Japanese: a Linguistic Introduction Yoko Hasegawa Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-03277-4 - Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction Yoko Hasegawa Index More information

Index

abbreviation of word, 75–87 and positive politeness, 327 accent, 38 and sentence-final particle, 322 accentless word, 38 frequency of, 322–3 active voice, 152 in Chinese, 325–7 addressee in English, 325–7 awareness of, 287 timing of, 325–6 exalted, 273, 289 Altaic language family, 7 adjectival predicate, 91 anaphora, 104, 105, 335, 341 two place, 92 anaphor, 104, 334 adjective, 65 antecedent, 104, 104, 334 attributive, 65 apology (speech act), 245–7 evaluative, 137, 138 Arabic numeral, 44 i-adjective. See i-adjective argument, 91,97 marked, 131, 133 aru (existential), 18, 26, 82, 100, 103, 116, 126 na-adjective. See na-adjective negative form, 77 neutral, 131 aspect, 115, 115, 118 nominal, 66 in transitivity, 96 predicative, 66 aspiration, 31 scalar, 136 attribute description, 107 scale-identifying function of, 138 Austronesian language family, 7 adjunct, 97–9 adverb, 67 ba (conditional), 223, 239 degree, 66 backchannel, 320, 320–7, See also aizuchi epistemic, 308 beautification, 267 moment, 125 as gendered language, 357 adversity benefactive, 154, 164, 167–9 and benefactive, 154 event, 169 as a main-clause phenomenon, 155 benefactor, 167 in indirect passive, 154 beneficiary, 167 lexical, 154 deputative, 168 passive, 154, 155–8 marked by no tame ni, 168 affectedness construction, 174 recipient, 168 affective distance, 282–4 affective stance, 268, 289, 365, 367 can-do construction, 99 agency case, 70 cancellation of, 148 accusative, 92,95–6 in causative, 144 agent, 98 in transitivity, 96 allative, 94 agent in passive, 152 and transitivity, 97 agglutinative language, 3 dative, 93 aizuchi (backchannel), 320, 320–7 experiencer, 98 and negative politeness, 326 grammatical, 98

384

Index 385

nominative, 91 positive inequality, 138 patient, 98 scale, 138 semantic, 98 standard of, 134–5 case marking, 12, 96 complementizer, 190, 192, See also nominalizer and grammatical relation, 99 compliment (speech act), 248–50 fluctuation of, 101 response to, 249–50 case particle, 12, 70 compulsory education in Japan, 51 emergence of, 12 concessive, 210 with indefinite words, 104 concessive relation, 212, 220–1 casual speech, 81–3 conditional, 223 chau/jau,82 counterfactual, 223, 233–5 chimau/jimau,82 enablement, 225 e deletion, 82 generic/tenseless, 235–7 eb deletion, 82 in content domain, 225–8 i deletion, 82 in epistemic domain, 228–33 moraic nasal, 82 in speech-act domain, 237–8 w deletion, 82 consciousness, 341–2 cataphora, 334 consonant causal relation, 212, 214 length, 34 Humean, 212 tap, 33 causative, 142 controllability, 204, 206 bi-clausal structure, 151 conversation analysis, 319 derivation of, 142 coordinate compound, 41,41 intermediary, 150–1 and rendaku,41 let, 149 coordination, 110, 222 lexical, 142, 149–50 copula, 65 lexical vs. (s)aseru, 148 adverbial form, 79 permissive, 149 attributive form, 79, 79, 175 short form of, 147 conjectural form, 79 -te morau, 171–2 conjugation, 79 cause, 212 coreference vs. reason, 213 in anaphora, 334 causee, 142 with jibun, 151, 162 causer, 142 Chinese, 38, 49 dakuten, 48 classical Japanese, 116, 177, 266 definite article, 103–4 clause, 91,94 definiteness, 103 dependent, 110, 114 deictic center, 334 main, 110 deixis, 334–5 quotative, 111 in represented speech, 345–7 subordinate, 110 demonstrative, 331–43 cleft construction, 107, 107 a- in soliloquy, 339–41 co-construction, 321, 327–9 adnominal, 331 collaborative finish. See co-construction distal, 331 command (speech act), 117–18, 247–8 distance model, 332 gendered, 358 double-binary model, 333 pitch accent in, 83, 248 ka-, 331 common Japanese, 15,17 ko- in soliloquy, 337–8 comparison, 4, 134–6 medial, 331 adjective, 134 pronominal, 331 hidden, 137, 137 proximal, 331 ijō, 135, 139 so- in soliloquy, 338–9 ika, 139–40 territory model, 332 implicit, 137 with non-restrictive relative clause, negative inequality, 138 179

386 Index

derivation Tōkyō,17–19, 26, 28, 30, 37 compounding, 86–7 Unpaku, 22–3 i-adjective to i-adjective, 85 Western, 22 i-adjective to noun, 83 Yonaguni, 30 i-adjective to verb, 84 direct object, 92 na-adjective to i-adjective, 85 in nominative case, 99 na-adjective to noun, 83 discourse, 102 na-adjective to verb, 84 domain na-adjective to verbal noun, 84 content, 213 noun to i-adjective, 85 epistemic, 214 noun to na-adjective, 85 speech act, 214 noun to verb, 84 doublet/triplet in vocabulary, 62 noun to verbal noun, 83 Dravidian language family, 7 proper noun to verb, 84 Dutch, 62, 160, 220 verb to i-adjective, 85 Haruma wage, 69, 331 verb to noun, 83 loanword, 63 verbal noun to verb, 83 dvandva compound, 41 desu-masu form, 256 dialect Early Modern Japanese, 13–14, 24 /d/ and /r/, 33 empathy, 158, 283, 326 /dzu/-/zu/ distinction, 13 event time, 121–2, 123–4, 126 /ji/-/ʒi/ distinction, 13 event-reporting construction, 106, 106, 114, accentless, 29 195, 216 Central, 21 evidentiality, 309–14 copula variation, 27 evoked meaning, 365 dispersion of new form, 26 experiential perfect, 124 division of, 21 expression Eastern, 21 private, 350 east-west opposition, 26–7 public, 350 existential verb variation, 26 expressive vocabulary, 30, 54 Fukushima, 17 extraposition, 192 Goshogawara, 23 imperative form, 27 face Izumo, 25 negative, 269, 270, 279 Kagoshima, 17, 24, 29 positive, 269, 271, 274, 277, 279 Kansai, 30, 37 face-threatening act (FTA), 269–81 Kesen, 23 level of intrinsic imposition, 276, Kinki, 26, 29 276, 278 Kōchi, 24 factivity, 191, 191–2, 218 Kyūshū,22 ﬂoor, conversational, 319 Nagoya, 23–4, 30 focus, 107–8, 114 Naha, 18–21 formal noun. See koto Nakijin, 21 Fukuzawa Yukichi, 50–1 negation in, 27 furigana, 53 Okinawa, 18–21 Ōsaka, 17, 28 ga peripheral area, 17 genitive, 12 pitch accent variation, 28–9 nominative, 12, 91 retention of /kwa, gwa/, 24 gap in relative clause, 175–6 retention of /she, je/, 24 genbun-itchi (uniﬁcation of speech and retention of /wo/, 25 writing) movement, 15–16 snail,25–6 gender and sex, 355 Takamatsu, 29 gendered language, 355–68 te-form, 27 difference framework of, 367–8 Tōhoku, 22 dominance framework of, 367–8

Index 387

in soliloquy, 365–8 interjection, 24, 30, 296 origins of, 361–5 desune, 320 Genji monogatari, 10, 61, 355 exclamatory, 291, 358 gestalt, 195 gendered, 358 glottal stop, 24 interlocutor, 68 go (honorific prefix), 260, 262, 265 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), 8, 24, grammatical relation, 91 30–3 Gricean Theory of Implicature, 194, 202, 247 interrogative, 4 interrogative phrase, 103 habitual, 119 intransitive, 92 haiku,36–7 intransitive-causative pair, 147 han-dakuten, 48 intransitive-transitive (lexical causative) pair, head noun phrase, 175 93, 147 hearsay, 291, 310–13, 318, 336, 350 invitation (speech act), 216, 250–1 Heike monogatari,12 irregular verb, 52 hiragana, 47, 49, 54 percentage of, 65 historical present, 122 volitional form, 76 honorific, 255 iru (existential), 9, 18, 26, 77, 100, 103, 159 addressee, 255, 256, 273 Ise monogatari, 10, 12 referent, 255, 258, 273 Itoigawa-Shizuoka Tectonic Line, 26 subject, 264 iu (say), 95, 111 to express refinement, 267–8 humble form. See humilific Japan as a hierarchical society, 272, 272 humilific, 264–7 jibun hybrid word, 61–2 logophoric, 347 hyōjungo (standard Japanese), 14–15 reflexive, 151, 162, 347 jogakusei kotoba (schoolgirls’ language), i-adjective, 66 364–5 adverbial form, 80 conjectural form, 81 ka (interrogative), 4, 293–4 conjugation, 81 -ka to derive verbal noun, 83 copula support for politeness, 80 kakari-musubi (opening-ending) rhetorical polite form, 256–8 convention, 11 identifiability, 103, 114 kana,10 ideophone, 71 archaic, 47 and rendaku,42 diacritic, 48 onomatopoeia, 71 orthographical convention, 54–5 iku (go) kana only movement, 50 as two-place intransitive, 94 kanbun (Sinico-Japanese), 49 irregular in te-form, 77 kanji, 43 illocutionary act, 243 abolition of, 50 illocutionary force, 244 frequency of usage, 53 imperfective, 118–20 go-on,45 indefinite article, 103–4 kan-on,45 indefinite phrase, 103 kun reading, 45,46 indexicality, 365 on reading, 45,46–7, 61 direct, 365 productivity of, 49 indirect, 365 tōsō-on,45 indirect object, 93 writing English with, 46 information packaging, 102 kara information territory, 315–18 agentive, 160 direct form, 315 causal, 214–18 indirect form, 315 kashira (sentence-final particle), 294–5 in-group, 165, 165–7, 286 katakana, 47, 49, 54 in honorific speech, 262, 264 for loanword, 62

388 Index

ke/-kke (sentence-final particle), 295–6 Man’yōshū, 7, 46, 61 keredo(mo) (concessive), 221–2, 239 maxim of manner, 202 Kinkin-sensei eiga no yume,13 maxim of quantity, 194 knowledge measured difference, 136–8 conceptual, 336 -mi to derive noun, 83 direct, 335 Middle Japanese, 11–13, 29 experiential, 336 accentual patterns, 29 indirect, 335 potential verb, 78 ko- (anaphoric), 338 mitai da (evidential), 311–12 Kojiki,7–8 modality, 307 korosu (kill), 148 deontic, 307–8 degree of transitivity, 97 epistemic, 308–9 koto (nominalizer), 188, 189, 191 in Japanese Linguistics, 307 gendered, 359 mode in transitivity, 96 kuru (come) Modern Japanese, 14–15 causative form, 143 Momotarō, 17, 17, 23, 104 causative-passive, 163 mora, 35,37 conjugation, 76 in haiku,36–7 passive form, 152 moraic nasal, 10, 36 kyōtsūgo (common Japanese), 15,17 pronunciation of, 36 Romanization of, 57 language Musashino,16 arbitrariness of, 71 creole, 115, 115 n(o) da construction, 191–2 gender-appropriate, 366 na (sentence-final particle), 296–7 ideology, 355 na-adjective, 66 non-tonal, 38 nagara, 210 pidgin, 115 -nai, 139 pitch accent, 38–40 conjugation, 81 stress-accent, 39 -nai uchi ni, 208–9 tonal, 38 nara (conditional), 224, 231–3, 235–9 tone, 38 narrative latching, 320 background, 122–3, 196, 287 Late Old Japanese, 9–10, 29 foreground, 122–3, 196 accentual patterns, 29 nasai (imperative), 218, 248, 358 emergence of -ta, 116 nasalization, 32 long /e/, 11 native Japanese word, 61 loanword, 30, 33–4, 54, 61,62 ne and rendaku,41 in soliloquy, 302–3 frequency of, 63 obligatory, 317–18 nuance of, 62 optional, 317–18 older, 54 sentence-final particle, 299–302 locutionary act, 243 negation long consonant external, 192, 193 in orthography, 55 internal, 192 long vowel, 10–11 metalinguistic, 193, 194 in orthography, 54 scope of, 109–10 Lyman’s Law, 42 ni agentive, 153 Maejima Hisoka, 50 allative, 94 Makura no sōshi, 10, 361–2 concessive, 239 makura-kotoba (pillow word), 16 dative, 93, 98, 165 Malagasy, 247 goal, 205 malfactive, 174 in causative, 142 Man’yōgana, 46,47 location, 204–5

Index 389

no grammatical, 39 genitive, 64, 175 interjective, 293 nominalizer, 178, 188–9 interrogative, 294 sentence-final particle, 297 sentence-final, 70, 293 node (causal), 217–19 passive nominal predicate, 91 agentive NP in, 158 two place, 92 bi-clausal structure, 163 nominalization, 188, 193 body part as the direct object, 156 nominalizer, 188 direct, 153 nominative direct object, 99–100 direct-object, 154, 154 noni (concessive), 221–2, 239 empathy, 158 non-past tense form, 116 eventive, 159 non-subject honorific. See humilific in subordinate clause, 155 noun, 64 indirect/adversity, 154, 155–8 adjectival, 66 intransitive, 153 common, 64 involvement of the affected person, 156 dimensional, 132 mono-clausal structure, 163 formal, 188 ni-yotte, 160–2 proper, 64 stative, 159, 161 noun complementation, 186–7 passive voice, 152 vs. noun modification, 187 past tense form, 116 noun modification, 111, 135, 140 penultimate syllable, 29 vs. noun complementation, 187 perfect, 123–5, 125 noun phrase, 91 of persistent situation, 124 numeral classifier, 70 of recent past, 124 nyōbō kotoba (court ladies’ language), 362 of result, 124 perfective, 118–19 o perlocutionary act, 243 accusative, 47, 92, 190 perlocutionary effect, 244 accusative (in causative), 142, 144 pictograph, 44 honorific prefix, 260, 262, 264, 267 pillow word, 16 location, 100 pitch accent, 38,38–9 object, 64, See also direct/indirect object plain form, 256 affectiveness of, 96 polite form, 256 individuation of, 96 politeness okurigana, 52 and friendliness, 272 Old Japanese, 7–9, 11, 21 camaraderie, 269, 271, 278, 286 /p/ in, 31 deference, 164, 170, 268–9, 273–5, 277–8, α-β distinction in vowels, 8,8 281–2, 284, 286, 289 onbin (euphony), 9–10 discernment, 271–2, 278, 280 onomatopoeia, 71, See also ideophone distance, 272–4, 277–8 and rendaku,42 history of, 268 opposition, 220 impoliteness, 272, 289, 326–7 origo, 334 intimacy, 269, 271, 275, 278, 282, 289, 353 orthography reform, 50–3 negative, 269–81 oru (existential), 26, 266, 361 off the record strategy, 269, 274–5 out-group, 165–7, 286 positive, 269–81 speech style shift, 282–8 palatalization, 33 volition, 271, 278, 280 in orthography, 54 Portuguese, 12, 42, 62 palatalized consonant, 30,31–2 loanward from, 63 particle, 69 possessive, 64 adverbial, 70 possible world, 223 case, 70 postposition, 4, 70, 145 conjunctive, 70 -ppoi to derive i-adjective, 85

390 Index

pragmatic transfer, 252 extraction from relative clause, 181–2 predicate, 91 gapless, 180–1 adjectival, 91 gapped externally-headed, 175–8 dynamic, 116 internally-headed, 178, 178–9 factive, 191 narrative-advancing, 179 nominal, 91 non-restrictive, 179, 179 nonfactive, 191 restrictive, 179, 179 one-place, 94 rendaku (sequential voicing), 31–41, 41 stative, 116, 118 and coordinate compound, 41 three-place, 94 and ideophone/onomatopoeia, 42 two-place, 94 and loanword, 41 verbal, 91 and Sino-Japanese word, 41 preferred act, 244 Lyman’s Law, 42 prenasalization, 9, 13, 23 request (speech act), 117, 172, 250–1 preposition, 4 gendered, 359 pre-sequence, 275, 275 resultative, 125–7, 184 presupposition, 191 re-tashi kotoba (re-more form), 79 progressive, 119, 185 role language, 360–1 promise (speech act), 237 romaji only movement, 50 pronoun Romanization, 50 first person, 68 Cabinet Ordinance System (kunrei-shiki), 55 gendered, 357–8 Hepburn System (Hebon-shiki), 55 second person, 68–9 royal we, 361 third person, 69 -ru aida/aida-jū, 202–11 Proto Japanese, 29 -ru aida/uchi ni, 210–11 psych-predicate (evidential), 313–14 -ru mae ni, 207–8 -ru nara (conditional), 226–8, 239 question -ru to, 206–7 wh, 182 -ru to derive verb, 84 yes-no, 182 -ru toki, 120 question pull test, 97–8 rubi, 53 questioning (speech act), 216 ru-form in relative clause, 184 gendered, 359 Ruiju myōgishō,10–11, 29 quotative, 95 ru-verb, 27, 52 causative form, 143 ra-nuki kotoba (ra-less form), 79 causative-passive, 163 rashii (evidential), 312–13 conjugation, 76 and omou ni (in my opinion), 312 okurigana,52 -rashii to derive i-adjective, 85 passive form, 152 reactive token, 323 percentage of, 65 backchannel, 323 volitional form, 76 collaborative finish, 323 reactive expression, 323 sa (sentence-final particle), 297 repetition, 323 -sa to derive noun, 83 resumptive opener, 323 self-quotation, 352–4 reason, 212 sentence, 91 vs. cause, 213 sentence-final particle acquisition, 304–6 reason relation, 212 sequential scanning, 195 reference time, 121, 123–4, 184 sequential voicing. See rendaku referent, 68, 255 sex and gender, 355 refusal (speech act), 251–3 shosei kotoba (schoolboys’ language), 363–4 rekishiteki kanazukai (historical kana usage), Sinico-Japanese (kanbun), 49 51 Sino-Japanese word, 45,61 relative clause, 175 and rendaku,41 extraction from adverbial clause, 181 frequency of, 63

Index 391

in orthography, 54 tap consonant, 33 in translation, 62 -tara, 205–6 sound structure of, 61 tara (conditional), 223, 238–9 snail dialect variation, 25–6 taxis, 115, 120–1 sō da (evidential), 309–10 -te, 202 soliloquy -te ageru construction, 168–70 mode of discourse, 290 -te aru construction, 125–7 to express intimacy and deference, 289–92 -te iru construction, 118, 124–7, sound change, 9, 11, 13, 19, 32, 34, 51, 202–11 75, 256 -te kara, 202–3 sound symbolism, 71–2 -te kureru construction, 168–9, 173 and rendaku,42 -te kuru construction, 173–4 SOV language, 4 -te morau construction, 168–9 speech -te shimau construction blended, 348 to cancel agency, 96 direct, 344, 345 -teki to derive na-adjective, 85 free indirect, 349–52 tense, 115, 115, 118 indirect, 344 teyo-dawa kotoba, 364–5 quasi-direct, 348 thanking (speech act), 253–4 speech act, 243–5, 344 there-construction, 103, 114 speech style time, two notions of, 195 plain, 267, 273–4, 282–92 to polite, 267, 273, 282–92 conditional, 223, 226–30, 234, 236–9 social role, 284–6 quotative, 95, 190, 310, 345 staging, 112–13, 114 topic, 102 standard Japanese, 14–15 anaphoric, 104, 114 stative in relative clause, 184 and discourse, 102 stem (invariant part), 65 and subordinate clause, 110 stress accent, 39 generic, 105, 106 subject, 64, 91, 102 non-subject, 105 development of, 12 unique, 105 in dative, 100, 100–1 topic-comment construction, 106–7, 109 inanimate, 146 toru (take) written with different kanji,45 of subordinate clause, 114 transition relevance place, 320 subject vs. topic, 102 transitive, 92 subordination, 110, 222 transitivity, 95–6,99 sufﬁcient condition, 225 high, 101 summary scanning, 195 translation suppletion, 258 furigana in, 53 suru (do) of agentive NP, 160 causative form, 143 of donatory verbs, 169 causative-passive, 163 of may I, 251 conjugation, 77 of pronoun, 69, 331 passive form, 152 of wa-ga construction, 112 syllabic nasal, 36 of Western texts, 50, 62–3 syllable, 30,35 -tte (evidential), 310–11 complex, 34 turn-constructional unit, 319 structure, 35–6 turn-taking, 319 synesthesia, 71,71 Ukigumo,15 -ta ato (de), 203–4 Ukiyoburo, 14, 362–3 -ta ato ni, 204–5 uncertainty, 231 -ta toki, 120 uniﬁcation of speech and writing movement, ta-form in relative clause, 184 15–16 tame ni (causal), 219 unspeakable sentence, 313

392 Index

u-verb, 52 vocabulary causative form, 142 gendered, 359 causative-passive, 163 vocative, 290, 350 conjugation, 76 volition passive form, 152 in transitivity, 96 percentage of, 65 vowel r-ending stem, 77 devoiced, 37 te-form, 77 gliding, 40–1 volitional form, 75 length, 34 lip-rounding, 23, 30 valence, 94 long. See long vowel in passive, 154 near-high central unrounded, 23 verb vowel coalescence, 365 adverbial form, 10, 75, 75, 83 gendered, 359 attributive form, 12 vowel devoicing, 37–8 conclusive form, 12, 75 and pitch accent, 39 conjugation, 65,76 vs. deletion, 39 ditransitive, 93 vowel sequence, 12, 40–1 donatory, 164–5, 169 existential, 18, 100, 103, 132–3, wa 256 contrastive, 108–9, 114 honorific, 258 in quotative clause, 111 humilific, 167, 169–70, 255, 264 negative scope, 109–10 hypothetical form, 75 sentence-final particle, 297–8, 365 imperative form, 75, 247 topic, 9 inchoative, 79 wa-ga construction, 111–12, 114 irregular. See irregular verb want-to-do construction, 99 mannerþaction, 72 wasei-eigo (English-like word), 64 meteorological, 91 word abbreviation, 75–87 mizen-kei (irrealis form), 75,77 word frequency, 72 negative form, 75 word order typology, 4 negative imperative form, 248 writing system passive form, 152 ideographic, 43 potential, 78,78 logographic, 43 potential form, 78–9 phonographic, 43 ra-less form (ra-nuki kotoba), 79 ru-verb. See ru-verb ya (sentence-final particle), 298 stative, 211 yakuwari-go (role language), 360–1 ta form, 78 yo (sentence-final particle), 299–302 te-form, 9, 77–8 in soliloquy, 303–4 u-verb. See u-verb yō da (evidential), 311–12 volitional form, 75–6 verbal noun, 64–5 ze (sentence-final particle), 298–9, 365 verbal predicate, 91 zo (sentence-final particle), 299 verifiability, 191, 233, 236, 239 zūzūben (zū-zū dialect), 23