THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY AND HIGH PERFORMANCE WORKPLACE SYSTEMS: ENHANCING 'WORKER VOICE'

Bill Cochrane Michael Law Gemma Piercy

Centre for Labour and Trade Union Studies Department ofSociology and Social Policy University of Waikato

Abstract

This paper focuses on an aspect of the 'Future of Work ·. The introduction of high performance workp/ace systems (hpws) is, in genera/terms, consistent with the broad thrust of the 'knowledge society· debate. The central thesis holds that the introduction of hpws has the potential 10 enhance 'worker voice, · especially in lhe contexl of a 'third way ' political environment that fosters a more lripartite approach to industrial re/a/ions. The paper draws on several pieces ofresearch, each of which has its own methodological approach. The discussion of/he 'knowledge society· debate and the 'third way' political context draws on policy analyses undertaken by Law and Piercy. The body of the paper is based on a survey by Law of union members engaged in a hpws in a large NZ daily factory. That research involved focus groups and a postal survey. Qualitative (write-in) responses were furl her analysed using a dynamic coding system developed by Law. The findings are consistent with the (US) work of Black and Lynch. With some qualificalions. the introduction of hpws has enhanced worker participalion. Active union involvement was a positive factor. For a proportion ofunion members, the introduction ofhpw s has had positive off-site effects.

Introduction and Purpose The purpose of this ex ploratory paper is to offer a New Zealand grounded examination of aspects of skill This paper focuses on an aspect of the ' future of work:' development and hpws in the context of a ' th ird way' skill development and high performance workplace political environment that fosters a more tripartite (manufacturing) systems (hpws) (Appelbaum, Bailey. approach to industrial relations. Almost by definition, this Berg, & Kalleberg 2000; Black & Lynch 200 I. 2004; paper is concerned not with breathtaking visions. Lloyd & Payne 2002; Voos & Kim 2001) in a 'third way ' swet! ping claims. and radical social change but rather context (Chaterjee and others 1999; Piercy 2003a; Stalker with practical unionism in circumstances 'not of unions 2000). The paper is written from a labour studies and workers own choosing.· In other words, we are perspective that places an emphasis on an inherently interested in the success or otherwi se of union-associated democratic notion we call 'worker voice;' that is. the initiatives that reflect modest aspirations and a limited active participation of working people in decision making sense of possi bility in what at best could be described as a in their employment, in the community, and in broader qualified, post-neoliberal, political environment. economic and social li fe. In our use, this notion refers not only to the collective expression of 'worker voice· Our analys is is premi sed on a quite critical ass umption: through union representation but also the 'voices' of that the election of a Labour-led Government in 1999 particular groups of workers such as women, Maori , and marked a qualitative shift in economic and social pol icy. ethnic workers. Further, we hold that the broad direction of government poli cy ca n be described as ' third way' in the loose sense The introduction of hpws is, in general terms, co nsistent that the term has been employed by writers such as with the broad thrust of more optimistic views of the Anthony Giddens ( 1998; 2000). Indeed, alth ough she potential of the 'knowledge society/economy': Tony seldom employs the term herself, Helen Clark (see 2002), Stair's (2000) v1s1on of "better growth, better especially when on Giddens' turf, has identified her employment an social cohesion." But in Britain, as government wi th a 'third way approach.· In our view, two elsewhere, the 'knowledge society/economy' is not short policy areas where the Giddens and others influenced, of 'critics' and 'sceptics' (Lloyd & Payne, 2002). A third way prescripti on is bei ng applied are skill problem with such optimism, criticism, and scepticism, development (education and industry training) (see Piercy however, is that each is often so grounded in spec ifi c 2003a) and industrial relations (see McQueen 2003). national conditions that it is difficult to disentangle the different elements that come together in a particular point Organisation and Research Approach of view, let alone apply them in a different national context. The remainder of the paper is organised into two sections into which is incorporated a measure of theoretical material. These sections build on two sets of research,

Labour, Employment and Work in New Zealand 2004 79 each of wh ich has its own methodological approach. In Throughout these five elements run themes that shape the the first we di scuss aspects of the third way politics, the role of the State, point to a type of partnership model, and knowledge society/economy debate, and the union encourage collaboration and cooperation between the movement 's strategic approach, substantially in a New social partners. Giddens argues that public policy has to Zealand contex t. This discussion draws on policy shift away from the re-distribution of wealth to wealth analyses undertaken by Law and Pi ercy over some time creati on. This, he claims, will answer some of the social (cg Law 1994a, 1994b, 1996a, 1996b, 1998a, 1999, 2001, problems caused by the deregulation of markets and 2003a, 2003b, 2004; Law & Piercy 1999, 2000a, 2000b, threats to social cohesion. According to Eichbaum 2000c; Picrcy 1999, 2003a, 2003b ). The second section is ( 1999), in a New Zealand volume that explored the concerned wi th hpws. It opens with a brief overv iew of potential of third way politics (Chatterjee and others selected literature, with an emphasis on those aspects that 1999), a method Giddens advocates to address the threats might be helpful in the New Zealand contex t. This is to social cohesion and the more damaging effects of the followed by a case study: union members' views about market is "a supply side agenda that seeks to alleviate the implementation of "Manufac turing Excell ence", a inequality of outcomes by means of equality of access" hpws. at Fonterra's Wharcroa (Hawcra) fac tory . These (p.48). Thus, wh ile the role of the State is still to court "icws arc taken from focus groups and a postal survey of capitalism in order to encourage wealth creation, as it was Dairyworkcrs' Union members (see Law and Cochrane, under a nee-liberal regime, it also has to seek to right the 2004 ). Qualitative (write-in) responses were analysed wrongs of the market by pursuing public policy that using a dynamic coding system developed by the facilitates access to the labour market (Eichbaum 1999). principal researcher. It is also clear to us that wh il e we do not make explicit reference to it, the analys is presented in lt follows that industry training is a cornerstone of thi s paper has been influenced by the po litics as we ll as policies that seek to promote and create social cohesion the subject matter of our most recent ~o rk (Cochrane, by facilitating greater access to the labour market. In La\\'. and Piercy 2004a. 2004b, 2004c). Eichbaum 's words: "The focus is largely on supply-side changes, with the in vestment in "human capital" elevated T he T hi rd Way, The Knowledge Society, and to the primary policy obj ecti ve" (p.54). Union Strategies The volume of essays by Chatterjee and others ( 1999) was, of course, an important bridge from the policies of Notes on the Third H'm· the I 990s to those of the 2000s, especially given that union-associated authors such as Eichbaum and Peter The "third way" is an un tidy term: a label that has been Harris took up senior policy positions with the new pinned to politi ca l platforms in different countries that government and another, Peter Conway, with the Council ha' c :lltcmptcd to reco ncile the traditional aims of of Trade Unions (CTU). But it would be a mi stake to :o.tlCialism und/or social democracy wi th the needs of an infe r from the book's titl e that the thinking contained inL·reas ingly globalised. capitali st economy. The Labour­ within it represented a major, paradigmatic shift on the led government's third way has been pri maril y de ri ved part of the authors. More accurately, the authors drew on from Britain. principally the application of Giddens' what might be called "evolvi ng continuities" in union and t1995. 1998. 2000) ideas. although it is also possible to independent le ft thinking in order to engage criticall y the detect the influence of former US Secretary of Labour. third way literature. Thus in their introduction, Eichbaum Rllbert Rc ich. Giddens presents his view of the "third and Harris ( 1999) describe the third way as a "permissive ":.1y'' - which is quite di fferen t from the longer brand" that "at its most basic ... suggests an alternati ve to C'\tab li shed. Scandinavian concept - as a "new" model, a the polar option of la issez-faire capita lism on the one frame\\'ork of thin king and policy making that seeks to hand and stati sti c regulati on on the other'' (p. I 4 ). adapt socia l democratic ideas to a wo rl d that has changed fundamenta ll y. He claims that it attempts to transcend Having said that, there are many points in the book where bl1th social democracy and nee-liberalism in order to essay authors advocate a much more active role fo r the flmn a new pathway. state than do, say, Giddens and Reich. In an era when the stability of small economi es is threatened by "footloose Gi Jdens ( 1998; Eichbaum 1999) focuses on fi ve key fina nce" (Harris 1999, p.22) a "new way ... recognises ~:lcmc nt s of change: the new realities of a more global system of fin ance and • the impact of globalisation: trade while pushing the remaining discretions of so1•ereign nations to their limits" (p.26) (our emphasis). • the ri se of in dividualism: And later, "Governments are not hamstrung," claim Harris and Eiehbaum ( 1999 p.224 ), "there is both a need • the increasing lack of clarity between what is "left " and the scope for in novation". A "key element", they and "right": ho ld, is that the government "accepts new responsibilities and finds better ways of deli veri ng through dynamic • the ro le of politica l agency 111 an economica lly economic and social partnerships." The powerful socially altered world: and rati onale for what might be called a "new state (or labour) ex periment'' (see Reeves 1902; Sinclair I 988) taps the • the need to pu rsue sustai nable 1neans of dealing with sa me, very deep strain of thinking that has characterised ecological probl ems. centre-left poli tics in New Zealand for well over a

Labour. Em rloyment and Work in New Zealand 2004 century: the vulnerability of a small, export dependent school into industry. The discontinuity pivots around the economy. shift in Labour's faith in a market model of organisation and delivery. In the Learning for Life documents of the Harris and Eichbaum ( 1999) identify the lack of a late 1980s. the then Labour Government had subscribed coherent industry policy as "the gaping hole in the fully to a co-ordinated approach to industry training. although deregulated market economy" (p.228) and advocate a in practice its policies placed considerable reliance on a rethink of labour market regulation: market model to organise and deliver that training. After nine years in opposition, Labour (with considerable This is not just about workers' rights and obligations, or about assistance from unions) had sharpened its understanding the role of unions. Important issues are integration of labour of the limitations of the facilitati ve, voluntarist model and market and industry policy, making a wages policy an effective was more inclined to a legislative, semi-regulatory and democratic part of macroeconomic management, improving education about rights and enforcement of them, and, of course, approach coupled with a more pronounced, "third way" reviewing the design of the statutory safety net {p.230). notion of partnership.

The inclusion of "democratic" in the above is not, we Labour was critical of the National Government's failure suggest, unimportant. Rather it is consistent with another to establish the pathways and links between employment powerful theme (see an earlier quotation): the need for and trai ning that were necessary for economic growth. 1t "dynamic economic and social partnerships". The held that the aboli tion of apprenticeship and the voluntary authors, in keeping with a Giddens' perspective, view approach had created a system that was at best "hit-and­ unions not simply as bargaining agents, but also as a very miss". Labour advocated a co-ordinated approach that active component of a revitalised civil society. As would encourage all workers to up-skill and to retrai n Eichbaum (1999, p.57) observes earlier in the book: throughout thei r worki ng lives. The central theme threaded through the policy document was the view that The renewal of civil society, through the establishment of education and employment/industry/economy had to be democratic institutions and the kind of institutional " in­ brought together. building" suggested by the stakeholder model, is central to the new economics as well as the new politics. These elements of By 1999, Labour in government, was well poised to pick the Third Way programme stand in stark contrast to the up and amend the "knowledge society/economy" neoliberal orthodoxy ... discourse. Its election also paved the way for the re­ incorporation of unions into industry training. As noted Notes On The Knowledge Society/Economy above, the new government was more inc lined to a legislative, semi-regulatory approach and a notion of It is in the context of the above that we now refocus on partnership (Law 2003; Piercy 2003) that provided a education and industry trammg. Although skill structured link between unions and the knowledge development is a major featu re of the third way's society. The Employment Relations Act re-established emphasis on supply-side policies, industry training had the basis for a return to some degree of tripartism; the been a cornerstone of both the un ion movement's and the pro vision of Employment Relations Education (ERE) Labour Party's industry policies for a decade or so before addressed issues of capacity (Street & Law 1999; Law the latter's election to government in 1999. The full story 2003b ). Health and Safety legislation also strengthened of the union movement 's embrace of industry training unions' workpl ace presence. In education and training, and the influence of Australian unions is presented very the tenn "tripartite" came back into favour. This return to comprehensively in Piercy's ( 1999) MSocSc thesis as a three-way partnership in industry training was not well as in other papers (eg Law & Piercy 2000b). su rpri si ng, given the third way emphasis on the role of Significantly, Eichbaum. then employed by the education and trai ning in promoting a "social justice" Engineers' Union (EMPU) was a key player. As early as notion of social cohesion (Eichbaum 1999; Forrester 1993, in its Building Better Skills series of booklets, the 200 I). CTU high lighted, when it was a lot less fashionable than it is now, core elements of the economic case for an The stakeholder model was further underpinned by the inclusive, co-operative approach to industry development four reports of the Tertiary Education Advi sory and training (see also NZCTU 1992a, I 992b, 1993a, Commission (TEAC). These led to the creation of 1993b; Doyle 1999). Tertiary Education Commission (TEC) and the Tertiary Education Strategy (TES), a fi ve-year plan for post­ The Labour Party's (1999) manifesto document , 2 r' compulsory education and training. The TES incorporates Century Skills: Building Skills for Jobs and Growth, and refl ects: represents a mix of continuities and a degree of discontinuity. The continuities are to be found in its • Key assumpti ons of human capital theory, retention of the prev ious I 984-90 Labour Government's particularly those which were developed in response initiati ves and the influence of the CTU 's documents. to the "need" to be internationally competiti ve; These continuities are reflected in the policy document's affinnation of the role of education and training in • The th ird way assumption that access to education contributing to international compet1t1veness; its wi11 lead to increased employment opportuniti es fo r reiteration of the notion of pathways to higher the wider society which in turn will lead to greater qualifications and greater skills; and its re-emphasis of social cohesion; the importance of a need for clarity in the transition from

Labour, Employment and Work in New Zealand 2004 81 • The findings and key recommendations of the Parallel with the establishment of the TEC, it was decided industry trai ning review; and to retain "Skill New Zealand" as a "brand" to promote workplace training: "a tripartite initiative to promote • The essence of the four TEAC reports, in particular quality, relevant and accessible workplace learning" the final one, Shaping the Funding Framework (BusinessNZ 2002, p.l ). This initiative confirms that the (TEAC 200 I). principal employer body now accepts that unions are relevant and appropriate stakeholders in industry training. The purpose of the TES is: to outline how, by making ITO profil es, necessary for TEC funding, must "best use of one's resources", terti ary education can make demonstrate that they are "developing arrangements for its contribution to the development of the Government's the collecti ve representation of employees in the national goals. Through the TEC, it enables the governance of the organization." in order to gain approval government to steer the PCET system through six (Government cited in NZCTU 2003). Two booklets have strateg tes: been developed in conjuncti on with stake holders in order to provide empl oyers and employees with a guide to • Strengthen system capabi lity and qua li ty; industry training.

• Contribute to the achieve ment of Maori development As noted earlier, the capacity of unions to participate aspirati ons: effec ti vely as social partners, including in industry trai nin g, remains a issue. In early 1999, the CTU asked • Raise foundat ion skills so that all people can Maryan Street and Michae l Law ( 1999) to develop a partici pate in our Knowledge Society; policy paper on the restoration of state assisted trade union education and a legislati ve entitlement to paid • Develop the Skills New Zealanders need fo r our educational leave. The need to rebuild union capac ity Knowledge Society: bu ilding was a central pl ank in that paper's case for ERE. Once the ERA restored bas ic union education rights, the • Fducate for Pacific Peopl es' development and CTU sought state funding for more strategic projects. success; One, the "Industry Training Union Capacity Building Project", sought to: • Strengthen research, knowledge creation and uptake for our Knowledge Society. • "up-skill uni ons to ensure effective participation in the governance of ITOs; fhe emphasis on the needs of the economy and skill confirms that the cen trali ty of the workplace as both the • increase union involvement in industry training; f oCLt~ :md a site of learning, wi th industry training llrgunizat ion ( ITOs) playing a central role in its • infom1 unions about terti ary education reforms; and lHga nisation and co-ord ination. Un ions implici tly also hu\ e a key role to play through: their presence at the • enh ance uni on relati onships with other stakeholders in \\'orkplace: their ability to win worker support for a the tertiary sector" ( Beaumont 2003 ). "learning cu lture"; and their proscribe membership, as a resul t of a legislative ame ndment. on the boards of ITOs. At the fi rst seminar. Peter Conway sketched the union Of cou rse all of thi s rai ses a number of questions abou t movement's strategic framework . He emphas ised the capacity, which the CTU. with government assistance. is CTU view that unions. as workers' representative aJdressi ng (sec Law 2004 ). organisations. had a right to be acti ve ly involved as full partners in industry training. However for this to be Notes On Union Strategies effective, union representatives had to develop an understanding of the "poli tical economy of skill and skill As noted abow. by the early I 990s the Engineers' Union development" (quoted in Law 2004 from notes). Central :.~nd the CTU had itkntiticd industry training as a po int of to this was the need fo r a so li d understand ing of the strateg ic leverage. A position that accorded with policy debates arou nd tertiary education. Conway \Vo lfgang Streeck's (1992) sense of union possibi lities. developed these themes at a later seminar where he e\ en though few in this country were familiar wi th that presented the CTU's overall strategic fram ework in more \\'O rk (sec Law & Picrcy 2000a). At one level, Labour's detai l. The mai n fea tures arc: election in I999 ended almost a decade of systematic attempts to exclude uni ons from industry traini ng. The sustainable development; new government wanted an "i nteg rated skills and employment strategy" (Maharey 200 I, p.2). Following growth and innovation: the industry truin ing review. th e governmen t opened up the possibility for unions to have a presence on ITO economic transformation: boards. but \·Vith a degree of ambiguity. The use of the inclusive economy: and \\ ort.ls "employee representation" in legislati ve amcnJmcnts rnther than "union" has resulted m some a social development approach. ten sion (sec Conway 2003: NZCTU 2003). Un ions accept that for the economy to deli ver reasonable li vi ng standards. industry training and skill development

Labour. Employmcnl and Work tn New Zealand 2004 has to be linked to economic development, including (l994b, I 998b) undertook a postal survey of the union's regional economic development. This requires union membership. It included a series of questions about the involvement in the creation and implementation of MoU and its implementation. The findings were not industry strategies. Using the notion of "organising plus", encouraging. Fewer than half the un ion members on the the CTU also holds that industry training has to be linked MoU sites supported the strategy, although only a very to broader workplace issues such as work-life balance, small minority (3.9%) were hostile to it. Further, while health and safety, and worker involvement. This extends members were very supportive of efforts to introduce beyond the workplace to issues such as the strengthening skill-based pay, negative comments about the MoU were of civil society, enhancing general educational often linked to doubts about employers' motives and opportunities, social development, and an improved intentions. The study also unearthed considerable social wage. These centra] themes, which are consistent reservations about the effectiveness of the worksi te with much of the Chatterjee and others ( 1999) volume, consultative process that had been established under the were explored, argued, and developed by other MoU. Eventually, the MoU initiative fe ll over, but that contributors and by participants over the course of the did not dull the union's interest in workpl ace systems that main seminar series and during two additional, might offer members the opportunity to develop their abbreviated series. skills and to have greater involvement in and control over their work. Unions and High Performance Workplace Systems: A Case Study High Performance Workplace Systems: Some Notes On The Literature Background The CTU's broad approach to economic development as In the late I 980s and early 1990s, many New Zealand outlined in its 2003 publication, Unions Innovation and unions bought into the workplace reform campaign wh ich Sustainable Development (2002), advocates worker was very actively promoted by the Engineers' Un ion, the involvement. In his Foreword, CTU president, Ross CTU , and the Trade Union Education Authority (TUEA). WiI so n, states: Although in one sense momentum peaked wi th the holding of the Workplace New Zealand Conference in "We argue strongly that 'industry' is not just 'busi ness·. Workers in their industries have experience. knowledge, September 1992, the enactment of the Employment insights and innovative ideas on how to improve productivity, Contracts Act in 199 I and the disestablishment by way of create in vestment opportunities, and improve workplacc statutory repeal of TUEA a year or so later were fa irly relations" (p.3 ). ominous signs that this particular initiative was un li kely to survive the neol iberal onslaught. Thus by the time The difficulty, of course, IS finding appropriate Reform at work (Perry, Dav idson, and Hi ll 1995) was mechanisms to facilitate such participation. With the publ ished, workpl ace reform's moment had past. A little demise in Australia of the cooperative framework later, in a critical analysis, Paul Harris and Dav id Neilson provided by the Accord, Europe provides the best insights ( 1996) noted the very limited involvement of unions at into the success or otherwise of a social partnership the workplace in the case studies presented to the 1992 strategy on the part of unions. Informed opinion varies conference. considerable, depending on the perspective of the authors. However from a purely economic point of view, Asteriou One of the unions that throughout the 1990s retained and Monastiriotis's (2004) longitudinal study concludes quite a strong commitment to the general pri nciples of that at the macro-economic leve l both the "long- and workplace reform was the New Zealand Dairyworkers' short-run effects (of the relationship between unionisation Union (DWU). As the early 1990s case study is written and productivity) are posi tive and statistically significant" up in Perry, Davidson, and Hill ( 1995 pp.98-118), there is (p.44 ). no need to recount more than the briefest details here. Following a major industrial confrontation in the late In a comprehensive vo lume, Appclbaum, Bailey, Bcrg 1980s, the DWU and the industry, with the help of the and Kallcberg (2000) examine the impact of workplace CTU, sought to fo llow a more cooperative path. Under a practices that incorporate worker involvement in the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU), an industry organization of work, so called high performance work approach to skill development and job redesign was systems (hpw), across three industries in the United introduced. States: apparel, steel, and medical-instrument manufacturing. They report that in workplaces that Union and industry employer representatives visi ted all implemented such systems productivity, the quality of sites to promote the strategy. However when Jocelyn production and customer service, worker levels of Gibson ( 1994) interviewed workers on four sites and key organizational commitment, job satisfaction and wages offi cials from both sides in late 1992 and 1993, she found were all higher than in comparable firms that had not mounting evidence that there was insufficient trust within implemented such systems. Thus the adoption of hpws, the industry to make the strategy work. She concluded: they argue, is able to deliver both to the employer, "There is evidence to suggest that the fi rst steps towards a through productiv ity, pro fi tab il ity and competi tiveness, high trust dynamic at a national level were taken , bu t it and to the worker, through high wages and quality jobs. seems that the new trust dynamic was unsustainable" (pp.49-50). About the same time ( 1993), Michael Law

Labour, Employment and Work in New Zealand 2004 83 -

Black and Lynch (200 I; 2004 ), in their analysis of the The Dairy Industry Study producti vity effects of the implementation of high performance work systems, information technology, and In the late I 990s, on the initiative of the Oairyworkers' human capital investments, also indicate that while Union, the union and the then Kiwi Dairy Cooperative technological innovation can deliver gains in agreed to introduce a hpws at the Whareroa (Hawera) productiv ity, what matters most in terms of producti vity site. The programme, known commercially as "TRACC", is the extent to which workers are given a "voice" in the is owned and has been developed by a South African process of workplace innovation. Importantly for the company, Competitive Capabilities. It shou ld be noted trade union movement, they find that the greatest that there is nothing particularly remarkable about improvements in workplace producti vity occur in TRACC. The programme has evolved from the uni onised workplaces that have adopted practices that company's accumulated expertise and experience since foster worker invo lvement and participation. 1985 in "world class manufacturing and best practice." On the surface, it looks li ke just another workplace Similarly Business Dec isions ( 1999) conducted on behalf system based on semi-autonomous team that incorporates of the Europea n Commission a review of a large number best practice benchmark ing, visual mapping, the of case and academic studies. It identified the need to deve lopment of skills matrices, and the like. What seems involve workers in the process of change, and to work in to give it something of a di stinctive edge is the emphasis partnership wi th them, as critical to the effective placed on stakeholder in volvement. The consultants imp lementati on of change in the workplace. Farris and responsible for the Whareroa project, Australian Tohyama (2002) discuss the role of worker voice in the Workplace Solutions, prefer this involvement to be introduc tion of various va rieti es of lean production. Lea n through unions and it was thi s factor that firs t appealed to production has frequently been criticised (see for instanl·e the OW U. Within Fonterra, the programme is now known Parker and Slaughter ( 1988. 1994) for achieving increases as "Manufacturing Excellence" (ME) (Parkin 2004). in productivity and product quality through increased worker effort and stress. and reduced worker hea lth and In 2002. the DW U commissioned Michael Law to safety. Farris and Tohyama (2002) fi nd that this " mean" evaluate, from the perspecti ve of union members, the side of lea n prod uctio n can be mitigated by the presen ce ME/TRACC programme that had been progressively of worker voice mechanisms that insure the equitable implemented at Whareroa. The study was conducted in sharing of ga ins. thus legitimating the authority of two phases: foc us groups and a postal survey. Because of management. and leading workers to willing cooperate the nature of work in the industry, especially shift work wi th manageme nt to enh ance productive efficiency. and the substantially off-site dimension of milk coll ection. the postal survey has been found in the past Also of !'L1mc immedi ate relevance is a British study (Law 1994b, 2002 ) to be a productive way of gathering (Bacon and Blyton 2003) which ex plored employee data from DW U members. A systematic sample was perception of "who ga in s and who loses" with respect to generated from a random base with questi onnaires were the impact of teamwork on skills. The study focussed on sent to about 50% of union members working in a un ionised steel plant that had introduced teamwork departments/secti ons in which ME had been introduced. some li\ e years earlier. Bacon and Bl yton report that The response rate was 54%; this yielded I 06 useable overall team work ing was "associ ated with fe elings of ques ti onnaires. increased skill. variety and influence over quality" (p.26). But the aut hors also report that the results "reveal a Educational dimension differential experience between those with different occupational backgrounds and different hierarchical ME like other HPW S. invo lves a considerable amount of lc\-cls" (p.26). Bauer (2004). usi ng data from the training. Whil e such programmes are, in theory. intended European Survey on Workin g Conditions (ESWC). for workers with a di verse range of previous educational examined the effect of hpws on workers' job satis fa cti on experiences, there can be a tendency for those with a hi story and found that th e higher in vo lvement of work ers strong educational background to play a more prominent unoer hpws was posi tive ly associated with higher levels role. ofjob sati sfaction. The in creased leve ls ofjob sati sfaction experienced under hpws arose predominantl y from In the Hawcra study, femal e respondents, many of whom increased autonomy over how tasks were performed were laboratory workers. were a little better qualified, in along wi th the increased levels of communicati ons with terms of highest secondary qualification, than male eo-workers. respondents.

Maori respondents had, however. lower high school qualifications than European/Pakeha.

84 Labour. Em ployment and Work in New Zealand 2004 l. Table 1: Highest Secondary School Qualification by Gender (percent within gender only)

Highest secondary auallfication Male Female Total None 28.4 20.8 26.7 NZSC 1+ subjects or NC level I 29.6 20.8 27.6 NX 6 form cert I+ subjects or NC level 2 12.3 12.5 12.4 NZ UE before 1986 in I + subjects 9.9 16.7 I 1.4 NZHSC or HLC 4.9 0.0 3.8 UE from NZ bursary 2.5 8.3 3.8 A orB bursary, Scholarship or NC level 3 3.7 4.2 3.8 Other NZ secondary qualification 1.2 0.0 1.0 Overseas secondary 2.5 16.7 5.7 !Missing 4. 9 0.0 3.8 [Totals: Percent within Gender 100.0 100.0 100.0

Here the emphasis is on responses to questions with an Quality Of Teaching/Consultancy education and trai ning focus.

A number of questions scattered throughout the • The principles of ME aren't much different from questionnaire probed how well ME had been other programmes, it's the way they are brought implemented, the quality of training and consultancy, together, implemented, and backed up that makes it and recommendations for improvement. The responses work. (8 1.2% agree/ strongly agree). should really be read in the context of the full study, but the examples provided in this paper indicate how such • Before any section/department imp lements ME, as questions can be useful. For example many people as possible should do the fi ve-day course (8 1.0% agree/ strongly agree). (Q. 27) How do you rate the overall quality of teaching/training you have received on • The people in my section/department thought the Manuf acturing Excellence courses? games that we played on the courses were 3 lot of nonsense. ( 46.8% agree/strongly agree; 24.5% Good/very good 49.0% di sagree/strongly disagree).

Average 30.2% • Some of the ME modules, like leadership, cover stuff that's done in other programmes. There should Poor/very poor 20.9% be recognition of pnor lea rn ing (6 1.2% agree/strongly agree; 14.4% disagree/strongly Valid responses = 96 di sagree ).

ME at Hawera relies quite substantially on workplace • Management has supported the implementation of co-ordinators and trainers selected from the shop noor. the manufacturing exce llence program by providing The survey confi rmed the impressions gained duri ng adequate training ( 49.0% agree /strongly agree; focus groups that there was strong support for the 27.2% di sagree/strongly disagree). contribution made by workforce co-ordinators and trainers. Workers respond well to thei r colleagues as co­ ordinators and trainers. Autonomv

A good aspect of ME is the involvement of Hawera There is a close association between autonomy at the workers as coordinators and trainers workplace, worker voice, and worker participati on. One of the most important claims made about hpws, such as Agree/strongly agree 74.2% ME, is the opportunity they prov ide for workers to exercise a degree of control over their workplace. No feelings either way 15.5% Although the next table is but one of several, it shows that workers had mixed views about au tonomy. Disagree/strongly disagree I 0.3% Th ere is not as much real worker involvement as Valid responses= 67 everyone claims. When .vo u look closel.v. most ME teams are dominated by people on the higher levels. Lo-.,ver Other Useful lnsights: A Selection level workers aren't realh' involved.

The following selected insights provide a snapshot of Agree/strongly agree 49.5% other useful information that is emerging from the study. No feelings either way 16.2%

Labour, Employment and Work in New Zealand 2004 85 ... - Disagree/strongly disagree 34.3% Please outline any benefits that workplace training, including Manufacturing Excellence courses, has had on Valid responses= 99 your life at home.

Union Involvement

Previous studies conducted by the CLTUS revealed the Thirty three percent (33%) of respondents were able to va lue placed on union involvement in industry training. identify some positive impact. For example: Although, agai n, the next tables do not tell the whole story, in general they confirm that for a sign ificant • 5S Programme, general household organisation proportion of the workforce, union involvement is teamwork, recognition of differing skill levels and important. individual strengths. Bel/er discussions, more inclusive. I wouldn't be too keen on ME if the Dairy Workers' Union wasn't ac ti ve~v involved. • Awareness of standards and maintaining these in everything outside of work. Agree/strongly agree 31.9% • My home and sheds are tidy and clean. No feelings either way 33.0% • Gives a beller outlook on life in general which Disagree/strongly disagree 35. 1% makes me happier.

Valid responses= 94 • Hazard ID and pathogen control (housekeeping and hygiene). In general. do you agree that unions should be ini'Oh·ed in promoting HPWSsuch as ME? • To look at the big picture and take ownership.

Agree/strongly agree 70.7% • The training has allowed me to take a more positive view on life. No feelings either way 17.2% • I have found an area that I excel at. Going to work Disagree/strongly di sagree 12. I% in the morning is now a pleasure. Vali d responses= 99 • More satisfied leaving work in a safe condition for Personal Development And Benefits In The my fellow team mates. Home And Communitv • More awareness of making things safer and keeping things clean. Earlier focus groups had suggested that many workers developed personally as a result of their participation in • Problem solving. ME. The study conlim1ed that initial finding. • More relaxed. see the bigger picture in situations. / 'n• ne\•er done anything like M£ before and I have hcncfitcd a lot as a person. • You can organise your way oflivin g bel/er. Agree/strongly agree 38.6% • Main~v the safe~v aspect and its not so much for myself but to my wife and kids. No feelings either way 28. 1%

Disagree/strongly disagree 33.3% • I have more tools available to me to deal with interpersonal issues domestical~v. Va lid responses= 96 • Reminds me to be more vigilant, tolerant, tidier, The Mam~lacturing Excellence programme has had a motivated at ho me.fami~v. friends. heneJicial impact on my life outside ofll'ork. • More focus on safety. tidiness and hygiene. Agree/strongly agree 22.6% Benefits In Terms Of Community Involvement No fee lings either way 31.2% Forty-one percent (41 %) of the respondents who Disagree/strongly disagree 46.3% commented identified benefits in terms of community invo lvement. The main themes were: Valid responses= 93 Confidence

• Have joined a commillee.

86 Labour. Employment and Work in New Zealand 2004 • I can speak in front of a large group more This study reflects that the relationship between industry confidently. training and unions is enduring. 1t also hints that the knowledge society provides an important opportunity for this relationship to encompass aspects of adult education beyond industry training. lt is our intention to undertake Organisational skills and knowledge ofhow groups work further analysis with a view to comparing our findings with overseas studies of unionised workplaces, such as • Understand organizations better. I'm secretary of a those by Bacon and Blyton (2003) and Black and Lynch club, more informed of structures and processes (200 I, 2004 ). involved in an organisation.

• I understand other groups a lillle bit more now but I Conclusion don 'tthink you can apply ME everywhere. We stated in the Introduction that almost by definition, • Greater awareness in my involvement with this paper is concerned not wi th breathtak ing visions, sweeping claims, and radical social change but rather organisations I am involved with. Beller goal selling with pract ical unionism in circumstances 'not of un ions and more achievement based, decision making in teams. and workers own choosing.' In the wake of the neolibcral experience, New Zealand unions, especially in • Relaying of practices to outside groups has the private sector, are engaged in the long, slow process enhanced or improved these areas. Others are of re-unionisation and revitalisation. The problem is that becoming aware of these practices and are the pace of change will not slow in order to understanding them accommodate unions ' need to rebuild their workplace presence and strengthen their capacity. Thus individual • ME has given me a be/fer understanding why things unions and the CTU have to pursue strategies that don't progress in other organisations. facil itate organisation wh ile enabling workers and unions to make gains where they can. • I have a better understanding of participating or chairing effective production meetings. On balance, we are of the view that with in the framework of New Zealand's unique, 'third way state • I guess now I am learning the broader picture ofth e experiment' and within the context of knowledge business. Meeting new people society/economy pol icies, there is a degree of space for 'worker voice.' Further, we are also of the formative • Able to prepare and take my time to prepare more. opinion that, within limitations, the interconnection between skills development, hpws, and worker voice is • School board of trustees, Deputy Club President - II pos itive from a democratic/labour studies perspective. helped at meetings. and prize givings etc. We propose to continue to explore this theme in future research. • Shown a structured meeting process etc. where all voices are heard. References

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