, Akpochafo and Odu (2008) in their study on manual for monitoring curriculum contents of subject inspection in senior secondary schools states that TVET instructional program delivery in building construction technology must cover the concept formation, real life application, job-related skills acquired by the learners, demonstration, equipment, care and maintenance and diagrams, illustrations as well as drawings. Affirming the view of Arubayi, Nworgu, Akpochafo and Odu (2008), Akpotohwo (2015) assert that adequate hand-on-experience to all the learners is one of the best ways of improving instructional delivery in TVET courses and in particular building construction technology courses. The instruction sessions in the building construction technology environment should be carried out with computer sessions with supporting presentations and demonstrations. The presentations have to be interactive in nature and the learners are expected to actively participate in the discussions and learning by doing. All learners are expected to be provided with computers and the learning activities should involve: Interactive theme presentations; Experience sharing through learners’ presentations; Field visits to industry and institutions; Seminar presentations; Hands-on-practices by learners following instruction and demonstration by the instructor/trainer and project work based on practical display of skills as the focus of instruction program delivery. Kazaure, (2009), Mba (2011), Michele, Emily, and Martain (2010) added that in conventional technical vocational education and training institutions, the learners are also expected to get personal support in the form of tutorials, counseling, access to practical lessons and self-help study group activities in 73 [email protected] 2018

order to improve the instruction delivery in building construction technology. Federal Ministry of Education, (FME, 2009) and Ward (2008) noted that in a typical conventional classroom-based TVET institution, an instructor is expected to provide instructions in workshops and laboratories equipped with modern equipment and tools using the appropriate materials and equipment as prescribed accessed in the curriculum of instruction for the different building construction technology courses. Regarding acquisition of practical skills in building construction technology which is one of the TVET courses, learners should first of all use print-based illustrations of step-by-step procedures or video-based practical lessons. In the case of the latter, the practical aspects of the course are converted into production scripts then shot, edited, and dubbed onto VCDs. The learners access the practical lessons using VCD players in their homes or at the lecture halls or classroom. Practical skills acquisition is finally consolidated through hands-on-activities in the Workshops and Laboratories during face- to-face sessions at the lecture halls or classroom under the supervision of an instructor (Donkor 2010 and Droste 2005). Computer networking and communication technology applications in TVET institutions will improve the instructional delivery in building construction technology. The ICT applications based on the networking and communications technologies have become the fundamental tools for administrative institutional program management of teaching and learning methodologies on which planning, designing, implementation and operation of TVET systems are being done. As a result, computers have become essential tools which could significantly aid in enhancing building construction technology instructional program delivery for students’ learning skills. According to Ibe-Bassey (2011) developing feedback strategies on the instructional program delivery in building construction technology will enhance the level of skills of the learner and bridge the gap between the training institutions and the world of work. It is worthy of note again that building construction technology instructors recognize prescribed resources to be utilized during instruction or teaching session and this should be done using any of the appropriate multimedia gadgets in collaboration with industry linkages. The importance of funding to improve the instructional program cannot be over emphasized. Government, community and industry must as a matter of fact intensify effort in funding of TVET project by ensuring budget adequacy for funding to help develop TVET institutions for effective instructional program delivery in building construction technology. 74 [email protected] 2018

Iroriteraye and Ogiegbaen (2010) states that training of building construction instructors using the state of the art facilities through adequate funding will employ sound lecturers and technologist, support them in updating and upgrading their skills, purchase most appropriate teaching facilities/materials thereby improving the instructional delivery in TVET.

Statement of the Problem There are numerous challenges facing Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in the 21st century. Some of the challenges are digitalization and automation of the industry, economy and the society. These changes in the industry, economy and the society create a gap between TVET institutions graduates and the world of work. The increase in unemployment rate in Nigeria from 6.4% to 18.8% in 2015 to 2017 is bordered around lack of communication, collaboration and creativity skills among others by TVET graduates. The objective of TVET in Nigeria and beyond is to provide employability and self- reliant skills to the teeming populace. In Nigeria, TVET objectives are seen not to have been fully realized due to the long period of systemic neglect and discrimination. Many blame the increase in unemployment rate in Nigeria to inadequate funding of TVET programs, lack of supervision/monitoring of TVET instructors as well as lack of instructional facilities. This study takes a look at improving the quality of TVET instructional program delivery in building construction technology courses in tertiary institutions in Benue State.

Purpose of the Study The main purpose of this study is to identify ways of improving the quality of TVET instructional delivery in building construction technology courses in Benue State. The study seeks to identify: 1. The instructional program delivery methods use by instructors in building construction technology in Benue State 2. The availability of facilities for teaching and learning of building construction technology courses in Benue State 3. Ways of improving instructional programs in building construction technology in Benue State 4. Challenges of improving instructional program delivery in building construction technology in Benue State

Research Questions The following research questions were raised for the study: 75 [email protected] 2018

1. What are the instructional program deliveries methods use by instructors in building construction technology in Benue State? 2. What is the level of availability of facilities for teaching and learning of building construction technology courses in Benue State? 3. What are the ways of improving instructional programs in building construction technology in Benue State? 4. What are the challenges facing the improvement of the instructional program delivery in building construction technology in Benue State?

Methodology The study is cross sectional descriptive survey research design. The population of 55 lecturers and technologist (38 lecturers and 17 Technologist) from Benue State tertiary intuitions offering building construction technology was used for the study. The tertiary institutions consist of College of Education Katsina Ala, Fidel polytechnic Gboko, Benue State University Makurdi, College of Advance and professional studies, College of Education Oju and Benue polytechnic Ogbokolo. The population was not sample since it was manageable. Data was collected using a structured questionnaire and checklist. The data was analysis using mean and standard deviation as well as simple percentages using SPSS computer package. The cut off mark of 2.50 was used for decision making. Any item less than 2.50 is considered disagreed upon while 2.50 and above is accepted and agreed upon.

Results Table 1: Mean Scores of Instructional Program Delivery Methods Use by Instructors in Building Construction Technology in Benue State S/No Statement N ×̅ SD Remarks 1 Group discussion method 55 2.0 1.196 Disagree 2 Demonstration method 55 2.0 1.319 Disagree 3 Excursion method 55 2.8 1.14 Agree 4 Lecture method 55 2.8 1.152 Agree 5 Use of ICT 55 1.9 1.278 Disagree Source: Author Field Survey, 2018

Table 1 shows the mean values of 5 items ranging from 1.9 to 2.8. Only two items were agreed upon. This indicated that the instructional delivery

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methods used by the instructors are excursion and lecture method. Group discussion, demonstration and the use of ICT is not used by the instructors.

Table 2: Mean Scores of the Frequency Count Response of Availability and Adequacy of Facilities for Teaching and Learning of Building Construction Technology Courses in Benue State S/No Statement AV (%) NA (%) AD (%) IA (%) GI (%) Remarks

1 Conducive workshops 49(89.0) 6(7.1) 0 (0) 6 (10.9) 49 (89.08) AV/GI 2 Material testing lab 5(9.0) 50(90.9) 0 (0) 5 (9.0) 50 (90.9) NA/GI 3 Material for practical’s 14(25.4) 41(74.5) 0 (0) 2 (3.6) 53 (96.3) NA/GI 4 Electricity supply 40(72.7) 15(27.2) 0 (0) 2 (3.6) 53 (96.3) AV/GI 5 Interactive boards 15 (27.2) 40(72.7) 0 (0) 1 (1.8) 54 (98.1) NA/GI 6 Computer simulation prog. 14 (25.4) 41(74.5) 0 (0) 5 (9.0) 50 (90.9) NA/GI 7 Internet facilities 14 (25.4) 41(74.5) 0 (0) 3 (5.4) 52 (94.5) NA/GI Source: Author Field Survey, 2018

Key: AV=Available, NA=Not Available, AD=Adequate, IA=Inadequate, GI=Grossly Inadequate Table 2 shows that item 2,3,5,6 and 7 were not available and grossly adequate while item 1 and 4 indicates available but not adequate. Meaning that conducive workshops, material testing laboratories, materials for practical’s, interactive boards, computer simulation programs and internet facilities are neither available nor adequate. However, workshops and electricity supply are available in tertiary institutions offering building construction technology but it is not adequate.

Table 3: Mean Scores of Ways of Improving Instructional Programs in Building Construction Technology Courses in Benue State S/No Statement N ×̅ SD Remarks 1 Conducive workshops should be provided 55 2.64 2.57 Agree 2 Material testing laboratory should be provided 55 2.56 2.55 Agree 3 Material for practical’s should be provided 55 2.71 2.61 Agree 4 Constant electricity supply should be provided 55 2.79 2.64 Agree 5 Interactive boards should be provided by the school 55 2.61 2.52 Agree owners for use in all classes 6 Computer simulation program should be provided for 55 2.87 2.73 Agree learning 7 Internet facilities for on line services for the students 55 2.63 2.57 Agree

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Source: Author Field Survey, 2018

Table 3 shows the mean score of 2.50 and above from item 1 to 7. Meaning that the respondents have agree that conducive workshops, material testing laboratories and practical materials, interactive boards among other should be made available and enough to improve instructional delivery in building construction technology.

Table 4: Mean Scores of the Challenges Facing the Improvement of the Instructional Program Delivery in Building Construction Technology in Benue State S/No Statement N ̅× SD Remarks 1 Inadequate number of lecturers/technologist 55 2.63 2.57 Agree 2 ICT non compliant lecturers/technologist 55 2.57 2.55 Agree 3 Lack of material for students practical’s 55 2.70 2.61 Agree 4 Lack of workshops 55 2.79 2.64 Agree 5 Lack of tools and equipment for students practical’s 55 2.62 2.52 Agree 6 Poor/electricity power supply 55 2.97 2.73 Agree 7 Lack of commitment by students 55 2.65 2.65 Agree 8 Poor funding 55 2.70 2.61 Agree 9 Lack of commitment by lecturers 55 2.03 1.74 Disagree 10 Lack of refresher courses to upgrade lecturers/technologist 55 2.97 2.77 Agree 11 Lack of innovation and improvisation skills 55 2.47 2.57 Agree 12 Inadequate skills possesses by lecturers/technologist 55 2.07 2.01 Disagree 13 Adherence to traditional way of teaching 55 2.79 2.64 Agree Source: Author Field Survey, 2018

Table 4 shows the mean score of 2.50 and above from item 1to 8 and item 10, 11and 13. While item 9 and 12 shows the mean score less than 2.50. This revealed inadequate number of lectures, ICT non compliant lecturers, lack of materials, tools and equipment for students practical’s, poor funding and poor power supply, lack of commitment of students among others are challenges confronting improvement of the instructional program delivery in building construction technology in Benue State. While lack of commitment by lecturers and inadequate skills possesses by lecturers does not constitute hindrances to the improvement of the instructional program delivery in building construction technology in Benue State.

Discussion of Findings The findings in table 1 revealed that the instructional delivery methods used by the lecturers and technologist are excursion and lecture method and that

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group discussion, demonstration and the use of ICT is not used by the instructors. This agrees with the view of Archer and Hughes (2011) who said that, teacher lecture method which is far less effective than stimulating active learning practices has been the preferred method of instruction delivery method used by the lecturers and technologist in building construction technology. The findings in table 2 revealed that conducive workshops, material testing laboratories, materials for practical’s, interactive boards, computer simulation programs and internet facilities are neither available nor adequate. However, electricity supply is available in tertiary institutions offering building construction technology but it is not adequate. The findings in table 3 revealed that conducive workshops, material testing laboratories and practical materials, interactive boards among other should be made available and enough to improve instructional delivery in building construction technology. The finding in table 2 and 3 are in line with the views of Arubayi, Nworgu, Akpochafo and Odu (2008), Akpotohwo (2015) and Ivowi (2000) which affirmed that the teaching of building construction technology courses is too theoretical to the detriment of the psychomotor aspect of the programme in most of the TVET institutions. The difficulties in imparting the practical skills in building construction technology is caused by the inadequacy of teaching materials and facilities, obsolete nature of curriculum, poor teaching strategies, lack of monitoring and supervision of the instructional program delivery among others. The findings in table 4 revealed that inadequate number of lectures, ICT non compliant lecturers, lack of materials, tools and equipment for students practical’s, poor funding and public power supply, lack of commitment of students among others are challenges confronting improvement of the instructional program delivery in building construction technology in Benue State. While lack of commitment by lecturers and inadequate skills possesses by lecturers does not constitute hindrances to the improvement of the instructional program delivery in building construction technology in Benue State. This view collaborates that of Iroriteraye and Ogiegbaen (2010) which states that training of building construction lecturers and technologist using the state of the art facilities through adequate funding will support in updating and upgrading their skills thereby improving the instructional delivery in building construction technology. The findings however disagrees with the view of Ivowi (2000) who asserts that it is teachers possession of inadequate skills that hinders the effective instructional delivery as lecturers and technologist here have the skills. 79 [email protected] 2018

Conclusion and Recommendations In conclusion, it seen that the aims of empowering individuals with employable and self-reliant skills through TVET is almost defeated in Benue State. Manpower, infrastructural, materials and funding necessary to achieve effective instructional delivery are lacking. In other to improve TVET instructional delivery in building construction technology courses in Benue State, the following recommendations are made: 1. Lecturers and technologist should employ the use of ICT, group discussion and demonstration other than limiting themselves to lecture and excursion method as instructional delivery methods to improve instructional delivery in building construction technology. 2. Conducive workshops, material testing laboratories, materials for practical’s, interactive boards, computer simulation programs and internet facilities should be made available and adequate enough by the owners of the institutions to improve instructional delivery in building construction technology. 3. The challenges confronting the instructional program delivery in building construction technology are that of inadequate number of lecturers and technologist that are ICT compliant, adequate materials, tools and equipment for students practical’s, inadequate funding and public power supply and students commitment to learning. Proprietors of schools should ensure that these challenges are addressed.

References Akpotohwo F. C (2015). New Dimensions in Sourcing and Utilization of Resource Materials for Effective Teaching and Instruction in Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Nigeria. Education Journal 4(6); Pp 24-30 Archer, A. L., & Hughes, C. A. (2011). Explicit instruction: Efficient and effective teaching. New York, NY: Guilford Publications. Arubayi, E.; Nworgu, B.G; Akpochafo, W. and Odu, K.O. (2008). Manual for Monitoring Curriculum Contents of Subject Inspection in Senior Secondary Schools. Inspectorate Division, Federal Ministry of Education, Abjua. Darwin, C. (2011). Teaching for learning: A resource for academic staff. Darwin University: PVC Academic, OLT. Donkor, F. (2010). the Comparative Instructional Effectiveness of Print- Based and Video- Based Instructional Materials for Teaching Practical Skills at a Distance. Accessed 31-5-2018 from 80 [email protected] 2018

www.irrodl.org/index.php/irridl/article/view/792/1486. University of Education, Winneba, Ghana. Droste, B. (2005). Why reinvent the wheel? VHS is already rolling the concord consortium. Accessed 31-5-2018 from http://concord.org/library/2000spring/reinvent.html. Egboh, S.H.O. (2009). Strategies for Improving the Teaching of Science, Technical and Vocational Education in Schools and Colleges in Nigeria. Paper Presented at the one day Intensive NationwideTraining/Workshop Organized by the Centre for Science, Technical and Vocational Education Research Development, Jos and Proprietors of Private Schools in Delta State held at College of Education, Warri. Federal Ministry of Education, (FME, 2009). Roadmap for the Nigerian education sector consultation draft. Access and Equity Technical and Vocational. Abuja: Federal Government Press. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013). National Policy on Education 6th edition. Lagos, NERDC Press. Ibe-Bassey, G. S. (2011). Human capacity building for information and communication technology (ICT) integration in teacher education in Nigeria. A Lead Paper presented at the 3rd international conference of Nigeria Association Educational Media and Technology (NAEMT). Iroriteraye-Adjekpovu, J. I. (2013). Quality information and communication technology (QICT) in the classroom: implication for virtual classroom for national values and development. Delsu Journal of Educational Research and Development – Special Edition. Faculty of Education, Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria. 12(1), Pp 108-115. Ivowi, U.M.O. (2000). Curriculum and Content in Education in “The State of Education in Nigeria”. UNESCO, Abuja. Iyamu, E. O. S. and Ogiegbaen, E. (2010). Assessment of the use of educational technology by social studies teachers in secondary schools in Western Nigeria. Accessed 30-5-2018 from http//www.oscilite.org.au/ajet/e-jist/docs/vo/8No/commentary/asses. Jackson, P. W. (1990). Life in classrooms. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Joint Regional Program on Integrating ICT with TVET Systems (2008). Inter-Governmental International Organization for Human Resources Development in Asia and the Pacific Region and Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organisation Regional Centre for Vocational and Technical Education and Training. CPSC, Manila, Philipines. 81 [email protected] 2018

Kazaure, M. A. (2009). Revitalizing TVET in Nigeria. UNESCO’s Section for Technical and Vocational Education, in cooperation with the National Board for Technical Education NBTE-UNESCO-Nigeria TVET Revitalization Project. Accessed 20-5-2018 from www.unesco- Nigeriatve.org/PhaseII.html. Keevy, J., Chakroun, B. and Deij, A. (2010). Transnational Qualifications Frameworks. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union. Lisa D (2012). New Teacher Academy Delivery of Instruction. Accessed 31- 5-2018 from https://www.edutopia.org/blog/new-teacher-delivery- instruction-lisa-dabbs Mba, I. (2011). Revamping our national economy through Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET). Accessed 31-5-2018 from www.nigerianbestforum.com/blog/revamping-our-national-economy- through-technical-vocational-education-and-training-tvet/ Michele, A. A., Emily, R.G. and Martain (2010). Do you teach in a virtual classroom? : measuring students’ perceptions of the features and characteristics. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning 17(12), Pp 34. National Bureau of Statistics (NBS, 2017). Nigeria’s unemployment rate rises from 14.2% to 18.8%. Accessed 28-05-2018 from https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/12/nigerias-unemployment-rate- rises-14-2-18-8/ Odu O. K (2010) Reappraising the Work Skill Requirements for Building Technology Education in Senior Secondary School for Optimum Performance in Nigeria. Proceedings of the 1st International Technology, Education and Environment Conference. African Society for Scientific Research (ASSR) Publisher Human Resource Management Academic Research Society. Odu, K.O. (2006). Improving the Quality of Technology Education in Nigerian Secondary Schools. African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies 3(1); Pp 45-51 Seminole State College (2018). Building Construction Technical Certificate. Accessed 1-6-2018 from https://www.seminolestate.edu/construction/certificates/bldcn-cc Ward, J. (2008). Measuring Student Satisfaction with VET Service and Getting it Right. NCVER Research Report, accessed 31-5-2018 from http://www.ncver.edu.au/publications/2008.html.

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African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

Role of Pictures in Social Science Research

*Zakari Abdullahi Tijjani **Aisha Abdulkarim Aliyu *Danjuma Abdu Yusuf *Department of Architecture, FAEES, Kano University of Science and Tech., Wudil. Kano State. **Department of Architectural Technology, Jigawa State Polytechnic, Dutse, Jigawa State.

Abstract This paper discusses Social science research, and potentiality of photo- elicitation in social science research. It gives an insight on Visual Assessment as a tool, and has given an insight on the applicability of the methodology in different types of research methods. To be specific, its roles as a methodology. The roles of photographs to obtain relevant data and issues of interest are presented. Finally, ethical issues to be noted in research using photographs are pointed out, especially the meaning of informed consent and confidentiality in photographic research is emphasized. Pitfalls in photography are also discussed in this paper.

Keywords: Pictures, Research, Role, Social, Science.

Introduction This presentation is based on our receives, the more it remembers and little experience, literature and the more comprehensive the documentation. (Berger, 1992) stimulus, the less it remembers. stated that a black and white (Harper, 2002) asserts that inserting photography is absurdly more a photograph into a research reminiscent than colored interview is what photo elicitation is photography. This stimulates a faster all about. He went further to state onrush of memories because of the that the parts of the brain that process fact that less has been given, Prior, visual information are evolutionary he states that the memory is a strange older than parts that process verbal faculty. The sharper and more information. In essence, images isolated the stimulus memory

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evoke deeper elements of human consciousness than words do. In research photographs are used to elicit information, for obvious reasons drawings, cartoons etc cannot be used. To an extent there is a connecting link between the photographs and elicitation interviews, as they are narratives of either culture, society or history.

WHAT IS RESEARCH (Nicholas, 2011) defined research as is a systematic process of investigation that is intended to uncover interesting or new facts. Research is not just about collecting facts and interpreting them to build up a picture of the world, but it is about acquiring knowledge and developing an understanding. Depending on the epistemology, that is how we can acquire knowledge, and the metaphysics, that is assumptions about what actually exists in reality and what we can know, these are some of the different ways research depends on.

TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS There are basically two types of research. These are Qualitative Research Method and Quantitative Research method, in addition, there is the Mixed Method, that is a combination of Qualitative and Quantitative Methods. Qualitative Method of Research: (Family Health organization, 2007) defined Qualitative research as a type of scientific research, in general terms, the research consists of an investigation into the following: • seeks answers to a question • systematically uses a predefined set of procedures to answer the question • collects evidence • produces findings that were not determined in advance • produces findings that are applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the study

Quantitative Method of Research: Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques (Aliaga and Gunderson,2002).

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WHAT IS SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH According to (Anol, 2012) social science is the is the science of people or collections of people, such as groups, firms, societies, or economies, and their individual or collective behaviors. The study went further to state that it can be classified into psychology, that is the science of human behaviors, sociology, this deals with the science of social groups and economics which entails the science of firms markets and economies.

WHAT ARE PICTURES A picture, also called an image, is a group of coloured points on a flat surface that looks the same as something else. For example, a picture can look the same as an object or a person. Pictures can also be drawings, paintings or photographs. People who make such pictures are called artists, photographers or painters. Pictures are very helpful. Sometimes people say pictures are worth a thousand words. Or simply put “a visual capture of an image”.

ORIGIN OF PHOTOGRAPHY AND AS A METHODOLOGY The word “photo elicitation” was first named in a paper by a photographer and researcher, john collier (1957). He proposed its use in finding solutions to practical problems like examining how families adapted to residence amongst ethnically different people, and to new forms of work in urban factories. Issues relating to environmental basis on psychological stress in workers. These themes were difficult to explore in surveys and interviews. (Ellie, 2012) asserts that as part of the expansion of qualitative research methods to include various art forms such as drawing, expressive writing and music, the use of photography in qualitative research has grown considerably in recent years. Photographs are used as tools for data elicitation or as data in their own right, in a wide range of settings, with myriad groups and populations across the globe.

VISUAL ASSESSMENT AS TOOL: Photographs can be used as a research tool (Caldarola, 1988). Visual methodologies are used to understand and interpret images (Barbour, 2014) and (Owen, 1999) include photography, film, video, painting, drawing, collage, sculpture, artwork, graffiti, advertising, and cartoons. Visual methodologies are a new and novel approach to qualitative research derived from traditional ethnography methods used in anthropology and sociology. There has been recent enthusiasm for the use of visual methods in qualitative 85 [email protected] 2018

research (Barbour, 2014). They add value to already existing methods by bringing another dimension (Balmer, Griffiths, & Dunn, 2015), by capturing rich multidimensional data (Mah, 2015), and by adding valuable insights into the everyday worlds of participants (Barbour, 2014). Visualization is essentially a mapping process between “reality, “picture(s) or photograph(s),” and “viewer(s)” (Owen 1999).

ROLES OF PHOTOGRAPHS IN RESEARCH Culture or Cultural studies: Several elicitation studies focused on the meaning of local cultures. In these studies, a researcher takes photographs of a group doing its normal round of activity. Interviews inspire subjects to define how they interpret the events depicted. Several athletic subcultures have been investigated in this manner (Curry, Tiomothy, & Strauss, 1986); (Snyder, Eldon, & Ammons, 1993). This is a straight forward procedure which sometimes produces studies that beg for greater theoretical and substantive significance. Social Class/Social Organization/Family: These studies include empirical study of family photographs (Guschker 2000), books that document popular education movements (Barndt 1980, 1990), reports of larger projects in which photo elicitation studies played a part, and studies in which researchers completed projects on the impact of children on family dynamics (Steiger, 1995). (Frith et al (Taylor & Coffey, 2005) (Harper, 2002)

Community and Historical Ethnography: Suchar’s studies of gentrification (1988, 1992; Suchar and Rotenberg 1994) use photographs to show how urban residents transform urban neighbourhoods based on strategies which derive from their own social locations and identities. Suchar’s photographs record refurbishing, redecorating, and ways of occupying space. Suchar approaches his project as a documentary photographer and his photographic skill and sociological acuity lead to visual essays that could grace museum walls as well as sociological articles. It can also be used to document key places during a research process. This could be a plaza, a house, a road a landscape, etc. These kinds of images tend to be somewhat mid-range shots to distant shots. Much like the note-taking photography explained, this type of photography can have many different uses. For a researcher wants to document on how people think about and use particular places. Borrowing some ideas from geographers and 86 [email protected] 2018

anthropologists who employ “mobile methods,” the plan is to use photography to record key landmarks and places while walking with people through landscapes/places. These photographs will then be used during later interviews. (Ryan, 2011) affirmed that he has a good amount of experience doing archaeological surveys, and he used a similar method to document sites and cultural landscapes. Walking through a particular site, especially with someone who has a close connection to a place, is very different from sitting in a room talking about that place. He stressed that he is still working on how he is going to employ this method and how he is going to write about it in grant proposals. He emphasized that this particular use has a lot of potential.

Identity: Researchers using photo elicitation have examined the social identity of kids, drug addicts, ethnically different immigrants, work worlds and visual autobiography. As in the case of community, photographic studies of identity rely heavily on what is seen, raising the question of what parts of identity are not visible.

Photo-Interviews: These are Interviews centered around discussions of the photographs. An example I s some assembled photographic sets representing locales, activities, and events which appeared to be significant to community members. One choses what to include and how to sequence the photo-sets on the basis of analytical inferences drawn from field notes. (Schwartz, 2000).

Photographs as notes: Cameras, all the time during fieldwork can be used as a way to record all sorts of details, from the covers of newspapers to bus schedules and new graffiti. They can also be used in conjunction with taking quick notes or “jottings” in a small notebook. Sometimes it works to write a few lines, and sometimes it’s a lot easier, and maybe more effective, to use a camera phone or small point and shoot to record something that one might otherwise forget. These kinds of photographs are really useful when one sits down at the end of the day and write up more detailed field notes, and one will find out they jog memories pretty well. Photography in research is a bit different since it is less concerned about making a technically “good” photograph (framing, exposure, etc) and more concerned with getting something recorded. Of 87 [email protected] 2018

course, it’s always a good idea to get the best image possible, but the most important thing is getting that detail, bit of information, or idea secured so one can write about it later. Most anthropologists take cameras into the field, whether they consider them a part of their formal methods or not.

Beyond words: The benefit of visual methods is that not all participants are able to express themselves verbally, an example is a young child. Similarly, some experience like pain is best expressed through words and some people have a preference for visual expression (Guillemin, 2004).

KEY POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN STARTING OUT. When working with images for the first time it is important that the following are noted as opined by (Prosser, 2006): • there is no ‘one-way’ visual method or perspective that has ascendancy over all other ways of sense making. • we don’t ‘see, we ‘perceive’ since the former is a biological norm and the latter culturally and psychologically informed. • all images are regarded as polysemic (having many possible meanings). • word and number based researchers ‘skim’ imagery, taking it for granted. • visual researchers give imagery a ‘close reading’ (in-depth scrutiny and treating the visual as problematic). • images can be ‘researcher found’ (generated by others) or ‘researcher generated’ (created by the researcher). Both are integral to the visual research process. • the visual, as objects and images, exists materially in the world but gain meaning from humans. • A photograph does not show how things look. It is an image produced by a mechanical device, at a very specific moment, in a particular context by a person working within a set of personal parameters.

PITFALLS Interpretation of pictures is based on possible bias as it totally depends on what the researcher is seeing.

Practical Difficulties: An example of this situation is where hospital authorities will not allow to take photograph alone as Radley and Taylor (2003) have pointed out. This 88 [email protected] 2018

shows that studies involving photographs are often limited to organizational rules. Another practical consideration is where those using the tools like cameras and video recorders know how to use the technology and the risk of losing data by accident (Gibson and Riley, 2010) The researcher must focus on areas of interest and research when sourcing for data. Impact of social factors such as religion or culture which might result to outright rejection of the researcher’s request to access information.

Ethical issues: Frith et al., 2005 confirmed that the need for confidentiality may mean that images have to be viewed in an altered form. For example, faces of people in photos have to be blurred, and to an extent even the voices of have to be disguised. Ruise, 2013 also stated that if a participant produces an image and cannot be contacted to give consent, then it may not be possible to publish.

CONCLUSION We have learnt that research photographs offer important dimensions for acquiring knowledge and stimulating a synergy between the researcher and the community. The paper has presented different facets of research and has given an idea on its relevance, from this, it is important to note that research photographs are not the sole unit of analysis, (Caldarola, 1985) most especially when a study involves the study of man and his environment which is very complex. Photographs tend to capture the impossible, their roles cannot be overemphasized as they are very useful for studies that has to do with gaining knowledge by direct or indirect observation or experience. These empirical evidences can be analysed qualitatively or quantitatively and can add more to reliability and validity when compared to other forms of surveys and interviews.

References Anol, B. (2012). Social Science Research Principles: Methods and Practices. florida: Anol Bhattaacherjdee. Barbour, B. (2014). Introducing Qualitative Research: A student's guide. Caldarola, & J., V. (1985). Visual Contexts: A Photograhic Research Method in Anthropology. Studies in visual communication. 4, 193- 216. Hardwood Academic Publishers. 89 [email protected] 2018

Curry, Tiomothy, J., & Strauss, R. (1986). Alittle pain never hint anybody. Sociology of Sport, 1-7. Ellie, B. (2012). Visual Data in Qulitative Research: the contribution of Phography to understanding mental health hospital environments. Family Health organization. (2007). Qulitative research methodology. new york: university of alberta. Frith, H; Riley, S.; Archer , L.; Gleeson, K. (2005). Imagining Visual Methodologies. Qualitative Research in Psychology., 187-198. Gibson, S., & Rilley, S. (2010). Approaches to Data Collection in Qualitative Research. Harper, D. (2002). Talking About Pictures: a case for photo elicitation. 13- 26. Mah, A. (2015). Visual methods: DTC qualitative research methods. Power- point presentation. Retrieved from www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/sociology Nicholas. (2011). defination of research. Owen, G. S. (1999). Definitions and Rationale for Visualization. Prosser, J. (2006, july monday). Real Life Methods. Leeds, leeds, uk. Radley, A., & Taylor, D. (2003). Remembering one's stay in hospital: A study in Photography, A study in Photography Recovery and Forgetting. An Interdisciplinary Journal for For the Social Study of Health., 129-159. Ryan. (2011). Photographic Methods. london: savageminds. Schwartz, A. (2000, january monday). Visual ethnography. Using photography in qualitative research. minnesota, USA: university of minnesota. Retrieved from http://sweb.cityu.edu.hk/sm6324/Schwartz_VisualEthno_using- photography.pdf Snyder, Eldon, & Ammons, R. (1993). Baseballs Emotion Work:getting psyched to play. Qualitative Sociology, 111-132. Taylor, C., & Coffey, A. (2009). Qulitative Research and Methodological Innovations. Qualitative Research.

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African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

Relationship between Water Volumes, Shapes, Glass Thicknesses and Water Holding Capacity of 40 Litres Glass Aquaria

Olayimika, S. O. A*, Lamai, S. L*, Olugboji, O. A** and Garkida, A. D.*** *Water Resources, Aquaculture and Fisheries Technology Department, Federal University of Technology, Minna; Niger State, **Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Minna; Niger State, *** Glass Technology Department, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria; Kaduna State. Coresponding author

Abstract The study determines the relationship between water volumes, glass thickness, and water holding capacity of three shapes of30 Litres (L) glass aquaria. Glass aquaria were designed and constructed using 3 mm, 4 mm and 5 mm thicknesses glass for Tower, Prism and Cuboid shapes in triplicate and they were tested for leakages. Water was introduced into each aquarium and monitored under room condition for 49 days. A significant difference occurred (p < 0.05) in the volume of water that can be retained by Prism shaped and 3 mm glass thickness of glass aquaria. Prism shaped 3 mm thickness glass aquaria failed in retention of water of 30 L with a significant difference (p < 0.05) within the shape for various glass thicknesses and between the shapes for various glass thicknesses. Tower and Cuboid shaped aquaria retained water, without significant difference (p > 0.05) within and between the shapes. 4 mm and 5 mm glass thicknesses retained water without significant difference (p > 0.05) within and between them for all the shapes. 4 mm and 5 mm glass thicknesses are recommended for the construction of Prism, Tower and Cuboid shaped 30 L aquaria, while 3 mm can be used for Tower and Cuboid shaped aquaria for economic reason. Aquaria builders have opportunity to offer quality aquaria to customers based on their demand using 4 mm and 5 mm glass thicknesses for 30 L Prism, Tower and Cuboid shaped glass aquaria.Opportunity for choice of glass thicknesses based on customers’ financial ability exist between 4 mm and 5 mm

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forPrism, Tower and Cuboid shaped glass aquaria,minimizing loss of time, money, power and materials caused by failure and increasein healthy nation, job creation and wealth for the people are attainable based on this research outcome.

Keywords: Aquarium, Glass thicknesses, Shapes, Water volumes and Water holding capacity

Introduction Ornamental fisheries are evolving mostly kept in the ponds, pools, aspect of fisheries called recreational lakes, streams, dams, reservoirs and fisheries in some instances. It is the recreational centres (Olayimika and study and production of special Lamai, 2008, 2010).Livengood and featured aquatic animal and plant Chapman (2017) said“Ornamental (colour, shapes, movement, fish is often used as a generic term to emission, activity), housing, describe aquatic animals kept in marketing and managing them and aquarium hobby, including fishes, their environment for aesthetic, invertebrates such as corals, recreational and healing purpose. crustaceans (examples, crabs, helmit Ornamental fish is a shellfish or crabs, shrimps), mollusks (snails, finfish that attracts more value per clams, scallops), and also live rock”. unit weight than other aquatic Ornamental fisheries are of great animals of the same physical size as importance to human race, it is used a result of its special feature(s) for the following among others: possessed for aesthetic purposes Aesthetic purposes (beautification (beautification and endearment), and endearment) of homes, offices recreation and health implication and other places; Recreational (natural therapy), it is regarded as purposes (relaxation, picnic and the most valuable fish. It is generally tourism centres for people), Health smaller in size compared to table purpose (prevent and control fishes except sport fishes sicknesses caused by stress and brain (Olayimika, 2001). They are fatigue such as Stroke, classified into salt and freshwater Hypertension), Minimize vices in ornamental fishes. Ornamental the society and family (where young fishes are mostly kept alive in an people will have opportunity to enclosure, those in aquarium are spend their time in viewing rather therefore referred to as aquarium than being engaged in evil things), fishes, while the sport fishes are Job and wealth creation for

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aquarium producers, fish breeders, marketers, foreign exchange for nations, Research and learning at various levels. Ornamental fish culture is fast becoming a major branch of aquaculture worldwide. Aquarium has tremendous economic opportunities and prospects whichis leading to the recognitions it is gaining very fast (ornamental fish and aquatic plant industry). The world ornamental fish trade is around US$6 billion (Fossa, 2004). Ornamental fish export trade has been carried out in Nigeria for over 40 years (Areola, 2004). It was started by some Americans who invested heavily into the identification and location of these species in water bodies and still send in request till date. The export trade is growing in Nigeria, earning over $1.5 million with about 100 identified species (Areola, 2004, Koroye, 2010, Ukaonuet.al., 2011). Ecotourism includes fisheries for other areas of human satisfaction apart from consumption (Fadipe, 2007, Yusuf and Ogundana, 2016), but the sector has long been neglected, probably due to lack of awareness of its large potentials (Chukwura, 2008). Yusuf and Ogundana (2016) said “Ornamental fishery production has not been fully taken into consideration due to some reasons which includes: lack of awareness about the possible use of ornamental fishes as an element of attraction, lack of technicalities in the area of culturing ornamental fishes, paucity of information on available source of ornamental fishes, and non interest of private individuals in breaking a truce in the area of making ornamental fishes an element of tourist attractions” The hobby of keeping fish has been adopted by man in order to appreciate the grace and beauty of one of nature’s creatures (Odunaiya, 1986). Ornamental fishes are kept at homes and offices in small compartments in most of the cases as an artificial home for viewing and recreational purposes, aquaria are mostly used for these. Thus, it is an enclosure that is made to house aquatic organisms with at least a transparent side for viewing. The transparent side(s) is mostly made of glass; other useable materials are Acrylic and Perplex. There are various types of glass, they include Annealed, Tempered or Toughened,Laminated, Heat strengthened and Reflective. Annealed glass is the cheapest, most common and most used of all the glasses in aquarium construction. Aquascaping (designing of aquarium) is exciting and is a major challenging part of the fish (ornamental) keeping hobby. The Ornamental fishes are usually kept in aquaria in homes for beautification and in public aquaria devoted primarily to the scientific study of plants and animals and they are usually made to stimulate the natural environment (Poluvin, 1996). Aquarium is a mini copy of thenatural habitat of the fish, therefore care must be taken in designing, preparing and 93 [email protected] 2018

maintaining the aquarium's elements and ecosystem. Aquarium mostly serves as home in which ornamental fishes and other organisms are kept healthy, while sport fishes are kept in larger compartment in most cases. Aquaria of various volumes and shapes are being designed to meet aesthetic demand of customers, to provide conducive environment for organisms that inhabit it and keeping water intact within it(Paranjayap, et. al. 2014). Aquarium design entails conceiving and visualizing a concept, sketching it and developing the sketch, putting into consideration the organisms to be kept in it, the location it will be placed, the management that will be involved and interest of the consumer. The wall of the aquaria (size, shape and thickness) may affect its ability to function. Aquaria walls have to function as the air, water and weather barriers,that is designed to withstand the structural stresses imposed on it and its performance at room temperature, looking attractive to the customer and provide good environment (water) in which aquatic organisms survive. Glass is a material used for aquarium, it is brittle and with sudden failure structurally, which is dangerous. The theoretical strength of glass is very hightensionally and compressively, because of surface and edge flaws in the glass sheetthis strength is not achieved in practice. The Glass Physical Characteristics Density: approx. 2.5 at 21°C Coefficient of linear expansion: 86 x 10-7m/°C Softening Point: 730°C Modulus of Elasticity: 69GPa (69 x 109 Pa) Poisson’s ratio: Float Glass 0.22 to 0.23 Compressive Strength: 25mm Cube: 248MPa (248 x 106 Pa) Tensile Strength: 19.3 to 28.4MPa for sustained loading Tensile Strength (toughened glass): 175MPa. Glass has a much lower coefficient of linear expansion than most metals (Warren,2001)

People of diverse income, social status and concept demand for various shapes and sizes of aquaria to meet their need (aesthetic, healing). The quality and cost implication of procuring such have been a major challenge due to failure experienced based on strength of glass. Most aquaria builders make use of 4mm thick glass for construction of home and office aquaria without adequate information on the thickness capacity of such glass and the role that may be played by the shape and size of aquarium under

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consideration. Financial losses due to properties, fish and equipment damage as a result of cracks and breakages have been a major problem facing aquarium producers and customers, especially in under developed and developing nations. The time required to put things in place and odor from wet rugs in many homes have also been discouraging. This is as a result of annealed glasses of mostly 3mm and 4mm commonly found in the market and mostly used by aquarist in construction of aquaria irrespective of shape and sizes. Ornamental fish is demanded everywhere in the world(Fossa, 2004, Ploeg, 2017). The suitability of various thicknesses of glass required for construction of various shapes of aquaria will be derived. However, the constraint of scientific application in design and construction has been a major challenge which this study addressed.

Materials and Methods: Three replicates of each shape were used under room condition with each replicate in separate room for each design. Sketch of the designs (Tower, Prism and Cuboid) weredrawn to scale using bisector, protractor, angles, ruler, pencil, paper and eraser. Glass sheets were procured and packed in cases (to prevent cracks and breakages), then transported to the project site, while hand gloves were worn for protection and glass sheets were cut into required sizes for construction using glass cutter to cut from intersection points with the aid of long ruler after measurement with measuring tape and accuracy confirmed using angle on the absorbent workshop table. Edges of the cut glass were dulled with dulling stone and hand towel used in cleaning the glass from particles. Sealant, Silicon Gun, Plump, Solvent, The sealant nozzle tip was cut slanting at 45 o with an opening of 4-5 mm and the sealant’s tip was cut, then the nozzle screwed to it and fixed into the sealant gun and trigged for 4-5 mm overflow. Assembling of each shape was doneaccording to the specification. Cello-tape were cut to 10-15 cm and attached externally in pairs to all sides of the basement glass sheet, likewise a set of opposite sides to serve as a means of attachment for form work formation while the glass sheets were located beside their potential position. Each of the side glass sheets were lifted- up and placed in its rightful position using the cello-tape to brace until all the sides were erected and positioned in its form. The aquaria were cured under room condition. The first curing took 30 - 60 minutes after construction, after which the aquarium was relocated from the workshop table for a pre-test, where water of 1-2 litres was used to test for leakages along the joints. A further cure that took a total of 24 hours wasdone before the aquaria were fully test for leakages. Water 95 [email protected] 2018

wasintroduced into each aquarium gradually to determine the water holding capacity for different shapes and observed for fourty nine days.

Results and Discussion The experiment was conducted under average room temperature of 23.9 oC (22 – 27.5 oC) and average water temperature of 18.6 oC (16 – 21.5 oC). Three millimeter (mm) glass thicknesses failed to retain 30litres of water in Prism shaped aquarium (29.67±1.48)with a significant difference (p < 0.05) within and between the shapes. 4 mm and 5 mm glass thicknesses retained water in Prism, Tower and Cuboid shaped aquaria without a significant difference (p > 0.05) and 3 mm in Tower and Cuboid shaped aquaria without a significant difference (p > 0.05).This shows that glasses of higher thicknesses are with better ability to retain water, this agrees with Aquarium Fish Tank, (2015) that with enough braces,an enormous glass tank can be constructed from very thin material theoretically, but looksunattractive because ofvertical braces within few centimeters and undesirable. In order to achieve a reasonable seeing area, there is need to consider thickness and material’s type for the work. Failure occurred in 3 mm glass thicknesses in Prism shaped aquaria during and shortly after filling with water, 3 mm glass thickness is significant different (p < 0.05) from 4 mm and 5 mm glass thicknesses. No failure occurred in 3 mm, 4 mm and 5 mm glass thicknesses in Tower and Cuboid shaped glass aquaria(p > 0.05). Significant difference (p < 0.05) occurred between Prism and other shapes (Tower and Cuboid) only in 3 mm glass thickness The Shape of the Aquaria affect its ability to retain water, shape with the highest water column (depth) and only three bond sides had less ability to retain water of equal volumes, thus confirmed Aquarium Fish Tank(2015) concept that the choice of the right glass is critical in such applications because, it is a brittle material and is weak in tension due to its non-crystalline molecular structure and Warren (2001) thatglass has a much lower coefficient of linear expansion than most metals.Failures occurred because it has only ability to bend a little before failure, this is in consonance with Morgan (2010) that glass is a totally brittle substance. It will bend a very small amount, but has no capacity like most metals to deform. It will bend to a point and then break. Table 1: Relationship between Water volumes, Glass thicknesses and Shapes and Water holding capacity of 30 Litres Glass Aquaria

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Thicknesses 3 mm 4 mm 5 mm Shapes Prism 29.67±1.48a No failureb No failureb Tower No failureb No failureb No failureb Cuboid No failureb No failureb No failureb

P < 0.05

Volumes in Litres Aquaria builders have opportunity to offer quality aquaria to customers based on their demand using 4 mm and 5 mm glass thicknesses for 30 L Prism, Tower and Cuboid shaped glass aquaria and 3 mm for Tower and Cuboid shaped aquaria based on their financial ability and aesthetic demand of the customers. Thus, this research will help to eliminate losses of time, energy, money and materials that would have be caused by aquarium glass failure.This will help in building a healthy people that will be more productive, job and wealth creation for the people are attainable based on this research outcome.

Conclusion and Recommendation Aquaria ofthirty (30) litres water holding capacity of Tower and Cuboid shapes can be design and constructed using 3 mm, 4 mm and 5 mm glass thicknesses, while 3 mm cannot be used for Prism shaped of the said capacity. Further researches should be carried out on other glass thicknesses, shapes and volumes.

REFERENCES Areola, F. O. (2004). Export potential of ornamental live fish in Nigeria. Fisheries Society Conference Proceedings, Calabar p.589 Aquarium Fish Tank (2015). Retrieved from Build aquarium: http://www.info.com Chukwura, D. I. (2008). Ornamental fish industry, scope and project for future development in Nigeria, Newsletter of the Federal College of Fisheries and Marine Technology, Victoria Island, Lagos Fadipe, A. S. (2007). Basic principles and practice of tourism media, ACE, Lagos Froese, R and Pauly D, (2015). Fish base Retrieved from http://www.fishbase.org/search.php

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Fishlore Aquarium Fish information (2015). Footprint of tank, Retrieved from http://www.fishlore.com Fossa, S.A. (2004). Man-made fish: Domesticated fishes and their place in aquatic trade and hobby. Ornamental Fish International Journal, 44, 1-23 Koroye, E. (2010). Export ornamental fish is big business, African Aquaculture and Fisheries Digest 3 (8) 11 Livengood, E. J. and Chapman, F. A. (20017). The ornamental fish trade: An introduction with perspectives for responsible aquarium fish ownership. UF/FAS Extention, University of Florida Retrieved from http://edis.ifas.uft.edu. October, 2017 Morgan, T. (2010).Aspect of Structural Glass. Institute of Structural Engineers, SE Counties ranch 1-81 Odunaiya, O. (1986). Investment Opportunity in Aquarium Technology- Export Marketing of Tropical Aquarium Fishes Proceedings of the 5th Annual Conference of Fisheries Society of Nigeria held at Ilorin, 261-269 Olayimika, S.O (2001). Appraisal on the survival of the Poeciliareticulata(Guppy) as an ornamental fish in the Northern Nigeria (A case study of Minna, Niger State). A Master’s degree thesis submitted to Postgraduate School, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State; Nigeria. Olayimika, S.O (2008). Appraisal on the survival of the Xiphophorusmaculatus (Platy) as an ornamental fish in the Northern Nigeria (A case study of Minna, Niger State). Proceedings of Annual Conference of International Research and Development Institute, Research and Development Network held June 24-27, 2008 at Institute for Development Research Hall, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria 3:8; 121 Olayimika, S. O. (2009). Effect of sex combination ratio on breeding of Poeciliareticulata(Guppy) for ornamental purpose. Proceeding of Annual Conference of International Research and Development Instituteheld at University of Porthacourt, September 2-3,2009, 5: 5; 48-51 Olayimika, S. O. and Lamai, S. L. (2010). Effect of parental sex and breed on phenotypical expression (colouration) in progeny of Peociliareticulata(Guppy) for Ornamental Purpose. Journal of Applied Agricultural Research 2:1;127-132

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Paranjayap, P., Martyn, P., Maluniu, O., Lettyb, B. (2014). How to make an aquarium,Retrieved from http.//www.glassfiles.com. Ploeg, A. (2017). The Indian ornamental fish industry. Ornamental Fish International. Retrieved from http://www.ofish.org. Poluvin, N. V. C. (1996). Reef fisheries. Chapman and Hall, London 7-47 adapted from Onuoha, P. C. (2008). A Preliminary Survey of Marine Ornamental Fishes in the Catches of Fishing Trawlers Operating Within the Nigerian Continental Shelf. International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advance Engineering. 4 (9)2250-2459, September 2014) p.1Retrieved from www.ijetae.com Umarani,G., Premalatha, E. and Aruna, M.T.P. (2010). Facades of Tall Buildings-State of Art, Modern Applied Science, Canadian Center of Science and Education4, 12. Retrieved from http.//www.ccsenet.org/mas Yusuf, O. I. S and Ogundana, F. O. (2016). Ornamental Fish Tourism and Economic Development, Journal of Ornamental and Recreational Industry 14 (1) 1-5. Retrieved from www.transcampus.org/journal; www.ajol.info/journal,jorind

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African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

Causes and Effect of Indiscriminate Solid Waste Disposal around Residential Area of Bauchi Metropolis Bauchi State

¹Muhammad Sulaiman, ²Sagir Yusuf Abdullahi 3Bukata Yakubu Gizaki and 4Abubakar Sulaiman 1,2,3Department Of Civil Engineering Abubakar Tatari Ali Polytechinic Bauchi 4School Of General Studies, Abubakar Tatari Ali Polytechinic Bauchi

Abstract There is growing solid waste heaps problem in most developing countries which is gradually approaching a crisis level and this trend has gone unchecked for so many years that now, the situation appears to be intractable. The indiscriminate dumping of refuse, these problems are typified by overwhelming dustbins, mountains of open dump sites at virtually every street Conner, drainage, backyard and public places, with their attendant problem of improperly operated landfill which are often vector and with potentials for surface and groundwater pollution. Also people in the area of study are facing problems associated with indiscriminate disposal of solid waste ranging from flooding water pollution, fire outbreak and endemic of sanitation related diseases. This study focused on the causes and effect of indiscriminate disposal of solid waste in Bauchi metropolis. For convenient data collection for this study the researcher utilize a well- design questionnaire as its research instrument. In order to ensure that accurate information is obtained, the questionnaire was personally administered by the researcher. The population sample comprised of 250 people randomly selected from the ten (10) wards in the area with some living very close to noticeable illegal refuse heaps/dumpsite around their residential premises. But only 243 questionnaires were retrieved and analyzed using simple percentage in bar chart and tables. From the findings, it is glaring that lack of adequate designated refuse collection centre, inadequate awareness on effect of incriminate solid waste disposal and poor attitude of people toward environmental sanitation are the major

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causes of indiscriminate solid waste disposal. It has a negative effect on the resident and environment such as vectors of diseases infection and water pollution

Keywords: waste heaps; indiscriminate dumping; landfill; groundwater pollution; bar chart; designated refuse; vectors of diseases.

Introduction Wherever people exist, waste is a problem in our present day. In generation is practically inevitable, modem society, many products are which could be from the households, discarded when they are broken or hospitals, industries and commercial worn out, while others have centers which contributes temporary use which Constitute immensely to environmental majority of solid wastes. obscenity, pollution and nuisance NoyeNortey (2007) opines which are hazardous to human that in developing countries, wastes existence. Though it is a settled law management has remained a major of nature that biological organisms development issue mainly as, a must essentially generate wastes, it result of lack of understanding of the follows basic dynamic characteristics of Therefore, that regardless of the wastes generation and proper social and economic status, mankind management (Nortey, 2007) asserts must of necessity generate wastes of that the rapid uncontrolled. various forms- solid and liquid on a unplanned Urbanization in the daily basis. This of Course developing nations of Africa has necessitates wastes disposal brought Untoward ill effect of management which refers to the act environmental degradation Indeed of maintaining acceptable one of the most pressing Concerns of environmental quality, Sound public urbanization in the developing world health and creation of aesthetic has been the problem of solid, liquid value. It has to do with the and toxic wastes management. administration of institution charged The generation and disposal of with the responsibility of evacuating wastes is an intrinsic part of any solid wastes from their sources of developing or industrial Society. generation through storage, Wastes, both from domestic and collection, transportation recovery commercial sources have grown and treatment processes to its significantly in Nigeria over the past disposal. However, wastes disposal decade. Every time a householder

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shops at the store and open market, he contributes to the rain of wastes. It is Possible to quote figure which show that the action of wastes amount to millions of tons. The percentage of Nigerians population living in cities and urban centers has more than doubled in the last 15 years (Jimoh 2005). These cities and urban centers experience continuous growth which contributes to enormous generation of solid, air and liquid waste. The management of wastes is a matter of national.and.international concern, Studies have shown that the Volume of wastes does not actually constitute the problem but the ability or inability of government, individuals and wastes disposal firms to keep up with the tasks of managing wastes and the environment. There is no doubt that a dirty environment affects the standard of living, aesthetic sensibilities, health of the people and thus the quality of their lives. The corollary is that improper disposal or storage of these wastes can constitute hazards to the society through the pollution of air, land and especially water. Throughout history, the environment and natural resources have played a defining role in social, political and economic transformations. There has also being a major contention in charactering African as a continent in crisis (Opara and Gerhard, 2008). The environment has been at the receiving end and overburdened with aftermath of the excess of humans in their struggle for survival. Environment is a complex weave of physical, chemical and biotic factors that interact with each other and impact upon all living things and their surroundings. It is a life supporting system for human existence and survival as well as provides vital requirement for socio economic progress (UNDP, 2001). Environment is the source of global economy that must be protected and managed sustainably. All efforts directed at managing and administering the environment is to ensure the continued existence of the biological diversity entities on the earth of which humans are the prime species and without it, which humans cannot exist (Aluko, 2001). Nigeria is a country with productive and diverse ecosystems including mangroves, rainforest, savannah as well as wetlands. However, the trends of environmental abuse in the country suggest that humans are probably heading towards ecological destruction. The concern resonates with the aim of this research which of necessity, critically and frankly reviews the environmental public health implication of indiscriminate wastes disposal and psychological undertone as well as suggest ways of tackling the problem adequately.

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MATERIALS AND METHOD This study focused on the causes and effects of indiscriminate disposal of solid wastes in Bauchi metropolis. The chapter will includes the following Study area , research design.population.of.the study, sample and sampling techniques, Method/in strument for data collection ,validity and reliability of the instrument, Procedure for data collection and method of data analysis.

STUDY AREA Bauchi Metropolis is situated at Bauchi local Government which is the head quarter of Bauchi state of north eastern Nigeria. The state was created on 3rd, February, 1976 with Bauchi metropolis in Bauchi Local government. The state has population of 4,653,066 as of 2006 census but according 2016 projection is 6,537,300 by National population commission of Nigeria and National Bureau of statistic (web).The population of Bauchi Local Government as 2006 census is 493,810 but 2016 projection is 693,700 while Bauchi metropolis has population of 316,173(2004) but 2016 projection is 324,783 which is 46.8% of total population of the local Government. The metropolis with latitude 10,3058(1018’56.880’’N) and longitude 98442(950’39.012’’E).The local government with area cover of 3687kilometer square. The Bauchi metropolis comprises of so many tertiary educational institutions such as ATBU, two state polytechnics (Engineering/management and Agriculture), federal polytechnic, two private schools of health Technology, five privates institutions running NCE and campus state university . Also with commercials and industrial, recreational tourism centers such as mudalawal market, wunti market, central market, yelwa market and sabuwar kasuwa market, Bauchi furniture company, Superco Nigeria limited, Ramadan press LTD, Bauchi meat, factory, Bauchi fertilizer company, steyer Nigeria LTD, Zaranda hotel, Awala hotel ,Hazibal hotel, Larema hotel, jamil guest palace ,Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa Tomb etc. Bauchi metropolis is inhabited by indigenous ethnic groups who were mostly business men, civil servants, farmers, and artisans.

RESEARCH DESIGN A descriptive research was designed to find out the causes and effects of indiscriminate solid waste disposal around residential area of Bauchi metropolis. This was used for the study in which specifically a survey design 103 [email protected] 2018

shall be employed whereby a group of items was studied by collecting, analyzing and interpreting data from a population sample which was considered to be representative of the whole study population.

POPULATION OF THE STUDY The population of the study is made up of all the residents of Bauchi metropolis with ten (10) political wards such as Danamar A, Danamar B, Daniya, Makama, Dankade, Dawaki, Tirwun, Hardo, Miri and Birshi wards. This is because everybody, irrespective of their socio-economic status generates and disposes refuse solid wastes.

SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE For convenient data collection, the population sample comprised of 100people randomly selected from the ten (10) wards in the area with some of them living very close to noticeable illegal refuse heaps/dumpsites around their residential premises. The random sampling technique was used to select respondents from all wards for unbiased and equal chance of being selected for this study.

INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION For convenient data collection for this study the researcher utilized a well designed questionnaire as its research instrument. In order to ensure that accurate information is obtained, the questionnaires were personally administered by the researcher. The questionnaire was divided into three sections A which is bio-data of respondents, B closed questions on causes, effects, factors affecting the agency and C inform of strongly agreed ,agreed, undecided, disagreed and strongly disagreed for them indicate their opinion on each.

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THEINSTRUMENT In order to obtain valid and reliable data, the questionnaire was validated through vetting and making all necessary corrections before final draft, also it was tested and re- tested before final distribution to respondents.

DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE The researcher personally went to the field comprising ten wards of the area of study and the questionnaires were administered to respondents for data gathering. 104 [email protected] 2018

METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS The responses were collated, summarized and analyzed using simple percentage presented in bar charts and tables.

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS Data From occupations of respondents in the bar chart (Figure 4.1) show that majority of the respondents were civil servants with 43.2%, followed by others with 23.5%, business with 18.1%, farmers with 9.9 and artist with 5.3%. This implies that most of the respondents to questionnaires were civil servants from various communities within the area of study.

Others

Artisan

Frequency Farmers Percentage

Business

Civil Servant

0 50 100 150

Figure 4.1: Occupation of respondents.

Data from the bar chart (Figure 4.2) majority of the respondents were male with 69.5% while female with only 30.5%. This implies that majority of the questionnaires were answered by male residents of the area of study.

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Percentage

Business Male

Frequency

0 50 100 150 200

Figure 4.2: Sex of respondents

The Data from bar chat (Figure 4.3) majority of the respondents are within the age of 20-30 years with 52.3%, followed by 30-45 years with 35.0% and 45 and above with 12.8%.Therefore, this implies that the majority of the respondents to the questionnaires were people of productive age 20- 30 years.

45 & above

30=45yrs Percentage Frequency

20-30yrs

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Figure 4.3: Age group of respondents

From the data in bar chart (Figure 4.4) majority of the respondents were people with Diploma with 47.7%, followed by HND/Degree with 26.7%, secondary certificate with 22.6% and masters/ PHD with only 2.9% 106 [email protected] 2018

Secondary

Diploma

Percentage Frequency HND/Degree

Masters/PhD

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Figure 4.4: Educational qualifications of respondents

From the data in the bar chart(Figure 4.5) major environmental health problems in the community were poor waste disposal accounted for 34.6%,water pollution 25.9%,air pollution 23.9%,flooding 10.3% and overcrowding 5.3%.

Over crowding

Flooding

Poor waste disposal Percentage Frequency Water pollution

Air pollution

0 20 40 60 80 100 Figure 4.5: Environmental health problems in the area of study.

From the data in the bar chart (Figure 4.6) shows the response of people toward factors affecting efficiency of waste management agency which poor attitude of people toward environment accounted for 33.3%,poor insufficient equipment 24.7%,poor enforcement of law 19.8%,lack of public awareness on waste management 15.6% and negligence of duty among staff was 6.6%

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Lack of Awareness among public on waste management

Poor attitude of people toward environment

Poor enforcement of Law Percentage Frequency Neglegence to duty among staff

Poor/Insufficient Equipment

0 20 40 60 80 100 Figure 4.6: Factors militating against the level of efficiency of solid waste management agency.

Data presented in bar chart (Figure 4.7) shows that inadequate designated refuse disposal sites rated high at 41%, then ignorance on health implication of improper solid waste disposal with 22.2%, poor town planning was 14.4%, lack of private waste disposal company was 11.1% and poverty was 10.3% .Therefore, this indicate that lack of designated waste disposal sites is the major causes of indiscriminate refuse disposal in the area of study.

Lack of Awareness among public on waste management

Poor attitude of people toward environment

Poor enforcement of Law Percentage Frequency Neglegence to duty among staff

Poor/Insufficient Equipment

0 20 40 60 80 100

Figure 4.7: Causes of improper solid waste disposal in the area of study

The data collected from the respondents as presented in bar chart (Figure 4.8) shows that high rate of diseases vectors infestation with highest rating that was 40.3%, followed by surface and underground water pollution with

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26.3% ,emission of offensive odor at 24.7% and accidental injury /cut at least of 8.6%.Therefore, this shows that diseases vectors infestation was common in the area of study putting the people at risk of contracting many vector transmitted diseases.

Poverty

poor town planning

Lack of private waste disposal company Percentage Ignorance of Health implication Frequency of improper solid waste disposal Inadequate designated refuse disposal site

0 50 100 150

Figure 4.8: Common effects of improper solid waste disposal in the area of study.

The data in bar chart (Figure 4.9) shows that the respondents strongly agreed have the highest at 60.1%, then agreed at 35.8%, undecided at 2.1%, disagreed at 1.6% and strongly disagreed at 0.4%. Therefore, majority agreed that improper solid waste disposal provide breeding places for vectors of diseases.

Strongly Disagreed

Disagreed

Undecided Percentage

Frequency Agreed

Strongly Agreed

0 50 100 150 200 Figure 4.9: Opinions of respondents on poor solid waste disposal provides breeding places for vectors of diseases

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Strongly Disagreed

Disagreed

Undecided Percentage Frequency Agreed

Strongly Agreed

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Figure 4.10: Responses on the opinion that many diseases can be prevented through proper waste disposal.

The data presented in bar chart (Figure 4.10) shows that agreed at 48.1%, strongly agreed at 47.7%, undecided 1.6%, disagreed 1.2% and strongly disagreed at 1.2% respectively. This indicated that majority of respondents agreed that proper waste disposal can prevent so many diseases.

Table 4.1: Responses on polluted air from refuse dumpsites bring out odour and causes respiratory diseases. Responses Frequency Percentage Strongly Agreed 33 13.6 Agreed 90 37.0 Undecided 28 11.5 Disagreed 80 32.9 Strongly Disagreed 12 4.9 Total 243 100.0 Source: field survey, 2018

Above table show that the data collected from respondent indicates agreed with 46.5% followed by strongly agreed with 41.1%, undecided 6.6%, disagreed 4.9% and least strongly disagreed with 0.8% respectively. Therefore this indicated that majority of the respondent agreed that polluted air from refuse dumpsite bring out odour and causes respiratory diseases

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TABLE 4.2: Responses on the opinion that sources of water can be contaminated as result of improper refuse disposal Responses Frequency Percentage % Strongly Agreed 97 39.9 Agreed 119 49.0 Undecided 13 5.3 Disagreed 9 3.7 Strongly Disagreed 5 2.1 TOTAL 243 100.0 Source: field survey, 2018

The above data presented in table 4.2 show that sources of water can be contaminated due to improper solid water disposal. 49.0% agreed, strongly agreed was 39.9%, undecided was 5.3%, disagreed 3.7% and strongly disagreed 2.1%. Therefore, this indicated that majority agreed that improper refuse disposal can contaminate source of water supply

TABLE 4.3Public awareness of respondents on solid waste disposal. Responses Frequency Percentage % Strongly Agreed 100 41.1% Agreed 113 46.5% Undecided 16 6.6% Disagreed 12 4.9% Strongly Disagreed 2 0.8% TOTAL 243 100.0 Source: field survey, 2018

The above data presented in table 4.3 shows that 39.1%agreed, followed by disagreed at 24.7%, strongly agreed at 16.0%, undecided 14.0% and strongly disagreed 6.2%.Therefore, majority of respondents agreed that the awareness about disposal of waste was not adequate.

TABLE 4.4: The responses on the awareness of respondents on the effects of improper solid waste disposal Responses Frequency Percentage % Strongly Agreed 39 16.0

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Agreed 95 39.1 Undecided 34 14.0 Disagreed 60 24.7 Strongly Disagreed 15 6.2 TOTAL 243 100.0 Source: field survey, 2018

The data presented above in table 4.4 shows37.0% of respondents Agreed that they are aware of the effects of improper solid waste disposal, followed by 32.9%disagreed while 13.6%strongly agreed, undecided was 11.5% and strongly disagreed was 4.9%.

Strongly Disagreed

Disagreed

Undecided Percentage Frequency

Agreed

Strongly Agreed

0 20 40 60 80 100 Figure 4.11: Disposal of waste at the designated refuse collection centers.

The above data presented in bar chart (Figure 4.11) show that majority of respondents disagreed at 32.1%, while 23.5% agreed, strongly disagreed at 18.1%, undecided 14.0%, and strongly agreed at 12.3% .Therefore, majority

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of the respondents disagreed that they do not dispose their refuse in designated refuse collection centers.

Strongly Disagreed

Disagreed

Undecided Percentage Frequency

Agreed

Strongly Agreed

0 20 40 60 80 100 Figure 4.12: BASEPA frequently visits residents for refuse collection and disposal.

Data presented in bar chart (Figure4.12) show that respondent’s responses were agreed with 36.6% followed by strongly agreed and disagreed with 21.0% respectively, strongly disagreed with 12.3% and least undecided with 9.1%. Therefore this shows that BASEPA frequently visit various community of study area.

Strongly Disagreed

Disagreed

Undecided Percentage Frequency Agreed

Strongly Agreed

0 20 40 60 80 100 Figure 4.13: Presence of adequate designated communal refuse collection/disposal centers

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Data from bar chart (Figure 4.13) show that the highest responses goes to disagreed at 36.6%, then followed by agreed at 25.1%, strongly disagreed at 21.4% and least is undecided at 9.1%. Therefore, this indicated that there is no adequate collection/ disposal sites because those agreed have the highest percentage

Strongly Disagreed

Disagreed

Undecided Percentage Agreed Frequency

Strongly Agreed

0 20 40 60 80 100

Figure 4.14: Availability of sanitary inspectors in the respondents’ area.

The Data presented in bar chart (Figure 4.14) show strongly disagreed at 35.0%, followed by disagreed at 31.3%, agreed at 12.3%, undecided at 11.1% and least strongly agreed at 10.3%. Therefore, this indicated that there are teams of sanitary inspectors in most the area of study populations.

DISCUSSION After analyzing the data collected from 243 out 250 respondents, the following are the findings. Majority of the respondent were civil servants which were mostly males with age range of 20-30 years and qualification of Diploma. The most serious environmental health problems is poor waste disposal, in line with the findings made by (Atta, 2009) most serious factors militating against the level of efficiency of waste management agency is poor attitude or people toward environment, in line with findings made by (Atsegbua, 2003) the common causes of indiscriminate solid waste disposal is inadequate designated refuse disposal sites and the most common health implication of indiscriminate solid waste disposal in the area of study is high rate of diseases vectors infestation. In line with the findings made by (Aluko, 2001)Most of the respondent agreed that poor solid waste disposal provide

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breeding place for vectors of diseases, also agreed that awareness programmes on sanitation are not adequate to create sufficient awareness on proper solid waste disposal, the respondent agreed that people are not aware on the effect of poor solid waste disposal, even though people disagreed that they do not dispose their waste in a designated collection. In line with findings made by (Orimoloye, 2007) However, the respondent agreed that BASEPA frequently visit their area for refuse collection and disposal. In addition, people disagreed that they have adequate communal designated refuse collection centre in their area and lastly, most of the respondent disagreed that there is no team of sanitary inspectors in their area.

CONCLUSION It is glaring that lack of adequate designated refuse collection center, inadequate awareness on effects of indiscriminate solid waste disposal and poor attitude of people toward environmental sanitation are the major causes of indiscriminate solid waste disposal. It has a negative effect on the resident and the environment such as vectors of diseases infestation and water pollution. Therefore, the need for adequate provision for designated refuse collection centers and awareness creation is paramount important to curtail this problem in the area of study.

RECOMMENDATIONS The following are recommendations:- ✓ Training and retraining of sanitary inspectors to include solid waste management issue during routine sanitary inspection of premises. ✓ Provision of adequate designated refuse collection centers within a required distance from residential areas. ✓ Provision of household dust bins to residential houses for proper collection of solid waste. ✓ Ensuring regular evacuation of refuse in a community. ✓ Sponsoring of public health or environmental education programme in radio and television stations weekly. ✓ Provision of bill board that enlighten the public on importance of proper environmental sanitation. ✓ Private sector participation in solid waste management. ✓ Establishment of more mobile court to trial sanitation offenders. ✓ Inclusion of environmental education at the school curriculum.

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REFERENCES Adebayo, W.O. (1995). “Environmental Consequences of Waste Generation and Disposal techniques along Roadsides, Drains and Stream Channels in a Tropical Urban center’ Environmental issues, Vol. 1, No.1 pp 1-4 focus on energy consumption, Ibadan STAN. Adedibu, A.A. (1985) .“A Comparative Analysis of Solid Waste Composition and Generation in Two cities of a Developing Nation”.The Environmental, Vol 5, No. 2. Adegoke, S.O. (1990). Waste management within the context of sustainable development, FEPA Abuja. Adelakun, K. (2003). Information and communication technology implication for Advancing environmental education in Nigeria. Environmental Watch, 1 (1). Akpan, E.A. (1995). Primary helath care in environmental protection. In N.S Olaniran, E.A. Akapan, E.E., Ikpeme, G.A. Udofia, (ed) Environmental and health. Lagos. Macmillian Nigeria publishers. Akpan, E.A. (1996). Environmental health education. In N.S. Olaniran, E. Akapan, E.E. Ikpeme, G.A. Udofia, (eds) Environment and health, Lagos; Macmillian Nigeria publishers. Aluko, O. (2001). Environmental Pollution and Waste Management (ed) Ola. Alukoin introductory Course in Environmental Sciences, Pg. 43- 59 Ibadan: Odunprints. Aribisala, J.O. (1997). “Waste Transport in Unsaturated Soils” International Journal of Environmental and development Vol. 1, No. 1 pp. 49-54. Aribisala, J.O. Omotosho, T. and Folorunso, P. (200).“Waste Management system”.Proceeding of National Civil Engineering Conference, Port Harcout Pp. 17-20. Atsegbua(2003).Environmental Law in Nigeris, Theory and practice Lagos Asaba publishers. Atta, M. (2009). Problems of Domestic Waste Management in Nigeria: Any Ayodele, J.O. (2005). Community Based Approaches a Mechanism for Effective Environmental Sanitation (garbage control) in Nigeria Cities. A paper presented at the 13th conference of Environmental Behaviour Association of Nigeria held at University of Benin, Benin city. Buckle and Smith (200).“Solid waste handling in metropolitan”.United State of America Public Health Service (USPHS) publication.”Washington D.C, February.

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Barrone, C.R. (2000). “Strategies for improving Municipal Solid Waste Management lesson from a Decade of World Bank landing”. Regional conference” Partnership in Muncipal Solid Waste Management Cairo 10-2. Boadi, K.O. and Kultunen, M. (2005).Environmental, Wealth, inequality and the burden of diseases in Accra metropolitan area, Ghana, Int. J. Environmental Health Resources. 15 (3): 193-206. Community Partners for Health (CPH) (2005).Lagos Environmental Sanitation and Malaria Control Project. Report No. 1-15. Cottrell, S. and Graefe, AR. (1997).Testing a Conceptual Frame work of Responsible Environmental Behavour.The Journal of Environmental Education 29 (1): 17-28. Department of Environmental (DOE) (1994).Sustaniable Development.The UK Strategy HMSO, London. Department of Environmental Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) (2002). Achieving a Better Quality of Life: Review of Progress Towards Sustainable Development, London. Emmons, K. (1997). Perspective on Environmental Action: Reflection and Revision Through Practical Experience. The Journal of Environment Education 29 (1): 34-44. Enger and Smith (2006). Environmental Sciences: A study of Interrelationships. 10th Edition.Mc. Graw Hill. Faniran A. and Adeboyejo, A.T. (1999).Environment Education and Awareness for Effective Environmental protection and Management in Nigeria” Journal of the NITP, October, 1999. Fantola, A. (1997) Introduction o f Solid Waste Management Engineering, Bibis Press Ibadan. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1989), National Policy on Education, Lagos: NERDC,Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) National Policy on the environment, Lagos: Haggai, K.T (2007). Solid Waste Management in Nigeria: Problems and Prospects. Being a project subjected to the National War College, Abuja, Nigeria. Hoornweg D. (2000). “What a Waste: Solid Waste Management in Asia”. Urban Environmental Management. http//ww.aid workers net/technical/sanitation.html htt://www.rpdc.tas.gov.au/soer/indicator/137/index/php

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African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

Awakening for Challenges and Opportunities in Innovative Toilet Architecture towards Open Defecation Free in Bauchi

Osunkunle Abdulmageed, Dauda Ali Madu, Hamidu Shitufa, Lodson Joyce, Nazif Barau Yakubu Department of Architectural Technology, Federal Polytechnic, Bauchi

Abstract The problematic national water, sanitation and hygiene is going from bad to worse, which paved way for harnessing new approaches and opportunities in innovative toilet architecture as a solution to open defecation in Bauchi. Recent concerns for the introduction of innovative toilet architecture have led to the revival on the rate of open defecation and also that of the built environment. The professional practice of architects in actualizing open defecation free status of national development issues can never be overestimated in response to many challenges of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). Also, a healthy nation is central to all physical, social and economic growth. The Nigerian health sector is faced with inadequate sanitary facilities. In most African countries, especially some states in Nigeria have not actually migrated to the next higher level in terms of hygiene as open defecation is still a norm. Hence, this work focused on the various approaches and opportunities in innovative toilet architecture on three selected open defecation free areas of Bauchi metropolis in Dass, Warji and Gamawa local governments. Such innovation approaches are Plastic Sato, technologies, materials and methods, while the opportunities are employment, good health and safe built environment, e.t.c. The study area under investigation also further discusses issues of immense contribution to sanitation marketing and finance which recommended that government should strictly enforce the law on sanitation marketing and finance towards the attainment of innovative toilet architecture towards open defecation free in Bauchi metropolis.

Keywords: Approaches, architecture, opportunities, metropolis and toilet.

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Introduction Architecture is the art, science and hygiene practices. The achievement even the technology involved in the of which is both a collective design, construction, supervision responsibility and benefit. and maintenance of buildings and According to the UNICEF/WHO related facilities. The toilet (2012), 82% of the 1.1 billion people architecture deals with all the practicing open defecation live in 10 relevant aspects of internal and countries and Nigeria is one of them. external considerations of providing The others are India, Indonesia, a comfortable space to defecate. In Pakistan, Ethiopia, Nepal, China, reality, open defecation remains a Sudan, Niger and Mozambique. It huge obstacle for people and is means that to continue with the use responsible for thousands of of un-improved pit latrines that unnecessary deaths. Eradicating it is become a reservoir of open crucial to achieving Global Goal defecation with flies in and out, number 6 on sanitation. Some cockroaches in multitudes, smell Bauchi communities were triggered from kilometers, impossible to wash, effectively with Community Led maintenance is close to zero, easy to Total Sanitation (CLTS) and embark collapse, un friendly to children, on a journey of rapid collective adults skeptical to get injured we can behavioural change, achieving Open to shift the paradigm. . To overcome Defecation Free (ODF) status and this challenge there is the need to getting certified as such are shift from the use of local important milestone in the process unimproved pit latrines to something rather than the end of the journey. innovative and have suitable latrine Therefore, toilet architecture designs that would not only be cost- changes with situations and effective, environment-friendly and conditions, needs and requirements easy to construct but also would be of the community in order to migrate acceptable to people especially less from OD to ODF. privileged arise the concept of low- Sanitation and hygiene is a public cost but high-quality toilets called health issue not just an individual ‘IMPROVED TOILETS’. household concern. Even if only a Sensitization and promotion of few families do not practice safe durable but affordable toilet sanitation and hygiene, the whole facilities is very important. This is a community is at risk. Therefore the situation of improved toilet designs aim is to achieve 100% coverage of that fits into all socio-economic improved sanitation and safe standard of a household and at the

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end achieves an assured privacy, free from contamination and infections as well as total demarcation of feces to human contact. Smart toilet is easy to clean and maintain, it uses less water to flush, free from cockroaches, houseflies, nesting ground for mosquitoes, smell and irritation to use. It is more of a comfort toilet and easy to use by all age groups. It ensures hygienic separation of human excrete from human contact. Is an array of latrine options that are of varying cost especially super structure to suit all financial status ranging from permanent to temporary but all have features of an improved latrine. The availability of a well fitted squat pan and a trap with a good substructure as collection point coupled with affordable privacy wall guaranteed a sustainable toilet. Bauchi metropolis is still in search of solutions to its health sector challenges and sustainable innovations practices has been advocated in selected Dass, Bogoro, Zaki, Ganjuwa, Toro, Warji and Gamawa SHAWN local government areas because it has succeeded in some other places with similar challenges. Sanitation marketing is an approach to household sanitation promotion that aims to create sustained and effective sanitation by stimulating household demand for sanitation products and services (Scott, Jenkins & Kpinsoton, 2011). Architecture in relation to the economy is a move towards toilet investment and not liability. Also, real assets are anything with value – stocks, bonds, mutual funds, income-producing real estate, notes, royalties from intellectual property, etc (Kiyosaki, 2000). The Nigerian government and policy makers have come up with various strategies over the years on how the nation’s social and economic potentials can be harnessed (Isa and Jimoh, 2013). As a result, there is market in sanitation. Sanitation marketing (SanMark) and finance is an approach to household sanitation promotion that aims to create sustained and effective sanitation by stimulating household demand for sanitation products and services (Scott, Jenkins & Kpinsoton, 2011). In particular, governments contract out private providers to supply a specified service of a defined quantity and quality at an agreed price and memorandum of understanding for a specific period of time. These contracts contain rewards and sanctions for nonperformance and include situations in which the private sector shares the financial risk in the delivery of public services (World Bank, 2009). In most African countries, especially some states in Nigeria and particularly Bauchi have actually migrated to the next higher level in terms of hygiene as open defecation free (ODF) area. The types of toilets are as a result of different spaces (open/close, public/private, internal/external, tangible/intangible) and levels (upper/lower, large/small, 120 [email protected] 2018

necessity/luxury) are: Traditional pit toilets, San Plat toilets, Conventional improved pit toilets, VIP toilets, Pour-flush toilets, Compost toilets, Mobile toilets, Smart toilets, Other toilets. As a result of these, the Federal, State and Local governments are presently in partnership with the Federal Government of Nigeria, Multinationals and stakeholders to achieve safe hygiene practices for a collective responsibility, memorandum of understanding and benefits to the society for new approaches and opportunities in innovative toilets. One of the nagging problems confronting the Nigerians apart from poverty is deteriorating sanitary facilities. Hence, there is the need for people’s centred toilet aspirations such as the people’s desirability, business viability and technical feasibility that will be explored as remedies as in Figure 1. These are necessary in order to create conducive environment for a healthy living in Bauchi metropolis towards open defecation.

Figure 1: People’s centred toilet aspirations Source: Developed by the Authors, 2018

OBJECTIVES The objectives of this paper are to: 1. Design and construct improved toilet samples. 2. Capacity building for entrepreneurs, masons, carpenters and welders on new approaches and opportunities in innovative toilets. 3. Identify, provide and facilitate standard construction methods, materials and technology of innovative toilet architecture.

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STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM In 2015, Nigeria was highlighted as the 3rd worst country in terms of access to sanitation. 71% of the population does not have access to toilets. Nigeria also has the highest rate of under-5 deaths caused by diarrhoea – 11 children in every 1,000 die of diarrhoea illnesses each year in Nigeria. Diarrhoea is one of the three most common killers of young children globally yet 58% of these deaths could be prevented through access to clean water and sanitation. The removal of open defecation has wider implications too. It improves the education and safety of girls and women. In many schools there is a lack of toilet facilities for girls. This means, particularly when they reach puberty, girls often stop attending because they have nowhere to go to the toilet. There is also the darker side to this with reports of rape and attacks of women and girls venturing out into the bushes to go to the toilet. Often they go after dark for privacy – which leaves them vulnerable to attacks. Hence, we need new approaches and opportunities in innovative toilet architecture. These are necessary in order to create conducive environment for a healthy living and open defecation free Bauchi.

JUSTIFICATION Considering the sanitation sector as a marketplace full of business opportunities, requires serious attention by the stakeholders in filling the gaps of toilets at various spaces and levels which leads to the new approaches to various toilet types. The private sector; be it internationally operating large scale enterprises, social entrepreneurial programmes or small and micro-scale businesses of masons, plumbers, cleaners, empties or wholesalers has often been ignored as a reliable alternative or addition to public service providers in the sanitation supply chain sector. The reason behind this is that the most appropriate construction materials, methods and technology that will provide the most socially and environmentally acceptable level of service at the least economic cost should be utilized.

LITERATURE REVIEW It is very important in order to promote developing countries to meet the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) on water, sanitation, waste management and to improve learning outcomes which can even be tailored and targeted specifically to meet the needs of low-income communities (World Bank, 2009). Nigeria is a country which places a great emphasis on cleanliness. A decree from the days of military government which is still in force mandates that the final Saturday of every month is Sanitation Day, 122 [email protected] 2018

meaning that travel is banned and a curfew enforced until 10 am. Families are told to use the time when they are confined to tidy the home. Unfortunately, once household waste is tidied, the problems begin. Nigeria's booming population, an asset in economic growth terms, is placing great pressure on solid waste management (SWM) systems which are in many cases already either antiquated, informal or non-existent (Guardian News, 2016). About 70 million people, out of a population of 171 million, lacked access to safe drinking water, and over 110 million lacked access to improved sanitation in 2013. Open defecation rates, at 28.5 per cent pose grave public health risks. Every year, an estimated 124,000 children under the age of 5 die because of diarrhoea, mainly due to unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene. Lack of adequate water and sanitation are also major causes of other diseases, including respiratory infection and under-nutrition (World Bank, 2009). The aim of the health sector reform is to improve efficiency in performance, ensure transparent and responsible management, limit political interference, eliminate government’s involvement in utility management, management and technical operations, encourage private investment in generation to address inadequate supply and free government funds to finance other critical welfare programmes. The need to examine how the reform has fared in some other countries cannot be underscored (Asimiyu and Francis, 2011). As a result, Bio-Power Environmental Solutions Ltd says the establishment of high-quality public toilets can generate revenue, create 11,000 jobs and promote a healthier environment in the country (The Cable, 2017). Recently, an interesting alternative to creating septic tanks with re-use materials has proven to help in controlling sanitation problems and regulate waste disposal at low cost (thehomesteadsurvival.com, 2015). Hence, the toilet architecture will exhibit the new approaches to design and construction with entrepreneurship, innovative opportunities towards the attainment of open defecation in Bauchi as related in the methodology below.

METHODOLOGY The research methodology entails case study qualitative method of design and construction analysis using the typical six toilet design options for the construction stages, operations and procedures.

Construction Stages, Operations and Procedures Toilet products can be built from different materials chosen according to availability, cost of materials, skills available, and soil type. If the soil of the ground is very loose, it is recommended to use lighter materials for the walls.

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The different materials that can be used require alternative methods of construction. The squatting platform is the next activity that must be carefully designed and installed above the substructure as a receptacle for either permanent or temporary structures.

Site considerations After obtaining the needed tools, materials and equipment, the first procedure is the site considerations which include the site selection criteria, the site location, the site analysis and therefore the clearing of the site. Immediately after clearing of the site, the next thing is the setting out of the toilets in a chronological and sustainable order that will keep the existing vegetation in the micro environment. Excavation works with a keen interest on the special positioning of the toilets and their pits without compromising standard measurements and therefore dimensional accuracies. The next line of action is to join the squat pan and trap together with adhesive for both the permanent and temporary direct pit toilets.

Platform works Formwork preparation started in the morning by setting the ground well for casting the slab covered with polythene to make sure that the ground was flat and levelled properly. Several sets of formworks were constructed, for the two main slabs (permanent and temporary direct pit toilets) which is 1.1m x 1.1m x 50mm and the form for the squat pan which is made of wood with inner dimensions of 525mm x 275mm and fitted together by hammering nails at the corners; alternatively, screws could be used to facilitate assembly and breakdown. The form is easy to assemble and dismantle for portability and is re-usable over a long period of time. The inner frame is to shape the concrete to support the pan. The other formworks were for the top and bottom chambers with another 6 slab covers for both permanent and temporary toilets offset pits. The reinforcement work/arrangement was such that 6mm Φ bars were used and cut into short pieces to be accommodated by the formwork. The 6mm Φ bars were tied together using binding wire according to the approved dimensions. Standard length of 6 mm Φ rod into was cut by iron bender using uniform lengths of 1 metre each on the ground to prepare the reinforcement for the slab. The ceramic pan along with the trap (water seal) will have to be held in the middle of the slab. Also, the pan was fixed in such a way that the exit of the trap is in the exact centre of the slab when it is placed on the pit. 124 [email protected] 2018

As at the time form work was in progress, foundation footing and foundation works will continue. The concrete production made use of a concrete mix of 1: 1½: 3 are prepared with 0.7 water/cement ratio by mixing the concrete according to the ratios provided. The mixing of the concrete was carried out by hand, to mix the sand and cement well, and then add the aggregate. Placing of the concrete continues to the necessary point of use.

Curing and Carpentry works Curing of the various slabs started later in the day before closing. The last operation is to build two coaches of the foundation external walls to maintain the same and uniform plinth levels for all the six toilet options, while the carpenters will handle the Zink and timber work for the temporary direct pit super structures with Zink roof. As at the point when the headroom of 2 metres was achieved throughout the six toilets, the chambers of all the offset pits will be done in line with specifications and standards.

General Finishing and Cleaning The zinc roofs will be tightly anchored using metal strips to the bricks and 6 mm Φ rods to the hollow blocks. Plastering and tiling works will follow. Final finishing works of painting the structures and their doors started and completed. The offset pits will be properly covered and cemented to the ground so that water will not fill them up.

DESIGN ANALYSIS The design analysis used peculiar case study approach to achieve its objectives as summarized in the Table 1 and Table 2 below:

TABLE 1: PICTORIAL SCHEDULES OF THE PERMANENT IMPROVED TOILETS AS SHOWN IN PLATES A-C SITUATIONS/CO EXISTING SITUATION IMPROVED TOILET SPECIFICATIONS NDITIONS PLATE A: SHOWS THE SINGLE DIRECT PIT - Ring substructure - Movable 75mm thick Squat & Trap Platform - painted bricks superstructure - Zink roof

- 1m L, 1m B, 2mH of 6’’ hollow blocks

DESIGN PLAN DESIGN

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PLATE B: SHOWS THE DOUBLE OFFSET PIT - Ring substructure - Fixed 75mm thick Squat & Trap Platform - Plastered & painted blocks superstructure - R.c. roof deck - 1m L, 1m B, 2m H of 6’’ hollow blocks

DESIGN PLAN DESIGN PLATE C: SHOWS THE SINGLE OFFSET PIT - Ring substructure - Fixed 75mm thick Squat & Trap Platform - Plastered & painted blocks superstructure

- Zink roof

- 1m L, 1m B, 2m H of 6’’ hollow blocks

DESIGN PLAN DESIGN

TABLE 2: PICTORIAL SCHEDULES OF THE TEMPORARY IMPROVED TOILETS AS SHOWN IN PLATES C-E SITUATIONS/CO EXISTING SITUATION IMPROVED TOILET SPECIFICATIONS NDITIONS PLATE C: SHOWS THE SINGLE DIRECT PIT - Hollow block substructure - Movable 75mm thick Squat & Trap Platform - Zink superstructure - Zink roof

- 1.3m L, 1.3m B, 2m H of zink

DESIGN PLAN DESIGN PLATE D: SHOWS THE DOUBLE OFFSET PIT - Hollow block substructure - Fixed 75mm thick Squat & Trap Platform - Unfinished hollow blocks superstructure - Zink roof - 1m L, 1mB, 2mH of 6’’ hollow

blocks

DESIGN PLAN DESIGN

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PLATE E: SHOWS THE SINGLE OFFSET PIT - Hollow block substructure - Fixed 75mm thick Squat & Trap Platform - bricks superstructure - Zink roof

- 1m L, 1mB, 2mH of 4’’ bricks

DESIGN PLAN DESIGN Source: Developed by the Authors, 2018

Also, the presentation and working drawings of the toilets are presented as follows:

PRESENTATION AND WORKING DRAWINGS OF THE TOILETS

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FINDINGS/RESULTS • Interviews and case studies carried out with stakeholders in the community to know how they perceive toilet architecture suggested that there is little awareness to the concept of new approaches and opportunities in ODF. • Designs of various toilet architecture in Bauchi metropolis showcased that their conditions can be better improved upon to enhance sustainable, general community clean water and sanitation using indigenous construction methods, materials and technology.

CONCLUSION The toilet architecture deals with all the relevant aspects of internal and external considerations of providing a comfortable space to defecate and move from OD to ODF between 2025 to 2030 (Abdulmageed, 2018). Toilet money does no smell shit’ means that there is a huge amount of benefits in toilet design, construction and entrepreneurship lying down unaccessed. The opportunities and the need to participate in the funding, sustainability and provision of recycled resources, waste to wealth, useless to useful and nothing to something reasons will ensure achievement on the national health objectives means that there has to be a collaborative efforts by Government and non-Government organization in order to safe guard the major parameters raised in this paper.

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS The following recommendations will be very important in the present and future situations:

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1. The government of the day should provide enabling environment to allow for the private sector to inject funds into the health sector which will in turn provide adequate job opportunities as the country can progress positively. 2. Stakeholders in Public and Private Participation should sponsor and organize massive enlightenment programmes, workshops, promotions, conferences, seminars and symposia in collaboration with all the media houses so that training and re-training will take place while health is revamped. 3. If all the above are well implemented to its fullest, such a system of opportunities in toilets would yield better sanitation markets, better toilet structures, and better communities.

REFERENCES Abdulmageed Osunkunle ( 2018). ‘Training of Facilitators Workshop and Capacity Building Support for Masons’, RUWASSA/unicef Sensitization Workshop, Bauchi. Alan Lowe and Associates Inc. (2015). ‘What is Construction Partnering’, available from: http://allanlowe.com/construction-partnering/what-is- construction-partnering/ Guardian News (2016). ‘Time to Flush Away Nigeria's Sanitation Problems’, available from: https://www.theguardian.com/global- development-professionals-network/adam-smith-international- partner-zone/sanitation-problem-nigeria-kaduna Isa R.B., and Jimoh R.A. (2013). ‘An Overview of the Contribution of Construction Sector to Sustainable Development in Nigeria’. Net Journal of Bussiness Management, Vol. 1 No 1 Pages 1-6. Available online from http://www. netjournals.org/pdf/NJBM/2013/1/13- 017.pdf Kiyosaki R.T (2000). ‘Poor Dad Rich Dad’, available online from http://www.lequydonhanoi.edu.vn/upload_images/.../Rich%20Dad% 20Poor%20Dad.pdf

Scott B., Jenkins M. and Kpinsoton G. (2011). ‘Experiences from Rural Benin: Sanitation Marketing At Scale’, A World Bank Water and Sanitation Programme, available online from http://[email protected]

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The Cable (2017). ‘Public toilets can create 11,000 jobs’, available online from https://www.thecable.ng/public-toilets-can-create-11000- jobs#share UNICEF"&"WHO,"“WHO/UNICEF"Joint"Monitoring"Programme"for" Water"Supply"and"Sanitation,”"Progress"on"drinking"water"and" sanitation:"2012"update"(2012)." World Bank (2004). ‘Deloitte Emerging Markets Group’. Submitted to: US Agency for International Development (USAID). World Bank (2009). The Role and Impact of Public-Private Partnerships in Education. International Bank for Reconstruction & Development (IBRD).

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African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

Perceptions on the Impact of Felling Trees for Fuel Wood on the Environment of Kafin Madaki, Ganjuwa Local Government Area of Bauchi State

Bala, Sagir Madaki School Of General Studies, Federal Polytechnic Bauchi

Abstract The study indentify people’s perception of the impact of felling trees for fuel wood in Kafin Madaki of Ganjuwa L.G.A of Bauchi State. Field observation, questionnaire administration etc were the methods employed in the collection of data and descriptive analysis was used in analysis. The study showed that some tree species that were preferred as fuel wood were also used as medicine, soil stabilizers, wind breaker, and as ornaments It also showed that fuel wood activity is more in male than female mostly driven by economic factors and that this activity is declining the rate of valuable species in the area. It is recommended that other alternative, more efficient and effective sources of energy such as methane (gas), agriculture residue etc are needed to reduce the pressure on forest wood so as to reduce the consequences of deforestation.

Keywords: Trees, Firewood, Energy, Environment, Degradation,

Introduction Wooded ecosystem provides a range Forest resources worldwide are of goods and services to humans in under great threats due to increased general and to rural communities in demand for forest products and land particular. Biological products such for agriculture. The industrial as mushroom, fruits, honey medicine revolution which started in Europe and fuel wood are harvested for was as a result of man’s direct house hold consumption as advancement in education and well as traded on local and regional technical knowledge. This coincides market (koziel and sounder 2001, with rapid population growth Kaimowts 2003). consequence upon the need to 131 [email protected] 2018

supply food and fuel wood for substance of life and to produce crops for commercial purposes with the invention of machinery to substitute physical labour, man embarked on project exploitation of natural resources at an alarming rate which could in the long run affect him negatively. Causes of deforestation are basically divided into two broad groups i.e natural and anthropogenic (Human induced influences). Deforestation according to Ibrahim (2012) is one of the oldest and continuous ways in which man is modifying his environment. It is the act of destroying or removing forest vegetation with little or no effort of replacement that eventually results into ecological imbalance of degradation. Enger and Smith (2008) see deforestation as activities that destroy forest. The extraction of these resources raise concern in relation to the ecological impact on biodiversity and ecosystem process, community within threatened specified angered, desertification and deforestation paradigms

Aim The aim is to investigate the perceptions on impact of felling trees for fuel wood. Objectives. i. To identify the major source of fuel wood. ii. To identify the most preferred type of fuel wood by households iii. To assess people’s views on the possible impact of tree felling on the environment 5. To proffer recommendations based on the findings.

Review of Related Literature Studies have indicated that non sustainable fuel wood collection and logging timber as well as an expansion of city limit for urban development have made one third of Nigeria estimated 9.7 million hecter of forest cover vulnerable to deforestation (Obuch, 2000). Un controlled fuel wood felling lead to environment degradation such as erosion loss of vegetation worldwide. However fuel wood collection may be the only faction responsible for major deforestation in Nigeria the current population of over 150 million people has led to a corresponding increase in total firewood demand (Nura, 2006). Biomass resources are able to fuel up the excess carbon from energy related activities, replenishing the atmosphere with oxygen needed for our health. But when forest is cleared and burnt for fuel wood, the function is lost and the environment is altered if just left to decay it could absorb over 50% of 132 [email protected] 2018

the carbon dioxide emission from burning fossil fuel and dung in the house (Obuch, 2000). In meeting the rapidly increasing demand fuel wood trader and loggers are known to cut down tons of hundreds kilometres Household income seem to be powerful determinant in choosing desired kind of fuel with rising income urban families are able to switch from traditional fuel to more efficient convenient and clean modern fuel and equipment for cooking and heating task. In most developing countries, the conventional sources of energy are fuel wood because fossil fuels and electricity are expensive for both urban and total poor, coupled with the increasing population growth. Fuel wood inevitable become the most attractive and alterative source of energy for the category of people. About 90% of the house hold in sub-Sahara Africa uses fuel wood as the stable energy for domestic heating (Bames 1990). Infect, there is a general; consensus among researches that fuel wood is the main domestic fuel (Foley; et al 1981). ‘Wood is the domestic fuel in the rural third world while charcoal is often the main cooking fuel in the cities’. Arnold and Jonghma (1987) agreed with the above assertion, that fuel wood and charcoal are the principal domestic fuels in south-east, Asia for nearly all rural household about 90% of urban hold. In Nigeria because of its located within the tropics, there is luxuriant forest growth virtually all year round. About 90% of the nation’s population still depend solely on fuel wood suppliers for their energy requirement (Adegoke 1992).

METHODOLOGY Data for this research were obtained from two major sources of information. The primary sources depended mostly on the administration of structured questionnaires. The secondary sources are existing maps, magazines, text books as well as the internet which were also consulted in order to ascertain the role of teachers in environmental education using the infusion strategy in senior secondary schools.

Table 1: Respondents source of income Source of income No. Of respondent Percentage % Government worker 10 10 Farmer 65 65 Trader 16 16 Other 8 8 Total 100 100 Source: Field work, 2014

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The study revealed that most of the people interviewed were farmers 65%, traders 16%, 10% government workers and 8% have other alternative as their sources. Of income

Table 2 Energy preference Table of households Energy proffered No of Respond Percentage % Fire wood 62 62 Kerosene 20 20 Electricity 18 18 Other Nil Nil Total 100 100 Source: Field Work, 2014

Table 2 indicates that fuel wood is the most preferred energy (62%). Electricity is the least preferred about (18%) followed by Kerosene which is about (20%) while fuel wood is most preferred because of it availability and simplicity to it source and electricity is the least because of the problem with the power Holding company of Nigeria (PHCN).

Table 3: Preferred Tree species for firewood Types of tree Number of Percentage respondent Marke (Angogeius Leicoarpes 30 30 Kirya (propis African) 22 22 Kadanya (Butrysperm 20 20 paraduxum) Turare (Eucalyptus 10 10 Commondulen Karya (Ancardium Occidenate) 18 18 Total 100 100 Source: Field Work, 2014

Marke is the most preferred tree specie followed by Followed by Kirya 22%, other include Kadanya which is about (20%), Turare which is about (10%), Kanya which is about 18%. The responds revealed that Marke ignite slowly but produce good charcoal for other domestic activities.

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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATION OF DEFORESTATION Fuel wood felling for domestic and commercial use is one of the serious problems facing the developing countries especially the study area. The felling, collection and use of fuel wood has turn our environment into ecological time bomb, Natural forest are vanishing or are reduced to mere shrubs. The damages done are connected with the high demand for fuel wood particularly as alternative energy option for the teaming population. There are numerous reports that indicate the rapid depletion of forest is causing unprecedented change in the ecology of the environment although the nature, rate and extent of changes taking place vary from place to place. Four major effects commonly associated with the loss of vegetation are as follows:- - Gully erosion and the loss of top soil to wind and rain - Reduction of moisture content as a result of greater surface run-off and surface wind velocity increase. - Greater surface run-off and adverse change in water table - A general reduction in the recycling of nutrients (dung and crop residues) as domestic fuel when fuel wood becomes scarce.

Conclusion From the study it can be deduced that most of the people that are into the fuel wood activities are mostly rural farmers that male within the ages of 20 to 40 yrs mostly lacking western education and most of whom are married and are aware of the negative impact of the fuel wood activity to their environment. It shows the energy preferences of rhe locals and the major tree species targeted for felling. This activity is declining the number of valuable species in the area and destroys the habitats valuable species of animals which may lead to their extinctions. The economic effect of fuel wood deficit is left beyond home. The shortage of fuel wood directly affects the household and vendors which in turn have negative impact on the level of employment and income generation.

Recommendations In view of the findings from the field data, the following suggestions are recommended i. Educational institution like primary, secondary schools be encouraged to establish their own wood lot or garden. This practice apart from discouraging desertification will encourage aforestation.

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ii. To encourage the use of more efficient stoves especially in our rural areas where access to modern household energy sources like electricity and kerosene are scarce. Prices and supply of petroleum product to the country side should also be encouraged. iii. Tree species such as eucalyptus should be planted to carter for the fuel wood requirement of the population because they adopt well and have faster growth. iv. There should be imposition of Carbon tax on all commercial fuel wood users like restaurant, bakeries and others that use fuel wood and monies realized be solely utilized to develop forest reserves.

References Mohammed R; Jimete USA Gisilanbe A.M (1996) legislation and the environment. Towards a more effective regulatory frame work. In Daura M.M (ed) Issue in environment monitoring in Nigeria. Margan M; (2003) How to start and run your own firewood supply business. Moss, R.P; and Morgan, W.B (1981) fuel wood and Rural Energy production and supply in the Humid Tropics. Tycooly international Dublin. Nura, A; (2006), economic and environment effect of firewood collected and utilization in Bauchi State. Nas, A; (1980) Firewood crop, shrub and tree species for energy production. Washington D.C National Academy of Science. Obueh, A. (200) ecological coast of increasing dependence on fuel as household energy in rural Nigeria. Sanir, A. (2007) Wood energy today for tomorrow; the role of wood energy in Africa; forestry department food and Agriculture organization of the United Nation. Rome Italy. Turn bull, J.W (1986), Multipurpose Australian Tree and shrub, lesser known species for fuel wood and Agro-foresting Pg 49-51. www. Fao.org FAO corporate document repertory (the role of wood energy in Africa).

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African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

Public Housing Provisions In Yobe State: Successes And Challenges

1salisu Magaji, 2ibrahim Garba, 3abubakar Sa’idu 4habu Babayo 1,2Department of Estate Management, Federal Polytechnic, Bauchi 3Yobe state Ministry of Land and Housing, Damaturu. 4Department of Estate Management, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi.

Abstract The purpose of this study is to asses the public housing provision in Yobe state, Nigeria with a view to determining the contributions of the state governments towards public housing provision and the factors militating against adequate housing provision in the study area. Questionnaire survey was carried out to get information from the staff of yobe state ministry of land and housing in the study area. The target population for the study consisted of 256 staff in the ministry. Purposive sampling technique was used in selection of the sample size for the study. The sample size adopted was 60% of the population cutting across staff at different grade levels.A total of 150 structured questionnaires were administered. However, only 133 questionnaires were retrieved (i.e 89% response rate). The results from the 133 responses were collated and analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The study revealed that about 3,099 houses were constructed by the state government since the creation of the state in 1991, the houses were inadequate, no public housing construction within the study area in the last six years and this was largely due to paucity of funds, inadequate mortgage arrangements, issue of affordability, Boko haram insurgency, and poor implementation of housing policies. It was recommended that financial institutions should be co-opted into the housing delivery system of the state, government should, on behalf of its workers enter into a proper mortgage arrangements with primary and secondary mortgage institutions and other housing contributory schemes such as National Housing Funds, adequate housing policy to provide information on sustainable housing programmes within a suitable framework for housing

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delivery should be provided, the use of durable local building materials capable of achieving functionality and aesthetics should be encouraged and lastly, Lastly, the issue of security of lives and properties should be intensified within the state. Similarly, the state government can work in close collaboration with the security agencies to provide special security sevice for workers on construction sites to prevent possible attacks.

Keywords: Housing, public, Provisions, Challenges, Government, State.

Introduction There are many things that man the right to adequate housing require for his survival. Basic among through international declarations, which includes shelter which has a plans of action or conference direct bearing on the nature and outcome documents. Several quality of life, health, security, and constitutions protect the right to status of man, as such, the adequate housing or outline the importance of housing to human can country’s general responsibility to hardly be overemphasized. This is ensure adequate housing and living because housing fills an important conditions for all at different vacuum in the welfare of the citizens hierarchy or levels of government. of each and every country, and when Courts from various legal systems the needed attention is being given to have also adjudicated cases related housing sector of a particular to its enjoyment, covering, for country, it is capable of boosting the instance, forced evictions, tenant economy of that country because it protection, discrimination in the has a bearing on the performance of housing sphere or access to basic other sectors of economy of the housing-related services (UN country. Because of the importance Habitat, 2007). attached to the housing sector, In Nigeria, efforts on housing almost every country has some legal, provision started during colonial traditional, and socio-cultural rights administration as houses were built attached to housing (Aropet, 2011). in the Government Reservation The right to adequate housing, for Areas (GRAs) in pursuant to the example, is regarded by all cantonment proclamation 1904. countries, as they have all agreed on After gaining independence in 1st at least one international treaty October 1960, more efforts were relating to adequate housing and made by the federal, states and local committed themselves to protecting

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governments towards provision of adequate housing for the citizens. The first national development plan of 1962 covered a period of six years and focused on housing provision for government workers in the regional headquarters and Lagos. However, meagre percentage of houses were provided. The second national development plan of 1970 targeted the construction of about 54,000 housing unit with Lagos having the highest number of about 18% while the remaining 82% of the housing units were to be constructed spanning across the 11 state capitals existing then. The number was distributed according to income the income status. 60% was apportioned to low-income earners, 25% to middle income and 15% for the high income earners. Marginal improvement was recorded during that period. The third national development plan of 1975 attempted to improve on the efforts on housing provision by creating housing programmes which includes direct construction of low-cost housing units by both federal and states government, expansion of credit facilities to encourage private housing provision and increased construction of houses for government workers. The sum of N2.5 billion was earmarked for the construction of 202,000 housing units each; 46,000 in Lagos, 12,000 in Kaduna, while 8000 units would be built in the state capitals. The State Government would be directly involved and FHA would provide the necessary infrastructure. At the end of this period, 13.3% success was recorded. During the Fourth national development plan of 1984 which covered only one year period, 3 different housing schemes were initiated: the direct housing construction of about 2,000 housing units in each state, while the FHA was to build about 143,000 low cost housing units across the country. Site and services schemes were provided. At the expiration of the plan period, only 20% success was recorded (Olayiwola, Adeleye, and Ogunsakin, 2005). Despite the enormous importance of housing to every individual, and the efforts of the government at all levels to provide adequate and affordable housing to its citizens, housing inadequacy have become a part and parcel of a great number of people all over the world with a more worrisome situation in the developing and less developed countries (Jiboye, 2011). According to Dangiwa (2018), the current housing defecit in Nigeria is estimated at 17 million housing unit which require a huge sum of money for it to be achieved. State governments cannot be treated in isolation from the general dearth of housing defecit in the country in spite of the concerted efforts they have been 139 [email protected] 2018

making to either consolidate or augment the federal government in housing provision to their people. Many state of governments have at different times entered into myriads of arrangements with private and corporate organisations to provide adequate and affordable housing through adopting special programs which are harmonious with their economic situations and political ideology. The increasing demand on housing resulting from different factors with the limited supply have forced many states governments to change their policies to meet the challenges of the society with regards to housing. Housing policies and programmes have been devised by Yobe state government towards provision of housing in the state capital. It is against this background that this paper examines the efforts of Yobe state government on provision of housing as well as the factors militating against adequate provision of qualitative housing.

The Study Area Damaturu is the capital town of Yobe state and it is also the local government headquarters of Damaturu Local government area of Yobe state. It has an area of 2,366 km² and a population of 88,014 at the 2006. Damaturu is the headquarters of the Damaturu Emirate. The town lies in a plains region that is covered by savanna and that supports crops of millet, sorghum (Guinea corn), and peanuts (groundnuts). The town is a commercial hub of some bordering towns such as Potiskum, Azare, Tarmowa, and Maiduguri. It lies between latitude 11° 39’ 30’’ – 11° 47’ 00’’ N and longitude 11° 54’ 00’’ – 12° 02’ 00’’E in Yobe State in northeastern.The town was made the capital of Yobe State in 1991. The major tribes in the area are the Fulani and Kanuri. Others are the Hausas, Karai- Karai, Bade, Igbo and Yoruba. The major occupations in the area are civil service and trading (wikepedia, 2018).

LITERATURE REVIEW Concept of Housing The common or single definition of housing have over time have been to be difficult to many researchers interested in doing so. To buttress the above assertion, a lot of researches have been carried out over the course of time to find a single definition of housing. For example, Some early researchers such as Smith (1776) defines the housing as a commodity; Ricardo (1817) ‒as tangible asset with potential return; Jevons (1871) – as fixed asset regardless the housing is owned or rented; Marshall (1890) –as a

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capital that is similar to the machine, if it is operated by a worker, but as a commodity if it is not operated. Others such as Grimes and Orville (1976) explained that in the past, the concept “housing” was associated with a physical phenomenon, and the policies of countries for its provision mostly are related with construction costs that may largely vary depending on the type of construction material, various housing standards and construction quality. Oxford English Dictionary (2005) refers housing to the construction and assigned usage of houses or buildings collectively, for the purpose of sheltering people — the planning or provision delivered by an authority, with related meanings. However, housing is considered as the sum total of the man’s interaction with the environment. As a unit of the environment, it has a reflective influence on the health efficiency, social behaviour, gratification and general welfare of the community (Onibokun, 1998). It is thus defined as buildings or other shelters in which people live, a dwelling and to a Nation, critical component in social and economic strata (Kabir and Bustani, 2010). Thus, Chatterjee (1981) seen it as a complex product that is crucial for national development in terms of both economy and welfare. Silas (2001) have asserted that housing goes beyond shelter and infrastructural facilities, for it portrays some level of living, safety, welfare, personality, culture, settlement process and functions as a way for people to communicate with the environment. Thus, housing is a means for self- actualisation and integration with the environment for individuals and group of people. Housing has also been considered to have a variety of outlooks to potray human needs. As such, Ngakan (2013), stated that a house is said to have five functions. The first being a shelter; providing accommodation to a person. Second, the utility functions relating to the infrastructures and facilities found within the environment where one lives. Third as a place where inhabitant’s privacy and security is guaranteed. Fourth, the facility to communicate from home base to the outside world. Fifth, the cultural and traditional functions it serves. Studies conducted by (Heywood, 2004 and Karsten, 2007) have indicated lack of standard meaning of housing has a correlation with the provision of quality housing. As such, a precarious understanding of housing may result in construction of housing that is sub-standard and harmful. A similar research, Njoh (2006) stressed that good housing must be able to respond to the myriad of problem of individual and community needs. 141 [email protected] 2018

Some researchers have viewed housing as a consumption good, thus housing can be considered to be the expression of what a person is. Involved in this category is Cooper Marcus (1995) and Savage; Bagnall, and Longhurst (2005). Melnikas (1998) provided that the concept of housing has a similar concept with that of “house” which was stated as a specific and relatively limited, physically, biologically socially close place where people and groups of people can live their biosocial life, by receiving services, performing house chores and other biosocial activity. He further stressed that nowadays more attention is focused on the cost and benefits of housing. Thus, the costs of its purchase, construction and maintenance should be proportionate to the benefits that can be obtained from the housing.

PUBLIC HOUSING Parson (2007) stated that different literatures reviewed have clearly revealed that public housing portrays different meanings in different countries depending on the context from which it is considered. Ibem and Amole (2010) have defined public housing as the housing provided, owned or managed independently by government or in collaboration with private sector for the purpose of providing mass housing to citizens and some key top government officials on owner-occupied or rental bases. The goal of public housing provision has mostly been identified to be the provision of subsidized housing to households and individuals who are unable to gain access to decent housing at market prices (Balchin et al., 2000; Liu, 2007).

RIGHT TO HOUSING The right to housing is considered as the economic, social and cultural right to adequate housing and shelter which is linked to adequate standard of living. The right to adequate standard of living is recognised as a human right in any international human right to establish a minimum entitlement to food, clothing, and housing at an adequate level (Edgar, Doherty, and Henk, 2002). The right to adequate housing has some key elements to reflect its true meaning. UN Habitat (2014) identified four key aspects of the right to adequate housing. Firstly, the right to housing contains freedom. These freedom include protection against forced eviction and unlawful destruction or demolition of somebody’s house, the right to be free from interference with person’s house, the right to be free from arbitrary interference with one’s home, privacy and family; and the right to choose one’s residence, to 142 [email protected] 2018

determine where to live and to freedom of movement. Secondly, the right to adequate housing contains entitlements. These entitlements involve the security of tenure; housing, land and property restitution, equal and non- discriminatory access to adequate housing; participation in housing-related decision-making at the national and community levels. Thirdly, adequate housing must provide more than four walls and a roof. For housing to be adequate, it must, at a minimum, meet the following criteria: Security of tenure, availability of services, materials, facilities and infrastructure such as water, sanitary provisions, electricity, and roads; affordability; accessibility and cultural adequacy. Fourthly, protection against forced evictions which is closely linked to security of tenure. Forced evictions are defined as the “permanent or temporary removal against their will of individuals, families and/or communities from the homes and/or land which they occupy, without the provision of, and access to, appropriate forms of legal or other protection (UN Habitat, 2007). UN Habitat (2014) stressed that the right to adequate housing does not require a country, or state to build housing for the entire population and does not give people without housing the right to automatically demand a house from the government. However, the right to adequate housing covers measures that are needed to prevent homelessness, prohibit forced evictions, address discrimination, focus on the most vulnerable and marginalized groups, ensure security of tenure to all, and guarantee that everyone’s housing is adequate. These measures can require intervention from the Government at various levels: legislative, administrative, policy or spending priorities. It can be implemented through an enabling approach to shelter where the government, rather than playing the role of housing provider, becomes the facilitator of the actions of all participants in the production and improvement of shelter. In some situations, however, the state may have to provide direct assistance, including housing or housing allowances, subsidies, loans and other forms of assistance either financially, grants, and enabling policy formulations.

METHODOLOGY In conducting this research, descriptive and inferential research involving field survey was used. The data for this study were collected from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data was obtained through the questionnaire administered. While the secondary data was derived from the review of literature. Structured questionnaire was administered to the staff

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of Yobe state ministry of land and housing and selected staff of federal ministry of land. A purposive sampling technique was used in selecting the respondents. This was informed by the nature of the research allowing the selection of respondents to be narrowed down to specific group(s) of people who can provide the required information for the research. A total of 150 public servants of different grade levels.This was aimed at identifying factors responsible for the level of success and or failure of public housing provision in the study area. Data were collected using structured questionnaire and analysed using relevant statistical tools. A five point likert scale was used in ranking the respondent’s responses and the judgement sampling was considered most appropriate based on the nature of the study. Purposive or judgement sampling technique which is a non-probabilistic sampling technique was employed in the selection of 150 (One hundred and fifty) respondents for the study drawn from the ministry of land and housing.The study attained 89% response rate and is thereby adjudged sufficient for this study. Data collected from the questionnaires distributed to respondents were analysed using statistical tools. The required test involved the determination of frequency and percentage score. Respondents characteristics and participants background were also analysed using percentages.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1: Number of Questionnaire Administered S/NO. Respondents No of No Of Rate of questionnaire Questionnaires Response administered Returned 1 Staff of Yobe 150 133 89% State ministry of land and housing Source: Field Survey (2018)

Table 1 above depicts the number of questionnaire administered. A total of 150 questionnaires were administered to the different category of respondents but 133 were retrieved for analysis. This indicates about 89% response and is therefore adjudged sufficient for the study.

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Table 2: Sex of the respondents Sex Number Rate Male 118 88.721 Female 15 11.279 Total 133 100 Source: Field Survey (2018)

It is evident from table 2 that 88.721.41% of the respondents were male and 11.279 % female. This may not be unconnected with the nature of the core organisational jobs in the built environment. Table 3: Age of the respondents Age (Years) Frequency Percentage

18-30 13 9.7744 31-45 57 42.857 46-50 33 24.813 51-60 30 22.556 TOTAL 133 100 Source: Field Survey (2018)

From table 3: respondents within the age limit of 18-30 constitute the smallest number representing 9.7744% majority of the respondents were between ages 31years and 45 years representing about 42.857%, next to this were those between the ages of 46-50 with 24.813%. The age limit of 51-60 has 22.556%.

Table 4: Academic Qualifications Category Frequency Percentage SSCE 9 6.766 OND 13 9.775 HND 34 25.57 B,TECH/BSC 72 54.13 MSC 5 3.759 PhD Nil 100% Source: Field Survey (2018)

The table depicts the educational qualification of the respondents. 6.766% have senior secondary school certificate, 9.775 have ordinary diploma, 25.57% for higher national diploma, 54.13% are degree holders, and 3.579% have masters. 145 [email protected] 2018

Table 5: Performance of Yobe State Government in public Housing Delivery (1994- 2013) S/NO Name of estate location Program Achievem Period of Year Cost of Disposal Nature of me Target ent level constructi construct construction cost (N) accommodation on ed per unit (N) 1 3 bedroom Gujba road, Damaturu 300 completed 1 year 1994 290,000 290,000. 3 bedroom flats housing estate Gashua Road, Damaturu housing Maiduguri Road, Damaturu unit 2 Waziri Ibrahim Maiduguri bye-pass, 100 completed 1 year 1994 104,000 104,000 2 bedroom semi Damaturu detached 3 Ali Mirami Gashua-Potiskum road 100 completed 1 year 1994 104,000 104,000 2 bedroom semi detached 4 Sani Ahmed Potiskum-Kano road, 100 completed 1 year 1994 104,000 104,000 2 bedroom semi Daura Damaturu detached 5 Dabo Aliya Maiduguri Road, Damaturu 50 completed 1 year 1996 350,000 350,000 2 bedroom flats Housing Estate 6 Ben Kalie Maiduguri Road, Damaturu 70 completed 1 year 1998 350,000 350,000 2 bedroom 150,000 150,000 1 bedroom

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7 Buhari Housing Gashua-Maiduguri bye- 100 completed 1 year 2004 6,884,000 2,409,400 3 bedroom Estate pass, Damaturu 2,112,000 739,200. 2 bedroom 1,102,000 385,700 1 bedroom 9 Don Tibet Opp Maiduguri Road, 100 completed 1 year 2004 6,884,000 2,409,400 3bedroom housing Estate Damaturu 2,112,000 739,200. 2 bedroom 1,102,000 385,700 1 bedroom 10 Teaching Damaturu- Maiduguri Road 100 completed 1 year 2004 6,884,000 2,409,400 3 bedroom Hospital Estate 2,112,000 739,200. 2 bedroom 1,102,000 385,700 1 bedroom 11 Zanna Zakariya Abdulsalam Abubakar way, 433 completed 1 year 2006 990,000 346,000 2 bedroom Housing Estate Damaturu

12 Al-Ansar Housing Abdulsalam Abubakar way, 450 completed 1 year 2006 990,000 346,000 2 bedroom Estate, Damaturu opp Gujba road, Damaturu

13 Red Bricks Maiduguri road, Damaturu 300 completed 1 year 3 2009 9,840,000 3,442,000 3 bedroom Estate months 6,665,000 2,333,118 2 bedroom 4,700,000 1,645,000 2 bedroom semi- 8,280,000 2,898,000 detached duplex 2 bedroom semi- detached storey.

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14 L.G Housing All 17 local govt 20 in each Completed 1 year 2010 6,380,337 2,233,118 2 bedroom headquarters L.G.A. 340 15 Brabra Housing Gashua-Maiduguri 256 1 year 2010 4,000,000 1,400,000 2 bedroom semi- Estate byepass, Damaturu completed detached

16 Brabra 300 Gujba-Maiduguri byepass, 300 completed 1 year 4 2013 5,500,000 1,750,000 2 bedroom semi- Housing Estate Damaturu months detached.

TOTAL NO. OF HOUSES CONSTRUCTED 3,099

Source: Field Survey (2018)

Table 5 above shows the combined efforts of military and democratically elected government in the provision of housing in the state since its creation in 1991. It is eminent from the table that houses of different features have been constructed at different locations in the state. A total number of 3,099 houses were constructed out of which 320 houses representing about 10% of the total houses were constructed across the 17 local government headquarters of the state. A Programme target of 100% has been achieved as all the housing units have been fully completed and occupied within a reasonable period of time. The cost of construction of houses in different location ranges from N104, 000 to as high as N9, 840,000. However, a subsidy of about 65% is granted to the occupants of some of the estates built recently. These include Buhari housing estate, Don Etiebet housing estate, Teaching hospital housing estate, Zanna Zakariya, Al-Ansar, Red bricks, L.G. housing estates, Brabra estate, and Brabra 300 housing estate as evidenced from the table. However, it can be seen from the table that since year 2013, the state government has ceased constructing more houses within and outside the state capital for public use.

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Table 6: Adequacy of the houses built Do you agree that the Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly TOTAL houses constructed by the disagree state government is 10% adequate 7% 3% 36% 100% 44% Source: Field Survey (2018)

Table 6 depicts the respondents’ opinion on the adequacy of houses constructed by the state government. About 10% of the respondents strongly agree, 7% agree, 3% undecided, 36% disagree, and 40% disagree. This indicates that houses so far constructed by the state government for public use is not adequate.

Table 7: Factors hindering public housing provision in the area Factors Strongly Agree Undecided disagree Strongly TOTAL agree disagree Paucity of funds 60% 31% 2% 4% 3% 100 Inadequate 43% 37% 7% 12% 1% 100 mortgage arrangements Poor 28 18 13% 29 12 100 implementation of housing policies Affordability 48% 38% 0% 10% 4% 100 issues Boko Haram 50% 32% 10% 6% 2% 100 insurgency Inadequate 3% 5% 7% 60% 15% 100 equipments and supervision Inadequate 13% 13% 0% 56% 12% 100% technical skills to handle constructions Source: Field Survey (2018)

Table 7 above indicates that paucity of funds for housing construction is the major factor that hinders the state government to continue with housing

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constructions for low income earners in the state. This is backed by the percentage of people that strongly agree which is 60%, 31% agree, 2% undecided, 4% disagree and 3% strongly disagree. Similarly, 43% strongly agree that inadequate mortgage arrangement is among the major hinderances to public housing provision, 37% agree, 7% were undecided, 12% disagree, and 1% strongly disagree. For poor implementation of housing policies, 28% strongly agree, 18% agree, 13% undecided, 29% disgree while 12% strongly disagree. While 48% strongly agree with the affordability issue, 38% agree, 0% undecided, 10% disagree, and 4% strongly disagree. This shows that the issue of affordability is among the impediment to housing provision. On Boko haram insurgency, 50% of the respondents strongly agree, 32% agree, 10% were undecided, 6% disagree, and 2% strongly disagree. This shows that book haram has been among the factors hindering housing provisions in the study area. On inadequate equipment’s and supervision 3% strongly agree, 5% strongly disagree, 7% were undecided, and 60% disagree, while 15% strongly disagree. This shows that inadequate supervision and equipment’s is not among the major factors hindering housing provision in the area. According to the table, inadequate technical skills to handle constructions has 13% for those that strongly agree, similarly, 13% agree, 0% were undecided, 56% disagree, and 12% strongly disagree. This indicates that inadequate technical skills to handle constructions by the staff of the ministry is not a major hinderance to public housing provision in the study area.

CONCLUSION The study has assessed the efforts of Yobe state government towards public housing provision. Findings from the study reveals that three years after the creation of the state in 1991, both military and democratic governments at the state level have demonstrated commitment to addressing the housing problem. But due to insufficient funding, inadequate mortgage arrangements, poor implementation of housing policies, affordablity issues, and most recently, the Boko Haram security challenges have stagnated the efforts of the state government towards housing provision. To find a solutions to the identified challenges, the following recommendations are made: Firstly, since housing delivery is a capital intensive programme by its nature, financial institutions should be co-opted into the housing delivery system of the state. This may help the state to achieve its housing delivery programme

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because financial institutions can build houses under proper arrangements even when the government does not have adequate resources. Secondly, the state government should, on behalf of its workers enter into a proper mortgage arrangements with primary and secondary mortgage institutions and other housing contributory schemes such as National Housing Funds. This will go a long way in providing other means of access to housing divery for public use. Thirdly, adequate housing policy to provide information on sustainable housing programmes within a suitable framework for housing delivery should be provided. Fourthly, the use of durable local building materials capable of achieving functionality and aesthetics should be encouraged. This will have the impact of reducing the cost of constructing houses as it has been identified by Arayela (2005) that building materials constitute about 65% of the cost of construction. When the cost of construction is reduced, the housing unit will be produced at a lower per unit cost. Lastly, the issue of security of lives and properties should be intensified within the state. Similarly, the state government can work in close collaboration with the security agencies to provide special security sevice for workers on construction sites to prevent possible attacks.

REFERENCES Arayela, O. (2005) Laterite Bricks: before now and hereafter. Inaugral lecture series 40, delivered at Federal University of Technology, Akure. Aropet, I. (2011) The Role of the Government in the Provision of Affordable Housing to the Urban Poor in Kampala. Journal of Economics and Environment 2: 38-49. Balchin, P.R; Isaac D. and Chen, J. (2000) Urban Economics: A Global Perspective. New York: Palgrave. Chatterjee, L. (1981) Urban Problems and Economic Development: Peter eds 1-15 Edgar, B, Doherty, J. and Henk, M. (2002), Access to Housing: Homelessness and vulnerablity in Europe, Bristol: Policy Press, ix + 165 pp., £19.99 pbk Cooper Marcus, C. (1995) House as a Mirror of Self (Berkeley: Conary Press).

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Dangiwa, M. (2018). Housing Sector in Leadership August 15, 2018 Available online :https://leadership.ng/2018/08/15/nigeria-needs- n80trn-investment-in-housing-sector/. Retrieved February 20, 2018. Grimes, Jr.,and Orville, F. (1976). Housing for Low Income Urban families.Economics and Policy in the Developing World, IBRD Research Publication. Baltimore: Te Johns Hopkins University Press. Heywood, F (2004). Understanding needs: a starting point for quality. Journal of Housing Studies.19 (5):709-726. Ibem, E.O and Amole, O.O. (2010) Evaluation of Public Housing Programmes in Nigeria: A Theoretical and Conceptual Approach. The Built and Human Environment Review.3: 88- 116 Jiboye, A.D (2011). Ensuring sustainable Development through Effective Housing Delivery Process in Nigeria. African Journal of Social Sciences 1(2), 36-45. Retrieved from http://www.sachajournals.com Jevons, W. S (1871), The Theory of Political Economy: ark:/13960/t1ng9d46v Karsten L (2007). Housing as a W ay of Life: Towards an Understanding of Middle-Class Families' Preference for an Urban Residential Location. Hous. Stud. 22(1):83-98. Kabiru, B., and Bustani, S.A (2010): A Review of Housing Delivery Efforts in Nigeria. Liu, H (2007) .The Redistributive Effect of Public Housing in Hong Kong. Urban Studies.44(10)1937-1952 Marshall, A. (1890). Principles of Economics London: Macmillan and Co. Melnikas, B. (1998). Management and modernization of housing facilities: specific features of central and eastern European countries Facilities, 16(11), 326–333. Ngakan Hetut (2013). Quality of affordable housing projects by public and private developers in Indonesia: The case of Sarbagita Matropolitan Bali. Journal of Geography and regional planning 6(3) 69-81 Njoh, J. (2006). Tradition, culture and development in Africa: historical lessons for modern development planning, Heritage, culture, and identity. Aldershot, England: Ashgate Pub. Olayiwola, L.M, Adeleye, O., Ogunsakin L. (2005) Urban Housing Crisis and Responses in Nigeria: The Planners’ View Point: World Congress on Housing Transforming Housing Environments through the Design September 27 -30 2005, Pretoria South Africa. Onibokun, R. (1998). Urban Housing in Nigeria. Ibadan: NISER Publishing.

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Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. Parson, D. (2007). The Decline of Public Housing and the Politics of the Red Scare: The Significance of the Los Angeles Public Housing War. Journal of Urban History 33(3) 400-417 Ricardo, D. (1817). On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. London: John Murray, Albemarle Street Silas, J. (2001). The Kampung model, Habitat Debate Smith, A. (1776). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations London: Methuen & Co., Ltd. Savage, M., Bagnall, G. & Longhurst, B. (2005) Globalization and Belonging (London: Sage) UN Habitat, (2014) The Right to Adequate Housing; Printed at United Nations, Geneva ISSN 1014-5567 GE.09-14883–November 2009– 9,245. Available online at www.unhabitat.org. UN-Habitat, (2007) Milestones in the Evolution of Human Settlement Policies. 1976-2006. State of the World Cities. Report 2006/2007. The MDGS and Urban Sustainability. 30 years of shaping the Habitat Agenda. Earsthean UN-Habitat. Sustainable urbanization: Local action for urban poverty reduction, emphasis on finance and planning [Internet]. Scribd. 2007. Available from: https://www.scribd.com/document/79834216/4625- 51419-GC-21- What-Are-Slums [Accessed: 2018-03-12]

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African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

Basis for Higher Institution Preference for Off – Campus Accommodation

Ilekoin Olutoba Ayodele1 Rasheed Tunde Bhadmus2 Samaila Garba2 Ka\Halid Abubakar Munkaila2 1Department of Estate Management, Federal Polytechnic, Bauchi 2Department of Quantity Surveying, Federal Polytechnic, Bauchi

Abstract Student housing has gained recognition in the housing market as it encourages social, economic and environmental sustainability, it also contributes to a better quality of life to the students. Student accommodation requirements are increasing every day. With the substantial increment in student population, private sector developers are becoming key players in students housing provision. This study aims at discovering the housing preferences of the students of Federal Polytechnic Bauchi. Hostel preference experiment analysis among students of Federal Polytechnic Bauchi was carried out. The variables considered for the study are : rental value of the property , adequacy of on – campus hostel , nearness of off campus hostel to the campus , the safety of the hostel , hostel congestion , electricity and water supply . The analysis shows that Nearness to campus is the major factor that student consider in their preference for off – campus hostel. The rental value of the hostel is another factor that students considered while students hostel is being considered while inadequacy of hostels in the campus is the third factor that students considered in their chose of accommodation. Higher institutions authorities should be advised to build more hostels in their various institutions .

Keywords: Student housing, hostel, Housing preferences, off – campus , Bauchi

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Introduction Since man’s existence, he has been important to both the parent of the longing for comfortable housing as it student and the school authority in is one of the three essential which the student learns. The hostel necessities of life that he must have. influence on the student can either be Housing is rated second after food positive or negative, it influence and it is before clothing ( Oke et al , becomes positive when it makes the 2012 ), its take a central place in student to become a better member human’s existence as it provides of the society. Gradually, study is man with security, privacy, personal now being focused on student’s identity and prestige. Housing does preference for the types of not only play great role on the accommodation among which the healthiness, effectiveness and the student has to choose. It is the aim social welfare of man’s but also on of this study to examine how the community in which the man location, facilities and quality of live. The quality of a house in which hostel impacts on student’s using a student lives has profound Federal polytechnic , Bauchi as influences on his intellectual institution of higher learning and performance .Studies reveal that Gwallameji as off campus hostel . student housing situation in Nigeria higher institutions of learning is NIGERIA STUDENTS highly inadequate, particularly those HOUSING SITUATION that are owned by the governments Dormitories also known as hostels (Akinpelu , 2015). One of the trendy or hall of residence are usually built research topics in environmental for students so as to cater for their behavior discipline is student accommodation need, they are housing due to it is in low supply and usually located in proximity to class it is in high demand in the property rooms blocks with the main intent market .Student housing is also that it would make learning for called hostel, a hostel is an students to be more appropriate , accommodation where student decreases the stress of movement reside due to the fact that their homes from one placed to the other . are far from their places of studies. Students that live in school hostels Hostels are purposefully built with are expected to be more comfortable the intention of accommodating the when compared with their class students (Khozaei et al 2010).The mates that reside out side the school environmental influence that the hostels. Hostels provider often hostel has on the student is of endeavor that students

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accommodation that they provided are furnished with necessary facilities. In Nigeria, peoples desire to have higher education degree is on the increase , most people are determined to have certification on certification as they believe that additional certificate would make them to be more employable in the labor market . This people quest for additional qualifications has made it to be impossible for higher institutions management in Nigeria to provide on campus accommodation for all its students, the students are left with the option off campus accommodation (Ojogwu and Alutu (2009). The condition of student accommodation, be it off campus or in campus accommodation , is one of the factors that measures both the student physical and social well being . Students accommodation also determines the quality and rating of the higher institution, institutions that are not able to adequately accommodate their students would not be better rated than institutions that provide quality and adequate accommodations to their students .The structure, located, facilities and services that the accommodation is equipped with are among the determining factors that enable the students to perform optimally in their academic pursuit. Hostels with poor conditions of service and congested hostels increase the student’s susceptibility to diseases , injury and death . Hostels that have appropriate facilities, less crowd and in good condition keep the students from diseases, advances the student’s physical, intellectual, emotional and social drive ( Ali et al ,2013; Modebelu and Chinyere ,2013). Most campuses hostel in Nigeria are over crowded, existing hostel accommodations are not adequate to guarantee optimal health for the student. The majority of Nigeria graduates from public institutions are not employable due to the quality of certificates they graduated with, the cause of this their not being suitable for employment is easily linkable to the kind of accommodation they dwell in while in the school. There is high demand for student accommodation in the off campus (Tokunef , 2013; Arkesteijn , et al 2015). This is traceable to lack of qualitative accommodation in which the formal students used to live (Yusuff ,2011). Decision of the Nigeria federal government to increase the student hostel fees from ninety Naira per person to ten Thousand naira per person in its Tertiary institution in 2003 makes the accommodation of students hostel a tropical issue. The gap between the students available accommodation and the student population is widening ever day ( Bassey , 2007 ) . The short supply of student accommodation is in poor, deplorable condition in Nigeria, this has led to the provision of student’s accommodation by the private developers near each higher institution in the country; hence, the concept of 156 [email protected] 2018

off campus was created. One of the major challenges facing Nigeria higher institution is student accommodation (Aluko, 2011).

FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENTS PREFENCE FOR TYPES OF HOSTELS IN NIGERIA Security in the hostel, water supply , electricity , calm and peace , availability of toilet are some of the factors that determine student’s choice of a hostel (Mahama et al , 2016). In Nigeria , some of the factors influencing students choice of hostel are proximity to campus, rental value of the property , types of dwelling , peaceful environment , availability of electricity and water (Oyetunji and Abidoye , 2016 ; Zortovie , 2017). Khozaei et al (2010) opined that convenience is the key factor that determines student’s choice of hostel, while Howley (2009) opined that it is the population of the area in which the accommodation is located is the major determent of student’s choice of accommodation . Off campus accommodation is preferred by some students because they want privacy, silence while others are in off campus accommodation because of their need for decent housing (Oyetunji and Abidoye , 2016).

METHODOLOGY The data use for this study was gotten from both primary and secondary sources, the primary data was obtained source through the distribution of questionnaire to the appropriate respondents. 100 students were selected through stratified sampling method as this allowed the researcher to obtain reliable sample of the study area. The secondary data was obtained from earlier journals and research work that bearing with housing and students hostel accommodation.

RESEARCH INSTRUMENT Questionnaire that is based on the literature review and the objectives of the study were prepared and administered to the respondents. In order to determine the factors that influence students for off campus accommodation. Factors analysis was employed to measure the unit of the variables, all the items were based on 5 point likert scales which range from scale one to five : One = strongly disagree , two = Disagree , three = neutral , Agree = four and five = strongly Agree.

DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF THE RESPONDENTS 100 respondents were sampled for this research work, 47 % are male while 57 % are female. 46% of the respondents are between 21 years to 25 years 157 [email protected] 2018

old while most of the respondents are currently pursuing their national diploma. The break down of demographic profile of the respondents is as shown in the table 1 below

Table 1 :Respondents Demographic information S/No. Variable Categories Frequency (n-100) Percentage 1 Gender Male 47 47% Female 53 53% 2 Age 16 – 20 18 18% 21-25 46 46% 26-30 24 24% 31-35 12 12% 3. Edu. Level Certificate 14 14% N.D. 49 49% H.N.D. 37 37% Source : Authors field work (2019)

Table 1 above shows the variables that are considered for this research work are: Rental value, Adequacy of on campus hostel, Nearness of hostel to campus, Safety, Hostel congestion, Electricity supply and Water supply. Table 2 below shows the factor analysis.

Table 2. FACTORS SHOWING STUDENTS PREFERENCE FOR OFF CAMPUS ACCOMMODATION S/N Variable strongly Disagree Neutral - agree- Strongly 풇풙 ranking ∑ disagree- 1 – 2 3 4 agree - 5 풙 1 Rental value 2 7 18 19 54 4.16 2 2 Adequacy of 7 13 25 23 32 3.6 3 on campus hostel 3 Nearness 1 2 12 24 61 4.42 1 hostel to campus 4 Safety 19 29 25 15 12 2.72 5 5 Hostel 16 21 23 21 19 3.06 4 congestion 6 Electricity 43 34 19 3 1 1.85 7 Water 39 36 18 4 3 1.96 6 7 Sours : Authors field work ( 2019) 158 [email protected] 2018

From Table 2 above , 54 % of the prefers accommodation off campus because of its rental value, while 32 % of the rented accommodation off campus because of lack of on campus accommodation , 61 % chose accommodation because of its closeness to the school , 12 % chose accommodation because of safety . In the table 2, nearness to campus is major factor that makes student to choose their type of accommodation; this is followed by the rental value of the property followed by the adequacy of on campus hostel.

CONCLUSION The study was conducted with the sole aim of determining the factors that make students to stay in the off campus. The variables considered for the study are : rental value of the property , adequacy of on – campus hostel , nearness of off campus hostel to the campus , the safety of the hostel , hostel congestion , electricity and water supply . The analysis shows that Nearness to campus is the major factor that student consider in their preference for off – campus hostel. The rental value of the hostel is another factor that students considered while students hostel is being considered while inadequacy of hostels in the campus is the third factor that students considered in their chose of accommodation. Higher institutions authorities should be advised to build more hostels in their various institutions

Reference Ali S, Haider Z, Munir F, Khan H, Ahmed A(2013). Factors contributing to the students academic performance: A case study of Islamia University Sub-Campus. American Journal of Educational Research. 2013;1(8):283-9. Aluko, O.E, (2011). The Assessment of Housing Situation among Students in the University of Lagos African Research Review: An International Multi-Disciplinary Journal, Ethiopia 5 (3) pp 104-118

Bassey Ubong (2007) Hostel accommodation in tertiary educational institutions in Nigeria: to be or not to be

Chamberlain, P., (2005). Ameliorating Housing Deficit in Nigeria. Retrieved from: www.InvestNigeria2005.com. Howley, P., Scott, M., and Redmond, D. (2009). An examination of residential preferences for less sustainable housing: Exploring future mobility among Dublin central city residents. Cities, 26 (1), 1 – 8. 159 [email protected] 2018

Khozaei, F., Hassan, A. S. and Khozaei, Z. (2010). Undergraduate Students’ Satisfaction with Hostel and Sense of Attachment to Place: Case Study of University Sains Malaysia. American J. of Engineering and Applied Sciences 3 (3), 516-520

Mahama, F., Boahen, P. A. N., Saviour, A. W. and Tumaku, J. (2016). Modeling Satisfaction Factors that Predict Students Choice of Private Hostels in a Ghanaian Polytechnic. British Journal of Mathematics & Computer Science, 19(3), 1-11. Modebelu MN, Chinyere AP. Environmental hazards and hostel accommodation problems: Challenges for university education in Nigeria. US-China Education Review B, Education Theory, 4 (6), 407. 2014;413. Ojogwu C,and Alutu A.(2009) Analysis of the Learning Environment of University Students on Nigeria: A Case Study of University of Benin. Journal of Social Sciences. 2009;19(1):69-73. Oyetunji, A. K. and Abidoye, R. B. (2016). Assessment of the Factors Influencing Students’ Choice of Residence in Nigerian Tertiary Institutions. Sains Humanika, 8(2), 39–47. Tokunef T (2013). Why Nigerian Universities Produce Poor Quality Graduates. Alpha Education Foundation Educational Monograph Series. 2011;3:1-22. Yusuff O.S.(2011) Students Access to Housing: A case of Lagos State University Students-Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development. 2011;4(2):107. Zotorvie, J. S. T. (2017). Students’ Accommodation and Academic Performance: The Case of Ho Technical University, Ghana. European Scientific Journal, 13(13), 290 – 302.

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African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

Laboratory Study of the Effect of Soybeans Shell on the Dry Bulk Density of Compacted Soil in Bali Taraba State

Sani, Isa A. Department of Agricultural and Bioenvironmental Engineering, Federal Polytechnic Bali Taraba State Nigeria

Abstract The effect of incorporating soybeans shell into the soil on dry density in Bali Taraba State was investigated in the laboratory. Soybeans shell incorporated into the soil samples raising their organic matter levels from 0, 2, 4 and 6% on dry basis. The soil organic matter blend compacted utilizing 5, 15 and 25 proctor hammer blows at six moisture levels. The dry bulk density and the liquid limit were determined. The result shows that liquid limits increase with increased in organic matter levels. While the dry bulk density significantly decreased with increased in organic matter content irrespective of the pressure subjected on the soil. Using equivalent static pressure of proctor hammer blows, moisture content and organic matter level, multiple linear regression equation were generated for predicting maximum dry bulk density for the soil textures used in this study.

Keywords: Bulk density, compaction, soybeans, shell.

Introduction Soil compaction increases soil nutrient recycling and reduced strength and decreases soil physical activities of micro-organisms fertility through decreasing storage (Hamza & Anderson 2005). Soil and supply of water and nutrients, compaction is defined as the which leads to extra fertilizer densification of unsaturated soil due requirement and increasing to reduction in air volume without production cost. An injurious change in mass wetness. Reductions sequence then occurs of reduced in soil porosity due to compaction plant growth leading to lower inputs can cause variation in pore size and of organic matter to the soil, reduced in the degree of saturation, altering

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the water retention energy (de Lima et al., 2017). Soil compaction has been reported by many researchers to have adverse effects on soil properties that affect crop growth and yield (Unger and Kaspar, 1994, Eldridge, 2015, Hu et al., 2018). This has been a major source of concern to farmers and Scientists. For example Stibbe and Tersptra, (1982) found that at soil moisture content levels of 15% and 25% (v/v) increasing penetration resistance below and beside the planting slot linearly increased the time lapse between planting and emergence of 50% of the number of seeds planted. They further explained that the gradual emergence and total failure to emerge of the silage corn (Zea mays L.) seeds could only be due to the slowing down of primary root penetrating downwards or sideways into the soil because of compaction. However this research is intended to investigate the influence of soybeans shells incorporated into compacted agricultural soil, since soybeans is widely grown in the study area and combining the shells which the farmer do not use for any purpose into the soil before land preparation for cultivation could improve the soil structure, increase crop growth, yield and improvement of water holding capacity of the soil thereby reducing the adverse effects of dry spells which crops experience in the study area and beyond.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The Study Area: The study was conducted in three selected locations within Bali local government area of Taraba state Nigeria. The area lies within the latitude of 100 02| 00|| N and longitude 70 02| 14|| E and altitude 450 m above mean sea level. The area is generally situated on the bank of the upper course of river Taraba at some 156 km from Jalingo. The climate of the study area is characterized by temperature ranges from 23 - 400C (Abubakar & Ibrahim, 2016). The area has a well – defined wet season with average annual rainfall of 1110 mm beginning around May and ending in October (IWMI, 2009). The local government covers a total land area of about 9,146 km2. The population of the local government is 208,935 (NPC, 2006). Closely associated to the population is varied land uses which generate a high demand of farm produce. Bali is an important economic center because of its food crops market which is connected with other parts of the state and the country as a whole.

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Figure 1: Map of Taraba State showing Bali L.G.A. (Abubakar and Ibrahim, 2016)

Methods: Sample were collected from top 0 to 30 cm depth of the soil profile representing agricultural soil, and air dried. Both the soil samples and the soybean shells were ground to pass a 2 mm sieve. Particles size analysis was obtained by sieve and hydrometer method (Bouyoucos, 1951) and the

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organic carbon content of the soils were determined using the method of (Schulte, 1995). The organic matter levels of all soil were increased by incorporating soybeans shells to make each up to 2% 4% and 6% organic matter levels on a percentage dry mass basis, so as to obtain the most effective level. Three soils of different textures with their soybeans shell mixture were used for the study.

Proctor Compaction and Dry Bulk Density The three soils with soybeans shells mixture was brought up to six moisture levels on percentage dry weight basis by adding equivalent unit weight of water to the various samples (Since 1g of water is equal to 1ml of water) as indicated in Table 1 below. Each of the soil was subjected to 5, 15 and 25 blows of a standard proctor hammer in cylindrical mold of 102 mm diameter by 116 mm height following the standard proctor compaction procedure (Lambe 1951, Gurtug et al., 2018). The liquid limit of all the soil soybeans shells mixtures were determine following also the procedure describe by (Gurtug et al., 2018) in Table 2.

Design of experiment Split plot design was used in statistical package for social scientist SPSS 1100 (2001) for the regression and analysis variance.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION The result of the dry density versus moisture content at all compaction and organic matter levels are shown in Table 4 to 6 and the plot of the density versus moisture content at all organic matter and compaction levels were shown in figures 2 to 10. The outcomes showed that dry bulk density values at any level of compaction increased with increased in moisture content up to a point after which further increase in moisture content led to reduced values of the density as shown in figures 2 to 10. This characteristic of the dry bulk density – moisture relationship was reported by Tekeste et al (2002) and Ohu et al (1985). All the three soil exhibited a similar performance for the dry bulk density moisture relationship. The maximum dry density obtained at any compaction levels for all the soils was found to decrease with higher levels of organic matter. Hence the optimum moisture for compacting the soils at any compaction level increased with higher organic matter contents in the soils. The reduction in the maximum dry density due to increase in organic matter revels could be 164 [email protected] 2018

as a result of more pore space being created which made the soil less prone to compaction. It was generally observed that the optimum moisture for compaction is indicated in figures 2 to 10 increased with higher clay content in the soil at any organic matter and compaction levels. This increase in the optimum moisture values with clay fraction may be due to the increase in the ability of the soils with high clay contents to hold more moisture. With same static pressure of proctor compaction blows of the sample with its moisture content, organic matter levels known, equations were generated for predicting maximum densities of all the soil used in this study. The data on Table 4 to 6 were subjected to regression analysis using SPSS (2001) variable (dry bulk density) and the independent variation x1, x2, x3 (i.e. moisture content, organic matter levels and compaction strength). The exact forms of the relationship in the different locations are:

Sabondale soil sample

Y1 = 1.671 – 0.943 x1 – 9.736 x2 +0.00054 x3…………………………….1 Tungan Borkono soil sample

Y1 = 1.694 – 1.114 x1 – 9.931 x2 +0.00053 x3……………………………2

Bambado soil sample

Y1 = 1.320 – 0.103 x1 – 6.197 x2 +0.00054 x3……………………………3 Where, 3 Y1 = maximum dry density mg/m

x1 = moisture content level %

x2 = organic matter levels %

x3 = compactive effort in numbers of blows.

The model equation 1 to 3 derived above could be used to predict the compatibility of agricultural soil with organic matter levels and moisture content when the static pressure of the soil sample is known.

Table 1: Result of soil moisture content Sample Location Moisture content (%) Sabondale (Sandy Loam) 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 and 16% Tungan Borkono (Sandy Loam) 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, and 22% Bambado (Clay Loam) 7, 10, 13, 16, 18, and 22%

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Table 2: Results of the liquid limit of the three soil texture at different organic matter levels Location Soybeans Shell Level 2% 4% 6% LL LL LL Sabondale (Sandy loam) 20.35 26.41 37.98 Tungan Borkono (Sandy loam) 21.06 29.03 41.49 Bambado (Clay loam) 31.05 36.09 48.24 LL = Liquid limit

Table 3: Results of Particles size analysis Location Particle size distribution % Organic matter % Sand Silt Clay Soil texture Sabondale 68.98 19.28 10.59 Sandy Loam 0.47 Tungan Borkono 62.59 23.78 72.48 Sandy loam 0.97 Bambado 23.99 36.78 35.78 Clay loam 1.29

Table 4: Results of dry bulk density (mgm – 3) against moisture content of Sabondale sandy loam soil all compaction and organic matter levels. OML% 2 4 6 0 PHB/MC% 5 15 25 5 15 25 5 15 25 5 15 25 2 1.48 1.59 1.65 1.33 1.46 1.55 1.13 1.23 1.35 1.65 1.80 1.90 6 1.50 1.60 1.86 1.37 1.49 1.57 1.15 1.25 1.35 1.70 1.89 1.95 10 1.49 1.80 1.21 1.36 1.50 1.73 1.12 1.25 1.35 1.71 1.80 2.87 14 1.34 1.49 1.95 1.32 1.39 1.47 1.16 1.24 1.40 1.66 1.80 2.75 18 1.35 1.43 1.54 1.26 1.37 1.41 0.92 1.08 1.19 1.65 1.75 2.51 22 1.32 1.40 1.46 1.23 1.35 1.35 0.88 1.03 1.13 1.41 1.74 2.50 Mean of three replicates

Table 5: Result of dry bulk density (mgm – 3) against moisture content of Tungan Borkono sandy loam soil all compaction and organic matter levels. OML% 2 4 6 0 PHB/MC% 5 15 25 5 15 25 5 15 25 5 15 25 6 1.39 1.50 1.61 1.34 1.44 1.51 1.10 1.21 1.30 1.60 1.69 1.80 8 1.45 1.56 1.87 1.36 1.45 1.50 1.13 1.22 1.29 1.67 1.74 1.97 10 1.43 1.74 2.11 1.37 1.46 1.53 1.14 1.24 1.31 1.65 1.81 2.29 12 1.44 1.50 2.10 1.34 1.45 1.51 1.15 1.25 1.35 1.62 1.77 2.30 14 1.41 1.48 1.57 1.32 1.44 1.46 0.98 1.15 1.24 1.61 1.76 2.22 16 1.40 1.44 1.54 1.30 1.41 1.47 0.95 1.10 1.20 1.52 1.75 1.90 Mean of three replicates 166 [email protected] 2018

Table 4: Result of dry bulk density (mgm – 3) against moisture content of Bambado sandy loam soil all compaction and organic matter levels. OML% 2 4 6 0 PHB/MC% 5 15 25 5 15 25 5 15 25 5 15 25 7 1.30 1.35 1.38 1.19 1.30 1.33 1.05 1.10 1.21 1.39 1.56 1.57 10 1.31 1.36 1.43 1.18 1.29 1.35 1.07 1.16 1.20 1.40 1.64 1.59 13 1.43 1.67 1.72 1.21 1.34 1.46 1.08 1.17 1.13 1.63 1.78 1.70 16 1.34 1.56 1.60 1.15 1.36 1.47 1.10 1.20 1.25 1.41 1.74 1.79 19 1.30 1.46 1.52 1.03 1.41 1.50 1.09 1.34 1.41 1.40 1.76 1.80 22 1.22 1.40 1.49 1.00 1.36 1.44 1.06 1.31 1.36 1.39 1.70 1.77

Mean of three replicates

Figure 2: Effects of 5 blows of compaction and different organic matter level (OML) on bulk density across various moisture content for Sabondale sandy loam soil.

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Figure 3: Effects of 15 blows of compaction and different organic matter level (OML) on bulk density across various moisture content for Sabondale sandy loam soil.

Figure 4: Effects of 25 blows of compaction and different organic matter level (OML) on bulk density across various moisture content for Sabondale sandy loam soil.

Figure 5: Effects of 5 blows of compaction and different organic matter level OML on bulk density across various moisture content for Tungan Borkono sandy loam soil.

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Figure 6: Effects of 15 blows of compaction and different organic matter level (OML) on bulk density across various moisture content for Tungan Borkono sandy loam soil.

Figure 7: Effects of 25 blows of compaction and different organic matter level (OML) on bulk density across various moisture content Tungan Borkono sandy loam soil.

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1.8

1.6 ORGANIC MATTER LEVEL 2% OML 1.4 ORGANIC MATTER LEVEL 4% OML 1.2 ORGANIC MATTER LEVEL 6% OML

mg/m3 1 ORGANIC MATTER LEVEL 0% OML 0.8

0.6

0.4

DRY BULKDENSITY DRY 0.2

0 7 10 13 16 19 22 MOISTURE CONTENT (%)

Figure 8: Effects of 5 blows of compaction and different organic matter level (OML) on bulk density across various moisture content for Bambado clay loam soil.

Figure 9: Effects of 15 blows of compaction and different organic matter level (OML) on bulk density across various moisture content for Bambado clay loam soil.

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Figure 10: Effects of 25 blows of compaction and different organic matter level (OML) on bulk density across various moisture content for Bambado clay loam soil.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION The outcome of this study showed that values of the dry bulk density for any level of soybeans shells and compaction level increased with moisture content up to a maximum after which further increase in moisture led to reduced values of these parameters. Higher values of dry bulk density were obtained in the sandy loam soils than the clay loam soil. The maximum dry density values at any compaction level decreased with increased level of organic matter added to the three soil textures. From this study it could be seen that organic matter from soybeans shells is effective in improving the effects of soil compaction in the three soil textures. It would be important to try the effects of incorporating the soybeans shells before compaction on the growth and yields of crops on these soil textures.

REFERENCES Abubakar, B., & Ibrahim, M. (2016). Assessment of Boreholes Water Quality in Bali Local Government, Taraba State, Nigeria. FUTY Journal of the Environment, 10(1), 1-10. Bouyoucos, G. J. (1951). A Recalibration of the Hydrometer Method for Making Mechanical Analysis of Soils 1. Agronomy journal, 43(9), 434-438. 171 [email protected] 2018

de Lima, R. P., da Silva, A. P., Giarola, N. F., da Silva, A. R., & Rolim, M. M. (2017). Changes in soil compaction indicators in response to agricultural field traffic. Biosystems engineering, 162, 1-10. Eldridge, D. J., Beecham, G., & Grace, J. B. (2015). Do shrubs reduce the adverse effects of grazing on soil properties? Ecohydrology, 8(8), 1503-1513. Gurtug, Y., Sridharan, A., & İkizler, S. B. (2018). Simplified Method to Predict Compaction Curves and Characteristics of Soils. Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering, 1-10. Hamza, M. A., & Anderson, W. K. (2005). Soil compaction in cropping systems: A review of the nature, causes and possible solutions. Soil and tillage research, 82(2), 121-145. Hillel D. (1971) Soil and water: Physical and processes Academic press, Hu, W., Tabley, F., Beare, M., Tregurtha, C., Gillespie, R., Qiu, W., & Gosden, P. (2018). Short-term dynamics of soil physical properties as affected by compaction and tillage in a silt loam soil. Vadose Zone Journal, 17(1). International Water Management Institute (IWMI) (2009). Data from IWMI Water and Climate Atlas (www.iwmi.org). Assessed on 29/2/2019 Lambe, T. W. (1951). Soil testing for engineers (Vol. 72, No. 5, p. 406). LWW. National Population Commission (NPC) (2006). New York Pp 431 Ohu, J. O., Raghavan, G. S. V., & McKyes, E. (1985). Peat moss effect on the physical and hydraulic characteristics of compacted soils. Transactions of the ASAE, 28(2), 420-0424. Schulte, E. E. (1995). Recommended soil organic matter tests. Recommended Soil Testing Procedures for the North Eastern USA. Northeastern Regional Publication, (493), 52-60. SPSS (2001) statistical package for social scientist (software 1100) Stibbe, E., & Terpstra, R. (1982). Effect of penetration resistance on emergence and early growth of silage corn in a laboratory experiment with sandy soil. Soil and Tillage Research, 2(2), 143-153. Tekeste, M. Z., Grift, T. E., & Raper, R. L. (2002). Acoustic compaction layer detection. In 2002 ASAE Annual Meeting (p. 1). American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. Unger, P. W., & Kaspar, T. C. (1994). Soil compaction and root growth: a review. Agronomy Journal, 86(5), 759-766.

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African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

Assessment of the effect of Human Activities on Quality and Distribution of Water Supply in Minna and its Environs, Niger State, Nigeria

Adamu, A. B., Abdulkadir, Nasiru, Meduna Patience Ndidi & Abubakar Muhammad Jamiu Geography Department, Federal University Of Technology, Minna, Federal College Of Wildlife Management, New Bussa, Niger State,

Abstract Water is the most vital natural resources that nature provides. What we grow, where we live or build depend to a large extent on water and it determine the survival of plant and animal. Access to portable water in Minna has been on decline since 1980s. On the average, 20% of the inhabitant of the area currently have access to water supply (Isah, 2012). The problem of inequality of water infrastructural provision remain unsolved, however the rate at which infrastructural services like provision of water is being provided is grossly inadequate in meeting the population demand in Minna. The main aim of this research is to identify, examine and explain the various human activities which affect the distribution of water resources and supply in other to ascertain its future availability. The data for the study were collated through primary and secondary method, which involve questionnaire, oral interview, and library materials. Data obtained from the field work and Nigeria Meteorology Agency were collected and analysed. The result of the study reveals that availability of water in the study area is affected by human activities (socio-economic activities), increase in population growth, urbanization and agricultural activities, which result also shows that water is mismanaged and absence of full maintenance, there is general reduction in rainfall over the study period (2004-2014). On the basis of the present study i recommend that, the state and local government involve must establish a state water policy office whose activities would include policies, data collection, policy coordination, project identification, financing, research, control of point and nonpoint of pollution and development.

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Keywords: Water quality, Human activities, Minna, Sources of Water and Water supply

Introduction Good quality water is odourless, billion people over the next 25 years, colourless, practically tasteless and which will be mainly in developing free from pollution (Ezeugwunne, countries (Basterimeijert et al., 2009). Environmentally, water is so 2000). However, despite the growth important that its pollution becomes in world's population, there is no a serious problem since it affects the equal increase in safe water supply lives of many people throughout the to match the population. For world. instance, over one billion people in In the world, about 1.1 billion people the world lack access to adequate do not have access to improved water supply (Hueb, 2000). water supply while 2.4 billion do not Furthermore, low income earners in have access to improved sanitation urban areas are deprived of facility. In addition, over 2 million provision of good water services and people, mostly children of less than have to pay exorbitant prices set by 5 years age mainly from developing private vendors for small quantities countries with poor implementation of water of doubtful quality. It is of sustainable water programmed, however, necessary to make water die every year of diarrhea diseases available in the required quantity (WHO, 2011). Therefore, in order to and quality in order to meet the accelerate development while demands of the various users enhancing environmental especially in third world countries. sustainability, it is opined that the Therefore, water supply in Minna is proportion of people without access facing serious challenges such as to sustainable safe drinking water inadequate expansion of water and basic sanitation in the world supply infrastructure which are should be reduced to half by the year stressing the population of most 2015 (Teshamulwa, 2007). This is communities below satisfactory achievable only when water is level. Balogun (2001) observed that supplied in its wholesome form from since independence many water various sources such as well, supply schemes have been and are boreholes, springs, pipes, rivers and still being commissioned to satisfy even the packaging factories. political promises and aspirations Because population growth will without resources management probably add another 2.5 to 6.6 viewpoint. In view of this lack of

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achievement, this study intends to assess the effect of human activities on distribution of domestic water supply in Minna with a view to suggest improvement specifications for a sustainable water resource management.

Statement of the problems Regular supply of water solves both the environmental and managerial problems. Thus constant water supply will bring about improved living standards in Minna, the problems of water supply are glaring and manifest themselves in three different forms. The inadequacy of water is evidenced by the number of people seen in the available streams looking for water whose quality is quite doubtful; this bring to the problems associated with water such as cholera, diarrhea and guinea worm infections. The major problem cause by climate in a region like that of northern Nigeria is the seasonality of weather condition where the long period of dry season will mean the absence of rainfall and thus which make inadequate water supply. The research intends to come up with possible relationship that exists between human activities and water supply, also how rainfall that changes over time affect water supply and quality. The water needed to be supplied by all the sources of water in the study Area including water Board, boreholes, wells, streams and raining water. Niger State Water Board (NSWB) is the sole supplier of tap water in Minna and is just supplying 25.78% of the water at the moment which is (4,851,306.18 liters per day or 1,261,339.607 gallons per day) of the total water requirement needed in the study Area. Thus other sources of water augment the remaining water needs of (14 million liters per day or 4 million gallons per day), these as show that there is shortage of water supply in the study Area and which we the planner need to solve it due to our future planning. Access to portable water in Minna has been in continuous decrease since 1980s. On the average, less than 20% of the inhabitants of the area currently have access to portable water. In spite of various laudable policies being put in place by the successive governments to ensure that access to adequate portable water supply is made possible, the problem of inequality of water infrastructural provision remain unsolved. However, the rate at which infrastructural services like provision of water is being provided is grossly inadequate in meeting the population demand in Minna. The problem most neighbourhood in Minna are combating with, is that households demand for water from different sources with no regard for its quality. Demand level and the quantity of the sources are being currently polluted as a result of natural and human interference. The aim of this study is to assess the effect of human 175 [email protected] 2018

activities on distribution of domestic water supply with a view to identifying the problems and proffering possible solutions. The specific objectives of this work are to examine the conditions of the existing water supply sources, identify the various human activities affecting water distribution, examine the impact of these activities on water quality and examine the variability pattern of rainfall over the periods of (2004-2014).

Study Area Minna is the capital of Niger State. The study area lies between Latitude 90 33 and 90 4 North, and Longitude 60 29 and 60 35 East on a geological base of undifferentiated basement complex of mainly gneiss and magnetite. At the North east corridor of the town lie a continuous steep outcrop of granite, which form a limitation towards physical development in that axis. In the present political zoning system, it is within the North Central Zone, and occupies an area of about 884 hectares. It is about 145 kilometers by road from Abuja, the Federal Capital of Nigeria. The Minna metropolis has grown to engulf suburbs settlements such as Bosso, Maitumbi, Dutsen Kura, Kpakungu, Shango and Chanchaga. The climate of Minna is characterized by distinct wet and dry season. The wet (rainy) season starts in April and ends in October, with a maximum rainfall occurring in August. Presently, Minna enjoys a climate typical of the middle belt zone, Guinea savannah with distinct wet and dry seasons. The rainy season starts around April and lasts till October. It has a mean annual rainfall of about 1334mm (52inches) with September recording the highest rains of about 00mm (11 .inches). The mean monthly temperature is highest in March at 35°C and lowest in August at 22.3°C. The topography of Minna consists of hills and mountains especially towards eastern and western parts of the area. Because of these gigantic rocks, development has been restricted towards the eastern and western parts. All developments follow the line of the rock, which was halted by flat rock outcrop at the extreme north. The vegetation of Minna consists of open savannah. The Fadamas of the larger rivers support savannah with occasional streams covered with dense riparian woodlands or forested area. The grasses are between 0.8 to 3.5m height. The trees are scattered, short brand with some up to 16.5meters height.

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Figure 1: Minna Township Map

MATERIALS AND METHODS Data Collection Two approaches were adopted which include derivation of information from unpublished (field) or primary and published (library) or secondary sources. The primary data is the most expensive but it has the advantage of completeness and accuracy in data collection and this method involves the following steps: Oral interview, Questionnaire and Direct observation. The secondary data consist of journals, magazine, books, natural resources and these are already exists and review of related literature on water and its importance are conducted through available materials on internet, libraries while the geographical, political and historical settings of the study area were obtained from Niger State Ministry of Land and Housing, Niger State Water

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Board and Water Resources. Rainfall data of 10years was collected from Nigeria Meteorological Agency, Minna Niger State. This source provides most data, if not all, of the information required. The secondary data have the following advantages which are: it save time, it save manpower and it save resources in sampling and data collection.

Data Analysis The results obtained in this study were presented graphically as well as pictorially in forms of pie charts, histograms and bar charts because it is more effective and easier to understand, It clearly show the differences or relationship between variables and it summarize large raw of data. Descriptive Statistics was adopted for this study, Microsoft excels and Statistics Package for Social Scientist (SPSS, 20) was used in calculations as well as plotting of graphs. Geometric progression formula was also used to determine the quality of water requirement for the study area: Pf = Pi (1 + r/100) n Pf - Future Population =? Pi - Initial Population = 188,181 R - Growth Rate = 3.6 n – Time tag between the initial and the future. Pf =188,181(1+3.6/100)14 Pf = 188,181(1.640, 727,947) Pf = 308,754. Population in year 2020 =308,754 approximately The Average Water Need per person in a day = 100 liters or 26 gallons. 308,754 x 100 = 30,875,400. Liters per capital, per day. 308,754 x 26 = 8,027,604. Gallons per capital Per day. Estimated water supply per capital in Minna currently = 188,181x 26 =4,892,706 gallons The drought index called standardized rainfall anomaly index (SRAI) adapted from Ifabiyi and Ojoye, (2013) was used to check the variability pattern of rainfall over the period of 10 years (2004-2014).

Results and Discussion Evaluation of existing water supply sources. Table 1 shows 45% which stated that, it was less than 10 years when they have source of waters. 23.5% said it was between 10 to 20 years, 20.3% said it was between 21 to 30 years, 5.2% said it was between 31 to 40 years and 6% said that more than 40 years ago, when they started using the sources of 178 [email protected] 2018

water. The new developed Area from the responses shows that, they are using Niger State Water Board of recent and other sources of water, which is less than 10 years; the core Area was using wells and streams as there was no tap water source in the area

Table 1: Duration use of the water source Duration No of respondents Percentage (%)

Less than 10 years 158 45

11-20 years 82 23.5

21-31 years 71 20.3

31-40 years 18 5.2

Above 40 years 21 6 Total 350 100

General opinion on existing water situation in Minna Table 2 gives the general views of all the respondents on water board in Minna, which indicates 65.6% said that the board is ineffective, 20.2% claimed that it is effective, 10.2% said it is very ineffective while 4% opined that it is very effective. The management of water board state that the ineffectiveness of water supply is due to insufficient, in terms of the regularity, the distribution and the quality of water supplied. The result of every good management system of any water board is the adequate provision of potable water. Therefore the main reasons for being ineffective are lack of funds, obsolete equipment, and poor payment of rates by consumers among others.

Table 2: General opinion on existing water sources in Minna Opinion No of Respondents Percentage Very effective 14 4% Effective 71 20.2% Ineffective 231 65.6% Very ineffective 36 10.2% Total 352 100%

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Estimation of water demand in the study area with projection to year 2020 To get the amount of water demanded per capital per day, the quantity per household will be divided by the size, but due to differences in the size of household 100 liters per capital per day or 26 gallon per capital per day by ( Dangerfiled,1983) was used. And to determine the population of the study Area for the year 2020, Geometric progression formula were also used: Pf = Pi (1 + r/100) n Pf - Future Population =? Pi - Initial Population = 188,181(N.P.C, 2006) R - Growth Rate = 3.6 n – Time tag between the initial and the future. Target years (2020 - 2006) =14. Pf =188,181(1+3.6/100)14 Pf = 188,181(1.640, 727,947) Pf = 308,754. Population in year 2020 =308,754 approximately The Average Water Need per person in a day = 100 liters or 26 gallons. 308,754 x 100 = 30,875,400. Litres per capital, per day. 308,754 x 26 = 8,027,604. Gallons per capital, per day. Thus: the present existing water capacity is approximately 6 million litres per day and the projected water needed in the study area for the year 2020 is 31 million litres per day. Then, the total shortfall of water in the study area are 31 million litres - 6 million litres = 25 million litres, for the years 2020. So we have to manage the available sources of water and improved on it for environmental sustainability of Minna.

To identify the various human activities affecting water distribution These characteristics include educational level of respondents, distribution of number of people in the house against each segment number of households in the house, occupation of the respondents, the analysis of respondents connected to tap water, distribution of non-statutory sources of water, diseases suffered as a result of the use of water from non-statutory sources and respondents assessment of the performance of Niger State Water Board in Minna.

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Size of household Figure 2 shows that, out of the three hundred and fifty two responses on this aspect, 55% of the respondents live in a house that contains between one to five households; this invariably makes it to be the most common households in the study area. Others include (34.3%) between six to ten household, 5.2% falls between 11 to 15 while household that falls 16 to 20 accounted for 1.8% and finally, 3.7% of the houses harbor more than 20 household. The above clustering of household in the study area enables easy distribution, provision and sharing of social facilities, including water which is our main point of concern.

1.80% 3.70% 5.20% 6 to 10 11 to 15 16 to 20 55% 34.30% above 20

Figure 2: Size of Household

Age, Sex and marital status of respondents The figure 4.3 result show that, 45.2% of the respondents are in the ages between 41 -50 years, 32.7% falls in between 31-40 years,12% are less than 30 years while ages above 50 years have the least percentages which is 10.1% of the total respondents. The results show clearly that the categories of people who responded are adults and head of household.

10.10% 12.00%

Less than 30 years 31-40 years 32.70% 45.20% 41-50 years above 50 years

Figure 3: Age of Respondents 181 [email protected] 2018

Also, figure 4 shows that 79.8% of the respondents were male while 20.2% were female. This implies that the majority of respondent are head of the family. Moreover, figure 4.5shows that the majority of respondent are married which accounted for 75.3% while the singles took 14.6%, the divorce have 3.2% and widowed were 6.9% respectively.

90.00% 79.80% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.20% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% Male Female

Figure 4: Sex of Respondents

80.00% 75.30% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 14.60% 6.90% 10.00% 3.20% 0.00%

Figure 5: Marital Status of Respondents Source of water

Figure 7 show source of water of the respondents, majority rely on pipe born water supply but the problem is that half of the population are not enjoying regular supply of water. They depend largely on other sources of water like well, buy water and borehole.

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40.00% 35.00% 30.00% 25.00% 20.00%

15.00% Percentage 10.00% 5.00% 0.00% Pipe born Well Rain Borehole Buy water water Source of Water

Figure 7: Source of Water

Standardized Rainfall Anomaly Index (SRAI) The findings from the standard anomalies index revealed that year 2005 and 2013 was moderately dry, years 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2014 was near normal, 2012 was very wet. Throughout the study periods, rainfall amount was below normal. Implication of this is that when rainfall is insufficient, ground water recharge and recharge of streams and rivers would be reduced. This would bring about a reduction in well water as well as dam capacity which would then give rise to water shortage in the communities. And also as rainfall is very wet it implicate flooding, erosion and leaching which affect the quality and distribution of water supply in the study area. 2

1.5

1

0.5

0 SRAI SRAI

VALUES 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 -0.5

-1

-1.5

-2 YEAR 2004-2014

Figure 8: Rainfall pattern in Minna from 2004-2014 183 [email protected] 2018

Conclusion Water is a very important known element for existence of mankind in any given environment and as such its availability cannot be played with. Its absence can cause not only physical and economical setback but it can also cause both sociological and physical set back in our environment. Minna township is one place that have been struggling with the problem of water supply as the agency responsible for provision of portable water is incapacitated due to certain reasons discussed. The board is known not to be meeting the water need of the town and if not check in time, the board may only be able to meet just about 10% of the installed capacity which is just about 20% of the water need of the town. In conclusion therefore, effective management of both the statutory and non-statutory water supply must be integrated and the communities should be included into their planning and management schemed, this is the only way to ensure sustainable and sound water supply to the study area.

Recommendations Considering the importance of all the sources of water to the town on one hand and role of effective management in supply of safe and adequate water on the other, proposals/recommendations are discussed below in order to give the town sustainable water management outfit. The first proposal or alternative towards achieving a very sound water management in the town is to allow the state government and voluntary organizations, such as the international agencies to form partnership in the funding and management of water in the state. It is assumed that under this proposal there will be two separate boards (Niger State Water Board and Non-statutory water supply board) which will be responsible for the management of pipe borne water and other sources. The merits under this proposal include the counterpart funding by both government and international agencies which will reduce the financial burden on the government alone. The knowledge from the international agencies will be brought to bear on the management capacity of the boards. Also, the results from the laboratory analysis showed that other sources of water, except the pipe borne water and boreholes did not meet the WHO standards. Thus these agencies will also serve as regulatory organs for domestic water consumption in the study area. The second proposal is the creation of independent bodies to manage statutory and non-statutory water sources. There should be an agency that would regulate and monitor development of boreholes while the Niger State Water Board should concentrates and manages tap water only. This, if properly adhered to, will allow each body to channel its resources and energy to the aspect with which it is concerned giving rise to effective 184 [email protected] 2018

water supply. This will also ensure sustainability and community participation from the planning stage to management level. Another recommendation includes the need to strengthen the State Water Board technically and financially in order to enable it carry out it functions as stipulated by the edict establishing the Board. Rules should also be flexible in order to amend edicts that establish water agencies in order to give room for more performance or enter into agreement with some international agencies to meet the modern challenges of sustainable water supply especially the Millennium Development Goals and the state vision 2020. There is also need to increase the present treatment plants to at least eight in numbers by establishing four new and replacing the old four with new ones. Again there is also need to reduce the leakages along the network of the pipes from 45% to at least 10%. The board also needs to improve on their debt recovery system and improve on domestic, industrial and institutional water supply.

References Balogun, M. A. (2001). Public Access Management Plan Update: Quabbin Reservoir Watershed System. The OWM published page 33. Basterimeijert, T., Wegelin, M. and Brikke M. (2000). Sustainable Urban Water Management Strategies. Journal of CDSI, (6) 46-50. Ezeugwunne I.P, Agbakoba N.R, Nnamah N. K, Anahalu I. C. (2009). The Prevalence of Bacteria in Packaged Sachets Water Sold in Nnewi, South East, Nigeria. World J. Dairy Food Sci. 4(1):19-21. Hueb, J. (2000). Management of Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Services. CDSl Journal issue 21, First Quarter, 2003 U K 32-34. Ifabiyi G. and Ojoye, S. (2013). Climate variability Impacts: can Africa cope with the challenges? Climate policy, 1, 117-123. Isah, U. (2012). A survey of the area vulnerable to flood and mitigation strategies, Adopted by Akare community, Niger State, Nigeria. Unpublished Project submitted to the department of Disaster Risk Management and Development Studies, Federal University of Technology Minna Niger State, Nigeria. Teshamulwa, O. (2007). Water Quality and Business Aspects of Sachet- vended Water in Tamale, Ghana. A Thesis on Master Degree in Civil and Environmental Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. World Health Organization (WHO) (2011).Water Sanitation and Health (WSH) water supply, sanitation and hygiene development. The WHO technical notes on drinking-water, sanitation and hygiene in emergencies.

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African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

The Influence of Intra-Urban Migration on Land Use Changes

Gwamna Emmanuel1, Usman Musa2, Danjuma Jacob3 and Salihu Nasiru4 Niger State Polytechnic, Zungeru123, Bayero University Kano4

Abstract Economists, sociologists, psychologists and ecologists have been interested by the intricacies of intra-urban migration and have studied it severally over the years. Many factors may be attributable to intra-urban migration in one country but may not be applicable in other countries. Additionally, households in developing countries have their own peculiar reasons for relocating within the same city which may be quite different from what is obtainable in developed countries. This issue provided the motivation to undertake a proper research study on the causes of intra-urban migration and the magnitude of its influence on land use changes in Kaduna, a metropolis of a developing country, Nigeria. Simple random sampling technique was employed to select 240 Officials from 6 Government agencies involved with land use matters who were administered questionnaires. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) AMOS was used for data analysis. Findings showed that people relocated within the metropolis to attain more utility in form of security and safety and avoidance of stifling land use controls. Intra-Urban Migration has a significant influencing relationship to Land Use Change at the level of 15%. The study’s findings will serve as invaluable reference points to public and private stakeholders who are involved in one way or another with the manner of human settlement and growth pattern of land uses.

Keywords: Influence, intra-urban migration, land use change, structural equation modeling, Nigeria.

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Introduction Economists, sociologists, influence of such intra-urban psychologists and ecologists have migrations on land use changes in been interested by the intricacies of the metropolis. intra-urban migration and have studied it severally over the years. Economists have made assumptions RELATED EMPIRICAL that households at their own accords STUDIES decide where to reside in Wolpert (1965) developed a consideration of housing, behavioural theory for intra-urban employment, transportation and migration. It was a framework for other goods as they seek to attain examining logical decision making utility or optimum satisfaction (Li & in the perspective of migration. He Tu, 2011). propounded that the utility of a Many factors may be attributable to particular place should be greater intra-urban migration in one country than the utility of the rest of likely but may not be applicable in other destination and some areas for a countries. Additionally, households migration to occur. If a relatively in developing countries have their better area is not available, a person own peculiar reasons for relocating will remain in the same place. He within the same city which may be further added that the households' quite different from what is decision to migrate or stay is a obtainable in developed countries function of their own aspirations as (Ajibuah, 2010). well as the environment in which This issue provided the motivation they live. to undertake a proper research study Deriving from Wolpert’s (1965) on the causes of intra-urban study, Brown & Moore (1970) migration and the magnitude of its perceived intra-urban migration as a influence on land use changes in course of action involving Kaduna, a metropolis of a adjustment by which one location or developing country, Nigeria. residence is switched for another in Kaduna metropolis in Nigeria has order to better satisfy the needs and been characterised by peculiar urban yearnings of the anticipated migrations within the metropolis migrants. Therefore, the decision of over the years (Gandu, 2011). This the household to stay in their present study was undertaken to find out the location or move elsewhere has factors responsible for these implications for land uses and movements and the level of the changes.

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Brown & Moore (1970) identified some factors as influential in determining the choice of new locations or residence by households. They include Social environment: neighbourhood prestige, socio-economic, ethnic, and demographic composition, and perceptions of neighbourhood friendliness; Physical characteristics of neighbourhood: physical condition of street and sidewalk, layout of street patterns, quietness, privacy, spaciousness, and beauty of the locale; Accessibility: to the CBD, major highways, public transportation to place of work, shopping centres, schools, and recreational area; Services and facilities: the quality of public utility services, schools, police and fire protection, and home delivery services; and Individual site and dwelling characteristics: rental or purchase value, maintenance costs, lot size, spatial configuration, house size, design and state of repair and number of rooms. Additional reasons may lead to intra-urban migration. Personal characteristics, employment and occupation considerations, identifying with ethnic or racial kith and religious affiliations, economic status and level of education are associated with intra-urban migration. A household decides to migrate after weighing the benefits and setbacks of such a move at the origin vis-à-vis the destination (Wolpert, 1965; Brown & Moore, 1970). Table 1 below details a literature review of how intra-urban migration and mobility functions influence the way and manner land is used.

Table 1: Previous studies on the influence of Intra-Urban Migration on Land Use Changes Author/Cou Issues Methods Findings Remarks/Com ntry ments 1 Qiang Relations Census Concentratio People of . 2014 hip and n of homogenous Canada between house homogenous ethnic groups ethnic transacti ethnic feel more at diversity on data. groups leads home living and General to higher together so they communit equilibri house prices. relocate to live y house um Properties in near prices. model such themselves. based on neighbourho This tends to hedonic ods change land use 188 [email protected] 2019

regressio command patterns and n higher rental intensity due to adopted values. the influx and for added demand analysis. for residence. 2 Accetturo et Effect of A dataset Immigration Natives are not . al. urban on makes house comfortable 2014 immigrati populati rental prices with immigrants Italy on on on to rise at the that come to live segregati variables general city in their on and level while it neighbourhoods patterns housing causes , making them and prices for reductions in to relocate. The housing sample price growth inflows and prices. of 20 in the outflows by the Italian particular immigrants and cities. district natives OLS affected by respectively used in the influx in impact on land the relation to uses and leads analysis. the rest of to changes and the city. This conversions. is due to the intra-urban migration of natives from immigrant- packed areas to other parts of the city.

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3. Fattah et Factors that Questionnaire The factors The factors al. influence survey of 685 that have determine 2014 residential households. effect on whether Malaysia mobility Used logistic residential households among regression for mobility actually households. data analysis. intentions migrate to among other areas households and are influence occupation, land use age, house there since type, home residence is ownership one of the and rent. foremost land uses. 4. Yi & Lee Effect of Logistic The Korean The demand 2014 factors of regression housing for housing South residential analysis. market is is increasing Korea location evolving as shown by choice and from a the study. housing supply- The desire market on driven one to for household a demand- accessibility residential driven one. and more location Accessibility space by choice and more household patterns. floor spaces translates to in dwellings urban are the major expansion preferences and of changing households land uses to in choosing meet new where to live. demands for residence. 5. Ibrahim- Influence Questionnaire Residents Areas with Adedeji of Socio- and change lower rental 2013 economic interviews for dwelling prices tend 190 [email protected] 2019

Nigeria attributes of data location in to have residents on gathering. consideration higher Intra-urban Correlation of lower population migration analysis and rental prices. densities descriptive The socio- with the statistics for economic attendant analysis. attributes of pressures on residents is land the major resources. In factor the long run, shaping the rising intra-urban demand will migration make the patterns. rental prices to increase, and the cycle of migration will follow. Source: Literature Review (2018)

Methodology Simple random sampling technique was used to choose 240 Government officials working in 6 Government ministries, departments and agencies (MDAs) in Kaduna metropolis. These activities and official responsibilities of these MDAs revolve around land use matters. Forty (40) experienced Officials from each of the 6 Government agencies identified were administered structured questionnaires. The questionnaires were pilot-tested before the actual survey to confirm the content validity of the scores on the instrument as well as to enhance the format, questions and scales. From the 240 questionnaires administered to the officials, 204 questionnaires were returned and found valid for analysis, depicting a response rate of 85%. Direct observation of land activities in the study area was also embarked on to examine the patterns and changes in land uses vis-à-vis intra-urban migration. Agbola et al. (2013) have shown that direct observation is used to garner specific information on key features of the impending issues in a research study. Hypothesis 191 [email protected] 2019

The hypotheses formulated for this study is: H0. Intra-Urban Migration does not have significant influence on Land Use Changes. H1. Intra-Urban Migration has significant influence on Land Use Changes.

Analysis and Results Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to analyse the data collected. The AMOS (Analysis of Moment Structures) software (Version 22) is one of the recent software introduced for examining the relationship between the variables in a study using SEM (Awang, 2015). To model and analyse the relationship between the latent constructs (intra-urban migration and land use change) in this study accurately and efficiently, the AMOS Graphic was employed. The Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was done for each of the 2 latent constructs in the study. The question of construct validity is dealt with by the CFA when the recommended fitness indexes of the measurement models reach the required level. The 3 model fitness categories are absolute fit (RMSEA < 0.08; GFI > 0.90), incremental fit (CFI > 0.90; TLI > 0.90; NFI > 0.90), and parsimonious fit (Chisq/df < 5.0) (Awang, 2015). The results are presented in Table 2 below. The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient (≥ 0.70), value of Composite reliability (CR ≥ 0.60), and Average Variance Extracted (AVE ≥ 0.50) which all test the reliability and convergent validity of the constructs are rendered for the 2 constructs as displayed in Table 3.

Table 2: Fitness indexes of the constructs after CFA Construct Chisq/df CFI TLI NFI GFI RMSEA Intra-urban 1.346 0.995 0.988 0.982 0.987 0.041 Migration Land Use 2.504 0.971 0.949 0.953 0.961 0.085 Change Source: SPSS SEM Version 22 (2018)

A minimum of one Fitness Index from each category of model fit has been recommended for use by Hair et. al. (2013). Table 3: Test results for reliability & convergent validity Construct Cronbach’s Alpha CR AVE Intra-urban 0.805 0.80 0.418 Migration Land Use 0.857 0.84 0.447 Change 192 [email protected] 2019

Source: SPSS SEM Version 22 (2018)

The prescribed level for the recommended fitness indexes have all been achieved. Also, the tests results for convergent validity and reliability of the constructs have appeared to be considerably good. Figure 1 represents the structural model for the study as coupled thereafter.

Figure 1: Structural Model with Standardised estimates

By meeting the requirements for all the categories of the Fitness indexes, the construct validity for the Structural Model has been achieved. These are shown in Table 4 below.

Table 4: Fitness indexes for the Structural Model Category Index Index Value Comments Name Absolute fit RMSEA 0.050 Required level achieved Absolute fit GFI 0.959 Required level achieved

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Incremental fit CFI 0.982 Required level achieved Incremental fit TLI 0.967 Required level achieved Incremental fit NFI 0.951 Required level achieved Parsimonious Chisq/df 1.517 Required level achieved fit Source: SPSS SEM Version 22 (2018)

A benchmark of 0.50 for items’ factor loadings was adopted for this study. According to Awang (2015), items’ factor loadings for newly developed items like those for this study should have 0.50 or higher as benchmark. From the structural model above, the factor loadings of the items in the 2 latent constructs are all above 0.50 except for IUM3 which stands at 0.48. Nevertheless, this does not affect the model’s unidimensionality status. The result of the data analysis revealed in the structural model pinpointed that 15% of the performance in Land Use Change could be estimated by the Intra-Urban Migration construct. In other words, Intra-Urban Migration influences Land Use Change at the 15% level. The whole model’s value of R2 (15%) is considered a moderate effect (Adams & Lawrence, 2015) since it could capture 15% of the estimate on endogenous construct (land use change) by the exogenous construct (intra-urban migration). The table below shows the interpretations of effect size.

Table 5: Interpretations of effect size Source: Adams & Lawrence (2015) Effect size range Interpretation 1-4% Weak 9-25% Moderate 25-64% Strong Source: SPSS SEM Version 22 (2018)

The table below presents the regression weight which indicates the beta coefficient estimate measuring the influence of the exogenous construct on the endogenous construct.

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Table 6: Regression Weight and Significance Value Construct Construct Estimate S.E. C.R. P-value Result Land Use ← Intra-Urban 0.485 0.114 4.242 *** Significant Change Migration Source: SPSS SEM Version 22 (2018) Note: ***p < 0.001 (given by AMOS to indicate highly significant)

The path coefficient of Intra-Urban Migration to Land Use Change is 0.485. This value specifies that for every 1 unit increase in Intra-Urban Migration; its effects would contribute 0.485 unit increase in Land Use Change. Also, the effect of Intra-Urban Migration to Land Use Change is significant. Refering to the Regression Weight and significance value presented above, the result of the hypotheses formulated in this study is shown in Table 7 below.

Table 7: Result of Hypotheses Testing Hypothesis Statement of Path Estimate P- Hypothesis Analysis value Result H1. Intra-Urban Migration has 0.485 *** Supported significant influence on Land Use Changes. Source: SPSS SEM Version 22 (2018)

Note: ***p < 0.001 (given by AMOS to indicate highly significant)

DISCUSSION Results from the analysis have depicted the influencing relationship between Intra-Urban Migration and Land Use Change to be significant, thereby supporting the study’s hypothesis. Intra-Urban Migration moderately influences Land Use Change at a level of 15%. This moderate influencing relationship of the two variables in Kaduna metropolis is explained by the relocation of people within the metropolis who seek to maximise residential location utility in consideration of their security and safety. People generally felt safer and more secured when they settle in areas where their ethno-religious groups were dominant. This is an aftermath of the recent multiple communal sectarian violence in the metropolis. Also,

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usually, in the event of any social unrest or crisis, the city core areas are the hardest hit with heavy loss of lives and properties. So, with time, people have relocated to other places away from the city core to be safe from crisis zones. It was discovered that people migrated more from the northern part to the southern part of Kaduna metropolis and this led to more demand for residential accommodation in the southern part. This demand for residence was accompanied by the demand for other land uses that are associated with residence such as commercial land use. This situation resulted into indiscriminate changes in land uses without regard for planning regulations making the southern part of the metropolis to have more occurrences of land use changes. The impact of land use changes has been experienced more in the southern part of Kaduna metropolis.

CONCLUSION SEM AMOS was used to efficiently and accurately examine the level of influence of Intra-Urban Migration on Land Use Change in Kaduna metropolis, Nigeria. Analytical results showed that Intra-Urban Migration influenced Land Use Changes at 15% level. This suggests that other factors are accountable for the remaining 85% of the influence on Land Use Changes and further research is needed in this direction to unravel the factors. This study’s objective has been achieved and the findings have contributed new knowledge to academic literature on Intra-urban migration and land use changes most specifically in urban areas of developing countries such as Nigeria where such literature is scarce. More concerted efforts are needed on the part of the government and people to ensure that the metropolis goes on to grow in the right direction. Social justice, proper land use planning and monitoring as well as public participation and discipline are crucial to realise these. The study’s findings will serve as invaluable reference points to public and private stakeholders who are involved in one way or another with the manner of human settlement and growth pattern of land uses.

REFERENCES

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Accetturo, A., Manaresi, F., Mocetti, S. and Olivieri, E. (2014). “Don't stand so close to me: The urban impact of immigration.” Regional Science and Urban Economics, 45, 45-56. Adams, K.A. and Lawrence, E.K. (2015). Research Methods, Statistics, and Applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Agbola, T., Egunjobi, L., Olatubara, C.O., Yusuf, D.O. and Alabi, M. (Eds.) (2013). Contemporary Social Science Research Methods: A Practical Guide. Lagos: MURLAB Searchwisdom Educational Publishing Services. Ajibuah, B.J. (2010). “Urban Crises and Rental Values Differential in Kaduna Metropolis.” FUTY Journal of the Environment, 5(1), 43-50. Awang, Z. (2015). SEM Made Simple: A Gentle Approach to Learning Structural Equation Modeling. Selangor: MPWS Rich Publication Sdn. Bhd. Brown, L.A. and Moore, E.G. (1970). “The Intra-Urban Migration Process: A Perspective.” Geografiska Annaler, Series B, Human Geography, 52(1), 1-13. Fattah, A.H, Salleh, A.G., Badarulzaman, N. and Kausar, A. (2014). “Factors Affecting Residential Mobility among Households in Penang, Malaysia.” Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 170, 516-526. Gandu, Y.K. (2011). ”Historical and Contemporary basis for Sectarian Residential Settlement Patterns in Kaduna Metropolis of Northern Nigeria.” The Journal of the College of Humanities & Social Sciences Makerere University, 10(3), 72-91. Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Rabin, B.J. and Anderson, R.E. (2013). Multivariate Data Analysis. 8th Ed., Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc. Ibrahim-Adedeji, K. B. (2013). “Socio-Economic Attributes of Intra-Urban Residential Migrations of Residents of Olugbuwa Estate, Igbogbo in Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria.” International Journal of Economic Development Research and Investment, 4(3), 23-30. Li, P. and Tu, Y. (2011). Behaviours on Intra-urban Residential mobility: A review and implications to the future research, Working Paper Series 20, Institute of Real Estate Studies, National University of Singapore. Qiang, L. (2014). “Ethnic diversity and neighbourhood house prices.” Regional Science and Urban Economics, 48, 21–38. Wolpert, J. (1965). “Behavioral aspects of the decision to migrate.” Papers in Regional Science, 15(1), 159-169.

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Yi, C. and Lee, S. (2014). “An empirical analysis of the characteristics of Residential location choice in the rapidly changing Korean housing market.” Cities, 39, 156–163

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African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

Influence of Motivational Preferences of Construction Artisans on Work Performance

1Shwarka Margaret Sati PhD, 2Olumorin Maiye Michael and 3Adebayo Barakat Abdullahi 1&3Department of Building, College of Environmental Studies, Kaduna Polytechnic. 2Department of Civil Engineering, Kaduna Polytechnic. Abstract Enhancing artisans’ productivity in the construction industry is paramount to attainment of a robust and resilient built environment because artisans performance can translate into cost savings, improved productivity and long term sustainable economic development. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate influence of motivational preferences of construction artisans on performance. The objectives are to identify the incentive preferences of artisans and to determine if there is a significance difference in the influence of financial and non-financial incentives on the performance of artisans. The quantitative survey methodology was employed. 40 artisans and 16 managers/supervisors on 8 randomly chosen construction sites in Kaduna metropolis were administered Likert type questionnaires. Simple descriptive statistics and the t-test were used in the analysis. Findings revealed that training and development opportunities, better work tools/equipment and feedback, praise/recognition were most preferred non-financial incentives. Prompt payment of wages, end of year bonuses and end of service retirement gratuity were the most preferred financial incentive., The degree of workers’ preference for financial incentives was higher than their preference of non- financial incentives. A statistical significant difference was found on the influence of financial and non-financial incentives on the performance of artisans (t-testcritical = 1.76). Study concluded that though financial incentives can help better in meeting project deadlines, non-financial incentives are likely to be more beneficial in enhancing long term overall performance. The study recommended that project managers must consistently seek to pay artisans wages promptly, and to adopt incentive schemes that meet their greatest needs.

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Keywords: Artisans, Construction, Incentives, Performance, Preferences.

INTRODUCTION Artisans are one of the most been well documented, there are important resources that give any divergent views about their value construction firm its competitive and effectiveness in enhancing edge. Thus the issue of artisans’ workers’ performance and motivation needs to be considered productivity. It has been opined by by all project managers as one of the Timothy and Manley (2005) that to fundamental policies in enhancing achieve optimization of incentive efficient and effective project impact, the incentive scheme must management. Motivation is a be designed in the context of the leadership function that entails specific project environment. The appealing to employees’ optimal perception of workers on preferred performance by meeting some of incentives have been noted to vary their inner needs. Motivational due to the performance problems preferences of construction workers that the incentive is intended to solve need to be given more attention (Jessup & Stahelski,1999). because the maximization of human This problem can embrace several resources productivity is very factors that include environmental relevant as the construction industry conditions, the nature of the work is labour intensive and labour alone task, the knowledge and skills accounts for up to 40% of the direct competency of the workers, the capital cost of projects (Kamau, duration of the job and the incentive 2013). The use of incentives has for program, the employer – employee a very long time serve as a major tool work relationship and perhaps the in raising the enthusiasm of influence of the employee’s culture employees at work to enhance their (Timothy and Manley, 2005 and general performance and to increase Abdullah, 2013). productivity (Kwabena, Ofori, & It is in this regards, that this study Okyere, 2015). seeks to examine the motivational Incentive schemes have been used in preferences of construction workers, almost all industries and are known bearing in mind that the work to help in attainment of job environment on each construction satisfaction through increased site is always unique, and this is interaction between the employee likely to influence the preference of and the organization. Though the workers in the implementation of impact of incentive schemes has incentive programs.

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In addition, work incentives on construction sites may differ from other forms of industries which seek majorly to achieve creativity, innovations and new products / methods. Work incentives on construction site can be considered as mostly focused mainly on either achieving and or exceeding some set targets or goals. Thus the aim this study is to examine the motivational preferences of construction artisans within Kaduna town. The Specific objectives are to identify the preferences of artisans in the administration of incentive schemes in Kaduna Metropolis, and to determine if there is a significance difference in the influence of financial and non-financial incentives on the performance of construction workers’ in Kaduna metropolis. The research question for the study is: Is there a statistically significant difference in the influence of financial and non-financial incentives on the performance of construction workers’ in Kaduna metropolis? The research hypothesis tested is formulated as follows: Ho: There is no significant difference in the influence of financial and non- financial incentives on the performance of construction workers’ in Kaduna metropolis.

METHODOLOGY The study adopted a quantitative survey approach, and two sets of questionnaires were drawn up and the purpose explained to the respondents. In the first set, a total of forty 40 structured questionnaires were randomly administered to artisans on 8 construction sites within Kaduna metropolis, while the second set a total of 16 questionnaires were administered to the project manager and site supervisor on the 8 selected construction sites. When the questionnaires were returned and collated, a total of 33 of the artisan’s questionnaires were found useful for the study, indicating 82% response rate. While all the 16 questionnaires administered to project managers and the site supervisors were found useful for the study indicating 100% response rate. The students t-test was used to determine if there was any significant difference in the in the influence of financial and non- financial incentives on the performance of construction workers’ in Kaduna metropolis. The t statistics is given as:

where = mean of the random sample, u = the population mean, s is the sample standard deviation, n is the sample size, and n – 1 is the degrees of freedom used. The t-test was chosen because it is one of the 201 [email protected] 2019

simplest commonly used statistics to discover whether there is a statistically significant difference between the means of two groups using parametric data drawn from random samples of normally distributed population (Hohmann, 2006 and Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2008).

RESULTS Motivational Preferences of Construction Artisans To identify the preferences of artisans in the administration of incentive schemes in Kaduna Metropolis, the respondents were asked to indicate their degree of preference on some non- financial incentives on a sliding scale of 4-1, a with 1 = least preferred, 2 = somewhat preferred, 3= preferred and 4 = most preferred. The responses were evaluated and ranked in accordance to the mean of the frequency of occurrence on each of the items. The results obtained are presented on Table 1. Table 1: Preferences of Construction Artisans towards Non-Financial Incentives S/N Non-Financial Incentives 4 3 2 1 Mean Rank order 1 Training and development opportunities 24 7 2 0 3.67 1st 2 Better work tools and equipment 18 15 0 0 3.55 2nd 3 Feedback, Praise /commendation and 19 11 2 1 3.46 3rd recognition. 4 Provision of safety measures and protective 21 9 2 1 3.46 3rd equipment at work 5 Travel and networking opportunities 5 9 13 6 2.39 5th 6 Enhancing of job security 19 8 5 1 3.36 6th 7 Good supervisory and management relations 14 12 7 0 3.21 7th 8 Responsibility, leadership and promotion. 12 13 7 1 3.09 8th 9 Enhancing autonomy in task performance 5 11 14 3 2.55 9th 10 Day off / holiday 5 9 17 2 2.52 10th Grand Mean 3.13 Source: Author’s Field Survey, 2018. From the result shown on Table 1, it can be seen that the top three preferences of non-financial incentives are training and development opportunities which was ranked first with a mean of 3.67, better work tools and equipment which ranked with a mean of 3.55 and feedback, praise / commendation, and the provision of safety measures and protective equipment which were ranked third with a mean of 3.46. The least preferred

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non-financial incentives were responsibility, leadership and promotion with a mean value of 3.09, enhancing autonomy in task performance with a mean value of 2.55 and day off/ holiday with a mean of 2.52. The overall grand mean on preference for non-financial incentive is 3.13 which shows a very high degree of preference i.e. an average of 78.25%. Similarly, the respondents were asked to indicate their degree of preference on some non-financial incentives on a sliding scale of 4-1, with 1 = least preferred, 2 = somewhat preferred, 3= preferred and 4 = most preferred. The responses were evaluated and ranked in accordance to the mean of the frequency of occurrence on each of the items. The results obtained are presented on Table 2. Table 2: Preferences of Construction Artisans towards Financial and Semi Financial Incentives S/N Financial and Semi Financial 4 3 2 1 Mean Rank Incentives order 1. Prompt payment of wages 33 0 0 0 4.0 1st 2. End of Year Bonuses and cash awards 31 2 0 0 3.94 2nd 3. Retirement Gratuity plus starter 32 0 1 0 3.94 2nd parks. 4. Hourly plus rate (Over time with pay). 29 4 0 0 3.88 4th 5. Provision of staff housing / 29 3 1 0 3.85 5th allowances 6. Provision of transport vehicle to site 27 4 1 1 3.73 6th 7. Piece work 23 7 2 1 3.56 7th 8. Medical treatment and health 27 3 2 1 3.52 8th insurance 9. Lunch tickets/meals (Free lunch) 23 5 2 1 3.46 9th 10. Day work pay 15 9 5 3 3.03 10th Grand mean 3.69 Source: Author’s Field Survey, 2018. From the result shown on Table 2, it can be seen that the best ranked preference by the artisans in terms of financial and semi financial incentives is the prompt payment of their wages which had a mean of 4.0 (100%). The second best ranked preferences were end of year bonuses and cash awards and the payment of retirement gratuity plus starter parks which both had a mean of 3.94. While the third best preference of incentives the artisans is the hourly plus rate (over time with pay). The overall grand mean of preferences

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for financial and semi financial incentives is 3.69 (92.25%) which shows a very high degree of preferences for financial forms of incentives. Influence of Motivational Preferences of Artisans on Work Performance To determine if there is a significance difference in the influence of financial and non-financial incentives on the performance of construction workers’ in Kaduna metropolis and to answer the research question for the study if there a statistically significant difference in the influence of financial and non- financial incentives on the performance of construction workers’ in Kaduna metropolis. Respondents (project managers and supervisors) were asked to indicate in their degree of agreement on a sliding scale of 5 to 1, the extent of their agreement on the performance improvements of artisans in the firms after the implementation of any form of financial incentive end of year bonus or cash allowances. 5 = strongly agree, 4= agree, 3= Uncertain, 2 = disagree and 1 = strongly disagree. The responses obtained are presented in Table 3. Table 3: Influence of Financial and Semi Financial Incentives on Performance of Artisans Performance Improvement 5 4 3 2 1 Mean Rank order Greater commitment to attainment of set targets 5 8 3 0 0 4.69 1st and meeting of schedule deadlines. Longer retention of artisans in the firm 6 9 1 0 0 4.31 2nd Lower rate of absenteeism at work 5 7 3 1 0 4.0 3rd Better relationship with supervisors and 3 9 3 1 0 3.88 4th management Less conflicts and disagreements with 3 7 4 2 0 3.69 5th supervisors Lesser complaints against management 3 8 3 1 1 3.69 5th Better communication with supervisors and 2 7 6 1 0 3.63 7th management. Greater client satisfaction with project. 4 5 4 2 1 3.44 8th Happier, with a sense of greater job satisfaction. 4 7 4 1 0 3.44 8th Greater creativity and innovations at work 1 5 4 5 1 3.0 14th Lesser material wastages and rework 2 5 6 3 0 3.38 10th Project is usually completed within the budget 2 5 5 4 0 3.31 11th Greater conformity to project specifications 2 6 4 2 2 3.25 12th Lesser injuries and accidents at work 1 4 7 2 2 3.25 12th Healthier workforce 3 3 5 2 2 3.0 14th Source: Author’s Field Survey, 2018.

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The result on Table 3 show that the greatest influence on the performance of the artisans due to the use of financial and semi financial incentives were greater commitment to attainment of set goals and meeting of schedule deadlines, longer retention of artisans in the firms and lower rate of absenteeism at work which were ranked by the project managers as 1st, 2nd and 3rd with mean indexes of 4.69, 4.31 and 4.0 respectively. To ascertain the influence of non-financial incentives on the performance of artisans, the respondents (project managers and supervisors on the sites) were asked to indicate their opinion, on a sliding scale of 5 to 1, the degree of agreement on performance improvement of artisans in their firms after administration of any form of non-financial incentive schemes, example a verbal commendation or personal protective clothing. 5 = strongly agree, 4= agree, 3= Uncertain, 2 = disagree and 1 = strongly disagree. The responses obtained are presented on Table 4. Table 4: Influence of Non-Financial Incentives on Performance of Artisans Performance Improvement 5 4 3 2 1 Mean Rank order Lesser injuries and accidents at work 4 7 5 0 0 3.94 1st Longer retention of artisans in firm 3 8 3 2 0 3.75 2nd Lower rate of absenteeism at work 3 6 6 1 0 3.69 3rd Healthier workforce. 4 7 3 1 0 3.69 3rd Better communication with supervisors and 3 5 5 3 0 3.50 5th management. Lesser conflicts /disagreements with supervisors 3 5 4 3 1 3.38 6th Happier artisans with a sense of greater job 2 5 6 2 1 3.31 7th satisfaction. Better relationship with supervisors and 2 5 6 2 1 3.31 7th management Greater creativity and innovations at work 3 4 4 4 1 3.25 9th Greater client satisfaction is achieved on project. 2 4 6 3 1 3.19 10th Lesser material wastages and rework 2 5 3 5 1 3.13 11th Greater conformity to project specifications 2 3 5 4 2 2.94 12th Lesser complaints against management 3 5 3 1 1 2.94 12th Greater commitment to attainment of set targets 0 4 4 7 1 2.69 14th and meeting of schedule deadlines. Project is usually completed within the budget 1 3 5 4 3 2.69 14th Source: Author’s Field Survey, 2018.

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From the result on Table 4, the findings show that the greatest influence on the performance of the artisans due to the use of non-financial incentives are lesser injuries and accidents at work (mean 3.94), longer retention of artisans in firm (mean = 3.75), lower rate of absenteeism at work (mean = 3.69) and healthier and more effective workforce (mean = 3.69) which were ranked 1st, 2nd and 3rd respectively. To test the hypothesis whether there is no significant difference in the influence of financial and non-financial incentives on the performance of construction workers’ in Kaduna metropolis, the mean scores for each item on Table 3 and Table 4 were compared as shown on Table 5. Table 5: Means on Influence of Financial and Non- Financial Incentives on Performance Performance Improvement Financial / Semi Non-Financial Financial Means Means 1. Greater commitment to attainment of set 4.69 2.69 goals and meeting of schedule deadlines. 2. Longer retention of artisans in the firms 4.31 3.75 3. Lower rate of absenteeism at work 4.0 3.69 4. Better relationship with supervisors and 3.88 3.31 management 5. Less conflicts and disagreements with 3.69 3.38 supervisors 6. Lesser complaints against management 3.69 2.94 7. Better communication with supervisors and 3.63 3.31 management. 8. Greater client satisfaction with project. 3.44 3.19 9. Happier, with a sense of greater job 3.44 3.31 satisfaction. 10. Greater creativity and innovations at work 3.0 3.25 11. Lesser material wastages and rework 3.38 3.13 12. Project is usually completed within the 3.31 2.69 budget 13. Greater conformity to project specifications 3.25 2.94 14. Lesser injuries and accidents at work 3.25 3.94 15. Healthier workforce 3.0 3.69 Source: Author’s Field Survey, 2018. Since the data is parametric and taken from a normal distribution, the t- test statistic was applied at 5% level of significance to determine if there is any

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evidence of a difference in the means between the two groups. The result obtained is presented on Table 6. Table 6: T-test: Paired two sample for means Variable 1 Variable 2 Mean 3.597333333 3.280667 Variance 0.22116381 0.140307 Observations 15 15 Pearson Correlation 0.115147189 Hypothesized Mean Difference 0 Df 14 t Stat 1.934257889 P(T<=t) one-tail 0.036777122 t Critical one-tail 1.761310136 P(T<=t) two-tail 0.073554244 t Critical two-tail 2.144786688 Source: Author’s Field Survey, 2018. The result on Table 6, showed the t-statistics is 1.93 and the critical t value is 1.76, meaning that at the 5% level of significance the two population means are different. That is, the null hypothesis is rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis that there is a statistically significant difference in the influence of financial and non-financial incentives on the performance of construction workers’ in Kaduna metropolis.

Discussion of Findings From Table 1 on the preferences of construction artisans towards non- financial incentives, it was found that training and development opportunities were ranked first, showing that almost all the artisans admit they have a performance deficiency and therefore artisans seek for an opportunity to improve. That it was ranked first also implies training and development is the best way of making artisans to feel valued. This may however not be an easy form of incentive to provide, as it is often expensive and takes a lot of the employers’ work time. Project managers can learn to implement on the job training for artisans to help reduce some of the cost and time constraints on employers. It is not surprising that better work tools and equipment was ranked by the artisans as the second most important non- financial incentive. This is because no job can be done well without the right tools and or equipment. Better tools and equipment add to the convenience and efficiency at work, as the use of the wrong tools add to fatigue, cause

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accidents or pose other health hazards. The finding also indicates that Nigerian artisans are not lazy. All they need is just the right tools and equipment to do the job. The 3rd ranked most preferred non-financial incentive of construction artisans is feedback, praise / commendation and recognition. Project managers and supervisors can exploit very well on this simple, cheap and one of the most effective way of making the artisan feel appreciated, valued and motivated. The least ranked non-financial form of incentive for the artisan surprising is day off / holiday. This is expected to offer opportunity to rest and to improves the general wellness of the artisans, however, for people that are workaholics, holiday is a form of laziness, especially if one has not made plan on how to utilize the holiday. For the average Nigerian worker, a man supposed to bring in money home on daily basis, and holiday for such a person can only be valued if it goes with a leave allowance. It is important to note however, that the overall mean on preference for non-financial incentive is 78.25%. This shows that all the non- financial incentives evaluated in the study have a very high motivating force on construction artisans. From Table 2, on the preferences of construction artisans towards financial and semi financial incentives, prompt payment of wages was ranked as the first most preferred form of incentive. This implies that payment of wages as at when due is very crucial to the survival of the artisan. Sometimes it can become necessary for a project manager to take an overdraft to ensure consistency in the payment of artisans wages because any delay in payment can lead to protest and other negative actions. Construction firms must therefore endeavor to make prompt payment of wages since this was ranked by the artisans as their best form of motivation. End of year bonuses have become a custom in many established construction firms which most workers cherish and look forward to. Though it is related to some performance criteria, the sudden swell in pay at end of the year can be helpful not only to celebrate Christmas, to settle house rents, purchase of some new domestic gadgets and starting or enhancing some personal investment. Though the Nigerian Employment and Labour law is silent on the manual worker, few private firms opt for the employee pension scheme instead of the end of service gratuity. However, this finding indicates that most artisans are motivated to work in a firm that would pay them an end of service gratuity. Day work was the least most preferred incentive. This is where the artisan is paid an agreed rate in return for a specified quantity and quality of work. if his/her output at the end of the day falls short of the set 208 [email protected] 2019

standard, the pay is pro rata, but if it exceeds, he is paid with a bonus. The overall mean on preferences for financial and semi financial incentives is 92.25% showing a very high degree of preferences for all the financial incentives evaluated in the study. This implies that money is a strong inducement to artisans. The findings of this study is not in consonant with the view of Singh (2015), where some employees do not find the greatest satisfaction in financial reward, and were motivated more by less work pressure. The divergence in view may be caused by the differences in the standard of living and the financial status of the employee in the studies. This study however corroborates the studies of Manzoor (n.d) that financial rewards have the greatest appeal, thus the impact of money on job satisfaction and artisans’ performance should never be under estimated.

CONCLUSION The study concluded as follows: 1. Artisans are motivated to work with both financial and non-financial incentives. 2. The preference of artisans for financial incentives was far higher than their preference for non-financial incentives. 3. Though financial incentives can help in influencing artisans to quickly accomplish set project duration deadlines. In the long run, non-financial incentives are likely to be more beneficial in enhancing the overall performance of artisans, since non-financial incentives were found to influence artisans better in terms of lesser injuries and accidents at work, much healthier and happier work environment, lower rate of absenteeism, greater creativity / innovations and better client satisfaction with projects.

RECOMMENDATIONS The study recommended that: i. Construction firms must endeavor to make prompt payment of wages to artisans. ii. Incentives schemes need to be adapted in a manner that meet the needs of the artisans. iii. Project managers should learn to install financial incentive schemes where duration of projects is a critical factor. iv. For sustainable development of the built environment and to encourage innovative resource management, built environment stakeholders should incorporate in their firms’ policies that 209 [email protected] 2019

promote both financial and non-financial rewards in order to enhance performance and retain employees.

REFERENCES Abdullah, W. (2013). Human resources management: A comprehensive guide; Cape Town, Heinemann Publishers (Pty) Limited. Baker, G. (2002). Distortion and risks in Optimal Incentive Contracts. The Journal of Human Resources 37(1), 728-751. Bresnen, M., & Marshall, N. (2000). Motivation, Commitment and the use of Incentives in Partnerships and Alliances. Construction Management and Economics 18 (1), 587-598. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2008). Research Methods in Education 6th Ed., London, Routledge. Gana, A. B., & Babale, F. B. (2011). The effects of motivation on workers’ performance: A case study of Maiduguri flour mill Ltd, Borno State, Nigeria. Continental J-social sciences 7(2). Locke, E., & Lalham, A. (2012). Job satisfaction in social psychology and organizational behaviour; New York, John Willey & Sons. Guthrie, J. P. (2000). Alternative Pay Schemes and Employee Turnover. Group and Organizational Management. 25(4),419-439. Hohmann, U. (2006). Quantitative Methods in Education Research. McGraw Hill Education, U.K.Retrieved from: https://www. edu. Plymouth.ac.uk./resined/quantitative/quanthtme.htm Accessed: October, 2018. Jessup, P. A., & Stahelski, A. J. (1999). The effects of a combined goal setting, feedback and incentive intervention on job performance in a manufacturing environment. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management 19(3),5-26. Kamau, G. F. (2013). Percentage of Cost Breakdown between Labou, Materials and Contractor Profit in Construction. Retrieved from: www.a4architect.com Accessed April, 2018. Kwabena, A. E., Ofori, I., & Okyere, S. (2015). Factors Affecting Job Satisfaction of Employees in the Construction Supply Chain in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. European Journal of Business and Management 7 (6), 72-82. Manzoor, Q. A. (n. d). Impact of Employees Motivation on Organizational Effectiveness. European Journal of Business and Management 3(3), 36-45.

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Singh, K. P. (2015). Employee Motivation & Organizational Effectiveness: An Empirical Study. Intl. J. Adv. Res., Comm., & Mgmt.1(1), 55-62. Steven, J. C., Richard, E. C., and Harold, D. S. (2003). The Effects of Incentives on Workplace Performance: A Meta-Analytic Review of Research Studies. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 16(3) pp. 46- 63. Timothy, R. M., & Manley, K. (2005). Optimization of Financial Incentive Mechanism in Construction Projects. CIB W 92/ T23/W107 International Symposium on Procurement Systems. The Impact of Cultural differences and Systems on Construction Performance. 7-10th February, Las Vegas, NV USA.

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African Scholar VOL. 14 NO. 3 Publications & ISSN: 1896-6783 Research MARCH 2019 International African Scholar Journal of Env. Design & Construction Mgt. (JECM-3)

Ellipsoidal Heights for Digital Terrain Model and Contour Mapping of Bauchi Metropolis

Muhammad S. Kardam(1) Zakari, Danladi(2) Shu’aibu Umar(3) Department of Surveying and Geoinformatics, Federal Polytechic Bauchi, Bauchi State.

Abstract Dual Frequency Global Positioning System (DGPS) has emerged as a successful technology in providing precise positions of points on the surface of the earth over the reference ellipsoid with sub-metre level of accuracy. The end products of surveying with this receiver gives geodetic latitude (ϕ), geodetic longitude (λ) and ellipsoidal height (h) which are obtained with reference to the ellipsoid. This research involved the production of digital terrain model and contour map of Bauchi metropolis, Bauchi state. DGPS receiver was used to obtain the ellipsoidal heights of the study area. The ellipsoidal heights which are part of the geodetic/Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates obtained from DGPS was post processed using spectrum survey office Software. The digital terrain model and contour map were produced using ArcGIS 10.2.1 Software version. The statistical analysis of the result met the precision of second order geodetic control network. The result of the spearman correlation coefficient computed using geodetic latitude and geodetic longitude is 0.054 and the coefficient of determination 0.0029%. The result of the Z test computed (0.125) indicated that the measurements are precise at 5% confidence level. The reliability of the measurements of X and Y second order geodetic coordinates were computed at a scale of 1:5000 and found to be reliable at 5% confidence level. The digital terrain model and the contour map were produced at a scale of 1:60,000 and the contour lines were interpolated at 5m contour interval which represented the terrain configuration.

Keywords: Ellipsoidal Heights, Orthometric heights, model and Manipulation

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Background of the Research Mapping is a process that starts with (Idowu, 2012). The difference in geospatial data collection and height between the geoid and the manipulation and ends with the ellipsoid is regarded as the geoidal creation of map through height or geoidal undulation. The cartographic processes. The type of height anomaly is derived from the geospatial data required for mapping difference between the qausi-geoid depends on the type of map to be and the ellipsoid or the physical produced. For instance, in 3D surface of the earth and the telluroid. surface modelling and contour The height anomaly is a quantity mapping, rectangular and vertical similar to the geoid height, however (height) coordinates are the data is located on the level of the needed to produce a map that defines topography not sea level. The the topography of the earth’s surface formed by points which are surface. Rectangular coordinates above the reference ellipsoid (and determine the planimetric positions thus a distance below the of objects on the earth’s surface topography), is called the telluroid. while the vertical coordinates give The surface formed by points which the measures of elevation of points are above the reference ellipsoid on the earth’s surface with respect to which coincide with the geoid at sea a specific datum (reference surface). level, if free to adjust to the Generally, heights, as vertical combined effects of the earth's mass coordinates, are of two types. These attraction and the centrifugal force are Global Position System (GPS) of the Earth's rotation is called the heights and orthometric heights. quasi-geoid. It lacks any physical GPS heights are the heights of points meaning; it is not an equipotential on the earth’s surface measured with surface, although out at sea it respect to the ellipsoid as reference coincides with the geoid. Normal surface. Ellipsoids are reference heights are very operational. They surfaces usually determined on the are always used together with so- physical surface of the earth. The called “quasi-geoid” heights (more difference in height between the correctly: height anomalies). physical surface and the ellipsoid is Orthometric heights (more regarded as the ellipsoidal height precisely: Helmert heights) on the and the difference in height between other hand are always used together the physical surface and the geoid is with geoid heights. Presently, the called the orthometric height most accurate positioning

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technology is the GPS. GPS gives accurately the 3D position of points (ellipsoidal latitude, longitude, and height) and can measure under favourable weather conditions. In addition, it can measure when placed on any platform (static or dynamic). One major advantage of GPS technology over the traditional methods is that inter-visibility is not a requirement. In addition to providing highly accurate data, it is easy to use, portable, less labour intensive, and its surveys are relatively less costly. The coordinates of the GPS are referenced to the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84), a global ellipsoid having its origin closed to the earth centre of mass, which forms the origin of its coordinate system. A modern height system in a modern survey and mapping communities requires the ability to measure elevations relative to mean sea level easily, accurately, and at the lowest possible cost. GPS applications range from cadastral surveys to monitoring sea level rise; from navigation and mapping to the use of remote sensing for resource management; from mineral exploration to assessment of potential flooding areas; from the construction and precise positioning of dams and pipelines to the interpretation of seismic disturbances. The height reference system is also implicated in many legal documents related to land management and safety such as easement, flood control, and boundary demarcation (Ayhan et al, 2009). A digital terrain model (DTM) is a digital representation of ground surface topography. It represents a very important geospatial data type in the analysis and modelling of different hydrological and ecological phenomenon which are required in preserving our immediate environment. DTMs are used in geographic information systems (GIS) and are the most common basis for digitally produced topographic maps and orthogonal projections of the earth (also called orthophotos). DTMs are particularly relevant for many applications such as lake and water volumes estimation, soil erosion volumes calculations, flood estimate, quantification of earth materials to be moved for channels, roads, dams, embankment etc. They are essential data for planning, decision making, and information gathering and measuring including volume changes. High accuracy DTMs are typical for industries involved in mining, land reclamation or construction activities or government agencies involved in urban and infrastructure planning (Amal 2016). The demand of using GPS for height determination and to replace expensive levelling measurements in regions where the maximum accuracy is not needed, requests a height system in which levelling and GPS in

combination with geoid information lead to compatible results Urs et al (2009). A research was carried out to investigate the use of ellipsoidal heights in place of orthometric heights for engineering surveys. DGPS observations were carried out to obtain the ellipsoidal heights for a number of points in the study area in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Orthometric heights for the same set of points were determined using geodetic levelling. The results satisfied third order levelling which is good enough for engineering surveys (Badejo, 2016). One of the major tasks of geodesy is the determination of geoid. This task is getting more crucial due to the development of GPS. This is due to the fact that GPS provide ellipsoidal heights instead of orthometric heights. To convert ellipsoidal heights into orthometric heights, precise geoid heights are required. Nowadays, the most effective universal technique used for the determination of orthometric heights is the GPS and Levelling technique. This paper focuses on this technique and multiple regression analysis method was used to further determine the geoid undulations .ArcGIS 9.2 software version was used for generating the grid map of the area using the corrected orthometric heights obtained by the regression method (Edan et al., 2014). Geoidal map depicts the geoid configuration of the area under study. Data acquisition for the production of such maps has been very tedious, time consuming and expensive with the use of classical and conventional geoid determination methods. "Satlevel" Collocation is a new method of geoid determination in which the ellipsoidal height from any satellite based system is combined with orthometric height from geodetic levelling to model the geoid. The method enables the geoid to be determined in patches. Geoid so determined can be applied with ellipsoidal height to get orthometric height which height users always prefer. In this work, "Satlevel" Collocation model along with the users interactive computer program “Orthometric Height on Fly”, were used to generate geoidal values in part of Port Harcourt metropolis. The generated data was used to produce the Geoidal map of the study area using SURFER software (Mahmoud, 2012). The map was overlaid on the Local government map of Rivers State of Nigeria. The production of Geoidal map from "Satlevel" Collocation is easier than the conventional methods, when the initial geoidal coefficients have been determined. This method can be extended to other parts of Nigeria and the world at large (Olaleye et al., 2013). The major concerned is lack of an

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existing digital terrain model and contour map for geodetic, surveying applications, exploration and exploitation. It is in light of the above that this research was carried in the study area. 1.1 Aim and Objectives of the Research The aim of this thesis is to produce digital terrain model and contour map using DGPS. In order to achieve this aim, the following objectives were followed: i. Determination of ellipsoidal heights of the study area ii. Production of digital terrain model of the study area iii. Production of contour map of the study area 1.2 Justification of the of the Research Considering the numerous problems of flooding and the need of contour map and digital terrain model use for civil engineering work, environmental monitoring and control, with a comprehensive contour map and digital terrain model of the study area, the environmental monitory agency can easily identify the problematic areas most especially in the raining season in order to provide preventive measures for such occurrences. The products of this research will further be use as tools for developing the area and assist in controlling future developmental plans in the state and the nation in general. On the other hand, the roots of under development of third world countries, such as Nigeria emanated from a number of factors which include poor quality of data collection, organization and management practices; and, lack of adequate knowledge to develop the area and manage the environment in a sustainable manner. The consequences of all these are obvious from air and water pollution, environmental degradation, diseases and death e.tc. These are the challenges of surveyors, environmental managers and any other specializations that deal with the management of environment in Bauchi metropolis and Nigeria as a whole. 1.3 Scope of the Study The study area for the digital terrain model and contour mapping is restricted to Bauchi metropolis in the north east part of Nigeria. The research work involved data acquisition, field observations and reductions of measurement, data downloading, post processing and compilation of digital terrain model and contour map of the study area. 1.4 Study Area

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Bauchi state was founded by one Yakubu and it later became a state capital in the year 1976. Bauchi state is located between latitudes 090 30’ and 090 50’ north of the equator and longitudes 090 50’ and 100 20’ east of the Greenwich meridian. The total area of Bauchi state is 49,119 km2 (18,965sq mi) with the population density 95/km2 (250/sq mi) (National Population Commission of Nigeria, 2006). Bauchi state is bordered by seven states; Kano and Jigawa to the north, Plateau and Taraba to the south, Gombe and Yobe to the east and Kaduna to the west. The map of Nigeria is showed in Figure 1.2. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 29.2°C in July and August to 37.6°C in March and April. The mean daily minimum ranges from about 11.7°C in December and January to about 24.7°C in April and May. The state is drained by several river systems. The dominant one is River Gongola which originates in the Jos Plateau area, southwest of Bauchi State. It traverses, in a southwest-northeast direction through the southern LGAs of the state including Dass, T/Balewa, Bogoro, Bauchi and Kirfi and, thence, to Gombe State. It has numerous headwaters and tributaries within the state. The state comprises several previously independent powerful Emirates, including, for instance, Bauchi, Ningi, Katagum, Dass, and Misau. The map of Bauchi state is showed in Figure 1.2. The study area is Bauchi metropolis the capital city of Bauchi state of Nigeria.

1.5 METHODOLOGY The method adopted for acquiring the spatial data includes field work, data processing and manipulation. The basic data used is the ellipsoidal heights which were acquired using DGPS. The three dimensional coordinates or spatial data sources were interpolated by gridding using spline method of interpolation in ArcGIS 10.2.1 to produce the digital terrain model and contour map of the study area. The maps were therefore produced and the results were finally presented and analyzed for further discussion and conclusion. 1.6 Equipment Used The equipments used for the research work are as follows: 1.7 Hardware Used i. DGPS receiver and its accessories to acquired data for ellipsoidal heights

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ii. Computer and its accessories for computation, processing and analysis 1.8 Software Used i. ArcGIS 10.2.1 software for interpolation ii. Microsoft Office excel 2007 iii. Microsoft Office word 2007 iv. Spectrum survey office (SSO) 1.9 Flowchart of Methodology The flowchart used for data acquisition, field observation and compilation of DTM and contour map of the study area is presented in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Flowchart of the Thesis Methodology (Zakari, 2018) 1.10 Reconnaissance The factors considered in the reconnaissance include the design of the network and techniques adopted for effective execution of the work. In this research study, office and field reconnaissance were carried out. These are explained as follows; 1.11 Field Reconnaissance 218 [email protected] 2019

Field reconnaissance was carried out to locate suitable positions for control establishment. In preliminary survey the existing control points adopted for connection were determined and in-situ was ascertained. Site inspection played a vital role in facilitating the work and ascertaining the methods applied. The recce diagram of the study area was produced and control in- situ check was adopted on the existing control points used for connection of the DGPS observation to ascertain the quality of the original control used. 1.12 Office Reconnaissance The equipments and the methods adopted were chosen at this stage. The DGPS receiver was tested on a control points in order to ascertain its accuracy. The coordinates of the control points used for connection and Bauchi State Street guide map was collected from Bauchi State Ministry of lands and Housing. Booking sheet was designed and adopted for field observations/measurements and the measurements were also saved automatically in the memory card. 1.13 Data Acquisition The field operations were carried out for the purposes of acquiring the ellipsoidal heights for a number of well distributed points in the research area. A DGPS field exercise was conducted in this work to captured spatial coordinates of all points of interest. A total number of six hundred (600) points monumented by the Bauchi State Ministry of lands and Housing and the Department of Surveying and Geo-informatics, Federal Polytechnic Bauchi were observed and recorded. Additional two hundred (200) points was also monumented and observed. Apart from the pre-cast points, other two hundred and eighty four (384) points were selected at random and their coordinates were determined and recorded. This becomes necessary due to the topographical nature of the study area. 1.14 DGPS Survey Observation Planning was the first important step for DGPS surveys, so that almanac data can be analyzed to obtain optimal time sets when a geometrically strong array of operating satellites is available above 15° of elevation (above the horizon) and to identify topographic obstructions that may hinder signal reception. Differential GPS observations were made at the most suitable locations. The derived coordinates were comparable to GPS standard accuracy. The WGS-84 ellipsoid was adopted as the reference surface for the determination of ellipsoidal heights (h). In analogy the height of a point

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is defined as the distance from the ellipsoid measured along a normal to the reference ellipsoid. Ellipsoidal heights can be derived from geocentric Cartesian coordinates provided by GPS observations. DGPS receiver was used to determine both the Universal Traverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates and the geographical coordinates of all the required stations. The GPS Fast- static mode of observation was adopted throughout the measurement. The data obtained were recorded into the memory card for post processing. The GPS receiver and spectrum survey office were used, which are suitable for the survey operations.

Table 1.0; List of Observed Coordinates in UTM and Geographical Coordinate System (Zakari, 2018) NORTHING ELLIPSOIDAL HEIGHT BEACON ID EASTING (M) (M) (M) BA/SC A001 590272.076 1149941.615 631.2754 BA/SC A002 590347.560 1149587.566 627.4385 BA/SC A003 590630.023 1147949.555 617.9043 BA/SC A004 590823.989 1147613.867 623.7726 BA/SC A005 591265.472 1147062.609 617.3684 BA/SC A006 591395.051 1146527.667 619.1873 BA/SC A007 591555.206 1146140.217 632.0442 BA/SC A008 591590.524 1145830.944 632.2494 BA/SC A009 591731.936 1145413.177 632.9763 BA/SC A010 591809.382 1145160.880 636.0115 BA/SC A011 592396.177 1143857.553 650.6051 BA/SC A012 592774.826 1143966.743 646.2632 BA/SC A013 593129.503 1144077.509 646.5163 BA/SC A014 593902.825 1144124.718 654.3516 BA/SC A015 594590.563 1144112.597 653.8854 BA/SC A016 594947.966 1144082.290 650.2717 BA/SC A017 595287.237 1144062.160 649.3884 BA/SC A018 596266.843 1144118.378 636.9553 BA/SC A019 597197.115 1144278.835 625.1712 BA/SC A020 597628.428 1144528.347 620.3988 BA/SC A021 597984.162 1144842.818 619.0397 BA/SC A022 598643.209 1145444.136 616.6122 BA/SC A023 598982.890 1145771.887 609.7292

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BA/SC A024 599499.223 1146225.203 606.1374 BA/SC A025 593928.789 1143964.028 655.0782 BA/SC A026 593927.641 1143739.841 655.9693 BA/SC A027 594034.588 1143566.951 656.3096 BA/SC A028 594352.917 1143258.389 661.6494 BA/SC A029 594560.994 1142922.625 664.6461 BA/SC A030 594249.674 1142692.256 662.5258 BA/SC A031 593863.717 1142504.627 664.8666 BA/SC A032 593531.736 1142406.994 667.1343 BA/SC A033 593313.338 1142354.543 669.0598 BA/SC A034 593115.195 1142307.108 667.6329 BA/SC A035 592979.697 1142812.245 658.3529 1.15 Data Quality The quality of data used in this research was determined by the validity and reliability of the data. Validity is measured by the precision while the reliability is determined by the accuracy of the data. The quality control test for the data used in this study was carried out by the researcher and the result indicated validity. Before performing a minimally constrained and fully constrained adjustment, the network was analyzed for possible outliers using loop closures analysis of repeated baselines and comparison of known and observed baselines. Detection of blunders was facilitated through the source of blunder (height of instrument, centering errors, etc.), display vectors in northing, easting, ellipsoidal height, and distance (geodetic latitude, longitude, and height). Baselines were processed on daily basis to allowing the user to identify problems that might exist. A list of the triple difference, float double difference, and fixed double difference vectors were normally listed. GPS system validation was performed to verify that the complete system achieved accuracy fitting for the types of GPS control surveys used. The validation survey is similar to a production of GPS survey; except that it was carried out on permanent pillars with high accuracy of 3D coordinates. GPS receivers, GPS antennas, field support equipment, baseline processing software, network adjustment software, office staff (for planning, supervision, processing, adjustments, reporting) and field staff (for system set-up and data collection): All of the above was verified during a GPS validation survey. The results indicated that the validity, reliability and hence quality of the data were satisfactory. 221 [email protected] 2019

1.16 Validity and Reliability Test Precise levelling was carried out in line with, specifications for second order accuracy. The data were checked and the mean of the height differences were taken as the most probable value of measurements. The statistical analysis of the result met the precision of levelling specifications. The result of the pearman correlation coefficient computed using northing and easting coordinates is 0.054 and the coefficient of determination is 0.0029% which indicated that the control points were normally distributed. The result of the Z-test computed (0.125) indicated that the measurements are precise at 95% confidence level. The reliability of the measurement of X and Y second order geodetic coordinates were computed at the scale of 1:5000 and found reliable at 95% confidence level. Therefore, the quality of the data was guaranteed as showed in Table 4.1.

Table 1.2: Validity and Reliability Test (Zakari, 2018) Method Software Variables Result Remark Used Correlation Microsoft Var00001 0.054 Weak correlation Pearson excel, Var00002 0.103 (Sig. 2- 2010 talled), N= 916

Reliability SPSS Var00001 Case: The reliability of test Var00002 Scale: the coordinates 1:5000 were computed at Valid:916 the scale of 1:5000 (100%) and found reliable Excludeda: at 5% confidence 0 level. Total:(916) 100%

Z-test SPSS Var00001 Case: The result of the Z- (Sig. 2- Var00002 α : 0.05 test computed talled), N= Z: 0.125 (0.125) indicated 916 that the

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measurements are precise at 5% confidence level.

Precision Spectrum Horizontal Case: The accuracy test (Sig. 2- survey and α : 0.05 computed is talled), office Vertical 0.002m precision N= 916 control obtained on Hz plane and 0.001m precision obtained on vertical plane at 5% confidence level

1.17 Data Processing GPS observations were post processed using spectrum survey offices software and the final coordinates and the heights of the points within the study area were determined and obtained the three dimensional coordinates (geodetic latitude (ϕ), geodetic longitude (λ) and ellipsoidal height (h) which was used for the production of the maps. 1.18 Map compilation The processed data was used for the production of DTM and contour map of the study area. There are different types of software in the market for production of DTM and contour map. In this research work ArcGIS 10.2.1 was used for generating DTM and the contour map. ArcGIS 10.2.1 is a Contouring and 3D surface mapping software package. It transforms random surveying data, using interpolation, into continuous curved surface contour. ArcGIS 10.2.1’s sophisticated interpolation engine will transform all XYZ data into publication quality maps. The methods were grouped into smoothing and exact interpolators. Smoothing interpolators are: Inverse Distance to a Power, Kriging , Polynomial Regression, Radial Basis Function, Spline, Modified Shepard's Method, Local Polynomial, Moving Average; while the exact interpolators are: Inverse Distance to a Power, Kriging, Nearest Neighbor, Radial Basis Function, Modified Sheppard’s Method, Triangulation with Linear Interpolation, and Natural Neighbor. Spline methods of interpolation were used for the map compilation.

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1.19 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1.20 Sample Profile of the Ellipsoidal Heights The vertical and horizontal axes represent the heights and the position of the beacons respectively. The vertical axis (heights) was plotted against horizontal axis (beacons ID) as indicated in Figure 1.2. The profile showed that both ellipsoidal and orthometric heights portrayed same terrain. The Pearson correlation computed is 0.993 and the coefficient of determination is 99% which indicated that the ellipsoidal and the orthometric heights are positively highly correlated. The profiles of the ellipsoidal heights are represented by light blue colour as showed below.

Figure 1.2: Profile of the Ellipsoidal Heights (Author’s Lab.) 1.22 Compilation of Three Dimensional Surface Models The distribution of the spot heights used for the compilation of the DTM is showed in Fiqure 1.3. The ellipsoidal heights were used in the production of DTM as shown in Fiqure 1.4. The DTM was produced at the scale of 1:60,000 and they represent the terrain configuration. The legend showed heights range on each of the 3D surface model which are represented by different colour ram.

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Figure 1.3: Distribution of Spot Heights (Author’s Lab)

Figure 1.4: Digital Terrain Model Generated from Ellipsoidal Heights (Author’s Lab.)

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Figure 1.5: Three Dimensional Surface Model Generated from Ellipsoidal Heights (Author’s Lab.) 1.23 Compilation of Contour Map The DTM was used in the production of contour map as shown in Fiqure 1.5. The contour maps was produced at the scale of 1:60,000 and the contour lines were interpolated at 5m contour interval which represented the terrain configuration.

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Figure 1.6: Contour Map Generated from Ellipsoidal Heights (Author’s Lab.) 1.24 Summary and Conclusion The DGPS coordinates and heights obtained were post processed using the Spectrum survey offices software and the final adjusted coordinates and heights were generated. The heights obtained were exported from Microsoft office excel 2007 to ArcGIS 10.2.1 version. Shape files were created for each layer and were used in the production of the maps. The ellipsoidal heights were also used for the production of digital terrain model and contour map using ArcGIS 10.2.1 version. In conclusion, DGPS observations were carried out in the study area and the ellipsoidal heights were determined and used for the compilation of the DTM and contour map. In view of the foregoing results, it is therefore recommended that: Further research work should be under taking to simulate 3D model of the entire Bauchi State

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which could be utilize for densifying levelling networks of lower order for appropriate future planning.

REFERENCES Amal M. A. (2016): Determination of the geoid height (geoid undulation) by using modern surveying technologies, applied research journal, Vol. 2, Pp.403-411 Ayhan C., Cevat I. And Ismail S. (2009): Modern height determination techniques and comparison of accuracies, engineering and architecture faculty department of geodesy and photogrammetry engineering Alaaddin Keykubad campus, Selcuklu, Vol. 7. Pp 122-127 Badejo O. T., Aleem K. F. and Olaleye J. B. (2016): Replacing orthometric heights with ellipsoidal heights in engineering surveys, Nigerian Journal of Technology (NIJOTECH), Vol. 35, pp. 761 – 768 Edan J. D, Idowu, T. O, Abubakar T and Aliyu, M. R (2014) Determination of orthometric heights from GPS and levelling data, International Journal Of Electronics, Communication & Instrumentation Engineering Research and Development (IJECIERD) ISSN(P): 2249- 684X; ISSN(E): 2249-7951, Vol. 4. Yola, Adamawa State, Nigeria. Mahmoud M., Hossein Z. and Parastoo J. (2012): Comparing 10 different interpolation methods used to determine geoid-quasigeoid separation, journal of basic and applied scientific research, Vol. 2(8) pp 8292- 8299, Olaleye J. B., Olusina J, O., Badejo O. Y. and Aleem K. F. (2013): Geoidal map and three dimension surface model part of Port Harcourt Metropolis from “Satlevel” Collocation Model, International journal of computational engineering research, Vol. 03, PP 52 - 58, Urs M., Andreas S. and Elmar B. (2009): Combining levelling with GPS measurements and geoid information, federal office of topography, Seftigenstrasse 264, CH-3084 Wabern, Switzerland. Idowu T.O. and Takana A. (2012), Prediction of Orthometric Heights of Points for Topographic Mapping, Department of Surveying and Geoinformatics Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola, Nigeria.

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