UNIT 5 SOCIO HISTORICAL PERSPECTIW - I

Structure 5.0 Objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Indian Society During the Vedic Period 5.2.1 Early Vedic Period 5.2.2 Later Vedic Period 5.3 Post Vedic Society 5.4 Gupta and Post Gupta Period 5.5 Medieval Period 5.6 Let Us Sum Up 5.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

In this unit we will discuss the structure of Indian society through the historical times. After reading this unit you will learn about the:

the structure of Indian society during ancient period the social structure during the medieval period the evolution of major social institutions during the above stated periods, the important phases of social transformation in Indian society.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

In Units 5 & 6 of this Block we have discussed a structure of Indian society in the hiktorical perspective. Unit 5 focusses on the evolution of Indian society upto medieval period and Unit 7 will cover the subsequent period of history. In this Unit i.e. Unit 5 you will learn about the social life during the early Rigvedic period of ancient and its different phases of change through the later Vedic period. You will see how the social institutions which emerged during this period were later transformed and became more rigid due to changes in the economy and the political organization of society. This took place during the post-Vedic period when social codes were more rigidly defined through the composition of the Epics and . The great epics such as the and the composed, during this period contain prescriptions about social, cultural and political norms of society. The social rigidity and orthodoxy w5ich developed in society during the period of the Epics soon led to protest and reform movements in society. It gave rise to religious and cultural movements such as Budhism and Jainism which revolted both against the Vedic cultism and the rigid caste hierarchy. They also opposed social and cultural exploitation inherent in these institutions. The reform movements ushered by Budhism and Jainism were, however, limited in their spread. Their influence weakened over time and once again revived. You will learn about how this revival of Hinduism was introduced and how it reinforced the rigid social norms of caste and occupation. It was about this time that Manu is attributed to have authored Manava Dharmashashtra, the law-code of the Hindu social organization. You will learn about the major social and economic changes taking place during this period, such as the rise of mercantile groups, expansion in trade and its links with the growth in handicraft and urban settlements. This Unit will also offer you a perspective on how this period of Indian social history underwent new phases of transformation due to regionalisation of the Indian polity and disintegration of empires (of the Mauryas during theBudhist period and of the Guptas during the period of Hindu revivalism). It was during this transitional period that political and Social Structure cultural contact with Islam began to take place. Slowly it led to the establishment of kingdoms of the Muslims e.g. the Turks and the Mughals. You will learn about the nature of impact that this historical development had upon the social, cultural and economic institutions of society.

5.2 INDIAN SOCIETY DURING THE VEDIC PERIOD

We will discuss the Vedic society in two sub-sections i.e. the early Vedic and the later Vedic society.

t 5.2.1 Early Vedic Period The early Vedic society was largely based on pastoral economy and lineage mode of social organization. It comprised groups of households linked by descent or kinship bonds. Sets of different lineages comprised a social community. It represented an interdependent network of clans. This community being a pastoral economy had to move about. In this sense it functioned like roaming tribal bands. The key elements of social organization were: household, lineage, and tribal band. The members of this society were of fair complexion, skilled in the art of cattle raising and worshiped natural elements, primarily fire. They are called Aryans. and being a migratory people, they ofteu clashed with the native inhaGtants where they migrated. The Aryans seem to celebrate predatory power; they were prone to attack and often decimated their enemies of the native stock whom they characterize as the dark-complexioned Dasas. They used to capture them through warfare and used them as slaves.

Many Indologists are of the opinion that the Dasas were descendants from the Harappan civilization which was urbanized and consisted of urban settlements. The fear of the Aryans drove these people to take shelter in Vindhyachal areas. The Aryans characterized the Dasas as dwellers of caves in darkness. The social structure of the early Vedic societywhich resulted ' form this contact got divided between the Aryans and the Dasas. The Aryans during this time did not seem to have developed internal social stratification or rigid division of labour. The Aryan society was more egualitarin. The occupations, either of priesthood or that of warrior or a commoner, could be adopted by choice and were inter-changeable. A priest could become a warrior and vice versa. But rigid social gradation did appear to have existed between the Aryans and the Dasas. It was of domineering and exploitative character.

' The also has a mention of a people called the who are portrayed as rich cattle-breeders and traders. These were non-Aryans and are mentioned as having dark-complexion or proto- Australoid features., They were probably of the Phoenician (Syrian) origin. They did not observe the Aryan rituals, or sacrifices. They conducted trade and commerce through exchange. The Aryans used to plunder the Panis and set fire to their settlements. They used to enslave them and called them also as Dasas. They usurped Panis's wealth and cattle. Since both Dasas and Panis are reported to have proto-Australoid features, one could envisage similarities between the two categories of people. It seems that the interacction between the Pani- social segment with the Aryans slowly began to give rise to the elementary features of social stratification. it was based on distinctions of (colour), which had racial characteristics. The institution we know today as the jati system had not yet fully emerged.

5.2.2 Later Vedic Period Significant changes in social structure, cultural rules and division of labour came into existence during the later-Vedic period. The four-fold division of castes (jatis): the Brahamana (priest), the Rajanya (rulers) or , the Vaisya (traders) and Sudra (peasants) is referred to have originated from the body of the Pumsh (the great Being) in the Purusasukta of the Rigveda which is of a much later origin. The Purusasukta says: "the Brahamana was his (purasa's) mouth, the Rajanya was made of his two arms; his thigh became the Vaisya. From his feet was produced the Sudra". Thus a relative differentiated social hierarchy seems to have emerged during the later Vedic period which got further consolidated during the Epic period. Social disabilities of the lower strata, particularly of the Sudra in regard to the access to sacred texts or their recitation were strictly imposed. The inter-changebilty of occupations by voluntary choice was restricted to the upper segment of Soclo-Historical Perspective I the social strata. The priest also lost his generic role in society, based on voluntarily charitable roles such as exponent of military strategy, crafts or literaryworks. Their role was confined to presiding over rituals and sacrifices. The rationalisation of the Varna hierarchy was achieved through the sacrament of initiation or Yajnopavita (sactred thread) ceremony. It was allowed only in cases of the first threevarnas. The codification of rigid norms of social and ritual practices which romed the basis of discrimination by the upper Varnas of the Sudras took place during the later-Vedic period. The composition of the Grahasutra (household sacraments) and Dharmasutra was completed. It debarred the Sudra and members of the lower Varnas from any privileges available to the upper Varnas. The process of Varna-turning into Jati (caste) taking most out of the Jati feature of exclusion in respect of social, cultural and economic domains, had thus begun.

Family and Lineage:

The Vedic society had family and lineage as the two basic elements of its social organization. Most rituals and religious activities of tlie Aryans such as, the household sacraments related to life cycle (birth, initiation, marriage, death etc), the sacrificial rituals to appease gods for acquisition of magical powers to meet with challenges of nature, enemies and of rivals etc. were centred around the household, the lineage or the clan. The Grahyasutra and Dharmasutras prescribe and illustrate the varied rituals and sacrifices and their normative principles. The head of the household had a very special role in performance of these rituals over which he often used to preside.

The term used for family in the is grha, and the head of the household is called grhapati. God (fire) had a pre-eminent place in the sacramental rituals of the household, so much so that some times Agni or the God of fire was called the grhapati, and the sacred fire in the household was named as grhapatya. Most sacramental rituals in the family had the god of fire as the main deity and Grahasutra illustrates this relationship. The structure of the family during the early period was of the nuclear or 'elementary' type having members not of more than two generations. The family had its network with the lineage of the clan. During the later Vedic period, however, there is evidence of the existence of the joint family. This may be indirectly related to the more settled agriculture and pastoral economy and the changing social composition of the process of production. The authority system in the family used to be largely partrilineal but without clear evidence of the supremacy of patriarchy. It implies greater degree of gender equality and participation in family rituals and processes of production. Lineage is yet another important social institution of the Vedic times. Lineage is defined as a corporate group of kins in unilineal relationship having a formal system of authority. These unilineal descent groups constitute a clan when several of them come together under a specific institution of authority. The authority can be of a 'chief, a Rajanya for whom also the term Grhapati has been used. The lineage and clan, therefore, constituted the political system of the Vedic society. Its constituents were: household, lineage and clan.

Upanisads and Protest Against Brahamanic Ritualism:

It is probably inherent character of society that over-emphasis on ritualism and perpetuation of command over privileges by a closed group leads sooner or later to protest. The and Aranykas which were composed in-between the periods of the early and late Vedic society exemplify protest. These texts exhort that cumbersome and expensive sacrifices do not lead to real knowledge. They challenge the cupremacy of Brahamanas and the Vamhierarchy. Interestingly, the authorship of the Upanishads is attributed primarily to the kshatriyas, members of the lower Varnas and women. They are also written in relatively simpler language and therefore, attained more popularity. Instead of ritualism they emphasize abstract metaphysical principles and mystical meanings of reality. In some Upanishads (e.g. ) there are derogatory references about and they are portrayed as greedy self-sewing people.

The Upanisadic protest, however, was not enduring. its influence could not sustain itself and the ritualistic Veda-ism soon re- asserted itself with the composition of the (Grahasutra and Dharmasutra) whose intimate relationship with the household and lineage ritualisms and sacrifices we have already analyzed. -- - - Social Structure 53 POST-VEDIC SOCIETY '3

We get historical records of the post-Vedic society from 600 B.C. onwards. It seems that by this time lineages and clans which in the past were emerging as nascent political institutions had assumed the forms of either republics or monarchies. The institution of hereditary kings, who were mostly kshatriyas, was still flexible but the formation of state, as a political body, had emerged. It soon consolidated itself into the Mauryan empire which ushered in many si@cant changes in the social structure of society. The changes got further impetus with the new revolutionary cultural and religious accompaniments of and Jainism. Both these religious movements constitute the core of the social and cultural protest against orthodox Brahamanical emphasis on rituals ai~danimal sacrifices. The incipient seeds of such protest, as you have learnt already existed during the period of the Upanishads. But both Budhism and Jainism led to a radical departure on the perspective on religion and society as never existed before. Exponents of both Budhism (Gautam Budha) and Janism (Mahavir) were kshatriyas. Both placed great emphasis on nonviolence and universal piety or . Both rejected the Brahamanical orthodoxy on caste, its social and cultural discriminations and ritualism which had assumed-expensive and exploitative propbrtions. Unlike Brahamanism both Budhism and Janism hadatheistic worldview. The origin of these two radical religious and social movements had its linkages with economic, political and social structural changes in the post-Vedic society.

Social and Structural changes:

The evidence regarding the post-Vedic society suggests that by this time social structure had already undergone changes as a result of processes of social assimilation and interaction with a host of communities, both alien and native. The scale of integration and stratification of the Aryan and non-Aryan groups into caste and class had very substantially been enlarged. it was also rendered niore complex and rigid in terms of hierarchy and inequality. In addition to the four-fold varnas a fifth category of 'untouchables' had now sprung up. The untouchables were probably aboriginal tribals who lived by hunting and food gathering and were treated as the lowest stratum of society. It also implies the existence of the notions of pollution-purity in a rigid form in the caste hierarchy. The notion of Varna which was relatively an open social system in respect of inter-varna mobility got by this time converted into caste (jati) as a closed system (membership only by birth).

The complexity of the caste system was also accompanied by differentiation between the agricultural and industrial mercantile economies. The surplus generated by these economies were channeled by state into urban centers which had emerged by now. It also contributed to differentiation among intellectual and cultural elites and groups involved into arts, crafts and trade etc. It contributed to emergence of cultural elite which could challenge established Brahamanical-Vedicorthodoxy. Long before the rise of Budhism and Janism which provided this challenge to orthodoxy many philosophers and thinkers of radical dissent were spreading their ideas. offered an atheistic worldview supporting total materialism.

Budhism and Janism, however, had a systemic impact ideologically as well as socially. In the fvst instance they rejected Vedic beliefs and rituals. Secondly, their exponents as well as followers came from non-Brahamanical strata. The kshatriyas, thevaisyas, the and the untouchables comprised their following and their leadership. It is possible that the process of economic diversification,urbanization and increased social differentiationformed the'positiywc'ontributory factors in the growth of these dissent ideologies. The negative factors were of course social and economic deprivations arising out of rigid caste norms, ritualistic segregation and exploitation of non-Brahamanical segments of society and imposition of inequalitarian norms.

Impact of these changes led to the elaboration of the occupational categories and probably the numbers of castes and classes. We get some insight into this process through Kautilya's and Megasthenes's (ambassador to Mauryan court) Indika. Megas$enes refers to seven castes to have existed at this time. These are: philosophers, farmers, soldiers, herdsmen, artisans, magistrates and counselors. These are of course occupationalrather than caste categories. But these give us insight into the level of social differentiation in society at this time. Similarly, Arthashashtra also offers a variety of castes and occupationalcategories. It also mentions the existence of the institution of slavery whose existence is denied by Megasthenes. It is possible that some form of bonded relationship existed (which even now .prevails in some parts of Indian) between master and servant quite akin to slavery. In Arthashashtra we also get an insight into the development of corporate, administrative, commercial, military and economic- fiscal institutions. These further reinforce the evidence about the existence of elaborate urban centres as the hub of economic, administrative,cultural and political activities. We also have some evidence of urban-rural migration and reciprocal cultural and economic interaction during this period.

Family, Lineage and Caste:Some Aspects of Change:

With the increased levels of social differentiation between the rural and urban and agricultural and industrial-mercantile occupations significant changes also took place in the nature of caste - Varna relationship and also in the social composition of castes. This had an inevitable impac't upon the traditional lineage-clan related social organizations both in the rural and urban communities. In the urban centres industrial and mercantile guilds came into being which were largely caste based. These guilds not only functioned as economic institutions for production and trade but also as political and cultural pressure groups when occasion arose. This had also the effect of emergence of strong business castes in cities which were mostly followers of the Jainism. In an incipient form this period also marks the beginning of the over-lapping relationship among the categories of caste-class and occupation in India which continues even to this day.

In the rural areas, where still most of the population residcd, castes had begun to undergo changes with ncw economic and political implications. Castc lineages and clans had probably begun to take upon themselves more and more econonlic and political functions rather than serving as units of ritual and cultural reciprocities. Here the combination of the factors of ritual-occupational and political functions in the caste organization served the same purpose in the rural economy as the guilds did in cities. It may be presumed possibly that caste panchayats, in the process of formation were responding to such domains of requirement.

In this process of change lineages and clans were subsumend in caste organization or a beginning in this direction had started. It marked a transition from tribal-segmentary mode of social organisaiton to caste-based organic social organisaiton in which reciprocity of functional division among castes constituted the foundation of social organisation.

The structure and function of family system did respond to these changes. Corresponding to the rise in thc economic surplus both in the agrarian and mercantile-industrial economies the tendency towards maintaining larger households (joint family) received reinforcement. The land-owning peasants (formerly shudras), mercantile households, urban and rural aristocracy came in this category. The position of women also changed particularly among those professing Budhism and Jainiswm where the scope of their cultural and religious participation was expanded.

ICheck Your Progress - 1 1) Write a short note on Aryans...... 2) "What was the fou; fold division in later vedic society? ......

3) Give a brief account of social impact of Jainism and Budhism ......

5.4 GUPTA AND POST GUPTA PERIOD

The period of Indian history which followed the disintegration of the Mauryan empire (200 B.C. A.D.300) brought many changes in society and culture. There was decline in the influence of Budhism and Jainism. Budhism's preachmgs, however, got a wider reach outside the country during this period. Within the country both Budhism and Jainism had always had a concentration in some areas and flourished due to patronage from kings. Its decline took place due to extreme routinization.of its cults in monastic orders and also because of the renaissance in , epics, code-books and saintly traditions. The weakening of the empire was marked also by incursion4 from central Asia of a host of invading groups such as the Kushans, Indo-Greeks and Shakas etc. They established their kingdoms, though short-lived, and were mostly followers of Budhism. This incursion of out-side groups also led to prolzeration of new communities which had to be integrated within the caste-fold. It also contributed to fragmentation of castes into sub-castes. Despite the fluidity of polity the economy and its social organization through guilds and business houses in cities and the peasant castes in villages flourished. This brought about ultimately the renaissance in literature, architecture, art, philosophy, and Hindu thought. It also consolidated social codes and laws governing Hindu society known as the .

This renaissance happened during the rule of the Guptas. Th~sdynasty came to power with the enthronement of Chandra Gupta I (about A.D.319-20) who ruled over Magadh and eastern Uttar Pradesh. During this time and part of the period preceding it there was a spurt of literary, architectural and philosophical contribution. For this reasons historians also name this period as the classical period of Indian history.

Social and Economic Changes:

The Gupta period led to the consolidation and expansion of social and economic institutions. Economically, there is evidence to suggest that revenue from land increased substantially, and their was expanded investment in business, commerce and production of artefacts. The social organization of-guilds and thei? function was also reinforced. Socially, encoding of social laws through Manu's Dharmashashtra and consolidation of the positions of both Brahamana's and Shudras created more rigid caste hierarchy. The notion of dwa (tuiice-born) comes into vogue about this time although-itsnuances did exist in the past. This increased the caste discriminations and disabilities in society. The Budhist Sangha (monastries) continued, although their influence shrunk more and more to some regions and Socio-Hislor~rriPerspective I urban centres. Also Budhist rituals, despite their frontal opposition to Hinduism began to incorporate many of the clcments of Brahamanical religion.

Multiplicity of castes and subcastes increased because of continual migration of new communities, proliferation of occupational categories due to expansion of administration, intellectual activities, rise in professions and also the tn social mobility among castes through conversion and reconversion route between Hinduisrn and Budhism. Jainism also gave rist to a host of caste and subcaste categorizs duc to occupationdl speciaii~ationof differznt lineages. Prosperity in agriculture led to incrcase in thc rural division of lahour giving rise to a number of sub-categories of caste and subcastes.

Yet another distinctive feature of this period is the renaissance in intellectual productions such as literature, philosophy, art and architecture. Aryabhatta made his basic astronomical contribution. Varahmihir's astrononlical work Panchsiddhantika (five schools of astronomy), Kalidasa's famous plays Shakuntaianl and Meghaduta and the enunciation of six philosophical systems c.g. , sankhya, , rnirnansa and yedanta took place about this time. The puranas were also composcd and popularised. In addition, this period marked the distinctive contributions in temple architecture, the constructionof Budhist Chaitya and stupa (ihiorshippinghall ,tnd its complex) and many other artistic creations.

In terms of social and cultural changes we witnesb durlng this period a continual interaction bctween the people of northern and southern kingdoms. Migration of scholars. artists, trading and banking communities increased to a very signlficdnt Icvel. This was becduse during this period export of artefacts, agrarian products and textiles necessitated this interaction. There was significant level of maritime trade, export and import. This also increased interaction between north, south and western regions. The mercantile commuilities of Shreshtins (financiers) in north which hacl already emcrged tlurir~gthe Budhist period could be compared with Chettis and Chcttiprs t,f sc;ut!i India. Brhal~lanical dndvedic. !iterature and philosophicdl interpretations flourished in south Tndia. The southern klngdoms of Chola, Chalukya and Satvahanas brought about new impetus to economic, cultural and religious creativity which attracted people from other region.,. Rudhism also travelled to the lar- east to Java, Sumatra, thailand, Chira ctc. This led to increaqed interaction withi11 regions in lndia ,~ndalso to lands bqond and outsidc India.

Not only contributions to systemiitization of philosophy and religion get impetus but also ihcrc was resurgence ir~Hindu religious movements at the level of folk and peasantry. This wss particularly so in the pcriod fo!lowing the classical Gupt~era, a time markcd by rise of regional forces and feudatories in the process of weakening octhe rule of the Cupta7s. Many religious Hindu sects such as of , Virashavism or Lingayat movement founded by Basavraja and several devotional cults sprung up ~!uringthe period of the rise crf t!~southern kingdoms. Vaishnavism reiterated'Rrahamanicit1 system of bcliefs and rituals hut the Lingayats questioned the authority of theVedas and followcd rituals and bcliefs which were non- Brahamanical in nature.. About this time Tantrism and magico- religious beliefs and practices also developed in some parts of India. Towards r.hc end of the C:lassical period of the Gupta's not only the southern kingdoms gained ascendancy but there was rapid regionalsation and feudalisation of society and culture. It brought about a greater degree of pluralimb of social customs, religious practices and political organisations, but also weakencned the centralized polity which made the transition to the emergence of Muslim kingdoms possible. This development brought about a new era olsocial and cultural changes in the Indian society.

5.5 MEDIEVAL PERIOD '

Following the end of thc "Classical" period (C.3W A.D.) man): regionat hiiigdoms led by different clans came into existence. Chauhans, Yarihars, Chsndellas etc. established their rule in north dnd western India. There was much inter~scci~econflict and rivalry among them. By A.D. 977 Mahnxud of Ghasni (a principaliry 1ocde:d in Northern Afghanistan) invaded northern India. He was fof!cured later (twelth century) by Muhammad Ghori whose invasion evectually led to thr: cstablisbme~it%~f the r u1c ~f the ': srks and Afgbara. Xt sdds the beginning of the Sultanate which lastzd upto i\.B.:526, Frc,m ;his period onwards the rule of the Mughals increasingly settled down l~sheririgic new rliriensians csf social change. Changes in the Caste Structure:

Major changes in the caste structure took place during the reign of the Sultans and the Mughals. Not only were these changes due to an expansion of economic and trade activities or due to forces of internal differentiation but mainly due to the contact between two major traditions and worldviews: that of Hinduism and Islam. The former legitimizing caste hierarchy and cultural and social inequalities by Kith and (deeds in past life) and the latter professing equality of all within Islamic brotherhood or umma (the commbity of the faithfuls). Despite these differences of ideology or worldview, however, we perceive that the institution of caste or caste-like social grouping did come into being among the Muslims in India. This may be explained partly by the adaptive tendencies within Indian Islam to accomodate the converts to the faith groups already having caste divisions. It may also be a result of emergence of new social status graduation through the emphasis on exclusiveness by Muslim aristocracy, literati and upper classes setding down in India from abroad. The rules of endogamy were strictly practiced 'by these Muslim ruling and aristocratic classes among themselves to the exclusion of the native Muslims or those having lower social occupation.

Another institution which added impetus to the emergence of caste-like structure among the Muslims and which also contributed to the differentiation of caste groups among the was new agrarian structures. The institution of feudalism had already started coming into vogue during the period of the Guptas but had added depth during the period of regionalisation of the polity during the last days of this empire. During the rule of the Muslim kings it developed in to the system of land grants to the nobility and assignments implied land grants to the noblels by king, graded land rights differentiating between the assignee, land lord of the land and the tenantry, obligation on the part of each to provide services to the king by pre-determined conventions, such as tributes and taxes, providing soldiers and maintaining them on behalf of the king and rendering such other services as demanded by the king. Similarly, the tenants of the feudal lord had obligations towards him by way of offering gifts, man-power for armed forces, paying rents and observing many customary taboos in life style to show respect towards the king. This institutionalised a whole set of cultural and social norms of inequality, with rules of reciprocity in social, economic and cultural domains. The agrarian system contributed to many changes in the function and structure of castes. It led to the economic and social consolidation of peasant castes in most part of the country to protect their interests in relation to their jagirdars. There is evidence of a series of peasant protests and revolts during the Mughal rule in which the kings had to mediate upon to maintain social and economic peace.

Changes in Hindu and Muslim Castes:

Many changes took place in the caste system during the Muslim rule (from the Sultanate to the end of the Mughal rule) which had far reaching implication for the society. Among the Hindu castes the contact with the Islamic culture introduced not only adaptive new cultural processes in belief and rituals but also led to changes in the structure of caste. One major. structural change took place by subdivision among castes due to growth of new role or occupational categories. It also led to emergence of new castes. The process itself gave upper caste status to many lower castes because evidence suggests that many shudras among Hindus and members from low Muslim occupational groups or castes were accorded offices through land grants. Coming into prominence of the kayasthas with several sub-castes during this period marks a significant change. Of course, they had a rclatively longer history in the past (puranas make a mention of them) but they assumed important administrative and clerical role during the rule of the Muslim kings. Most other Hindu castes underwent subdivisions leading to horizontal proliferation of castes.

Among the Muslim community caste-like structured emerged through the process of differentiation of racial or ethnic diyisions, occupational hierarchy and the presence of converts with pre- existing caste rahking. The original migrants like warrior groups and literati form central Asia who had distinctive racial features and constituted the ruling elite made the upper caste rung for the Muslim community. Sayyeds, Shekhs, Pathans coming from Turko-Afghan, Persian and Mughal origin made the upper hierarchy. It was followed by a host of middle rank Muslim castes of artisans, weaverrs, cultivators and traders known by many local names in different regions e.g. julaha, ansar, darzi, saifi, etc. They had middle rank in the system of graduation. Lowest in hierarchy were those performing menial jobs such as bhishti (water carriers), bahelia (trappers), bhands (bards) etc. There was also a category of pirs, faquirs and dervesh etc, which emerged through growth in Muslim shrines Socio-Historical Perspective I of sufi saints as a result of interaction of mystical Islam with Hindu devotional traditions. This Icd to greatcr interaction between the Islamic and Hindu traditions at the grass-root levels as also to rapid expansion of the influence of Islam over thc Hindu population.

It is interesting to note that most of these changes which took placc in the caste systcm during the Muslim rule have not undergone much structural alteration evcn to this day cxccpt for the processes of rapid vertical social mobility among both the Hindu and Mmlim castes in India.

ElIIlCheck Your Progress - 2 1) Give a brief account of social changes during I he Gupt a peri,.j:i.

2) How the caste structurc was inllucnced during the ru:c of h:11~1:~11kings?

---.- 5.6 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit a study of Indian society during ancient and medieval period haa been undertaken. Durine early Vedicperiod there was lineage mode of social organi~ation.During later Vcclic pcriod significant changes in social structure took place with the coming of four fold division of castes. Family and lineage played important role in Vedic social organisation.

During post Vedic period the social structure became more complex, rigid and hicrarchical. During this period the rise of Budhism and Jainism influenced the social organization in many ways.

The Gupta and post-Gupta periods of Indian history witnessed important changes in social structure. The racial codes also got consolidated during this period.

With the coming of the Muslims Indian society underwent many changes. At the same time the Muslim society which had never known any caste structure also got influenced. The Muslims theoretically did not accept the caste structure but in practice the caste like structures found a place. Social Structure In Unit 6 of this Block we will continue our discussion on social structure in colonial and independent India.

5.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

EZIlCheck Your Progress - 1 1) See Sub Sec. 5.2.1.

2) See Sub Sec.5.2.2.

3) See Section 5.3.

ECheck Your Progress - 2 1) See Sec. 5.4.

2) See Sec. 5.5. UNIT 6 SOCIO-HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE - I1

Structure Objectives Introduction Society in India: A Historical Perspective 6.2.1 Colonial Period 6.2.2 Post Colonial Period 6.2.3 ContemporaryPeriod Caste and Class in India 6.3.1 Concept of Caste 6.3.2 Caste in Different Communities 6.3.3 Concept of Class 6.3.4 Classes in India Change and Continuity in India 6.4.1 Impact of Colonial Rule 6.4.2 Rise of the Indian National Mwcment 6.4.3 Independent India and its Social Problems Let Us Sum UP Key Words Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

6.0 OBJECTIVES

In this Unit we have focussed attention on the socio-historical perspective of Indian society from the colonial period, to the contemporary period. After studying this Unit you will be able to:

describe the nature of society during the colonial period, post colonial period and the contemporary period. explain the. concept of caste, its structure and functioi~ingamong the various religious communities like Hindus, Muslims and Christians, explain the concept of caste and class in India, and outline the main aspects of continuity and change in Indian society.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The main aspects of Indian social structure, such as, castc: and class, social problems and continuity and change in society have been broadly outlincd in this Unit. The Unit carries forward the diiscussion we started in Unit 5. Here we will discuss the nature of society that excited in India when th British arrived. We will take note of the changes experienced during the colonial period. The social structure in post colonial India will also be discussed. A diiscussion on the concept of caste and class in India will also be undertaken. TEt: influence of national movement on social ethos and thinking will also find a place.

6.2 SOCIETY IN INDIA: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Society in India has been historically marked by several conquests and invasions. However, prior to the British conquest, these conquests and invasions had led to a changc in the political regimes only. As far as the basic economic structure of India was concerned, these political changes did not penetrate to the largely agrarian village society.

India had maintained a relatively stable, more or less, stagnant socio-economicexistence for several centuries. Sociologists and social An!hropologists assign this characteristic feature Social Structure of Indian society to the se!f-sufficient village system which was based on:

.land possecsscl by the community, unity of village industry and agriculture, the vi!lage as the unit of revenue assessment. and villagc pruthic~ior?almest exc:osivcly for use by the billage comnlunily.

This structure of society according to a leading sociologist A.R. Desai "triumphantly survived, in its main outlines for centuries all foreign invasions, military convulsions, religious upheavals and dynastic wars", in pre-British India.

The self-sufficient village sociei; survived successfully the most violent political storms, religious upheavals, dynastic wars and military holocausts. This stubborn survival of the economic structure of pre-British society, was according to Desai, due to the fact that none of the invaders or belligerents represented a new mode of production, higher than the feudal mode on which the Indian economy was based.

The British conquest of India, therefore, brought about tremendous change in the social, cconomic, political and ideological framework of society. The colonial impact on the one hand destroyed the self-sufficient village economy and society, and, on the other hand, it introduced far reaching novel ideas of Western society like the concept of equality, liberalism, humanism and rationality. These ideas, absorbed by a class of intellectuals belonging to largely upper castes led to the rise of reform and revivalistic movements such as of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Dayanand and so on.

6.2.1 Colonial Period At the advent of the British who arrived in India and established the East India Company, society in India was in a state of ferment. From the dcath of Aurangzeb in 1706 to 1818-19 when the Maratha power was crushed and the British hegemony was recognised all over the sub-continent a period of all round decline had set in.

The British Mercantile interests were such that it ruined the indigenous industries and led to widespread impoverishment of the artisans. The political tyranny of the British became increasingly oppressive since 1757 after the battle of Plassey. The social and economic decline continued inspite of several well meaning British administrators who attempted to reform the system but were held back because of "home interest" on the one Rand and because they relied on the petty European Officers and Indian agents for the exccution of their policies on the other.

Also, till 1813, and more correctly till 1833, the East India Company was primarily interested in its trading activities and the profits derived from the revenue thus accrued from the territory they controlled. Another feature of Indian society which discouraged or dispirited them from introducing social rcforms was the fear that they might be misunderstood by the people. The strong religious basis of Indian society and culture were alien to them and to disturb it was not in their interest.

However, for their own convenience they introduced the railway system for transport of goods, personnel, effective communication, etc. British were also responsible for introducing telegraph and postal system. But some of the leaders of the British Public who surveyed the dismal scene in India during the 19th century were conscious of their responsibilities and were concerned about its state of affairs. Therefore, we find that India was "ne of the main issues of debate in the British Parliament and arguments centrcd around the question of how to promote the social and cultural welfare of the peopie of India, to which British Parliament had committed under the pressure of humanists like Edmund Burke and his followers.

During the colonial period, as a measure of economic reform the fzrmanent Settlement of land revenue was introduced in 1793 by Lord Cornwalis. It was started with the intention of recognizing the rights of the countrymen and also to create a class of Indian Zamindars, such as the landed aristocracy of England, who would support the British rule in their turn. Due to this settlement, the land which in India was never owned by individual proprietors, was not owned by individual proprictors, was not even ever the property of the King or the Feudatory became a marketable commodity. This led to various changes in the social structure of the Socio-Historical Perspective I1 village community. You will learn more about this in the last sections on continuity and change in India.

6.2.2 Post Colonial Period

The freedom struggle brought about independence in 1947 when the political reign of the government passed over to Indians by the British Government. Free India continued with the parliamentary democracy introduced by the British. On 26th January, 1950 India was declared a Republic and the Constitution of India was formally adopted. The Preamble of the Constitution which provides its aims and objectives, proclaimed India to be a Sovereign Democratic Republic. Later on the terms "Socialist Secular"was also added. The constitution aimed to secure to its citizens -justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. The post colonial society was marked by an intense period of constructive changes, idealism and optimism. The Five Year Plans were-adopted to bring about economic development through a socialistic pattern. Thus, mixed economywas adopted which gave emphasis to both the private sector as well as the public sector. Private Sector covered areas, such as, agriculture, some of the industries, etc. where the individual economic initiative counted. The public sector was controlled by the Indian Government. The largest and best example of Public Sector in India is the Indian Railways, some of the industries, and later even banks, came under the public sector. This was done to protect the largely poor, underdeveloped and backward people of India, who would not have been able to survive without the government support. Pro-poor efforts were made by giving subsidised food, electricity, education, etc. in order to maintain the socialistic ideal of India's leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru.

The Zamindari system was abolished after Independence in 1950 in order to remove the intermediaries from agriculture. The Land Ceiling Act was passed so that effective land distribution could take place and land could go to the tillers. However, all these land reforms

.I made only a minor dent and people, especially of upper castes and class found ways and means to control land and thereby power in the rural areas. Community Development Programmes were also initiated in 1952 to bring about social economic changes in the rural

' areas. Developments in science, technology and research brought tremendous changes in agriculture. Instead of consumption alone, now farmers started growing crops for the market i.e. cash crops. This led to the commercialisation of agriculture. During the 1960's and 70's all these developments led to the "Green Revolution" in areas of Haryana, Punjab, Western U.?, Maharashtra, etc.

6.2.3 Contemporary Period

However, contemporary period which we may consider to be from 1980's onwards has seen a shift from the earlier socialistic pattern with the selective opening of market and liberalisation. There have been changes in several areas. Modern Mass Communication technologies like radio, television, satellite television, transport systems, etc. have brought Indian society close to the global society. Computer and Computer networking, fax and other electronic advances are changing the very face of not only Indian society but other societies of the world, as well.

But inspite of phenomenal change in life style, values, behaviour, etc. many of the traditional structures and values related with them persist. One major structure which emerges time and again is caste structure. It has changed a lot from its earlier form of being rooted in the concept of purity and pollution. But its main persistence lies in its relationship with kinship and marriage.

In the next section we will explain the concept of caste and class in detail.

rCheck Your Progress-1 1) What was the most distinctive feature of colonial period as against the pre-colonial period? I . Structure 2) Who introduced the Permanent Settlement of land revenue administration in India and when?

63 CASTE AND CLASS IN INDIA

To understand the rural and urban social structures of India, the understanding of the concept of caste and class becomes very important. The importance of caste in determining the nature of human groups and human relationships in India is self evident when we examine the nature of Indian society. Class in India is to be understood in the historical sense as being closely related to caste. In the pre-colonial period it overlapped with caste. Due to various changes introduced by the British caste and class have emerged as "dissonant categories" i.e. the upper castes may not be upper classes as well.

6.3.1 Concept of Caste

Caste is a system of social stratification which lies at the very root of Indian social structure. - By social structure, we mean the persistent pattern of social interaction existing within and among social groups. These patterns of interaction are guided by the normative system of the society.

Caste structure is thus a pattern of spcial behaviour in which groups and individuals are guided by prescribed set of norms, values and sanctions.

The groups and individuals occupy specific statutes within and in relation to other groups. In this system individuals are born into a certain caste and thereby occupy the associated status and take up the role in accordance with that caste identity. Thus, caste is a closed ended social group.

Sociologists have defined caste or 'jati' (as locally referred to) as a 'heriditary' endagarnous group which is usually localised. It has a traditional association with an occupation and a particular position in the local hierarchy of castes. Relations between castes are governed, among other things, by the concepts of pollution and purity and generally maximum commensality i.e. interdining within the caste".This definition described the ideal form of caste system. However, in real life there are innumerable variations and permutations in terms of structure and functioning of caste system.

Being a dynamic reality which is highly flexible, it has shown tremendous variations from one region to another. In spite of all its variations found in different regions of India and its persistence in other religious communities, there are some aspects which enable us to identify it. This continuity element of caste is related to its linkage with:

i) A 'varna' system or order which is recognised all over India. As per this model, there are four 'varnas' which literally means colour and which are associated with certain occupations. These are the (priests and scholar), the (ruler and the soldier, the (merchant) and the (peasant, labourer and servant). All the various castes and subcastes or jatis which approximately number about 4000 belong to these four varna. The first three varnas, i.e. , Kshatriya and Vaishya are twice born or 'divine' since the men of these castes are entitled to do the sacred thread at the Vedic rite of . The shudras were not allowed to perform this rite. The other castes and tribal groups did not fall into this 'varna' category. %lo-Historical Perspective 11 ii) Caste structure is closely interlinked with kinship system amongst the Hindus in India. The sole reason for this relationship lies in the endogamous nature of caste system. Endogamy means marriage within one's own social group or community.

Caste is basically a closed system of stratification, since members are recruited on the basis of ascribed status. An individual becomes a member of a caste in which he or she is born and generally marries a person belonging to the same caste. Even if there is social mobility in the caste system through the process of sanskritisation, urbanisation, etc. it is only a positional change in the local caste hierarchy rather than a structural change.

Kinship system in India is largely an analysis of the internal structure of the sub-caste or jati. The sub-caste is the largest segment of caste and it performs nearly all the functions of caste like endogamy, social control, etc. It is these segments of the main sub-caste which form the effective functioninggroup within which social interaction, marriage, etc. take place. iii) Lastly, caste as mentioned earlier, had traditionally been associated with certain occupations. These occupations were categorised into 'clean' and 'unclean' occupations depending on the degree of pollution or purity associated with them. For example, those castes which were associated with sweeping and scavenging i.e. dealing with dead animals were considered to be 'unclean' occupations/castes. Those castes associated with learning and scholarly pursuits especially of Veda, were considered to be 'clean' castes, such as, the Brahmin. This was because learning, specially of the religious scriptures, was associated with the concept of purity.

Each caste had its own caste panchayat which took care of the traditional socio-culturaland territorial boundary of the caste. It had the power of excommuication or punishment like fine, etc. to keep its members in control. There was also an economic aspect of caste which linked different castes of a village or surrounding villages to each other. This link was of economic and social nature where one caste served another in a 'jajmani' relationship or patron-client relationship.

From a purely Brahmanic or sanskriticview, it appears as if, this system was rigid and closed. However, when we examine historical data ranging back to the Vedic period we find that in reality there existed a lot of flexibility in social mobilitywith the gain of economic and political power. There are a number of examples from 5th century B.C. when many lower caste groups tried to acquire the status of Kshatriyas through usurpation of political power.

Caste system should best be understood as a dynamic reality having a degree of flexibility in terms of internal structure and functions which has adopted to the need of changing times. For example, during colonial and post colonial period we see the emergence of caste associations, such as, the Kshatriya Mahasabha, the Nadar Mahasangam, etc. which were totally modern social groups. Although these associations were based on caste and community, they functioned like model organisations aspiring to gain social, political and economic benefits for their members.

Caste system was found not only in the Hindu communities but some features of it are present in other religious communities as well. One major reason for this was that some of these religious communities have large number of 'converted' Hindus, such as, amongst the Muslims, the Christians and the Sikhs.

63.2 Caste in Different Communities

Some of the broad features of caste system of stratification have already been explained to you. Let us now concentrate on the specific communities and features of caste system found amongst them. a) Caste amongst the Hindu

A Hindu is born in a jati (caste) and follows hislher in this birth to improve the future birth. As you learnt earlier, Hindus are divided into four varnas namely, Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishhya and Shudra. These four categories are ranked from higher to lower in the order mentioned here. The varna system of dividing the members of the Hindu society is an ideological construct which is mentioned in the Hindu religious scriptures. As mentioned earlier, each varna is associated with particular occupations and the identity of all Hindus Soclal Structure can be placed in terms of one of the four varnas. Most of the basic ideas onvarna system and its links to the concepts of karma, i.e. deeds done by an individual and dharma i.e. duties of an individual morally prescribed by religion, are generally present in the thinking of Hindus.

The life of a Hindu is considered to be divisible into four stages called Varnashrama, namely:

i) brahmacharya ashram ii) ashram iii) vanprastha ashram iv) sanyasa ashram

It is the dharma of a Hindu to pass through these stages in one's life. The male members of Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya varna are supposed to pass through these four different ashrams in their life. However, traditionally, the fourth varna, that is the Shudra and women were barred from the first ashram, that is, the brahmacharya ashram since learning of Vedas was denied to them. Recently, women have raised objection to this practice. At present most Hindus do not systematically go through these stages. Like the four varnas, the four stages of life are models. The ultimate release from the cycle of birth and rebirth comes due to one's good deeds or karma in life, which is by performing one's dharma or scared duty as members of a caste, as a family member and so on. The final release or attainment of absoluteknowledge is called ''. Moksha itself is also part of a scheme of dharma, , and moksha. -.

b) Caste amongst the Muslims

Islam is claimed by its believers to be a religion of equality. We find that the Quran recommends the egalitarian principle but in reality there are social divisions amongst IndianMuslims. The most popularly known division among the Muslims all over the world is the division between shias and sunnis. They hold divergent views of and interpretations over Islamic texts and tradition. In India, a vast majority of Muslims are Sunni. Apart from these kind of divisions there are also other kinds of social groupings among Muslims in India, which reflect the influence of Hindu beliefs and practices specially those relating to caste system.

Muslims in India are divided into two major sections (i) those who claim to be the descendants of early Muslim immigrants and (ii) those of indigenous origin whose ancestors were converted to Islam. The former section has often been called Ashraf or Shurafa (singular sharif, Arabic word meaning honourable), while the latter section does not have any specific name. In Bengal, it was designated as Ashraf (for clean occupational castes) and Anal (for unclean castes).

1) Higher Caste (Ashraf) category of Muslim

In the Muslim social hierarchy, the descendants of immigrants from Persia, Afghanistan, Arabia and Turkistan are recognised as the highest category of Muslims in India. The Indian Muslim castes, known as Sayyed, Sheikh, Mughal, Pathan comprise this category.

Sayyeds are considered to have descended from Fatima's line. She was the daughter of the Prophet Muhammed. A direct descendants of the Prophet, Sayyed are accorded highest social status among the Muslims.

In the second rank of social hierarchy come the Sheikh. They are considered to be the descendants of early Muslim migrants of Mecca and Madina. The Mughal and Pathan subdivisions of the Ashraf rank third in the social hierarchy of Muslims. Both are almost equal in social status. Those who came to India with the Mughal armies and subsequently settled here, were known as the Mughal. Their main subdivisions, based on different ethnic and tribal origins are Chagtai, Uzbek, Tajik, Tukmans and Qizilbash.

The Pathans are descendants of those who migrated to Indian from Afghanistan or from the Pashto speakers of the North Western Frontier Province of Pakistan. Among the Ashraf groups are also included those pseudo - Ashrafs who claim descent from one of the Ashraf caste. Ghaus Ansari a leading socialist has given several examples of attempts by some groups for raising their social status through their claims to Ashraf descent. Ansari has givm a long list of certain castes, mentioned in the 1931 census report of Uttar Pradesh. These Muslirp castes have tried to raise their social status by claiming new surnames and also corresponding higher status. Socio-Historical Perspective 11 2) Muslim Converts of Indian Origin

The Muslim converts of Indian origin are generally known by their caste names. In this group are placed three distinct groups, namely, converts from high caste of the Hindus, converts from clean occupational castes and converts from unclean occupational castes, such as, scavengers and people working with leather (tanners).

In the social hierarchy of the Muslims in India, converts from high castes of the Hindus are placed below the rank of Ashraf. Many of other Rajput sects (i.e. branches of a family) in north India have Muslim branches, eg. the Bais, Bhatti, Bisen, Chandel, Bargujar, Chauhan, Pawar, Rathore, Tomar. Sometimes these groups inter mix with higher ranking groups of Muslims.

By and large these converts still follow some of the Hindu practices, eg. they do not marry first cousins, either cross or parallel. Islamic law allows the marriage of near kin whereas among the Hindus of north India, prohibition regarding marriage exteuds to distant degrees of kinship relations both on the father's side, as well as mother's.

Unclean are those which occupy the bottom place in the Muslim social hierarchy. They are the untouchable castes of Hindus who converted to Islam and have retained their low status and poverty along with their occupation. These people do the menial tasks, including scavenging and sweeping.

Castes among the Muslims also reflect the essential features of caste system amongst the Hindus. These cultural characteristics being: i) endogaiy ii) occupational specialisation iii) hierarchical ordering iv) restrictions on social intercourse and commensality.

Muslims in India use the term zat (equivalent of caste) to express the purity of descent. Thus, zat is primarily an endagarpous unit of society. The households belonging to each zat in the village conceive of themselves as a collectivity and designate themselves as bhaiband or biradari (literally caste brotherhood). This solidarity among the members is not merely a fictional notion, but rests on demonstrable kinship linkages.

The biradari resembles caste in the features of its inner structure, eg. membership is determined by birth and the group boundaries are maintained through endogamy. Among the Ashrafs, the caste brotherhoods are subdivided again into marriage circles to provide a restricted circle in which to choose a wife, whereas the Biradari generally functions for all ceremonial intercourse, the marriage circles within the Biradari is restricted to the choosing of wives. The Muslim Rajputs are very endogamous but do not marry first cousins as Ashrafs do. Occupational castes like Qasab (butcher), Manihar (bangle maker) are almost strictly endogamous and generally do not marry outside their castes.

These various castes have a definite place in their local marriage is restricted within their own groups. However, there are no restrictions on interdining or concept of purity and pollution. c) Castes among the Christians

The Christians in India, believe that when they converted from Hinduism to Christianity, they were forced to break away from their original caste group. However, their caste status is maintained by them because they are careful to behave in certain ways which are in keeping with caste defined behaviour. They maintain the traditional boundaries and distances between high and low castes, even though this is against the moral law of Christian life.

The Syrian Christians of Kerala believe that their ancestors were Brahmins who were converted to Christianity by St. Thomas, a follower and friend of Jesus Christ. St Thomas came to Kerala in 52 A.D. Syrian Christians enjoy high social status and marry amongst their own community.

Like the Hindus, Christians too have faith in horoscopes, tie the tali or marriage locket and observe death pollution and follow many of the Hindu customs and traditions. 21 Social Structure Besides the Hindus, Muslims and Christians, other religions too have caste - like elements in them such as, Sikhism, which is a religion founded by Guru Nanak and believes in the fundamental equality of all men and women. It is against the caste system which was based on inequality. However, in practice, we find social divisions between them which are made evident in terms of marriage with in one's caste.

6.3.3 Concept of Class

Class has been defined as a kind of social group which is neither legally defined nor religiously sanctioned. It is a stratum of people occupying similar social and economic position. Wealth, education, income and occupation are some of the bas,ic determinants of class. It is relatively open, i.e. any one who satisfies the basic criteria can become its member. There are several classes in a society, hierarchically ranked primarily in terms of wealth and income. The differences in wealth and income are expressed in terms of different life styles and consumption patterns.

6.3.4 Classes in India

Social classes are the characteristic features of industrial societies. Class in India, as we see them today had their genesis during the colonial rule. This is not to say that the class phenomenon was absent in the pre-British Indian society. The class dimension of Indian society was only less pronounced than it turned out to be during the British period.

The self-sufficiency of the village community, the building block of the Indian society, was one of the reasons behind it as mentioned at the beginning of the unit. The village community produced only what was required for the consumption needs of the village. There was hence, little surplus and as a result very little differentiation in terms of class among the village population.

Even when there was a marked class dimension, it was overshadowed by the caste component. In fact, the only sphere where class dimension showed itself rather more sharply was in the nature of interaction between the rulers and the ruled. The King and his courtiers represented a class quite distinct from the subjects over whom they ruled. The courtiers comprised the Zamindars, Jagirdars and so on. They alongwith the King lived on the revenue collected from the village community under their jurisdiction.

Besides these classes there were also classes of administrative officers of various ranks, merchants, artisans and specialists of various kinds.

The colonial rule in India proved to be a turning point in the Indian history. It introduced new elements which led to some radical changes in the structure of Indian society. Now let us examine the change and continuity in India which was brought about by the impact of the colonial rule. The colonial rule led to the changes in the class formation in India; the rise of National Movement and finally, some of the crucial social problems that India is facing today.

nCheck Your Progr@ss-2 1) Define the concept of caste...... Socio-HistoricalPerspective I1 2) Describe the characteristics of caste amongst the Muslims.

3) Fill in the blanks:

a) Caste is a closed system of stratification as compared with b) The practice of marriage within one's own social group is called . c) One of the major determinants of class is

CHANGE AND CONTINUITY IN INDIA

Here we will first discuss the impact of colonial period on the social structure

6.4.1 Impact of Colonial Rule The emergence of new social classes in India was the consequence of far reaching changes brought about by the British in the economic structure of India. The first change they brought about was in the area of agriculture. The British administration revolutionised the existing land revenue system. It did away with the traditional rights of the village community over the village land. Instead it created individual ownership rights in land by introducing certain measures during the 18th century, such as, the permanent settlement, the Ryotwari settlement and the Mahalwari settlement. With this land became a private property, a commodity in the market. It could be mortgaged, purchased or sold. Till the village ownership of land existed, the village was the unit of assessment. The new land revenue system eliminated the village as the unit. It introduced the system of individual land assessment and revenue payment. Previously, revenue was fmed at a specific portion of the year's actual produce. This was replaced by a system of fmed money payment irrespective of crops. The Mughal system of revenue on crop was replaced with tax on land. The landlord or cultivator was hence forced to meet this demand. Further, the payment of revenue in cash gave way to production of cash crops in place of food crops.

A new class of land owners, was created whose interest in the land was confined to collection of rents. There were several landlords who never stayed in the village but owned land. They were called absentee landlords. A whole structure of landlords i.e. the Zamindars, tenants, subtenants and agricultural labourers existed and depended on the land. This structure varied from region to region depending on the owners, the intermediaries and tillers of the land during the colonial period.

However, with the expanding railway and transport system production for market became fairly well established. This commercialisation of agriculture, in turn, stimulated the growth of trade adcommerce in India.

Trade and Commerce Trade and commerce were centred around two things - i) supply of raw materials for industries in Britain and ii) procuring British manufactured goods for consumption in India. The latter aspect had a disastrous effect on town and village handicrafts. The indigenous handicraft items could not face the competition from the British manufactured goods which were machine made and products of their industries. Thus, the indigenous village and town handicrafts got disintegrated. Artisans lost their livelihoods and some migrated to the cities, some fell back on agriculture which in turn led to mass impoverisation. Social Structure The Expanding of Railways and Roads

The expansion of railways was done with a view to meet the raw material requirements of industries in Brit.&. The construction of railways and roads also gave scope for investment of British Capital in India. It led to better mobility of troops for establishment of law and order. The investment of British capital found an outlet initially in such spheres as plantation (indigo, tea), cotton, jute and mining industries. This was the beginning of the industrialisation process in India. By then, there was accumulation of sufficient savings on the part of Indian traders and merchants. This served as capital and made possible the creation of industries owned by Indians in some cases.

State and Administrative System

To deal-with all these aspects of Indian social reality, the British government had organised a huge and extensive state machinery to administer the conquered territory. The Civil Services, which exists even today was created by the British to deal with the task of Civil Administration. It initially had British officers but later as the numberof educated Indians increased, it came to be manned by Indians. It was not possible for the British to secure staff of educated people from Britain for running such a huge administrative machinery. Therefore, they introduced Western education in India to primarily serve their own needs.

Thus, schools, colleges and universities were established to impart Western education to the Indians. As a consequence, the Indian society experienced an uneven growth of social classes.

Uneven Growth of Social Classes in India Social forces which developed during the colonial period spread both ir. time and tempo unevenly giving rise to uneven growth of social classes. The reason for uneven impact of British rule was because their political power spread unevenly. For example, it was in Bengal that the two classes of Zamindars and tenants came into existence first. Again it was in Bengal and Bomkiy that the first industrial enterprises started. This led to the emergence of the class of industrialists and workers in this region. It was for this reason that the British established . a complex administrative system and introduced modern education first in Bengal and Bombay. Alongwith the above developments, the rise of new social classes was also uneven in different communities as well. This was duetothe fact that certain communities were already engaged in definite economic, social or educational vocations in pre-British period. For example, Baniyas were traders by vocation in our traditional social structure. Hence, they were the first to take up modern commerce, banking and industrial enterprises. Similarly, Brahmins were the first to take up modern education and enter professional classes. These communities took up the new challenges and entered these spheres of activity first because they already possessed the basic disposition towards these occupations. Thus, on the eve of Independence, we find that Indian social structure was made up of innumerable castes and clqses. In some cases, these coincided with each other but in some they did not.

6.4.2 Rise of the Indian National Movement

In the 19th century and the early parts of the 20th century, the middle classes began to think in terms of reforming and modernising Indian society. The reformist attempts contained both religious and social components. The political movement for freedom began only at the end of the 19th century. But social reality being inter-related and complex; the rise of the new educated middle class, the reformist and revivalist movements had a very close connection with the later political movement for Independence from British rule. The Reformist Movements

One of the early 19th century reformers was Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) of Bengal who believed that Indians could become progressive if they shed the supertitious and evil practices, such as Sati, infanticide, etc. He advanced a new kind of religion which combined Christian teachings with . He founded the Brahmo Samaj which was meant to be a spiritual forum, where a monotheistic, non idolatrous worship could be conducted by its members who had nothing to do with caste or superstition. Ram Mohw Roy's influence was mainly confined to urban literate groups of Bengal. Soclo-Historical Perspective I1 In the same century, Mahadev Govind Ranade, a jurist of Maharastra, founded the Prarthana Samai in Bombav. This was broadlv modelled on the Brahmo Samaj of Bengal. The social reactions raised the two movements were, however, quite different: The Brahmo Samaj by its insistence on reforms was strongly opposed by orthodox Hindus led by Kant Dev and others. Here was a confrontation between tradition and modernity. By contrast, the liberal trends initiated by Prarthana Samaj, did not create a direct conflict between tradition and modernity. Unlike the members of Brahmo Samaj, its members did not lead a distinctive, anit-traditionalist life style. So, there was no sharp reaction from the society in Maharashtra. Apart from these social reform endeavours, there also existed strong movements of protests by lower caste groups against the upper caste domination. Western and South India were the strong holds of such protests. People lieJyoti Rao Govind Rao, Phule took the initiative in leading such movements.

The Revivalist Movement

.Revivalist movements began as a measure of self-,assertion, search for identity and revival of lost honour as perceived by its people.

The Arya Samaj launched by Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1883) was based on an appeal to people to shed the unhealthy features of Hinduism (such as, caste orthodoxy, superstitition, ritualism, etc.) and go back to the pristine purity of Vedas. It sponsored a kind of education which had both traditional and modern components. The DAV (Dayanand Anglo Vedic) Colleges. spread education in north India on a wide scale.

There was another revivalist movement which became populu during the same century. This was the Mission founded by Vivekanand after his religious Guru Shri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. This mission had two purposes.

Fist to to make educated people in India realise their responsibility to the weaker sections, and take steps to remove poverty and social backwardness. Secondly, to propagate Indian Vedanta to the Westerners.

In order to achieve the first, many schools ind hostels were founded in urban, rural and tribal areas to improve education and employment prospects of common people. With regard to the second, Advaita centres were established in many Western countries to bring about spiritual awakening among the Western people.

Movement for Independence

Towards the end of the 19th century a political movement for the attainment of Independence arose. TheIndian National Congress was founded in 1885by A.O. Hume and its main purpose was to establish a political forum for debates and discussions.

Most members of the Congress were drawn fromurban, literate groups. Its essentially middle class character persisted from 1885till 1918. With the coming of M.K. Gandhi on the political scene, the Congress became a mass political organisation in which primary members were drawn from urban professional groups, peasants, artisans and industrial workers.

Numerous Congress leaders and followers went to prison undzr the charge of sedition during the Swadeshi Movement (1905), Non-Cooperation Movement (1920 - 22) Civil Disobedience Movement (1930 - 34) and Quit India Movement (194). Several people were also executed for their participation in terrorist activities. However, the distinctive mark of the Indian struggle for Independence was its non-violent character.

The socio-religious movements indirectly contributed to political movements through education and reforms. The former type of movement induced self-confidence, while the latter type created a political consciousness. Thus, the two type of movem,-nts were complementary developments in Indian Society.

6.43 Independent India and its Social Problems

India acquired Independence on the historic day of 15th August, 1947 and its constitution was framed on the lines of British Constitution, except that unlike the British, Indian Constitution is written. Social Structure The initial period of self-governance was tumultuons as India was socially, politically and economically in a distraught condition. India and Pakistan had emerged as two nations. Partition had taken place; communal riots were rampant. Society was trying to gear towards a new meaningful existence. The policy makers of independent India should be credited with initiating the following measures:

abolition of untouchability through constitutional intervention, a policy of reservation for depressed castes in the government jobs and legislatures as a part of the policy of protective discimination, and ensuring religious freedom and protecting the rights of various minority groups.

All these principles of social justice were guaranteed through the constitution. The efforts of Dr. B.R. Ambedka.r, Nehru and others were noteworthy in incorporating them into the constitution.

The kind of social problems that still persist in India, inspite of rapid changes and growth in I its economy, technology and access to new opportunities are related to:

i) problem of poverty - both absolute and relative; and ii) rise in population, despite tremendous economic development. Poverty and rise of population are inter-related phenomenon and form a vicious circle.

Government has made several attem~tsthrough Five Year Plans; Welfare Schemes, etc. to remove poverty. Even today family planning schemes exist, although the focus is now being placed on the care of mother and child rather than control of population alone. This is being done, as research has proved a close relation between education and rise of population; and also there is a direct relationship between infant mortality and rise of population. Thus, education of women, care of mother and child is viewed as a way of controlling population. There are some new problems also arising today as a result of rapid urbanisation and industrialisation. These are the growth of slums in cities, rise of unemployment, crime inurban areas, delinquency, dowry deaths, etc.

Thus, we see that society in India has changed in many respects yet the traditional roots of caste and ethnic identities, social and political culture continue.

nCheck Your Progress3 1) In what way are the castes and classes in India related with each other. Discuss in about 10 lines......

...... ) ......

2) Who founded the Brahmo Samaj and what were its basic ideas? ...... Socio-Historical Perspective I1 3) Match the following:

-4. Raja Ram Mohan Roy 1. Indian National Congress B. Mahadev Govind Ranade 2. Brahmo Samaj C. A.O. Hume 3. Arya Samai D. Dayanand Saraswati 4. Prarthana Samaj

6.5 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit you fust learnt about the society in India from a historical perspective. You learnt about the difference between the pre-colonial India and colonial India and learnt how prior to the British the village autonomy was not disturbed inspite of different conquests, socio-religious unheavals, etc. In the post- colonial period with the emergence of the middle class, the new aspirations and opportunities for social mobility developed.

In the Section on caste and class in India we described thc concept of caste; its various features its existence ia different religious con~munitiesin India. We also defined the concept of class and described the nature of classes in India.

Finally, i? the Section on change and continuity in India, the impact of the British on Indian society has been outlined. %'e have described the rise of National Movement in India along with socio religious and political movements. The social problems related with poverty, rise of population aspirations of its people have been touched upon in this Unit.

KEY WORIIS

Endogamy : It is the custom of marrying within :)nc's ow3 social group, such as the caste group.

Permutations : 'The numbcr of ways in which a social group, like a caste group can be arranged.

Purity and Pollution : It is an abstract notion which considers certain activities,objects and occupations rltually purc or poliuting in the caste society. For example, vegetarianism is cons:dered iitudlp purer than non- vegetarianism. Both these concepts are relative to each other.

: The castes belonghg to the first thr~r:Varna i.e., Brahmins. Kqhatriya and Vaishya, whose malt memiws undcrgo {bethread ccremony callcd the "Upanayana Sarnskara." They are called "twice-born" or "dwija"because mcmbxs of these castes are con- *,idzredto be blessed with both ph? jic;?; a\ well as spirit~:;tlbirth.

Social Stratification : It is the process of differed21 ranking 8trere a socicty is divided in segments a116 these segments are hicrarchially ranked.

Protective : It refcrs to the policy of the stat-, to saf(::~uardand promote :he Discrimination intc:ec! oft!,!: ilackward classcs cifpopulath~rmby giving j;rotection to them. This is expressed ;n stilk policy of rcserva1io:i of scats, jobs in ~duca:~on,services dnd Icr!i:ii.i~urt!'t.,r the schccinled castes, !rii-w*c,and backward class~s.T hi: terns "affirmative action," "rc\.:r;e discrimination" ;rnd "c:omr?en .: .il;ry discriminalion" are alsci uscd.

Social Mobility : TJY process of shifting of s:&l :r,t,it;l ,I by i~dividualsor social ml I in the sccial llierarchy :s ral'. : .;;-ial mobility. It could be

bo:a upwdrtl :,I doivnwar d anit ,:I- . -LL r'ical or hor17or:tal i.e. in -- .L: it is more from a %oc:a! po5itic tn nnolhel which has equai !'i;ljk.. 27 6.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES rCheck Your Progress-1 1) The most distinctive feature of colonial period as against the pre-colonial period was that for once the self- sufficiency of the village unit was disturbed. Due to the introduction of a new kind of land revenue collection system, the British turned land into a commodity which could be bought, mortgaged or sold in the market. Also see Sub-sec. 6.2.1.

2) Lord Cornwalis introduced the Permanent settlement in the region of Bengal, United Provinces and some other regions in 1'793. nCheck Your Progress3 1) Caste is a system of social stratification which is close ended where membership is restricted to those born in that social group. It is hereditary, endogamous group which is usually localised and has a traditional association with an occupation. Also see Sub-sec. 6.3.1.

2) The various castes, both of the immigrants called Ashrafs and clean and unclean castes of Indian converts reflect the main characteristicof caste. These caste groups are ordered hierarchially, endogamous, maximum social intercourse takes place within the social group. Also see Sub-sec. 6.3.2. 3) a. class b. eodogamy c wealth and income

1) In the pre-colonial period the upper casteswere generally speaking also the upper classes in terms of wealth, income, power and status. After the arrival of British and the impact of their rule this overlap of caste and classes in India became comparatively less. Education, income, status became disassociated from caste position. But still, it has been found that those castes which had a traditional inclination towards an occupation, such as, learning and professions of Brahmins entered it first. Also see Section 6.4

2) Brahmo Samaj was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1722-1833) and it tried to combine Christian teachings with Vedanta. It was against supertitious worship of idols and believed in one God. It tried to abolish sati (practice of burning the widow along with her husbands corpse), infanticide, etc.

3) A. 2 B. 4 C. 1 D. 3 UNIT 6 SOCIO-HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE - I1

Structure Objectives Introduction Society in India: A Historical Perspective 6.2.1 Colonial Period 6.2.2 Post Colonial Period 6.2.3 ContemporaryPeriod Caste and Class in India 6.3.1 Concept of Caste 6.3.2 Caste in Different Communities 6.3.3 Concept of Class 6.3.4 Classes in India Change and Continuity in India 6.4.1 Impact of Colonial Rule 6.4.2 Rise of the Indian National Mwcment 6.4.3 Independent India and its Social Problems Let Us Sum UP Key Words Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

6.0 OBJECTIVES

In this Unit we have focussed attention on the socio-historical perspective of Indian society from the colonial period, to the contemporary period. After studying this Unit you will be able to:

describe the nature of society during the colonial period, post colonial period and the contemporary period. explain the. concept of caste, its structure and functioi~ingamong the various religious communities like Hindus, Muslims and Christians, explain the concept of caste and class in India, and outline the main aspects of continuity and change in Indian society.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The main aspects of Indian social structure, such as, castc: and class, social problems and continuity and change in society have been broadly outlincd in this Unit. The Unit carries forward the diiscussion we started in Unit 5. Here we will discuss the nature of society that excited in India when th British arrived. We will take note of the changes experienced during the colonial period. The social structure in post colonial India will also be discussed. A diiscussion on the concept of caste and class in India will also be undertaken. TEt: influence of national movement on social ethos and thinking will also find a place.

6.2 SOCIETY IN INDIA: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Society in India has been historically marked by several conquests and invasions. However, prior to the British conquest, these conquests and invasions had led to a changc in the political regimes only. As far as the basic economic structure of India was concerned, these political changes did not penetrate to the largely agrarian village society.

India had maintained a relatively stable, more or less, stagnant socio-economicexistence for several centuries. Sociologists and social An!hropologists assign this characteristic feature Social Structure of Indian society to the se!f-sufficient village system which was based on:

.land possecsscl by the community, unity of village industry and agriculture, the vi!lage as the unit of revenue assessment. and villagc pruthic~ior?almest exc:osivcly for use by the billage comnlunily.

This structure of society according to a leading sociologist A.R. Desai "triumphantly survived, in its main outlines for centuries all foreign invasions, military convulsions, religious upheavals and dynastic wars", in pre-British India.

The self-sufficient village sociei; survived successfully the most violent political storms, religious upheavals, dynastic wars and military holocausts. This stubborn survival of the economic structure of pre-British society, was according to Desai, due to the fact that none of the invaders or belligerents represented a new mode of production, higher than the feudal mode on which the Indian economy was based.

The British conquest of India, therefore, brought about tremendous change in the social, cconomic, political and ideological framework of society. The colonial impact on the one hand destroyed the self-sufficient village economy and society, and, on the other hand, it introduced far reaching novel ideas of Western society like the concept of equality, liberalism, humanism and rationality. These ideas, absorbed by a class of intellectuals belonging to largely upper castes led to the rise of reform and revivalistic movements such as of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Dayanand Saraswati and so on.

6.2.1 Colonial Period At the advent of the British who arrived in India and established the East India Company, society in India was in a state of ferment. From the dcath of Aurangzeb in 1706 to 1818-19 when the Maratha power was crushed and the British hegemony was recognised all over the sub-continent a period of all round decline had set in.

The British Mercantile interests were such that it ruined the indigenous industries and led to widespread impoverishment of the artisans. The political tyranny of the British became increasingly oppressive since 1757 after the battle of Plassey. The social and economic decline continued inspite of several well meaning British administrators who attempted to reform the system but were held back because of "home interest" on the one Rand and because they relied on the petty European Officers and Indian agents for the exccution of their policies on the other.

Also, till 1813, and more correctly till 1833, the East India Company was primarily interested in its trading activities and the profits derived from the revenue thus accrued from the territory they controlled. Another feature of Indian society which discouraged or dispirited them from introducing social rcforms was the fear that they might be misunderstood by the people. The strong religious basis of Indian society and culture were alien to them and to disturb it was not in their interest.

However, for their own convenience they introduced the railway system for transport of goods, personnel, effective communication, etc. British were also responsible for introducing telegraph and postal system. But some of the leaders of the British Public who surveyed the dismal scene in India during the 19th century were conscious of their responsibilities and were concerned about its state of affairs. Therefore, we find that India was "ne of the main issues of debate in the British Parliament and arguments centrcd around the question of how to promote the social and cultural welfare of the peopie of India, to which British Parliament had committed under the pressure of humanists like Edmund Burke and his followers.

During the colonial period, as a measure of economic reform the fzrmanent Settlement of land revenue was introduced in 1793 by Lord Cornwalis. It was started with the intention of recognizing the rights of the countrymen and also to create a class of Indian Zamindars, such as the landed aristocracy of England, who would support the British rule in their turn. Due to this settlement, the land which in India was never owned by individual proprietors, was not owned by individual proprictors, was not even ever the property of the King or the Feudatory became a marketable commodity. This led to various changes in the social structure of the Socio-Historical Perspective I1 village community. You will learn more about this in the last sections on continuity and change in India.

6.2.2 Post Colonial Period

The freedom struggle brought about independence in 1947 when the political reign of the government passed over to Indians by the British Government. Free India continued with the parliamentary democracy introduced by the British. On 26th January, 1950 India was declared a Republic and the Constitution of India was formally adopted. The Preamble of the Constitution which provides its aims and objectives, proclaimed India to be a Sovereign Democratic Republic. Later on the terms "Socialist Secular"was also added. The constitution aimed to secure to its citizens -justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. The post colonial society was marked by an intense period of constructive changes, idealism and optimism. The Five Year Plans were-adopted to bring about economic development through a socialistic pattern. Thus, mixed economywas adopted which gave emphasis to both the private sector as well as the public sector. Private Sector covered areas, such as, agriculture, some of the industries, etc. where the individual economic initiative counted. The public sector was controlled by the Indian Government. The largest and best example of Public Sector in India is the Indian Railways, some of the industries, and later even banks, came under the public sector. This was done to protect the largely poor, underdeveloped and backward people of India, who would not have been able to survive without the government support. Pro-poor efforts were made by giving subsidised food, electricity, education, etc. in order to maintain the socialistic ideal of India's leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru.

The Zamindari system was abolished after Independence in 1950 in order to remove the intermediaries from agriculture. The Land Ceiling Act was passed so that effective land distribution could take place and land could go to the tillers. However, all these land reforms

.I made only a minor dent and people, especially of upper castes and class found ways and means to control land and thereby power in the rural areas. Community Development Programmes were also initiated in 1952 to bring about social economic changes in the rural

' areas. Developments in science, technology and research brought tremendous changes in agriculture. Instead of consumption alone, now farmers started growing crops for the market i.e. cash crops. This led to the commercialisation of agriculture. During the 1960's and 70's all these developments led to the "Green Revolution" in areas of Haryana, Punjab, Western U.?, Maharashtra, etc.

6.2.3 Contemporary Period

However, contemporary period which we may consider to be from 1980's onwards has seen a shift from the earlier socialistic pattern with the selective opening of market and liberalisation. There have been changes in several areas. Modern Mass Communication technologies like radio, television, satellite television, transport systems, etc. have brought Indian society close to the global society. Computer and Computer networking, fax and other electronic advances are changing the very face of not only Indian society but other societies of the world, as well.

But inspite of phenomenal change in life style, values, behaviour, etc. many of the traditional structures and values related with them persist. One major structure which emerges time and again is caste structure. It has changed a lot from its earlier form of being rooted in the concept of purity and pollution. But its main persistence lies in its relationship with kinship and marriage.

In the next section we will explain the concept of caste and class in detail.

rCheck Your Progress-1 1) What was the most distinctive feature of colonial period as against the pre-colonial period? I . Structure 2) Who introduced the Permanent Settlement of land revenue administration in India and when?

63 CASTE AND CLASS IN INDIA

To understand the rural and urban social structures of India, the understanding of the concept of caste and class becomes very important. The importance of caste in determining the nature of human groups and human relationships in India is self evident when we examine the nature of Indian society. Class in India is to be understood in the historical sense as being closely related to caste. In the pre-colonial period it overlapped with caste. Due to various changes introduced by the British caste and class have emerged as "dissonant categories" i.e. the upper castes may not be upper classes as well.

6.3.1 Concept of Caste

Caste is a system of social stratification which lies at the very root of Indian social structure. - By social structure, we mean the persistent pattern of social interaction existing within and among social groups. These patterns of interaction are guided by the normative system of the society.

Caste structure is thus a pattern of spcial behaviour in which groups and individuals are guided by prescribed set of norms, values and sanctions.

The groups and individuals occupy specific statutes within and in relation to other groups. In this system individuals are born into a certain caste and thereby occupy the associated status and take up the role in accordance with that caste identity. Thus, caste is a closed ended social group.

Sociologists have defined caste or 'jati' (as locally referred to) as a 'heriditary' endagarnous group which is usually localised. It has a traditional association with an occupation and a particular position in the local hierarchy of castes. Relations between castes are governed, among other things, by the concepts of pollution and purity and generally maximum commensality i.e. interdining within the caste".This definition described the ideal form of caste system. However, in real life there are innumerable variations and permutations in terms of structure and functioning of caste system.

Being a dynamic reality which is highly flexible, it has shown tremendous variations from one region to another. In spite of all its variations found in different regions of India and its persistence in other religious communities, there are some aspects which enable us to identify it. This continuity element of caste is related to its linkage with:

i) A 'varna' system or order which is recognised all over India. As per this model, there are four 'varnas' which literally means colour and which are associated with certain occupations. These are the Brahmins (priests and scholar), the Kshatriya (ruler and the soldier, the Vaishya (merchant) and the Shudra (peasant, labourer and servant). All the various castes and subcastes or jatis which approximately number about 4000 belong to these four varna. The first three varnas, i.e. Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya are twice born or 'divine' since the men of these castes are entitled to do the sacred thread at the Vedic rite of Upanayana. The shudras were not allowed to perform this rite. The other castes and tribal groups did not fall into this 'varna' category. %lo-Historical Perspective 11 ii) Caste structure is closely interlinked with kinship system amongst the Hindus in India. The sole reason for this relationship lies in the endogamous nature of caste system. Endogamy means marriage within one's own social group or community.

Caste is basically a closed system of stratification, since members are recruited on the basis of ascribed status. An individual becomes a member of a caste in which he or she is born and generally marries a person belonging to the same caste. Even if there is social mobility in the caste system through the process of sanskritisation, urbanisation, etc. it is only a positional change in the local caste hierarchy rather than a structural change.

Kinship system in India is largely an analysis of the internal structure of the sub-caste or jati. The sub-caste is the largest segment of caste and it performs nearly all the functions of caste like endogamy, social control, etc. It is these segments of the main sub-caste which form the effective functioninggroup within which social interaction, marriage, etc. take place. iii) Lastly, caste as mentioned earlier, had traditionally been associated with certain occupations. These occupations were categorised into 'clean' and 'unclean' occupations depending on the degree of pollution or purity associated with them. For example, those castes which were associated with sweeping and scavenging i.e. dealing with dead animals were considered to be 'unclean' occupations/castes. Those castes associated with learning and scholarly pursuits especially of Veda, were considered to be 'clean' castes, such as, the Brahmin. This was because learning, specially of the religious scriptures, was associated with the concept of purity.

Each caste had its own caste panchayat which took care of the traditional socio-culturaland territorial boundary of the caste. It had the power of excommuication or punishment like fine, etc. to keep its members in control. There was also an economic aspect of caste which linked different castes of a village or surrounding villages to each other. This link was of economic and social nature where one caste served another in a 'jajmani' relationship or patron-client relationship.

From a purely Brahmanic or sanskriticview, it appears as if, this system was rigid and closed. However, when we examine historical data ranging back to the Vedic period we find that in reality there existed a lot of flexibility in social mobilitywith the gain of economic and political power. There are a number of examples from 5th century B.C. when many lower caste groups tried to acquire the status of Kshatriyas through usurpation of political power.

Caste system should best be understood as a dynamic reality having a degree of flexibility in terms of internal structure and functions which has adopted to the need of changing times. For example, during colonial and post colonial period we see the emergence of caste associations, such as, the Kshatriya Mahasabha, the Nadar Mahasangam, etc. which were totally modern social groups. Although these associations were based on caste and community, they functioned like model organisations aspiring to gain social, political and economic benefits for their members.

Caste system was found not only in the Hindu communities but some features of it are present in other religious communities as well. One major reason for this was that some of these religious communities have large number of 'converted' Hindus, such as, amongst the Muslims, the Christians and the Sikhs.

63.2 Caste in Different Communities

Some of the broad features of caste system of stratification have already been explained to you. Let us now concentrate on the specific communities and features of caste system found amongst them. a) Caste amongst the Hindu

A Hindu is born in a jati (caste) and follows hislher dharma in this birth to improve the future birth. As you learnt earlier, Hindus are divided into four varnas namely, Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishhya and Shudra. These four categories are ranked from higher to lower in the order mentioned here. The varna system of dividing the members of the Hindu society is an ideological construct which is mentioned in the Hindu religious scriptures. As mentioned earlier, each varna is associated with particular occupations and the identity of all Hindus Soclal Structure can be placed in terms of one of the four varnas. Most of the basic ideas onvarna system and its links to the concepts of karma, i.e. deeds done by an individual and dharma i.e. duties of an individual morally prescribed by religion, are generally present in the thinking of Hindus.

The life of a Hindu is considered to be divisible into four stages called Varnashrama, namely:

i) brahmacharya ashram ii) grihastha ashram iii) vanprastha ashram iv) sanyasa ashram

It is the dharma of a Hindu to pass through these stages in one's life. The male members of Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya varna are supposed to pass through these four different ashrams in their life. However, traditionally, the fourth varna, that is the Shudra and women were barred from the first ashram, that is, the brahmacharya ashram since learning of Vedas was denied to them. Recently, women have raised objection to this practice. At present most Hindus do not systematically go through these stages. Like the four varnas, the four stages of life are models. The ultimate release from the cycle of birth and rebirth comes due to one's good deeds or karma in life, which is by performing one's dharma or scared duty as members of a caste, as a family member and so on. The final release or attainment of absoluteknowledge is called 'moksha'. Moksha itself is also part of a scheme of dharma, artha, kama and moksha. -.

b) Caste amongst the Muslims

Islam is claimed by its believers to be a religion of equality. We find that the Quran recommends the egalitarian principle but in reality there are social divisions amongst IndianMuslims. The most popularly known division among the Muslims all over the world is the division between shias and sunnis. They hold divergent views of and interpretations over Islamic texts and tradition. In India, a vast majority of Muslims are Sunni. Apart from these kind of divisions there are also other kinds of social groupings among Muslims in India, which reflect the influence of Hindu beliefs and practices specially those relating to caste system.

Muslims in India are divided into two major sections (i) those who claim to be the descendants of early Muslim immigrants and (ii) those of indigenous origin whose ancestors were converted to Islam. The former section has often been called Ashraf or Shurafa (singular sharif, Arabic word meaning honourable), while the latter section does not have any specific name. In Bengal, it was designated as Ashraf (for clean occupational castes) and Anal (for unclean castes).

1) Higher Caste (Ashraf) category of Muslim

In the Muslim social hierarchy, the descendants of immigrants from Persia, Afghanistan, Arabia and Turkistan are recognised as the highest category of Muslims in India. The Indian Muslim castes, known as Sayyed, Sheikh, Mughal, Pathan comprise this category.

Sayyeds are considered to have descended from Fatima's line. She was the daughter of the Prophet Muhammed. A direct descendants of the Prophet, Sayyed are accorded highest social status among the Muslims.

In the second rank of social hierarchy come the Sheikh. They are considered to be the descendants of early Muslim migrants of Mecca and Madina. The Mughal and Pathan subdivisions of the Ashraf rank third in the social hierarchy of Muslims. Both are almost equal in social status. Those who came to India with the Mughal armies and subsequently settled here, were known as the Mughal. Their main subdivisions, based on different ethnic and tribal origins are Chagtai, Uzbek, Tajik, Tukmans and Qizilbash.

The Pathans are descendants of those who migrated to Indian from Afghanistan or from the Pashto speakers of the North Western Frontier Province of Pakistan. Among the Ashraf groups are also included those pseudo - Ashrafs who claim descent from one of the Ashraf caste. Ghaus Ansari a leading socialist has given several examples of attempts by some groups for raising their social status through their claims to Ashraf descent. Ansari has givm a long list of certain castes, mentioned in the 1931 census report of Uttar Pradesh. These Muslirp castes have tried to raise their social status by claiming new surnames and also corresponding higher status. Socio-Historical Perspective 11 2) Muslim Converts of Indian Origin

The Muslim converts of Indian origin are generally known by their caste names. In this group are placed three distinct groups, namely, converts from high caste of the Hindus, converts from clean occupational castes and converts from unclean occupational castes, such as, scavengers and people working with leather (tanners).

In the social hierarchy of the Muslims in India, converts from high castes of the Hindus are placed below the rank of Ashraf. Many of other Rajput sects (i.e. branches of a family) in north India have Muslim branches, eg. the Bais, Bhatti, Bisen, Chandel, Bargujar, Chauhan, Pawar, Rathore, Tomar. Sometimes these groups inter mix with higher ranking groups of Muslims.

By and large these converts still follow some of the Hindu practices, eg. they do not marry first cousins, either cross or parallel. Islamic law allows the marriage of near kin whereas among the Hindus of north India, prohibition regarding marriage exteuds to distant degrees of kinship relations both on the father's side, as well as mother's.

Unclean are those which occupy the bottom place in the Muslim social hierarchy. They are the untouchable castes of Hindus who converted to Islam and have retained their low status and poverty along with their occupation. These people do the menial tasks, including scavenging and sweeping.

Castes among the Muslims also reflect the essential features of caste system amongst the Hindus. These cultural characteristics being: i) endogaiy ii) occupational specialisation iii) hierarchical ordering iv) restrictions on social intercourse and commensality.

Muslims in India use the term zat (equivalent of caste) to express the purity of descent. Thus, zat is primarily an endagarpous unit of society. The households belonging to each zat in the village conceive of themselves as a collectivity and designate themselves as bhaiband or biradari (literally caste brotherhood). This solidarity among the members is not merely a fictional notion, but rests on demonstrable kinship linkages.

The biradari resembles caste in the features of its inner structure, eg. membership is determined by birth and the group boundaries are maintained through endogamy. Among the Ashrafs, the caste brotherhoods are subdivided again into marriage circles to provide a restricted circle in which to choose a wife, whereas the Biradari generally functions for all ceremonial intercourse, the marriage circles within the Biradari is restricted to the choosing of wives. The Muslim Rajputs are very endogamous but do not marry first cousins as Ashrafs do. Occupational castes like Qasab (butcher), Manihar (bangle maker) are almost strictly endogamous and generally do not marry outside their castes.

These various castes have a definite place in their local marriage is restricted within their own groups. However, there are no restrictions on interdining or concept of purity and pollution. c) Castes among the Christians

The Christians in India, believe that when they converted from Hinduism to Christianity, they were forced to break away from their original caste group. However, their caste status is maintained by them because they are careful to behave in certain ways which are in keeping with caste defined behaviour. They maintain the traditional boundaries and distances between high and low castes, even though this is against the moral law of Christian life.

The Syrian Christians of Kerala believe that their ancestors were Brahmins who were converted to Christianity by St. Thomas, a follower and friend of Jesus Christ. St Thomas came to Kerala in 52 A.D. Syrian Christians enjoy high social status and marry amongst their own community.

Like the Hindus, Christians too have faith in horoscopes, tie the tali or marriage locket and observe death pollution and follow many of the Hindu customs and traditions. 21 Social Structure Besides the Hindus, Muslims and Christians, other religions too have caste - like elements in them such as, Sikhism, which is a religion founded by Guru Nanak and believes in the fundamental equality of all men and women. It is against the caste system which was based on inequality. However, in practice, we find social divisions between them which are made evident in terms of marriage with in one's caste.

6.3.3 Concept of Class

Class has been defined as a kind of social group which is neither legally defined nor religiously sanctioned. It is a stratum of people occupying similar social and economic position. Wealth, education, income and occupation are some of the bas,ic determinants of class. It is relatively open, i.e. any one who satisfies the basic criteria can become its member. There are several classes in a society, hierarchically ranked primarily in terms of wealth and income. The differences in wealth and income are expressed in terms of different life styles and consumption patterns.

6.3.4 Classes in India

Social classes are the characteristic features of industrial societies. Class in India, as we see them today had their genesis during the colonial rule. This is not to say that the class phenomenon was absent in the pre-British Indian society. The class dimension of Indian society was only less pronounced than it turned out to be during the British period.

The self-sufficiency of the village community, the building block of the Indian society, was one of the reasons behind it as mentioned at the beginning of the unit. The village community produced only what was required for the consumption needs of the village. There was hence, little surplus and as a result very little differentiation in terms of class among the village population.

Even when there was a marked class dimension, it was overshadowed by the caste component. In fact, the only sphere where class dimension showed itself rather more sharply was in the nature of interaction between the rulers and the ruled. The King and his courtiers represented a class quite distinct from the subjects over whom they ruled. The courtiers comprised the Zamindars, Jagirdars and so on. They alongwith the King lived on the revenue collected from the village community under their jurisdiction.

Besides these classes there were also classes of administrative officers of various ranks, merchants, artisans and specialists of various kinds.

The colonial rule in India proved to be a turning point in the Indian history. It introduced new elements which led to some radical changes in the structure of Indian society. Now let us examine the change and continuity in India which was brought about by the impact of the colonial rule. The colonial rule led to the changes in the class formation in India; the rise of National Movement and finally, some of the crucial social problems that India is facing today.

nCheck Your Progr@ss-2 1) Define the concept of caste...... Socio-HistoricalPerspective I1 2) Describe the characteristics of caste amongst the Muslims.

3) Fill in the blanks:

a) Caste is a closed system of stratification as compared with b) The practice of marriage within one's own social group is called . c) One of the major determinants of class is

CHANGE AND CONTINUITY IN INDIA

Here we will first discuss the impact of colonial period on the social structure

6.4.1 Impact of Colonial Rule The emergence of new social classes in India was the consequence of far reaching changes brought about by the British in the economic structure of India. The first change they brought about was in the area of agriculture. The British administration revolutionised the existing land revenue system. It did away with the traditional rights of the village community over the village land. Instead it created individual ownership rights in land by introducing certain measures during the 18th century, such as, the permanent settlement, the Ryotwari settlement and the Mahalwari settlement. With this land became a private property, a commodity in the market. It could be mortgaged, purchased or sold. Till the village ownership of land existed, the village was the unit of assessment. The new land revenue system eliminated the village as the unit. It introduced the system of individual land assessment and revenue payment. Previously, revenue was fmed at a specific portion of the year's actual produce. This was replaced by a system of fmed money payment irrespective of crops. The Mughal system of revenue on crop was replaced with tax on land. The landlord or cultivator was hence forced to meet this demand. Further, the payment of revenue in cash gave way to production of cash crops in place of food crops.

A new class of land owners, was created whose interest in the land was confined to collection of rents. There were several landlords who never stayed in the village but owned land. They were called absentee landlords. A whole structure of landlords i.e. the Zamindars, tenants, subtenants and agricultural labourers existed and depended on the land. This structure varied from region to region depending on the owners, the intermediaries and tillers of the land during the colonial period.

However, with the expanding railway and transport system production for market became fairly well established. This commercialisation of agriculture, in turn, stimulated the growth of trade adcommerce in India.

Trade and Commerce Trade and commerce were centred around two things - i) supply of raw materials for industries in Britain and ii) procuring British manufactured goods for consumption in India. The latter aspect had a disastrous effect on town and village handicrafts. The indigenous handicraft items could not face the competition from the British manufactured goods which were machine made and products of their industries. Thus, the indigenous village and town handicrafts got disintegrated. Artisans lost their livelihoods and some migrated to the cities, some fell back on agriculture which in turn led to mass impoverisation. Social Structure The Expanding of Railways and Roads

The expansion of railways was done with a view to meet the raw material requirements of industries in Brit.&. The construction of railways and roads also gave scope for investment of British Capital in India. It led to better mobility of troops for establishment of law and order. The investment of British capital found an outlet initially in such spheres as plantation (indigo, tea), cotton, jute and mining industries. This was the beginning of the industrialisation process in India. By then, there was accumulation of sufficient savings on the part of Indian traders and merchants. This served as capital and made possible the creation of industries owned by Indians in some cases.

State and Administrative System

To deal-with all these aspects of Indian social reality, the British government had organised a huge and extensive state machinery to administer the conquered territory. The Civil Services, which exists even today was created by the British to deal with the task of Civil Administration. It initially had British officers but later as the numberof educated Indians increased, it came to be manned by Indians. It was not possible for the British to secure staff of educated people from Britain for running such a huge administrative machinery. Therefore, they introduced Western education in India to primarily serve their own needs.

Thus, schools, colleges and universities were established to impart Western education to the Indians. As a consequence, the Indian society experienced an uneven growth of social classes.

Uneven Growth of Social Classes in India Social forces which developed during the colonial period spread both ir. time and tempo unevenly giving rise to uneven growth of social classes. The reason for uneven impact of British rule was because their political power spread unevenly. For example, it was in Bengal that the two classes of Zamindars and tenants came into existence first. Again it was in Bengal and Bomkiy that the first industrial enterprises started. This led to the emergence of the class of industrialists and workers in this region. It was for this reason that the British established . a complex administrative system and introduced modern education first in Bengal and Bombay. Alongwith the above developments, the rise of new social classes was also uneven in different communities as well. This was duetothe fact that certain communities were already engaged in definite economic, social or educational vocations in pre-British period. For example, Baniyas were traders by vocation in our traditional social structure. Hence, they were the first to take up modern commerce, banking and industrial enterprises. Similarly, Brahmins were the first to take up modern education and enter professional classes. These communities took up the new challenges and entered these spheres of activity first because they already possessed the basic disposition towards these occupations. Thus, on the eve of Independence, we find that Indian social structure was made up of innumerable castes and clqses. In some cases, these coincided with each other but in some they did not.

6.4.2 Rise of the Indian National Movement

In the 19th century and the early parts of the 20th century, the middle classes began to think in terms of reforming and modernising Indian society. The reformist attempts contained both religious and social components. The political movement for freedom began only at the end of the 19th century. But social reality being inter-related and complex; the rise of the new educated middle class, the reformist and revivalist movements had a very close connection with the later political movement for Independence from British rule. The Reformist Movements

One of the early 19th century reformers was Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) of Bengal who believed that Indians could become progressive if they shed the supertitious and evil practices, such as Sati, infanticide, etc. He advanced a new kind of religion which combined Christian teachings with Vedanta. He founded the Brahmo Samaj which was meant to be a spiritual forum, where a monotheistic, non idolatrous worship could be conducted by its members who had nothing to do with caste or superstition. Ram Mohw Roy's influence was mainly confined to urban literate groups of Bengal. Soclo-Historical Perspective I1 In the same century, Mahadev Govind Ranade, a jurist of Maharastra, founded the Prarthana Samai in Bombav. This was broadlv modelled on the Brahmo Samaj of Bengal. The social reactions raised the two movements were, however, quite different: The Brahmo Samaj by its insistence on reforms was strongly opposed by orthodox Hindus led by Radha Kant Dev and others. Here was a confrontation between tradition and modernity. By contrast, the liberal trends initiated by Prarthana Samaj, did not create a direct conflict between tradition and modernity. Unlike the members of Brahmo Samaj, its members did not lead a distinctive, anit-traditionalist life style. So, there was no sharp reaction from the society in Maharashtra. Apart from these social reform endeavours, there also existed strong movements of protests by lower caste groups against the upper caste domination. Western and South India were the strong holds of such protests. People lieJyoti Rao Govind Rao, Phule took the initiative in leading such movements.

The Revivalist Movement

.Revivalist movements began as a measure of self-,assertion, search for identity and revival of lost honour as perceived by its people.

The Arya Samaj launched by Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1883) was based on an appeal to people to shed the unhealthy features of Hinduism (such as, caste orthodoxy, superstitition, ritualism, etc.) and go back to the pristine purity of Vedas. It sponsored a kind of education which had both traditional and modern components. The DAV (Dayanand Anglo Vedic) Colleges. spread education in north India on a wide scale.

There was another revivalist movement which became populu during the same century. This was the Ramakrishna Mission founded by Vivekanand after his religious Guru Shri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. This mission had two purposes.

Fist to to make educated people in India realise their responsibility to the weaker sections, and take steps to remove poverty and social backwardness. Secondly, to propagate Indian Vedanta to the Westerners.

In order to achieve the first, many schools ind hostels were founded in urban, rural and tribal areas to improve education and employment prospects of common people. With regard to the second, Advaita centres were established in many Western countries to bring about spiritual awakening among the Western people.

Movement for Independence

Towards the end of the 19th century a political movement for the attainment of Independence arose. TheIndian National Congress was founded in 1885by A.O. Hume and its main purpose was to establish a political forum for debates and discussions.

Most members of the Congress were drawn fromurban, literate groups. Its essentially middle class character persisted from 1885till 1918. With the coming of M.K. Gandhi on the political scene, the Congress became a mass political organisation in which primary members were drawn from urban professional groups, peasants, artisans and industrial workers.

Numerous Congress leaders and followers went to prison undzr the charge of sedition during the Swadeshi Movement (1905), Non-Cooperation Movement (1920 - 22) Civil Disobedience Movement (1930 - 34) and Quit India Movement (194). Several people were also executed for their participation in terrorist activities. However, the distinctive mark of the Indian struggle for Independence was its non-violent character.

The socio-religious movements indirectly contributed to political movements through education and reforms. The former type of movement induced self-confidence, while the latter type created a political consciousness. Thus, the two type of movem,-nts were complementary developments in Indian Society.

6.43 Independent India and its Social Problems

India acquired Independence on the historic day of 15th August, 1947 and its constitution was framed on the lines of British Constitution, except that unlike the British, Indian Constitution is written. Social Structure The initial period of self-governance was tumultuons as India was socially, politically and economically in a distraught condition. India and Pakistan had emerged as two nations. Partition had taken place; communal riots were rampant. Society was trying to gear towards a new meaningful existence. The policy makers of independent India should be credited with initiating the following measures:

abolition of untouchability through constitutional intervention, a policy of reservation for depressed castes in the government jobs and legislatures as a part of the policy of protective discimination, and ensuring religious freedom and protecting the rights of various minority groups.

All these principles of social justice were guaranteed through the constitution. The efforts of Dr. B.R. Ambedka.r, Nehru and others were noteworthy in incorporating them into the constitution.

The kind of social problems that still persist in India, inspite of rapid changes and growth in I its economy, technology and access to new opportunities are related to:

i) problem of poverty - both absolute and relative; and ii) rise in population, despite tremendous economic development. Poverty and rise of population are inter-related phenomenon and form a vicious circle.

Government has made several attem~tsthrough Five Year Plans; Welfare Schemes, etc. to remove poverty. Even today family planning schemes exist, although the focus is now being placed on the care of mother and child rather than control of population alone. This is being done, as research has proved a close relation between education and rise of population; and also there is a direct relationship between infant mortality and rise of population. Thus, education of women, care of mother and child is viewed as a way of controlling population. There are some new problems also arising today as a result of rapid urbanisation and industrialisation. These are the growth of slums in cities, rise of unemployment, crime inurban areas, delinquency, dowry deaths, etc.

Thus, we see that society in India has changed in many respects yet the traditional roots of caste and ethnic identities, social and political culture continue.

nCheck Your Progress3 1) In what way are the castes and classes in India related with each other. Discuss in about 10 lines......

...... ) ......

2) Who founded the Brahmo Samaj and what were its basic ideas? ...... Socio-Historical Perspective I1 3) Match the following:

-4. Raja Ram Mohan Roy 1. Indian National Congress B. Mahadev Govind Ranade 2. Brahmo Samaj C. A.O. Hume 3. Arya Samai D. Dayanand Saraswati 4. Prarthana Samaj

6.5 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit you fust learnt about the society in India from a historical perspective. You learnt about the difference between the pre-colonial India and colonial India and learnt how prior to the British the village autonomy was not disturbed inspite of different conquests, socio-religious unheavals, etc. In the post- colonial period with the emergence of the middle class, the new aspirations and opportunities for social mobility developed.

In the Section on caste and class in India we described thc concept of caste; its various features its existence ia different religious con~munitiesin India. We also defined the concept of class and described the nature of classes in India.

Finally, i? the Section on change and continuity in India, the impact of the British on Indian society has been outlined. %'e have described the rise of National Movement in India along with socio religious and political movements. The social problems related with poverty, rise of population aspirations of its people have been touched upon in this Unit.

KEY WORIIS

Endogamy : It is the custom of marrying within :)nc's ow3 social group, such as the caste group.

Permutations : 'The numbcr of ways in which a social group, like a caste group can be arranged.

Purity and Pollution : It is an abstract notion which considers certain activities,objects and occupations rltually purc or poliuting in the caste society. For example, vegetarianism is cons:dered iitudlp purer than non- vegetarianism. Both these concepts are relative to each other.

: The castes belonghg to the first thr~r:Varna i.e., Brahmins. Kqhatriya and Vaishya, whose malt memiws undcrgo {bethread ccremony callcd the "Upanayana Sarnskara." They are called "twice-born" or "dwija"because mcmbxs of these castes are con- *,idzredto be blessed with both ph? jic;?; a\ well as spirit~:;tlbirth.

Social Stratification : It is the process of differed21 ranking 8trere a socicty is divided in segments a116 these segments are hicrarchially ranked.

Protective : It refcrs to the policy of the stat-, to saf(::~uardand promote :he Discrimination intc:ec! oft!,!: ilackward classcs cifpopulath~rmby giving j;rotection to them. This is expressed ;n stilk policy of rcserva1io:i of scats, jobs in ~duca:~on,services dnd Icr!i:ii.i~urt!'t.,r the schccinled castes, !rii-w*c,and backward class~s.T hi: terns "affirmative action," "rc\.:r;e discrimination" ;rnd "c:omr?en .: .il;ry discriminalion" are alsci uscd.

Social Mobility : TJY process of shifting of s:&l :r,t,it;l ,I by i~dividualsor social ml I in the sccial llierarchy :s ral'. : .;;-ial mobility. It could be

bo:a upwdrtl :,I doivnwar d anit ,:I- . -LL r'ical or hor17or:tal i.e. in -- .L: it is more from a %oc:a! po5itic tn nnolhel which has equai !'i;ljk.. 27 6.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES rCheck Your Progress-1 1) The most distinctive feature of colonial period as against the pre-colonial period was that for once the self- sufficiency of the village unit was disturbed. Due to the introduction of a new kind of land revenue collection system, the British turned land into a commodity which could be bought, mortgaged or sold in the market. Also see Sub-sec. 6.2.1.

2) Lord Cornwalis introduced the Permanent settlement in the region of Bengal, United Provinces and some other regions in 1'793. nCheck Your Progress3 1) Caste is a system of social stratification which is close ended where membership is restricted to those born in that social group. It is hereditary, endogamous group which is usually localised and has a traditional association with an occupation. Also see Sub-sec. 6.3.1.

2) The various castes, both of the immigrants called Ashrafs and clean and unclean castes of Indian converts reflect the main characteristicof caste. These caste groups are ordered hierarchially, endogamous, maximum social intercourse takes place within the social group. Also see Sub-sec. 6.3.2. 3) a. class b. eodogamy c wealth and income

1) In the pre-colonial period the upper casteswere generally speaking also the upper classes in terms of wealth, income, power and status. After the arrival of British and the impact of their rule this overlap of caste and classes in India became comparatively less. Education, income, status became disassociated from caste position. But still, it has been found that those castes which had a traditional inclination towards an occupation, such as, learning and professions of Brahmins entered it first. Also see Section 6.4

2) Brahmo Samaj was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1722-1833) and it tried to combine Christian teachings with Vedanta. It was against supertitious worship of idols and believed in one God. It tried to abolish sati (practice of burning the widow along with her husbands corpse), infanticide, etc.

3) A. 2 B. 4 C. 1 D. 3 UNIT 7 CUSTOMS, RITUALS AND CULTS ,.

Structure 7.0 Objectives 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Customs and Rituals 7.2.1 Role and Functions of Rituals, Customs and Cerempnies 7.2.2 Types of Rituals and Customs 7.2.3 Customs and Rituals Related to Life Cycle 7.2.4 * Other Customs and Rituals 7.3 Cults 7.4 Sects 7A:l Hindu Sects 7.4.2 Muslim Sects 7.4.3 Sikh Sects 7.4.4 Budhist Sects 7.4.5 Jain Sects 7.4.6 Christian Sects 7.5 Let Us Sum UP 7.6 Answers to ~hkckYour Progress Exercises A Traditions1 Pqja st Tdacauvery, Kerala

In this Unit we will discuss some important aspects of Indian society: Customs, rituals, cults and sects in India. After going through this unit you would know about: * ., significance of rituals and customs in Indian society the main rituals and customs followed among the various religious groups and communities in India important cults and sects in!ndia

7.1 . INTRODUCTION )

In Units 5 and 6 of this Block on society we discussed the structure of Indian society. Continying our discussion in this Unit we will discuss some other features of Indian society. Here we have included social and religious customs, rituals, cults and sects. To begin with we will try to define customs and rituals. Following this we will throw some light on the nature of rituals and customs. Next we will familiarize you with some rituals and customs practiced in diverse religious groups and communities in India. - From'earliest times there have emerged a number of cults and sects in India. We will throw light on some of the important cults and sects. Many ofthese cults and sects have had religious and social basis. These cults and sects are spread in different regions and religions. We will discuss their origins and growth. It would not be possible for us to include all the sects and cults. We will therefore confine our discussion to a few important ones. Let us begin with customs. and rituals.

7.2 CUSTOMS AND RITUALS 2

Customs and rituals are important components of all religious beliefs. Sociologists and Anthropologists have defined them from various viewpoints. In this unit we would not go into the detailed technicalitiee or complexities of defining, rituals. We would confme ourselves to a functional definition for the present discussion. There are a number of social and religious practices we sbaerve every day. Are they customs or traditions or rituals? Lct Social Slmclure us take a few examples.

In many communities people are supposed to touch the feet of elders or teachers as a social norm. Married women put vermilion in the parting of hair. Many people when meet each other shake hands. The head of a new born is shaved in many communities. In many Hindu communities at the time of marriage the bride and bridegroom are supposed to circumambulate the fire 3,4, or 7 times.

What do the above acts signify? Are they customs or religious practices or rituals or a mix of these? Do they .have any rational basis? Are there some expected specific results of these actions?

b You would notice that many of the above listed acts are accepted as traditions and customs. Shaking hands or touching the feet are most of the times instinctive actions. The custom of shaving the head may be a religious practice. But it does not stop only at shaving the head. It is to be done in a prescribed manner which varies from cominunhy to commuility. Similarly ' putting vermilion may be a symbol of signifying the marital status but doing it in a specified manner signifies more than a custom. When we come to the aspect of shaving the head or putting the vermilion in a specified manner we enLer into the realm of ritual practice. Similarly circumambulating the fire at the time of marriage involves more details like whether it would be clockwise or anti clockwise? Bride is to be in front or bridegroom is lo be ahead of bride?

You would notice that in the above examples socio-religious practices or customs or rituals have very little differentiation. Many a time it is the learned observer who defines them. Many a time they are used interchangeably. Now coming back to the definitioz, Edmund Leach, a renowned anthropologist suggests that the words rite (ritual), ceremony and custom "are used interchangeably to denote any non-instinctive predictable ~ctionor series of actions that cannot be justified by a 'rational' means- to-ends type of explanation. In this sense the English custom of shaking hands is a ritual, but the act of planting potaLoes with a view to harvest is not. The other trend of usage has been to distinguish the three categories: ritual, ceremony and custom" (Encyclopedia of Social Sciences vol. 13, pp520-21). Taking the example from India Leach says that, "a high caste Hindu is required by his religion to engage in elaborate washing procedures to ensure his personal purity and cleanliness', the rationality or otherwise of such actions is a matter of cultural viewpoint". Here according to Leach the experts who distinguish between ritual cleanliress and actual cleanliness are separating two aspects of a single state rather than two separate states.

Some experts define rituals as "stylized repetitive behaviour that is explicitly religious" and ceremony as "merely social even in explicit meaning".

7.2.1 Role and Functions of Rituals, Customs and Ceremonies

In India rituals and custolns are closely knit in social and religious life of people. Have you ever thought why people follow or perform all these seemingly complex rituals and customs? Do they serve an!. useful purpose Som the point of utility in day-to-day life? You might have noticed that at times some priest or religious guru asks the followers to perform these rituals for some reason or the other. Often people perform them on their own withgreat enthusiasm. Let us pay some attention to the role and functions of these rituals and customs. There are a whole range of functions. Here we will discuss a few functions considered important k- sociologists.

i) Socialization: Rituals, ceremonies, etc. act as a socializing force. They bring the individuals within the defined societv and integrates them.

ii) Social Control: They act as instrun,,nts of sosial conlrol. They are linked with worldly rewards and punishmc.nts. The piiest often conti,ls society by askine followers to perform t5ese for some reason or the other. Many a ,ime members of a particular commrnity or caste are asked to perffirm these to correct thc wrongs (sins) committed or else face exc~mn~un~~ation.In such a situation they becom ,.capon of social control. Customs, Ri'uals and Cults iif) Merit and Status: At times they are performed with a view to get social prestige and status. Like performing some sacrifice or conducting yagna etc. iv) Identification: Certain rituals are performed to have a specific identity. Putting vermilion by married women or circumcision among Muslims or piercing of earlobes in some communities are a few examples. v) Spiritual Advancement: Performance of customs and rituals is closely linked with people's desire to achieve spiritual satisfaction and advancement. Prayers, pdgrimage, fasting, sacrifices and various forms of worship are followed for this purpose. It applies to all the religions and communities. vi) Systems of Healing or Therapy: One of the most widespread functions of ceremonies and rituals have been to use these for healing purposes. This takes various forms in different religions, social groups and tribes.

The above list is not exhaustive and merely suggestive. Our purpose here is neither to provide a justification or reject the rituals and customs. We wish to give you only a perspective from the sociologists' or anthropologists' observations. One may argue that many of these are irrational illogical and pushes one into superstitions. As suggested by Leach, if "Non -rationality is made a criterion of ritual, it must be remembered that the judge of what is rational is the observer and not the actor".

The continuance of rituals and their performance have an economic basis also. There are a host of priests & ritual experts in all commurities who follow performance of these rituals as their occupation. Similarly, for the performers or individuals following these they have become the very essence of religion and a way of life. One important thing to note here is that customs, rituals and ceremonies are not confined to the realm of religion only. There are a number of customs or rituals which are part of social and secular life.

7.2.2 Qpes of Rituals and Customs The rituals and customs can be classified into various categories depending on the criterion we adopt. One way of classifylng can be to link them with the functions they are supposed to perform. Another way of classifylng may be according to its nature like religious, social, etc. Yet another system of classification can be on the lines of community or religion. We do not intend to enter into technical details of sociological or anthropological studies. Here we would like to give you a broad idea of diverse customs and rituals practiced by people of different faiths and communities in India. Instead of listing them religion-wise we would discuss them in terms of day-to-day life, and special occasions and festivals across the communities and religious groups. In almost all religious groups most of the customs and rituals take place in the following stages of life cycle: i) birth ii) initiation into reliiious fold iii) marriage iv) death

Other occasions are related to succzss in economic ventures,well being, initiating a work, warding off illness, pilgrimages and festivals.

We will discuss these in two parts: i) Rituals & Customs related to life cycle ii) Other Customs and Rituals

We will not be providing you all the details of each ritual because there are great variations within religious groups, their communities, castes and even families. We will leave these details for you to find out with your observation. Social Structare 7.23 Customs and Rituals Related to Lifecycle

Almost all the communities or religious groups in India have some customs or rituals assigned to various stages of lifecycle. We will not go into the details of each of these and would provide a brief account of some of these.

Birth and Childhood

Rituals related to birth start as soon as a women conceives a child. In fact there are a number of them which are observed if conception does not take place for some time. The preference for the male child is widespread. There are a number of rituals to edsure the birth of a male child. There are a number of restrictions on the pregnant women for the items of food to be taken. There are restriction on her movements also. In some communities women are supposed to give birth to first child in her parents house. When a child is born the mother is considered polluted. In a survey conducted in around . 4600 communities it was found that 4189 communities observe post delivery pollution. A ritual bath is required for cleanliness. This is to take place in some cases on the 10th or 30th or 40th day of the birth. The child after birth is given a bath and some familiarity with the faith is introduced. Among Muslims the azan (call for prayer) is read into child's ear. Similarly in Syrian Christians the message 'Jesus Christ is Lord' is whispered in child's ear. Among some Hindu communities also some scriptures is read to the child. Among Sikhs also mother is supposed to take the child to Gurudwara as soon as she recovers after delivery. Here the path (reading) of Guru Granth Saheb is done.

The most widespread ritual practice among Hindus and Muslims is to shave off the head of the new born child. It is called mundan (tonsuring) ceremony. Generally it is done under the supervision of a priest. Among Muslims male goats are sacrificed on this occasion (two for male child and one for female). Other important childhood ceremony is namkarana (naming the child). Around 3426 communites are reported to have this practice. In most of the cases help of priests and holy scriptures is taken for naming the child. First eating of cereals (annaprashan) by the child is also an occasion which is celebrated widely.

Initiation

A new born child is supposed to undergo some rituals and ceremonies before hetshe is initiated and adopted into religious or social fold of the community. In most cases such customs are rituals related to religious rites. One important aspect of initiation is that they particularly concentrate on male child. Among high caste Hindus the thread ceremony (wearing of the sacred thread) for boys takes place during childhood (if not in childhood it , must take place before marriage). Among Muslims the male child is to undergo circumcision (cutting off of a small foreskin of the male sexual organ). Among devout Sikhs child is given amrit (prepared with sugar crystals and water) to taste with elaborate rituals. Among Christians also the baptism in Church takes place.

Initialing a child into learning also constitutes an important ceremony and ritual in large number of communites. In most of the cases this is done by first making the child read the holy scriptures.

In a number of communites puberty rites for girls, piercing of ears and nose (for both male and female child) are widely prevalent customs.

Marriage

Marriage in most of communities is a religious and social affair. Elaborate customs and rituals are associated with it. Beginning with the selection of bride or groom, furing the date for marriage and performance of marriage all have detailed procedures and rituals. In some communites there are even laid down rules for corisummating the marriage. In India the involvement of a priest is almost universal (option of civil marriage in a court is of course available). In many communities the marriage takes place in the place of worship. This also shows the religious sanction. This is most common among Christians, Sikhs, and many other communities.

Among Hindus the rituals are most elaborate. Giving of dowry by the bride's family is customary in a large number of communites in India. However, in some communities the Customs, Rituals and Culls bride's family charges a price from the bridegroom. It is popularly believed that in lndia divorce, widow marriage and remarriage of female divorcee are taboos. A recent survey conducted among 4600 communites shatters this myth. *~ccordin~to this survey divorce is permitted in 3794 communites, widow marriage in 3771 communities and remarriage of a divorcee female in 3474 communites. Polygamy and polyandry are also prevalent among many communities. In many cases there are specified symbols for married status of a woman. The above referred survey had identified forty one such symbols. Of these, wearing vermilion is most common followed by toe-ring, bangles; talilmangalsutra, bindi, nose stud etc. Death and After The rituals and ceremonies associated with death in most cases depend on the philosophy of life and death in different communities. Hindus believe that after death a person is reborn (in other human or animal form). Muslims, Christians and many others do not believe in rebirth. In almost all the communities it is assumed that at death only the body dies and the soul survives. The concept of life after death is also quite prevalent. Death is also a sad and fearful thing which is to be avoided. Most of rituals and ceremonies associated with death are performed with a view to give peace to the departed soul, a happy life after death (reaching the heaven) and ward off the fear of death. Observance of pollution on death is almost a universal concept in India. Cleaning and purifying the dead body through elaborate rituals under the supervision of priests is most widespread. Prayer for the peace of the soul of the dead person is also universal. This is always done by a priest or a person well versed in religious practices. Among Hindus a Brahmin performs the prayers. Among Muslims the prayer is called namaz-i janaza (prayer for the dead body). Among the Sikhs the birth of Guru Granth Saheb takes place. There is avariation in the methods of disposing the dead body. Cremation and burial with detailed rituals are the most common modes. Many communities follow both with detailed laid down religious rules. In large number of Hindu communities the ashes collected after cremations are immersed in the Ganges or other rivers. Among few communites the dead bodies are exposed (Parsees place their dead bodies in the tower of silence where flesh is eaten by vultures and the bones are disposed off separately) In many communites food is not cooked in the home on the day of the death or for a few days. In different communities the rituals continue even after the cremation and burial. Special prayers are organized on the 3rd, loth, 13th, 40th day or sucli other days and -after a year. In many cases the prayers for the departed soul are organized every year.

72.4 Other Customs and Rituals

As already stated besides the life cyclic rituals a number of rituals and customs take place in day-toaday life. We are not analyzing specific rituals and would provide a brief comments categorywise. One of the occasions for rituals is at the time of initiating any activity like sowing or harvesting of crops, starting construction, starting any business venture, etc. Entering a new house for living (grahapravesh) is also very common. Auspicious dates are chosen and prayers accompanied with some rituals are performed. Most y-idespread rituals are for warding off illness and for general well being. These are more common in tribal society where modern medicines are not easily available. Most of the people in general follow modern medical treatments but alongwith these the special prayers and rituals are organized. These rituals are performed by special category of people and include priests, ojhas (shamans), sorcerers, tantriks etc. Another common practice on such occasions is ritual recital of holy scriptures and verses on rosaries or \organizingcongregation. Ritual animal sacrifice is also common practice in some communities.

Pilgrimages are occasions for indulging in rituals. Almost all cornmunites in India have their pilgrimage centres spread in the country or outside. People visit them round the year or on special days fmed for the purpose. .4&ng Hindus bathing in sacred rivers at specific sets is a common practice. At these places priests supervise the observance of rituals. ~ains,~ikhs, , Christians and others also have their pilgrimage centres. Muslimsgo to Mecca for performing Social Structure Haj every year. Here, shaving of head, wearing non - stitched cloths, circumambulating the Kaaba (in Mecca) are some of specific rituals. Festivals also have their specific rituals. Fasting, specific prayers to specific gods and goddesses, immersion of idols in rivers, animal sacrifices, ritual mourning and other such activities are main ritualistic components of different festivals cutting across religious groups and communities.

mCheck Your Progress - 1 1) Briefly comment on the following roles of rituals and customs: i) Social Control - 1I

ii) Identification ......

2) What are the main customs and rituals performed at the time of birth among Hind&......

3) Discuss some rituals related to marriage in India...... Customs, Rituals and Colts 7.3 CULTS

A cult is often individual based and loosely organised group which is transient in nature. It often possesses a highly fluctuating membership. Many of its members can also be parts of other religious groups.

The cult is often a voluntary organisation with low level of discipline. Its membership is generally open to all. It, however, possesses a doctrine and a set of well-defined rituals in which all members are required to participate. In cases of secretive cults, the membership is extremely restrictive. The cults generally find a fertile ground in the urban centres where the uprooted people from diverse cultural backgrounds find the pace of life too dacult to adjust. The rural areas also throw up various kinds of cultic movements centred around individuals or mythical or legendary personalities. Here we are going to discuss two ~ig~cant .Indians cults of modern times. Sai Baba

This cult revolves around the personality of Satya Sai Baba. He was born in Andhra Pradesh and considers himself (and is considered by his followers) as the reincarnation of in Maharashtra. He is also considered an Avatar who combines and in one soul. This assertion of divine status is made by himself boldly and repeatedly. His teachings include non-violence, abstinence from alcohol and smoking and non-vegetarian food. He talks of unity of all religious communities. He considers the modern ideas and culture as inimical to India and focusses on the importance of Indian folk traditions. Social services of various kinds such as feeding the poor, assisting authorities in the relief work, expansion of edu'cation, child development etc. are undertaken by this cult.

Satya Sai Baba has a lot of followers and devotees and uses his charisma repeatedly to attract men and women from all over the country. His followers come from both the urban and rurd areas and include both Hindus and Muslims. It is largely believed by his followers as well as many others that his charisma and the miracles performed by him are divine attributes.

International Society for Consciousness (ISKCON)

Popularly known as Hare Krishna cult, this movement is more famous internationally, particularly in the English-speaking countries lie United States, Canada and United Kingdom. This society was founded by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. He went to USA in 1%5 to spread his devotional message. He attracted many followers in New York, Los Angeles, Berkeley, Boston and Montreal. Various centres of ISKCON were established in these places with its headquarters at Los Angeles. By now it has established many branches in various parts of the world.

The followers of this cult wear saffron dresses and the men also shave their heads. Chanting of the name of Lord Krishna is an essential ritual and public chanting5 of Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna are performed by the followers of this cult. They basically believe in devotional form of worship and seek salvation through it.

7.4 SECTS .

The term sect is used in the sociology of religions to designate a particular kind of a religious group. It can be distinguished from religion in the sense that it is formed within a religion and operates as a protest group. A sect is a voluntary society of strict believers who live apart from the world in some ways. Whereas the membership to a religion is on the basis of birth or baptism, membership of a sect is a voluntary act.

Sects were formed, within particular religious traditions, as a product of the specificity of attitudes towards four major aspects of human civilization. These are: family life,

economic activity, " politics and power, and intellectual endeavours Social Structure Different attitudes or positions on any or all of them often lead to the formation of a sect. All the sects represented at the initial stage at least, a defiance of the religious tradition, within which they were located. This defiance or protest was expressed mainly in two ways:

1) in a militant and active oppositionist manner, and 2) in a passive and withdrawn manner. Within the Islamic tradition the rise of Wahabis represented an active oppositionist sect whereas the Bahais were more of a passive and withdrawing kind.

An important characteristic of sects has been their not too infrequent transformation to the status of formal religions. Although starting as an expression of protest against the world, many sects adjusted and got accommodated into the world. This often happened as a result of birth of children in sects (as against voluntary membership at the beginning), better adjustment to conditions of life, increasing prosperity and the passage of time. All of them,. put together, created conditions of compatibilitybetween the sects and the world and initiated the process of the sects converting into religious orders.

Sects were originally conceived as cohesive social groups and their cohesion was maintained by a series of measures and rituals which differentiated one sect from the other, lie endogamy, restricted participation in social events and certain military se~cesalso. Apart from this, peculiar habits of eating and abstinence and peculiarities of dress also helped to set a sect apart from the other.

To sum up, sects were essentially protest groups located within particular religious traditions. They stood for a defiance of the world. This defiance was expressed in militant and passive manner. Sects were based on a voluntary membership of people brought together by a similarity of ideas. If the sects rurvived beyond the founding generation, they often tended to get transformed into religions, though all the sects did not necessarily become religions. ' Having learnt about sects in general, it is now time for you to get some information about some of the sects within the main Indian religions.

India has a large number of sects and cults and subsects. These have originated from 'I different religions. It would be difficult for us to give details of all these sects and subsects. Here we will confine our discussion to a few sects and cults of prominent religious groups of India viz. Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, Jainism, Buddhism and Christianity. I

7.4.1 Hindu Sects

The biggest number of sects and subsects can be traced to Hinduism. Among Hindus Siva, ' and the Mother Goddess (worshipped as , and many other names) are the most important deities. Origin of most of the cults, sects and subsects can be traced to these three. 4

Of these the cults of Siva and can be traced to the earliest period of Indian History, while the cults of Krishna are comparatively later development.

Vaishnava Sects

The list of Vaishnava sects is long. These sects worship Vishnu, as Krishna or as . The important sects and subsects are:

i) Sri Sampradaya (followers of Ramanuja) ii) Ramanandis iii) Panthis iv) Dadu Panthis v) Maluk Dasis vi) Raya Dasis vii) Vallabhacharya Sampradaya viii) Mira Bais ix) Madhavacharis x) Chaitanya sect Cusloms, Rituals and Cults ) Charan Dasis xii) Sadhna Panthis xiii) Radha Vallabhis etc.

The list is very long. Here we have given a few names only. We will givc.brief comments'on few of these.

Sri Sampradaya: The sect was founded by Ramanuja a great scholar of Indian philosophy from South India. The sect is popular in South India. The followers have a strictly regulated life and rules for eating. They wear distinguishing marks on the forehead.

Ramanandis: Founder of this sect was . The followers of this sect are spread mainly in the Gangetic plain of North India. The main emphasis of the sect is on deviation to Rarna the incarnation of.Vishnu. Men of all caste were taken into the sect. Ramanand had a number of disciples many of whom came from lower castes. A number of subsects were developed by the disciples of Ramanand. Kabir and Dadu were twomost important whose sects are Kabir panth and Dadu Panth.

Sects of Vallabhacharya and Chaitanya

These two sects were most popular in Western India (Vallabhacha~ya)and Eastern India (Chaitanya). Vallabhacharya sect was founded by a Telugu Brahmin. He taught his disciples not to turn their backs to worldly pleasures. He opposed fasts and self mortification. Their gurus also lead a comfortable life. The followers of Chaitanya were to lead a simple and humble life. They believed in singing'devotional songs and dancing as a way of worship. 4 Shaiva Sects

1)Dashnami Sampradaya: In the eighth century Shankracharya gave a new turn to . He established a very important cult called Dashnami Sampradaya. Dashnamis are also known as Vedic Saivas. Before the establishment of Dashnami order, Tantrik Shaivas such as Kanphatas, Aghoris, Kalamukhis and Kapaliks dominated the Shaiva cult.

Shankaracharya organized the Dashnami okder which includes the following ten categories of Sanyasis: 1) Giri 2) Puri 3)Bharti 4)Vana 5)Parvati 6) Aranya 7) Sagara 8) 9) Ashram 10) Saraswati.

Shankaracharya established four seg monastic centres namely, Jyotir Peeth, Shringeri Peeth, Govardhan Peeth and Dwarka or Sharda Peeth in North, South, East and West respectively. For the smooth functioning of the , area, direction, sampradaya, Dashnami order, dcities to be worshipped, pilgrimage, Veda, Mahasakya (great saying), Gotra and jurisdiction of each monastic centre was fixed.

Dashnami sanyasis are divided into two broad sections namely Dandadharis (staff holders) and pammhansas (holding no staff). Out of the ten subsects of Dashnami order, Sanyasis of only three that is, Tirtha, Ashram and Saraswati are allowed to hold staff and the rest called Paramhansas are not allowed to do so.

Dashnami ascetics are graded according to their spiritual attainment into four categories as follows:

i) Kutichaka: He is an ascetic who has renounced the world and lives in a hut engaged in contemplation and worship. He subsists on alms given to him by others.'

ii) Bahudeeka: Such ascetics collect alms in kind but never in cash.

iii) Hansa: Such ascetics are well versed in vedanta and pursue the aim of attaining full knowledge of the supreme being.

iv) Paramhansa: Such ascetics represent the stage of heights spiritual evolutions.

Dashnami Sanyasis are further divided into two sections namely, Astradharis (weapon holders) and Shastradhris (scripture holders). Astradharis are fighter ascetics and Shastradharis are learned ascetics. The former Known as Nagar Sanyasis are organised Social Structure through various Akharas. The Dashnami Akharas were originally centres of military training for the fighter Nagas. Following are the seven Dashnami Akharas.

i) Maha Niani Akhara ii) Niranjani Akhara iii) Juna or Bhairo Akhara iv) Atal Akhara v) Awahan Akhara vi) Anand Akhara vii) Nhani Akhara

2) Kanphata or Nath Panthi: This sect forms the part of Tantrik Shaivism. Kanphatas pierce their ears and insert ear-ringsin them. Gorakh Nath is regarded to be the re-organise; of this cult. This cult is believed to have been founded by Sati Nath.

The chief scripture of this cult is "Hath Yoga Pradipika" Kanphatas regard Shiva as the supreme reality. Salvation lies in the union with Shiva. In Nath Sampradaya, Nath yoga and Tantra are recommended as the most appropriate means of salvation.

3) Aghori Panth: The sect is also known as Aghor Panth or Augar Panth and the followers are call Aghoris or Aughars. This cult was founded by Bhrama Giri, a disciple of . The name of the cult is derived from the word 'Aghor' meaning non-terrifying the epithet Aghor is usually used for Shiva. Thus, it is clear that Aghor Panthi means an ascetic who worships Shiva. Aghoris are found all over India and move about all the year round. The Aghori smears himself with the ashes of the funeral pyre. He wears the frontal mark denoting the unity of the Hindu triad. He also wears a Rudraksha rosary and a necklace of stone. Some wear rosary of human teeth too.

4) Vir Shaiva or Lingayat SampradayxLingayats are mostly found in southern India. The name of this cult has been derived from the word linga (Phallus symbol). A true lingayat wears on his body a small silver box containing a stone linga which is a symbol of his faith and the loss of which means spiritual death. It is worn by both male and female members of the sect. Of the Hindu sects, Lingayats or Vir Shaivas acknowledge Shiva whose symbol, the linga they wear on their person. They are against caste system. All wearers of the lingas are proclaimed equal in the eyes of the God. They prohibit child marriage and stand for widow remarriage. They bury their dead.

The Lingayat sect was started in the twelfth century. The most important ceremony of the Lingayats is Ashta Varna which includes eight rituals called Guru, Linga, Vibhuti, Rudraksha, Mantra, Jangam, Tirtha and Prasad. Lingayatas are not permitted to touch meat or liquour. The founder saint of this sect was Basara. There are three sub-sects of Lingayats. (1) Pancham Salis with full Ashta Varna rites (2) Non-Pancham Salis with full Ashta Varna rites (3) Non-Pancham Salis without Ashta varna rites. Lingayats or Vir Shaivas draw slack sectarian mark on their foreheads. 5) Kapalika Panth: Though almost dying now this sect was widely prevalent in Ancient India. Kapaliks are expert Tantriks. They wear some-rosaries and live naked near ghats. They take their food from the human skull. They eat meat and drink wine without hesitation. The deity of kapaliks is Kal Bhairaw. Though the number of Kapaliks is very small, they are spread all over India. Shakta ~am~kda~a

In the system of Shakta yoga philosophy, Shakti (female power) is regarded as the supreme reality. Shiava is chitta (conscious) Shakti is Chidroopini (pure consciousness). , Vishnu and Shiva do their work of creation, preservation and destruction respectively in obedience to Shakti. Shakti is endowed with Ichcha (will), Gyan (Knowledge), Kriya (action). Shakti is embodiment of power. She maintains the sportive play or the leela of the Lord. She is Universal Mother. She is manifested in the form of Dwga, Kali, Bhagvati, Chamundi, Tripura, Sundari, Rajrajeshwari, Parvati, , Radha and so on. Shakti is pure -. Customs, Rituals and Cults blissful consciousness. Shakti is full of three gunas (qualities namely) Satya, Rajas and Tamas. He who worships such a shakti or Divine Mother is called Shakta. Worship of shakti is one of the oldest and most widely spread practice of Hinduism The Vedas form the philosophical background of .

Shaktism is not merely a philosophy or theory. It prescribes systematic yoga to the devotees. It helps the aspirants to rouse the Kundalini (mystic serpent power) and unite it with Lord Shiva and enjoy the supreme bliss.

The Shaktas are divided into three groups which are as follows:

1) Dakshnachari :They are completely free from sensuality and do not offer blood sacrifice to their deities.

2) Bamachari: They follow the Teachings of Tantrikas and freely offer blood sacrifices to their deities.

3) Kaulik: They follow Kaul Upanishad. Their object of veneration is the great power of Nature which they call 'Jagdamba' (the mother of the world.)

Ganpatya Sampradaya: The followers of this sect consider Ganesh as the fust cause of the Universe. According to Ganpatyas, Ganpati is the god who exists eternally and through whose , Brahma and other divine principles are created. There are six sub-sects of Ganpati Sampradaya.

These differ mainly in the form or title under which the god Ganesh is adored.

7.4.2 Muslim Sects

The Muslims are divided into a large number of sects and subsects. In India the Sunnis, the Shias, the Bohras, the Ahmediyas are a few bigger sects. Within these sec$s there are sub sects. The Wahabis are considered subsect of Sunnis. Ismaili Bohras of the Bohra sect. Many of these started as cults around some individuals but in due course the? developed into sects. We will give brief account of Sunnis and Shias'the two main sects spt'ead throughout the world.

Sunnis claim to be the followers of the Sunna (the tradition of prophet). They mainly follow fqur major schools of Islamic thought put forward by great scholars - Abu Hianifa, Malik Abu Anas, Ash-Shafi and Ahmed Ibu Hamfal. The Sunnis also consider the sucaession of Caliphs Hanat Abu Bakr, Umar, Usman and Ali as proper and just. They do not recognize any spritual leader or Imam other than prophet. They mainly depend on Qurah and the Hadith (sayings or actions of the prophet) for their beliefs Shias differ from Sunnib on the question of succession after the prophet. Shias consider that Hanat Ali should have succeeded the prophet as his only heir. The Shias also believe in the tradition of Imams as religious and spiritual leader after the prophet. Beginning with Ali as the first imam the Shias believe in a series of 128 imams (the twelfth is yet to come). Apart from this basic difference a number of matters of interpretation also crept in and Shialsm developed as a major sect within Islam.

7.43 Sikh Sects

I The rise of sects in Sikhism was more in the form of religious reform and movements. Many of these sects had both Sikhs and Hindus as members. The Nirankaris, Radha Soamis of Beas and the Namdharis are some prominent sects. I The Nirankari sect was started by Dyal Das, a merchant of Peshawar. He opposed idol I worship and disapproved of going on piligrirnages and performing Brahminical rituals. He saw the God as formless - nirankar. To begin with his followers came from Khatri,'Arora ! and Bania castes. In due course they acquired the system of Gurus and developed their own t, places of worship. They recognized many gurus other than ten Sikh Gurus. Radha Soami sect was founded by Shiv Dayal a Hindu banker of Agra. He included doctrines i of both . The main difference with Sikhism is that they believe in a I living guru. The sect was divided into a number of sub sects like Radha Soamis of Dayal Bagh (Agra) and of Beas (Punjab). They also have separate religious places. Their discourse continues to draw heavily from the Adi Granth of Sikhs. Social Structure Namdhari sect was founded by Balak Singh of village Hazro in North West Frontier region. They developed different forms of worship, and dress code. The followers of the sect chanted hymns and worked themselves into a state of frenzy and emitted loud shrieks (Kuks) and therefore came to be known as Kukas.

7.4.4 Budhist Sects

After the Gautam Budha several Budhist councils were held to debate the questions of faith and religious order. These gave rise to two main schools of thought. Later on a third one also emerged. These are Hinayana, Mahayana and the Vajrayana.

The followers of Hinayana believe in the original traditions of Budha. They recognized only a fured body of canonical literature. Their main literature was limited to tripitaka (three baskets). There are Vinay Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.

The Mahayana claimed their own doctrines and practices as belonging to Bodhisatva (enlightened being). They called themselves Mahayana. Bodhisatva according to them was potential Budha and everybody could achieve it. They believed that accumulated merit of . bodhisatva could be transferred to help those who wanted to achieve salvation. The Hinayana do not accept deity worship while the Mahayana introduced the idea of deity worship.

The Tantrayana or Vajrayana sect incorporates mystic and magical dimension. They believed that salvation can be achieved by acquiring magical powers called Vajra (thunderbolt)

After Mahavira there emerged differences among his followers over many religious questions. As a result two main sects - the Digarnbara (sky clad) and Swetambara (white clad) emerged. The Digambara believed that the monks should not wear cloth, while Swetambara believed in wearing white cloth. The Digambara also believed that the women cannot attain salvation. A number of subsects also emerged in due course. Many of these rejected the practice of image worship of the Jina or Mahavira.

7.4.6 Christian Sects Christians also have a number of denominations and sects. However, a major divisions came in the 16th century during the reformation movement in Europe. A section of the community felt that the Church and society are in a state of crisis. They demanded reforms in such a situation and came to be called as Protestants. They organized themselves under a separate Church. The Protestant Churches recognize the authority of Bible alone, whereas the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches also recognize their church tradition as authoritative besides the Bible. In India most of the Christian sect and subsects exist under the two major denominations the Catholics and the Protestants.

ICheck Your Progress - 2 1) What do you understand by sects? Customs. Rituals and Culls 2) Corpment on following Vaishnava and Shaiva sects:

i) Ramanandis

ii) Chaitanya sect

iii) Lingayats ......

3) Briefly describe the following:

i) Sikh sects

ii) Budhist sects 7.5 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, we have discussed the traditions, customs and rituals in Indian society. You must have observed that the customs and rituals are part of everyday life in India. There is a large variation in the observance of these customs and rituals in different religious groups, communities and regions. In many cases even in divide.d families, they have their own set of customs and rituals. Most of the rituals take place at different points in one's life cycle, seasons, festivals etc. There are even similarities in rituals across the religions. The role and functions of rituals as also the types of rituals were also discussed. .. Cults and Sects also came under discussion. Cults many a times develop into sects. In this Unit, more attention has been paid to sects. The important sects of all the major religions have been listed with brief notes. It was not possible to give an exhaustive lit of all the sects, this list, therefore, be treated as suggestive only.

7.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES aCheck Your Progress.- 1 1) See Sub-sec. 7.2.1.

2) See Sub-sec. 7.2.3.

3) See Sub-sec. 7.2.3.

ICheck Your Progress - 2 1) See Sec. 7.4.

2) See Sub-sec. 7.4.1.

3) See Sub-sea. 7.4.3 and 7.4.4 UNIT 8 FAIRS AND FESTIVALS

Structure

Objectives Introduction Festivals and Fairs of India: Some Important Features Major Festivals of India Fairs of India Tourism and Festivals and Fairs Let Us Sum Up Answers to Check Yeur Progress Exercises

- - . 8.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this Unit you will know about the:

major festivals and fairs of India, chief characteristic features of various festivals and fairs of India, potential of fairs and festivals for tourists, and role of tour operator, guide, etc. to attract tourists towards Indian fairs and festivals.

8.1 INTRODUCTION .

Fairs and festivals are an important part of social activity and are observed all over the world in avariety of ways. In India, traditional fairs md festivals are connected with religious beliefs, folk-lore, local customs, changing seasons, harvests, etc. Not only does India have many different festivities connected with its various religions, our numerous cultural traditions influence the manner of celebrating them.

Indian fairs and festivals are as varied in origin as they are in number. Many of them are observed in a particular manner in different parts of the country. Some celebrations are specific to certain areas; some are celebrated by different sects and communities in an especially noteworthy way in certain villages, cities, or even states. This gives fairs and festivals their P.*LL local flavour.

Sometimes it is difficult to separate fairs and festivals. In many cases they are interconnected. Many fairs (melas or utsava) are held in India usually at religious places or to celebrate religious occasions.

In recent years, many cultural fairs and festivals meant for carrying the music, dances, arts and crafts into the lives of people have also been introduced Tkis-fatter category is usually

_/--- - tourism-oriented. Examples of this are the Jaisalmer Desert Festival (Rajasthan) held in - -

winter, and the Khajuraho Dance Festival (Madhya Pradesh) where renowned Chisski1 - - Indian dancers perform against the backdrop of the famous Khajuraho temples complex. (For further details see Course TS-2, Block- 05). To recapitulate, you must have already read about fairs and festivals in our Course TS-2, Block-5. But our emphasis in TS-2 was entirely different than what we are planning to discuss in the present Unit. In our Course TS-2 our objective was to tell you how festivals and fairs /.could be used as an important component of tourism development. Therefore, we did not ditional socio-religious festivals of India which form the very heart -ifel -ifel In6tead our discussion was co_n@ed to non-traditional festivals which are started comparatively quite reccudy By tourism department. Our purposalm-- Unit is to familiarise you with Tndian culture, its social structure, etc. keeping iR view the 'Tourism' campanent as well. A discussion on an th~fa6ilyritualq p4- witbin a family, is beyond tbe purview of this Unit for we have already covered this aspect in Unit 7 of the present Block. 43 Social Structure 8.2 FESTIVALS AND FAIRS OF INDLA: SOME IMPORTANT FEATURES -

Festivals and fairs are significant parts of the Indian cultural 1ife.h the present Section our purpose is to explore the 'spirit' behind Indian fairs and festivals.

Festivals are very 'heart' of Indian socio-cultural milieu. In fact, Indian cultural life revolves round the festivals and fairs. As for the socio-religious content of the festivals and fairs is ccncern, it is very difficult to differentiate them into water-tight compartments. However. for convenience we have attempted to put them into one or the other category. But these divisions are i-terchangeable and barring few festivals and fairs most of them fall into more than one head.

Festivals and fairs are extremely significant parts of Indian cultural life. They have a history which goes back to centuries in our past. They are aspects of our ccmmon culture and are celebrated by both the elite and the masses. Some of the important characteristics of our festivals and fairs are discussed below:

1) Most of the traditional Indian festivals are socio-religious in content. Almost all of them &reaccompanied by religious rituals of one kind or the other. Every traditional festival has two aspects. One is the worship which is performed according to the specific r cligious norms. For example in , or Ram Navami the Hindus worship their gods and goddesses at the individual or family level. In Id thi: Muslims go to the mosques to offer namaz because the coliective worship is an important aspect of their religion. Similarly, on Christmas the Christians go to their Churclles for religious services. But all the festivals have another aspect also and this represents our composite culture. Participation in most of our festivals are not restricted to a particular community. Members of all the communities participate in the festivities attached to a festival. Roli, P)iwa!i, Id, Muharram, Raisakhi and Christmas involve all thc pcople at one level or the cbther . Therefore, despite having strong religious content, our festivals represent our -cnlmonness, forge our unity and encourage a social bond.

h~vstof the festivals specific to the Hindus are seasonal in nature. They announce the -i,.rnq;: in season and mark the harvesting seasons.

A11 the seasonal festivals are celebrated during two harvesting seasons kharif ' 4ugust-October) and rabi (March- April). Besides, spring season is another period of *?c.isonalfestivities.

Mid-January

Nonetheless the base of all seasonal festivals is 'Agriculture.' Festivals are observed bccause either the new crop is sown or crop is harvested. In Punjab, from Lohri onwards peasants start cutting their winter crop. , and celebrations mark the harvesting of paddy crop. On the day of Pongal with the new crop 'Shankarai Pongal' (rice cooked in milk and jaggery) is prepared and distributed as 'Prasadam.' Sugarcane, which is another crop harvested at this time is also distributed as part of 'Prasadam.' Similarly, tender turmeric plants (another new crop harvested during this period) are tied around the neck of the pots (kalash) in which Shankarai Pongal is cooked. In Assam, during Bihu celebrations, 'rice' reparations chiava (pressed rice) is eaten and dictributed. Ricc dishes are also the cwnent in the Onam feasts. -- - Similarly, Holi and , are primarily celebrated to mark the harvesting of new rabi crop. Here wheat forms the centre of all rituals. When the Holi fire is lit tradition is to roast wheat and barley plants in that fire.

. .

their necks. For fun, some pcoplc tie money around the neck of ths oxen and the brave try to snatch that out of their necks. Cattle-sport organised during Pone1 festivals have become more a part of Indian Cultural life rathcr than that of religion. Cattle sport Jellihttu of Madurai, rhanjavvr and Tiruchirapalli have acquired all India fame in which bundles of money, etc. are tied to the horns of bulls and young men try to snatch them. Bullock-cart race is organised on this day in Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu in which everyone takes part irrespective of age and religion. Its couderpart in North- India is Govardhan Pouja which falls on the third day following 1)ipawali. Fire worship is important feature of sea~ollalfc~tivals- We get references fire, wonhip as eXly as the Harappan period (at Kalibangan). Magh Bihv (mid- January) celebrations are around bhelaghars (specially constructed structures of thatched grass and green bamboos): Mcli and women spend whole ilight in thesc structures. Bonfire is arranged. In thc niorning these bhelaghrrs are hornt as symbol of fire worship. First day of Pongal, called L.i Pungal is cclcbrated by lilting bonfire. Boys beat drums called Bogi Kottu. Thia Bogi is dedicated to the god of rains, indm. I1 haralds-- the coming- of new season (Spring). Bonfire celebratiolls ofLohri and Holi needs no introduction. On the day of Luhri bonfire is lit to worship Sun God to get protection for worshippcrs and thcir crop from the severe cold of Paush month (December-January). Thus bollfire is thc symbol of collective security and bafciy. We have also talkcd about linkages ofdifferent rcgons as an important feature of Indian festivals as well as cultural tradition. Thcre are some festivdls celebrated at a particular time hut with different name,s all over India. The most prominent of such fcstival is Makara Sankranti (January 14th ). It is celebratcd ill 'Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradssh as thc three day long Pongal fcstival, and in Karnataka and Northern India (January 13) as . Lohri (January 13) cclcbratcd primarily in Punjab also coincides with Makara Saiakranti. Baisakhi in Punjab and Holi in Northen India and Bollag Riho in Assam marks the coming of new year, From Lohri onwards starts the economic ycar of zamiadars. From Nauroz (21st March) starts the Parsi new year.

3) As we have pointed out earlier all these festivals have socio-cultural aspects also and involve all t,he people in an area or rcgion irrespective of casle and co~nmunityin thc festivities. Kite flying is a special feature (specially in Ahmedabad and Jaipur) of Makam Saohnli celebralions in which everyone participa~eswish full zeal, Cultural significance of Bihu dances urganised during Bohag Bihu celebrations ocsds no elaboration. It is not only the very life 01 Assamese but has attained a place among the national heritage. During Bihu celebrations Bihu dance is the biggest altraction. On this day whole Assan1 comes lo life. People sing and ddnce on the beat of drum, peps kind ofinstrument made of buffaloes' horn), QI.gagna (mrangi), ere. In ihi~dance both Young men and Women take part. On this day another dance Husori iSbalsoorganIsed. The dsference between the two is that the former one is danced on the tunes of love while the ktter is played on reli@ous themes. Latter is generally organised in groups by men.

athahli dance, which is among the classical d&ca ol India, is the die= attraction of Onam festival Boat races or "Vallumkali also marks Onam festivities ~~~~.~q, a(

Armmulaiac~m~animent adKotta~am of songs &re and drums.'Odde' boatsThese are iaer rowed *re noby 1;sabout important 1m oarsmen to an ~~di~~~.lo thaa (0 a Kerallte irrespective of c~stea~d crded.

Daring the hhn fr~ivalthe wii.hulc Punjab comes loi: Bhangra. 'fe and dance to the tune of

ntlpinm f~~~ f-~fiGtL=of Na~mstriC~i;arq+ pn,,t6,c f,, ,if6, Wnm~ndanrc, ass-h- ~rmlndan a'so these equal zeal. Earlier when zarnindars used to organise drum beaters and Shabnai players were Fairs and Festivals in invariably Muslims, In and fields and in every corner of streets and decoration with lights is done. Huge processions are are constructed, organised on the fourth day (Vijayadnshmi) to immerse the Durga statues in the river/pondslsea Throughout the route People amidst drum 'lays' etc- are Organised. dance and sing. culturalprogrammes and feasts, without which life becomes colourless,conveys the message of collective unity and love

PrOCeSsior~are Dashmi Or Organired On the tenth-day of nUrgaPuja, known as Rjaya throughout India. precedes the in ever). city community hmlilas are enacted and on huge processions are taken Out. Statues of Ravana, ~~~~bh~k~~~~and tenth day burnt with Meghnath are bursting Of crackers s~mbolisin~the destruction of evil. gathering acquired specid These cultural colour in specific regions. In Himachal Pradesh, at Kulu-Mandi' Dashehra are chief tourists attraction. Dashchra of Cwalior, under the aegis Of Cwalior Maharaja till date attracts not only the tourists but is the chief attraction for the people of Gwalior as well. similarly, ~~~h~h~~ofMysore is known for its Pageantry and splendor.

Brajregion (Mathura-~rindavanregion of uttar pradesh) with Krishna is famous for its unique way of Holi traditionally On the day hf Holi the of Barsana throw coloured water and gola] powder on the Of Nandgaon and strike them with sticks in a mock-fight. The men can defend themselves with the leather shields. The next day it is the turn of the women of ~~d~~~~ to throw guIa1 and loured water on the men of Barsana and attack them in the same Iashion. *his mock- fight (called4athmaar Holi) is considered auspicious and is meant as harmless fun.

Deepawali brings the joy all over. Practically every village, town and city is illuminated with earthen lamps, candles and electric bulbs to welcome I.akshmi, the goddess of prosperity and wealth. On this day people visit each others house, exchange sweets, and fire- works are oraganised. These celebrations are enjoyed by cveryone irrespective of community and dtrengthen the feeling of love, prosperity and brotherhood in the society.

Id, Muharram and Milad-un Nabi celebrations in India acquires a distinct colour and cultural tradition. Id celebrations in India no more confined to recitation of Narnaz and wearing of new clothes only. In India, from the very start of the p~ousmonth of Ramzan, festivities are organised. People organise huge iftar parties. Sometimes such parties are organised by their Hindu compatriots and at other time Hindus ~oiniftar parties of Muslims conveying the message of equal participation in their festivities. On the day of Id huge mmas are organised at various places. The live description of Id celebrations in his story 'Idgah' by Munshi Premchand reflects the very spirit of Id celebrations. Interestingly, Muharram processions are also the distinct characteristics of 1ndian culture and Maqialis are organised during the forty day mourning, tazias are taken out on the tenth day throughout India in processions.

~~ddh~purnima, rhough exclusively celebrated by Buddhist, taking hO1i dip On the is very much part of Hindu religion. Baisam Purnima is Of 'pecial day of Buddhism the life of a Buddhist. Its on this day that Buddha, founder in Buddha attained enlightenment and nirvana. Buddhist way " born, ,, different from other Indian fes Purnima is not very is worshiped first Canesha, the elephant headed ~~d,considered piou"~ every Hindu on all the auspiciousHindu ceremonies, But ~aneshachaturthi is Though' and fervour in mharashtra that it has acquired a distinct 'lace here' it is reli.ous festiVd but Bai ~angadhar"Iak used it as a vehlc" Hi used it as a P~~~~~~~for "cia' reformi's and Ndionalist

.- i

II

4) in (exepting the soew SL~UCIW Indian fairs, most cases, are devoid of thr religious content. They are Kumbh meh which is mainly a religious congregation) the secular pxts of Indian cultural life. Buying and selling of cattle, goats, handicrdts and various other things take place durbg the faLs. We can say that they represent the cultural - mercial life of I traditionalIndia. Although in some fairs, some religious rites take place, they Pre mostly F subordinate to the commercial side of it. I

Check Your Progress-1

1) halyse the chief charlderistic features of seasonal festivals of India in hlines. i

1

B

2) Find out the relationship among Pongal, Lnhrl and Makar Sankranti festivals.

3) Discuss the cattle festivals of India and find out the similrrlity and dissimilarily in the . manner they are celebrated all over India.

4) Match the foflowiag: Fairs and Festivals 8.3 MAJOR FESTNALS OF INDIA

In this sectionwe will discuss some major festivals of India. We have tried to give mythological origins of the festivals wherever possible. Most of the festivals are related to the region, season and religion of the people.

Bihu: People of Assam, irrespective of caste and creed celebrate three . All these three Bihus are connected with each other. Bohag Bihu is celebrated in mid-April; second in line is Magh Bihu observed in mid-January; and the third one Kati Bihu is commemorated in mid-October. But, the most celebrated one is Bohag Bihu. Bohag Bihu heralds the coming of the New Year in the Assamese calendar. Magh Bihu is basically related with agriculture. It is observed when the paddy crop is harvested. Kati Bihu is celebrated on the last day of the Ahin month of Assamese calendar. This is also known as Kangali Bihu for this is the time when almost all the granaries are empty. On this day people perform rituals in the midst of paddy fields to wish for good paddy crop.

Makar Sankranti: It is celebrated on January 14. This marks the beginning of 'Uttarayana' or*the half year long northern sojourn of the Sun. It is celebrated in Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh as the three-day long Pongal festival, and in Karnataka and Northern India as Makar Sankranti. Kite flying is a special feature of the cities of Ahmedabad and Jaipur on this day.

Lohri: It is celebrated on the last day of the Paush month (12-13 January). It coincides with Pongal and Makar Sankranti marking the culmipation of winter. It is believed that this is the coldest day of the year. Community bonfues are lit. Traditionally, any family having a wedding or any happy occasion to celebrate plays host to the rest of the village on this festival. Rice-flakes, popcorns and sweets made from jaggery (gur) and sesame seed (til) like "Gajak" and "Revadi"are tossed into the bonfire.

Onam: It is celebrated in the Hindu month of Sravana on the day of Sravana Nakshatra (September-October). Onam is Kerala's major festival. According to legend, king Mahabali

I practiced great penance and became all-powerful. Vishnu took the incarnation of a Brahmin I i dwarf, Vamana and asked the king to give him all the land he could cover in three steps as alms. The king agreed. At this Vamana grew to super-human proportions. Covering the earth and heaven in two steps, Vamana asked where he should place his third step. Mahabali offered his own head and was pushed into the nether world (or Patalam). In recognition of his piety, Mahabali was made King of Patalam. He is allowed to return to his former kingdom once a year in an invisible form. Onam is celebrated to assure King Mahabali that all remains well in his land, and that his people are happy and prosperous. On the eve of Tiruonam, the second and the most important day of the 4-day Onam festival, everything is cleaned and decorated in preparation for king Mahabali's visit. Auspicious saffron colour cloths are presented to friends and relatives.

Pongal: It is celebrated on the 1st day of the Tamil month of Tai i.e. mid-January. Its a three-day festival. The first day is called Bhogi-Pongal. On this day people clean and white-wash their houses and in the evening community bonfire is conducted. Surya-Pongal, the second day, is marked by women preparing 'pongal' (rice cooked in milk and jaggery) and offering it to the sun (Surya). The third day, Mattu-Pongal, is dedicated to cattle (matu). 'Pongal' offered to deities is given to the cattle to eat. Their horns are polished, and flowers hung around their necks. Coloured balls of 'pongal' are left for birds.

Raksha Bandhan: It is celebrated on the Purnima day in the month of Sravana (July-August) all over India. Girls tie colourful 'rakhis' or thread of silk and amulets, around the wrists of their brothers, including cousins. In return, the brothers offer gifts and pledge to protect their sisters. On this day Brahmans and Purohibs also tie Rakhis on the wrists of their Yajman.

Navratri Durga Pooja, Dashehra: These are celebrated in the month of Ashvin &eptember-~ctober).These are important tenday festivals for the Hindus in most of India. First nine days are celebrated as Navratri. The Navratri festivities of Gujarat, with its music abd dance (garba) are of exceptional appeal. Saptami, Ashtami and Navmi forms famous Durga Pooja celebrations of Bengal; while the tenth day, known asVijaya Dashmi is observed as Dashehra in various parts of India. People in Bengal immerse Durga statue on this day, thus ends the Durga Pooja festivities. Though, Dashehra is celebrated in various parts of India in different ways, the concept behind these celebrations is the same i.e. victory of good I Social Slruclun Holi: Holi is the festival of colour. On this day coloured powder and coloured water are sprinkled by people on each other. This spring festival, falls in the month of Phagun on the , day of Purnima (February-March), was known in ancient times as 'Madan-Utsav.' One story about Holi concerns Prahlad, son of evil King Hiranyakasipu. Hiranyakasipu demanded that every one should worship him as a God. When Hiranyakasipu's own son, Prahlad, continued to worship Vishnu, Hiranyakasipu persecuted Prahlad. Ultimately, Prahlad's aunt Holika, who was immune to fire because of divine boon, entered a blazing fire with Prahlad with the intention of burning the prince. However, it was Holikawho was burnt to ashes, whileprahlad came out unscathed due to Divine intervention. Thus, even today, on the evening preceding the colour festival, bonfires are lit to symbolise the burning of Holika - the destruction of evil.

The Holi of Braj (the Mathura-Brindavan region of Uttar Pradesh traditionally associated with Krishna's childhood, and with stories of Radha-krishna), is marked by several days of festivals. At Anandpur Sahib, in Punjab, the day following Holi is marked by festivities, mock-battles, archery and fencing contests by a sect of the Sikh community.

Dipawali: India's 'Festival of Light' (Dipawali) falls 20 days after .Dashehra on the Amavasya or 'New Moon' night of the Hindu month of Kartik (October-November). Coinciding with . the approach of winter, and the sowing of the winter-crop in many parts of India, people celebrate the return of Rama to Ayodhya, after 14 years of exile, and after slaying Ravana. For many in South India, Dipawali commemorates the slaying of Naraka by Krishna. In Bengal and some other parts of Eastern India, Kali is worshipped on this occasion. Dipawali marks the beginning of new commercial year for many and businessmen finalize their old account books and open new accounts.

Practically every village, town and city is illuminated with earthen lamps, candles and even electric bulbs to welcome , the goddess of prosperity and wealth. Jains also celebrate Deep-Dipawali ten days after Dipawali as part of Moksha celebrations of their 24th Tirthankar, Mahavir.

Id-ul Fib: Id-ul Fitr marks the end of the holy month of Ramzan, during which pious Muslims have fasted from dawn to sunset. It is celebrated on the 1st Rabi-ul Awwal of Arabic calendar. This festival is commonly referred to as 'sweet Id' by children, as vermicelli or 'seveyian' are offered to all. It is a day of celebrations, feasting and wearing new clothes. People offer prayers at Idgahs. Alms are given to the poor and children receive gifts (idi).

Id-ul Zuha (Id-ul Azha): Its also called Bakr Id. This commemorates the sacrifice of Ibrahim (Abraham of the Bible and of the Jewish tradition). Ibrahim was ordered by God to offer his son Ismail as a sacrifice. Ibrahim blindfolded himself and devotedly carried out God's instructions. However, when he removed the cloth from his eyes he found his son alive by his side, and instead a ram, lying on the sacrificial altar. God then commended Ibrahim's trust. A sacrifice of a goat or ram is made by each Muslim family symbolizing Ibrahim's offering and faith in God. Id prayers follow, along with feasting and rejoicing. It follows around 2 months 10 days after Id-ul fitr.

Muharram: Muharram is a solemn occasion commemorating the martyrdom of Imam Hussain (grandson of the holy Prophet Mohammed), along with his followers at Kerbala. It is a ten-days observance of intense mourning by sections of the Muslim community. 'Tazias' made of paper and bamboo (symbolizing the tomb at Kerbala), are carried in procession. A horse, representing Imam Hussain's horse, Dul Dul, accompanies the procession. 1 Christmas: The birth anniversary of Jesus Christ (25th December) is celebrated by Christians in India amidst Church services on Christmas Eve and Christmas Day, singing of carols (religious songs), exchange of gifts and feasting. The day after Christmas is observed 1 by giving alms to the needy. (Thus the name Boxing Day, because money and gifts were put E into boxes meant for the poor). Churches, Cathedrals and homes are decorated, and scenes i depicting the infant Christ are put up.

Good Friday: Christians observe Good Friday (March-April) with Church services and the singing of hymns in memory of the crucificaion of Jesus Christ on this day. A long period 6f fasting and prayer, known as Lent, precedes Good Friday. This comes to an end on Easter Day.

Easter: The Sunday after Good Friday (March-April) is a day of celebrations for Christians. It is believed that Jesus Christ, who was crucified on Good Friday, resurrected on this day. UP then ~nnt;nnm~TItn nr~3r-Ltn KCfnlIn.x~~rc fnr An A-xrr Lfnro cnc~c-nA;nn tn UPI~P~ Fairs and Festivals Christians hold Church-services and celebrate the occasion with feasts and visiting friends and relatives. Easter processions are also taken out.

Nauroz: This is a Parsi (or Zoroastrian) festival. Linked to the spring equinox (21 March), it is believed to date from the time when King Jamshed ruled Persia. Worship at the Parsi fire- temples is followed by visits to friends and relatives to'exchange greetings.

Buddha Jayanti (Budddha Purnima): It is a celebration of the anniversary of the birth, enlightenment and 'Nirvana' (death) of Gautama Buddha - all of which occurred on the same day according to Buddhist tradition. Buddha Purnima (April-May) is marked by chanting of verses from dawn to late-night, and ceremonial offerings at Buddhist shrines. The celebrations are noteworthy at Sarnath near Varanasi (where Buddha preached his very first sermon), at Bodhgaya in Bihar (where he became the 'Enlightened One' - i.e. Buddha), and r in Sikkim and Ladakh. Ganeshotsava: Its observed in the honour of Ganesh, the elephant headed God, son of Siva [ and Parvati. It is celebrated in the month of Bhadrapada (August-September). Ganapati is worshipped on this day in other parts of India as well but it is celebrated with special zeal and . I fervour in Western India. Clay images of Ganesh are made and sold to worshippers. The images are sanctified and worshipped for ten days after which they are immersed in a tank i or river. bt t Besides these socio-religious festivals some of the modern-day festivals have been introduced by the Tourism planners and the Tourist Department as attractions for the tourists. The f major among them are the Jaisalmer Desert Festival, Music and Dance Festivals at many 'places in the country, Mango Festivals in Delhi, Haryana and U.P., Garden Festivals in Delhi and Sikkim, and Elephant Festival in Kerala. All these festivals are non- religious. They have been discussed in detail in our Course Ts-.2, Block-5, Unit-18. 1 8.4 FAIRS OF INDIA As we have pointed out earlier, the Indian fairs encompass the cultural, social, commercial I and occasionally even religious aspects of Indian life. Large or small fairs have always been i attached to many festivals in India. Thus during Dushera, Ganeshotsava, Id, Makar Sankranti and even Muharram fairs of substantial size are held during the celebrations. Some fairs are independent and exist in their own right. In terms of their scope the Indian fairs are huge and cover many aspects of our life. Thus we find some people engaged in trading their commodities, some involved in religious rites like taking dip in the holy water etc., some indulging in religious debates while at some other corner we can find singing of folk songs going on; loudspeakers can be heard blaring the latest filmi songs from another side while some can be seen indulging in leisurely chat; wrestling bouts are not uncommon and sometimes even the local level leaders can be seen giving lectures.

Kumbhmela is unique in the respect that it does not exhibit the features associated with a traditional Indian fair. It is basically a religious congregation which is held once every 12 years (Maha Kumbha) at one of the four holy places (Allahabad, Ujjain, Nasik, Haridwar) in turn. An "ardha" or half Kumbha occurs every 6 years. According to mythology, when the "devas" or gods and the "asuras" or demons together churned the waters of the primeval ocean many priceless things floated up from the ocean. Among these was a pot (kumbha) of "amrit" - the nectar of immortality. During the struggle for the possession of the "amrit" between the demons and the gods, some drops of the precious nectar got spilt. These fell at twelve places including nether world called "patala." Four of these twelve places, namely Haridwar, Ujjain, Allahabad and Nasik, are in India, and a great fair is held at each of these places in a 12 years cycle. Ujjain is also visited by many pilgrims during eclipses when a holi bath is considered meritorious.

The famous Pushkar Mela is held on the day of Karthik Purnima (in October - November). Devotees gather around Pushkar lake and take a ceremonious bath in it. Pushkar, one of the holy pilgrimage places of India, is said to possess the only temple where Brahma is still worshipped. According to legend, when Brahma was reflecting on a suitable place to perform 'Yagna" (sacrifice), a lotus fell from his hand. That spot became renowned as Pushkar. An annual fair marks the occasion. This Pushkar fair, characterized among other things by its cattle market, has now become very well known to the tourists - both domestic as well as foreign. Traditionally a religious occasion, that was accompanied by the exchange of camels and cattle between agriculturalists and animal breeders from far and near, it has now gained a "tourist attraction" status!.

Among the non-religious fairs Saliana, (Palampur) is noted for its wrestling matches, while at Sonepur mela (in Bihar) selling of elephants adds extra colour to the occasion. Garh Murktesar fair's (60 km. from Delhi) antiquity one can well trace to Mughal period. This fair is held every year at Garh Murktesar where besides ritual bathing in the Ganges brisk economic activities also take place.

India has developed a unique tradition of Urs (birth or death anniversary celebrations at a dargah) celebrations. Urs are held annually at the dargah of famous sufi saints. Unique character of these celebrations is that people visit in large number to take the blessings of the revered saints irrespective of caste and creed (both the Hindus and the Muslims attend the celebrations with equal zeal). We have already discussed Ajmer Sharif as famous pilgrimage centre in our Unit 17, Block 5 of our Course TS-2. Ajmer Sharif is the dargah of Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti, the founder of Chishti sufi order in India. Delhi Sultans and Mughal Emperors all used to make pilgrimage to this shrine. Annual Urs celebrations continues here for seven days. The chief attraction here are the sessions of qawwali (a genere of music and poetry sung in a specific way). Food is distributed to the destitute. The manner of food cooked here also has its own attraction. Inside the dargah there are two massive iron cooking pots (degs). The capacity of the larger deg is such that it can cook 70 mounds of rice at one go while in the smaller pot 28 mounds of rice can be cooked at a time. Here people come with a desire to get their wishes fulfilled in lieu they present chadar at the mausoleum.

Similar Urs are commemorated at other places too. In April, annual Urs is held at Gwalior to honour the Great Mughal singer Tansen by singing traditional and newly composed Music. Urs celebrations of famous saint Shah Hamadam (he visited Kashmir in 14th century) are held every year at Srinagar in August- September. Urs celebrations are observed at many places in Delhi - at Qadam Sharif, at the tombs of Shaikh Bakhtiyar Kaki, Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia, Shaikh Nasiruddin Chirag-i Delhi, Hazrat Amir Khusrau and many other sun saints. On this occasion tylng of thread on the screens and seeking the fulfillment of one's desires was most sought after. These ceremonies also provide occasion for people of different faith and from all sections of the society to gather, mingle and interact with one another. Organisation of Mehfil-i-Qamvali or sama was the most important feature in all these Urs. These activities during the Mughal period and even now incorporate within them the mela concept, People bring their beddings and tents along and shopkeepers erect stalls alongwith the gamekeepers.

At the dargah of sufi saint Qutbudin Bakhtiar kaki another unique festival sair-i gulfaroshan or phoolwalon ki sair is held every year. This unique festival of flowers, known as the procession of flowers and flower-sellers, dates back to the Mughal period. Hindus, Muslims and others participate whole-heartedly in it. Huge fans (pankhas) made of palm leaves and decoratedwith flowers and tinsel, alongwith floral offerings are carried in procession through the streets of Mehrauli. Fire dancers join the "Sair." The procession starts from the Hauz-i Shamsi, a sacred tank dating from the time of Iltutmish (13th century), and continues to the dargah of Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar kaki, popularly known as Khawaja Qutub Sahib (the second of the Sufi saints of the Chishti tradition), and then to the Jog-Maya temple. Hindus and Muslims jointly offer prayers at these two religious places. An associated function takes place at Jahaz Mahal, north-east of the Hauz-i Shamsi.

Trade fairs are our modern-day addition to the tradition of Indian fairs. They are held intermittently throughout the year in different parts of the country. Pragati Maidan in Delhi is a prominent place for such trade fairs throughout the year. Book Fairs are also held in various cities to interest the readers and to develop a reading culture.

8.5 TOURISM AND FESTIVALS AND FAIRS 4

The question arises about the relevance of festivals and fairs for tourism. Important point is how we, as tourist guide, tour operator, etc., should present Indian festivals and fairs to attract tourists. Here comes your role to attract tourists to these famous events of cultural tradition of India. Needless to say that both, festivals and fairs have tremendous tourism potentials both domestic as well as foreign. Your role is to present unique aspects of Indian Cultural tradition to the tourists in a proper perspective. The famous processions at the time of Durga ------

Fairs and Festivals Pooja (Calcutta), Ganeshotsav (Bombay), Dashehra (Mysore, Kullu, etc.) are too famous as centre of tourists attractions. Similar, is the case with BihulAssam), and Garba (Gujarat) dance traditions. There are many aspects related to Indian festivals and fairs which have a potential to attract the tourists. Balus and organising dances in the evening in groups at the time of Ganeshotsava is equally interesting a feature of Ganeshotsava celebrations as do the Ganeshotsava processions. Similarly, at the time of Bihu celebrations local Assamese sport of playing with eggs can attract tourists.

On Pongal day when people in every street and mohullah tie money on the neck of bulls and the manner in which brave men try to snatch them could be an equally attractive sight for a tourist. Manner of constructing thatched houses on the occasion of Magh Bihu and liting bonfires whole night and dancing on the tune of Bihu dances and in the morning puting these houses at fire are fascinating. Similarly, intersting sight would be to see the lathmar holi of Barsana and Nandgaon in Mathura. As a person associated with tourist trade it would be of use to you to learn more about the I ' fairs and festivals of your region.

1) How is Id-ul Fitr celebrated in India? Write in 50 words ......

2) Write five lines on the Onam festival ......

3) Write a note on Kumbha melas in 60 words...... "......

4) What are Urs and why are they celebrated? Social Structure 8.6 LET US SUM UP

In the present Unit we have discussed the characteristic features of various festivals and fairs of India. It is very difficult to classify various festivals and fairs of India into water-tight compartments of religious, social or economic. They are inter- religious and possess cross-cultural, intra-regional character. But whether it is celebrated by one community or another, in one region or another, all seem to have inspired by the Indian cultural tradition in one way or the other. Chief featurk of Indian fairs and festivals which is also the chief feature of Indian Culture is unity in diversity. Primarily Indian festivals and fairs have rural base. Peasant and agriculture are the focal points of Indian festivals and fairs. Fieworship which is an important feature of Indian cultural tradition is also an important feature of Indian festivals. They also convey the message of victory of good over evil. Thus, most common message conveyed by socio-cultural festival is that good deeds always prevail.

8.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES ,.

rCheck Your Progress-1 1) See Sec. 8.2

All such festivals are celebrated after the harvesting seasons are over. They are based ,on agricultural cycles and are the hallmarks of our rural life.

2) See Sec. 8.2

Discuss that linkages is the chief feature of Indian festivals. Mention how during the same period various festivals are celebrated in various parts of India.

3) See Sec. 8.2

Mention that 'cattle' plays an important role in the rural life of an Indian, all over India since time immemorial they were worshipped. Also mention that cattle worship in the ! of festivals is prevalent throughout India, though it differs in name and manner of I celebration. !

4) i) Bengal ii) Maharashtra iii) Kerala iv) Assam v) Punjab

rCheck Your Progress4 1) See Sec. 8.3.

2) See Sec. 8.3.

3) See Sec. 8.3.

4) See Sec.8.3 Define Urs. Discuss its importance in the life of an Indian. Also mention that they are not just the religious gatherings but its a social affair where people of all caste and creed assemble.