Pathways from Poverty. INSTITUTION Western Rural Development Center, Corvallis, Oreg

DOCUMENT RESUME

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AUTHOR Baldwin, Barbara, Ed. TITLE Pathways from Poverty. INSTITUTION Western Rural Development Center, Corvallis, Oreg. SPONS AGENCY Extension Service (DOA), Washington, D.C. PUB DATE 95 CONTRACT 93-ERRD-1-8502 NOTE 37p.; Photographs will not reproduce adequately. PC' TYPE Collected Works Serials (022) Information Analyses (070) Reports Descriptive (141) JOURNAL CIT Western Wire; Fall 1995

EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Adult Education; Capitalism; *Change Strategies; Community Development; Economic Development; *Economic Factors; Higher Education; Indigenous Populations; Minority Groups; One Parent Family; *Poverty; *Poverty Areas; *Public Policy; *Rural Areas; Rural Development; Rural Education; Rural Family; Rural Sociology; Social Change; Social Networks IDENTIFIERS Latinos; Native Americans; Social Capital; Welfare Reform

ABSTRACT Articles in this theme issue are based on presentations at the Pathways from Poverty Workshop held in Albuquerque, New Mexico, on May 18-25, 1995. The event aimed to foster development of a network to address rural poverty issues in the Western Rural Development Center (WRDC) region. Articles report on outcomes from the Pathways from Poverty workshopincluding team plans for addressing poverty in their area; the importance of social capital in building community; Native American economic development efforts that incorporate sustainability and cultural relevance; the effect of capitalism on the Palau islands; how sharing resources has enabled low-income families in American Samoa to maintain economic stability; dLmographic, economic, and educational factors that affect the status of Latinos in the United States, with implications for the American economy; a study of single-parent families and welfare reform; rural minorities and the relationship between employment and poverty; and the importance of rural studies in gaining understanding of rural poverty. Articles include:(1) "Pathways from Poverty" (Jane Brass);(2) "Social Capital" (Marie Cirillo);(3) "The Circle of Development and Indigenous Peoples" (Sherry Salway Black) ; (4) "Palauan Perspective" (Ayano Baules); (5) "Poverty: A Matter of Values" (Carol S. Whitaker);(6) "Focus on Latinos" (Refugio I. Rochin, Jose A. Rivera) ; (7) "Is Marriage the Solution? The Single-Parent Family and Welfare Reform" (Janet M. Fitchen);(8) "Employment Hardship and Rural Minorities" (Leif Jensen); and (9) "The Social Scientist and Rural America" (Emery N. Castle). The journal also includes updates on projects sponsored by WRDC and upcoming conferences. (LP) CNI .00 1/47N Col

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Alaska Guam New Mexico Anthony Nakazawa Randy Workman Robert Coppedge Cooperative Extension Service Community Development Institute New Mexico State University University of Alaska University of Guam Cooperative Extension Service 222: E. Northern Lights. Suite132 UOG Station Box 3AE Anchorage. AK 99508-4143 Mangilao. Guam 96923 Las Cruces, NM 88003 (907) 276-2433 (671) 734-2506 (505) 646-4122 FAX (907) 279-2139 FAX (671) 734-1462 FAX (505) 646-3808 A N ATN @ ACAD2.ALASKA. EDU WORKMANR@ U0G9.UOG.EDU RCOPPEDLo @NMSU.EDU Arizona Hawaii Oregon Bruce R. Beattie Linda Cox Rebecca Johnson Dept. ot' Ag and Resource Economics Dept. of Ag. & Resource Economics Dept. of Forest Resources Econ Bldg. # 23 Room 208 3050 Maile Way, Gilmore 115 Oregon State University University of Arizona University of Hawaii Peavy Hall. Room 109 Tucson. AZ 85721 Honolulu, HI 96822 Corvallis, OR 97331 (602) 621-2581 (808) 956-6755 (541) 737-1492 FAX (602) 621-6250 FAX (808) 956-2811 FAX (541) 737-3049 [email protected] LCOX @ UHUNIX.L.HCC.HAWA II. EDL: JOHNSONR @CCM AIL.ORST.EDI.' California Idaho Utah George Goldman Neil Meyer David Rogers Cooperative Extension Dept. of Ag Econ & Rural Sociology Department of Sociology Dept. of Ag. & Resource Economics University of Idaho Utah State University 207 Giannini Hall Moscow, ID 83843 Logan, UT 84322-0730 University of California (208) 885-6263 (801) 797-1255 Berkeley, CA 94720 FAX (208) 885-5759 FAX (801 ) 797-1240 (510) 642-6461 NMEYER@ UIDAHO.EDU DAVER@ EXTSPARC.AGSCLUSU.EDU FAX (510) 642-6108 Washington GOLDMAN @ ARE. BERKELEY .EDU Montana Dave Sharpe Annabel Cook Montana State University Dept. of Rural Sociology Colorado Washington State University Sheila Knop, Program Coordinator Cooperatit e Extension Specialist Center for Rural Assistance 112 Taylor Hall Pullman, WA 99164-4006 (509) 335-4519 138 Aylesworth N.W. Bozeman, MT 59717 (406) 994-2962 FAX (509) 335-2125 Colorado State University COOK@ WSUVM I .CSC.WSU.EDL: Cooperative Extension FAX (406) 994-5417 [email protected] Fort Collins, CO 80523 Wyoming (303) 491-5579 Nevada David Taylor FAX (303) 491-5108 Thomas Harris Dept. of Agricultural Economics SK NOP V I NES.COLOSTATE.EDU Center for Economic Development University of Wyoming Mail Stop 204 Box 3354 University of Nevada-Reno Laramie. WY 82071 Reno. NV 89557-0105 (307) 766-5682 (702) 784-1681 FAX (307) 766-3379 FAX (702) 784-1342 [email protected] HARRIS @ UNSSUN.SCS.UNR .EDU

Western Rural Development Ccnter North C ;rural Regional Center 307 Ballard Extension Hall for P.,ral Development317 East Hall Oregon State University Iowa State University Corvallis. OR 97331-3607 Ames, IA 50011-1070 1541 )737-362 I FAX (541)737-1579 (515)294-8322 FAX (515)294-2303 [email protected] (nor A @ IASTATE.F.DI Northeast Regional Center for Rural Southern Rural Development Center Development7 Armsby Bldg Box 9656-6 Montgomery Drive The Pennsylvania State University Mississippi State University University Park. PA 16802-5600 Mississippi State. MS 39762-9656 (814)863-4656 FAX (814)863-0586 (601)325-3207 FAX (601)325-8407 [email protected] BONNIE:IV MCES.MSSTATE.EDU esternWire WWestern Rural Development Center Fall 1995

A major function of this newsletter is toPATHWAYS FROM POVERTY 4 disseminate information about Center- funded projects and reseatch. If you areA re2ional workshop brought together state teams involved in a project associated with thefrom throughout the West Center. please send research summaries. event notices, publicity clips, or any perti- SOCIAL CAPITAL nent information to the Wire. Feel free to 7 include photographs or other graphic illus-Lessons from Appalachia for building community trations. All materials will be returned to you at your request. THE CIRCLE OF DEVELOPMENT 10 The Western Wire- is published three times each year. Please send informationAND INDIGENOUS PEOPLES about forthcoming conferences, workshops. Development can incorporate sustainability and cultural relevance and oti..1- evcias of interest in community development to Editor. Western Wire. WRDC. Oregon State University. Corvallis, PALAUAN PERSPECTIVE 15 OR 97331-3607. Ideas of wealth changed with the introduction of capitalism Barbara Baldwin Editor POVERTY: A MATTER OF VALUES 17 Aspects of traditional Island values persist

FOCUS ON LATINOS 18 A strong national economy may depend on If you receive more than one copy of thea thriving Latino community Wire, please send the labels from both cop- ies to the WRDC office and indicate your preferred address. If you receive an issue ofTHE S1NGLE-PARENT FAMILY 25 the Western Wire that is in any way defec-AND WELFARE REFORM tive. please call or FAX the WRDC and we will send a replacement. Be sure to giveIs marriage the answer? your name and address. The Western Wire is printed on acij-freeEVPLOYMENT HARDSHIP 29 paper which contains a minimum of 50% recycled fibers. Please recycle !his copyAND RURAL MINORITIES with your magazines and catalozs. Minorities in rural areas are at greater economic disadvantage than those in urban areas

THE SOCIAL SCIENTIST 32 The mission of the Western RuralAND RURAL AMERICA Development Center is to strengthen ruralBudget cutting has weakened the rural social sciences families, communities, and businesses by facilitating collaborative socio-economic research and extension through higherCENTER PROJECTS: PROGRESS REPORT 34 education insititutions in the western region. The Western Rural Development Center offers its programs and materials equally toCONFERENCES 35 all people. WesteiRural Development Center Oregon State University Some of the material in this newsletter is based upon work supported by the Extension Corvallis. Oregon 9733 i -3607 Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture, under special project number 93-ERRD- l -8502. (5411737-3621 FAX (541) 737-1579 Cover: The Niqht of the Poor, fresco by Diego R;vera in thc Ministry of Education. A,RDCWCCMAIL.ORST.EDU Mexico City. Photos pages 4-6 and page 17 by Tomilce Turner. E

Jane Brass Workshop participants Program Coordinator Participants came to the workshop in state teams ranging in size Western Rural Development Center from 5 to 15 members. Teams were organized with the help of Extension and other contacts to include people from state and local government (elected officials and agency staff), grassroots Too many conferences waste time and accomplish organizations, tribal government and organizations, higher edu- nothing. This was the most productive and usefill cation (research and extension). and the private sector. The conference 1 have attended to date. private sector was represented by private non-profit groups and 1 really am glad 1 came. 1 am by nature a community one media representative, but not by private business,utilities. worker and it was so rewarding to see the various banks. etc. We hope teams are able to recruit members from these groups who are on target working to empower theis important groups, too. The federal government was represented communities and individuals. by state directors of the USDA's Rural Economic and Commu- nity Development Service. I'm pleased to have stronger ties with tribal Participants also reflected the ethnic diversity within the rural government representatives and community/economic west. including American Indians. Native Alaskans and Pacific development folks in the state and region. Too often Islanders, and Hispanics. A few participants noted that African university people talk only to each other. Americans were not in attendance and only one Asian American participated. Some teams stated intentions to seek out partnerships with representatives of these groups as they expand their The western region held its Pathways from Poverty workteams. shop in Albuquerque. New Mexico, on May 18-20. 1995The future has already begun with generous sponsorship from the W.K. Kellogg Foun- dation, Farm Foundation, and the Rural Sociological Society.The program was designed to increase awareness and under- Over 100 people from all 13 states and 4 territories that comprisestanding of both individual and social aspccts of poverty and to the Western Rural Development Center (WRDC) region partici-stimulate thinking about what state teams can do locally to create pated in the event designed to foster a network to address rural pathways from poverty, with the primary objective to build poverty issues. The overall atmosphere of the workshop was stronger relationships among organizations involved in rural incredibly positive. People expressed a sense of commitment andpoverty and create a western regional network. This objective found inspiration among their fellow participants that motivated was established because more often than not, people responsible them to continue to attend all sessions and to work in the after- for poverty programs in communities, universities, and govern- hours with their teammates. ments are not in communication with each other even though they The WRDC organized Pathways from Poverty in the Ruralare active in the same field of interest. Frequentlypeople do not West to bring together leaders from all sectors of the region in aeven know one another, though they may know aboutthe other process of discovery, discussion, and action planning directedprogram. toward improving the quality of life for the rural poor. The Time was built into the workshop for participants to work Albuquerque workshop was an initial effort in what will continue together in expanded partnerships within their state and the as a WRDC program to create and support networks that joinlocal region. State teams worked with trained facilitators to develop a imperatives and policy decisions with scholarship. vision statement of what they would like to see in place in the next

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Right:Participants represented the cultural and ethnic diversity of rural western people and learned from one another as well as from the program presenters. Far right:Gene Summers conceived the Pathways from Poverty 7-- project after a National Rural Studies Commitee meeting in the Mississippi Delta put

him in touch with his _ childhood struggles. 5 4Westein Wire Fall 1995 Agenda- 10 years along the three major pathways. They also bi ainstormed ideas-for working together as a team in the immediate future. THURSDAY. MAY 18TH Follow-up activities have already started. Nine states and three 1:00Welcome:Russell C.Youmans, WRDC Director territories have submitted proposals to continue working together 1:15Laying out the Challenge/Vision with the help of small seed grants. All of the state teamsare ArtCampbell.Deputy Under Secretary. USDA expected to implement efforts during this next year with the Rural Economic & Community currently available funds. These seed monies should help the Development Services teams acquire additional funds to undertake broader, more sus- 2:15Social Capital:Developing community and tained efforts. Some activities already identified are: institutional capacity to work together AMERICAN SAMOA will develop a home based business Marie Cirillo. WoodlandCommunity Land Trust program to help women with limited resources increase their 3:35Pathways from Poverty: History and reflections incomes through occupations that will allow them to stay at home Gene Summers.Univ of Wisconsin/Madison to care for their families and communities. LouiseFortmann. Univ of California-Berkeley ARIZONA' s team has worked with a larger forum within the Jose Rivera.University of New Mexico state to develop a consensus document entitled. Block Grants with Sylvia Polacca.Inter-Tribal Council of Arizona Carol Whitaker. a Vision, a suggested policy guide for policymakers at both the American Samoa Ayano Baules.Palau federal and state levels in the evolving discussion about block Pat Simpson.Guam grants. Seed grant monies have already helped circulate draft 4:45State Team Initial Get Together versions to over 2(X) diverse groups throughout the state. CALIFORNIA will convene a small workshop, Pathways to FRIDAY, MAY 19TH 8:30Concurrent sessions Livelihoods: Creating Communities of Learning, to determine Work and Income what classes/short courses in skills would be necessary for chang- Ann Tickamyer.University of Kentucky ing livelihood possibilities and ways that those could be delivered Aurora Native Crafts Catalogue project to community members at acceptable times and places. Jeanine Kennedy.Director. RurAL CAP COLORADO' s short-term plan addresses concerns for afford- National Center for American Indian able housing for low income families/communities. The team will Enterprise Development pursue additional learning opportunities to help them develop Steve Stallings,President creative, holistic approaches for meeting housing and other needs Forest Trust of these citizens and neighborhoods. Jan-Wilkm Jansens Thomas Brendlor GUAM will establish a coalition of public agencies and com- San Juan Pueblo Gaming Corp. munity service groups to organize a Cooperative Child Care Elias Vigil.CEO Center for low income/limited resource/single parents. Through Education and Human Capital this facility they will engage family members in opportunities for Ruy Teixeira.Economic Research Service personal development and empowerment. San Cristo Project. Colorado HAWAII team members will contribute to an ongoing review Larry Dunn LouiseStitzel of federally funded food and nutrition programs in the state to Carol Addo Gail Rodriguez provide policymakers with information to help them structure Schools and Community Development Project welfare reform responses. BruceMiller. NW Regional Educational Laboraton, JulieRiley,Powder River (MT) Extension Sandra Moody. Liberty Jr/Sr High School Family and Health Patricia Garrett.Univ of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Confidence Clinic Margaret Ellison.Executive Director Allison Green,Clinic staff MidgeCampbell. Successful graduate Espanola Valley High School Teen Clinic, New Mexico KaySanclwz Dorothy Montoya Las Compafieras Roberto Bardehis 1:15State Teams: Visioning with facilitators SATURDAY. MAY 20TH 8:30State Team Meetings 10:30 Reporting Session Ai Noon Adjourn

Western Wire Fall 1995 Planning Cqffunitiee MONTANA is planning a statewideOregon that would address perceptions of conference for affordable housing which poverty with the hope of challenging com- Herman Agoyo John Kusel will draw participation from bankers. leg- mon myths. They are exploring ideas that Picuris Pueblo Forest Community islators, human resource professionals. would provide support for building social Penaseo. NM Research contractors, and the legal community from capital in rural communities, one of which Kristi Branch Westwood. CA all regions of the state. is to examine Oregon's Benchmarks to see Batelle Institute Mike McMahon NEVADA will model, develop and ex- what role social capital might play in achiev- Seattle. WA Human Services pand a holistic approach to sustainableing them. Flaxen Conway Washoe County. NV community development and work to en- UTAH's team is reaching out to the Oregon State Refugio Rochin hance community capacity to utilize com-Utah Issues Forum, which has a strong Extension Service Julian Samora Inst Michigan State Univ prehensive planning documents in deci- history of involving citizens in public policy Iy Lou Cooper sion-making processes. education. They ',spire to draft a rural pov- Wtstern Council ofLouise Stitzel The Resource NEW MEXICO intends to build a busi- erty statement to bring to the legislature. State Governments Assistance Center ness inventory/directory, expand network- More important. really, than any one Jean Cowan Gene Summers ing capabilities. bioaden distance learning particular project listed above, is the fact Commissioner Lincoln County. OR Rural Sociology opportunities, encourage home-based busi- that the state team members have contin- Univ of Wisconsin nesses, and raise the priority of poverty inued to communicate with each other. and Christina Gringeri in many cases have broadened their core Graduate School ofRandy Workman public policy. Community group via networking with other agencies. Social Work NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS University of Utah Development Institute (Saipan, Rota:Tinian) will work to prov ide organizations, and individuals. WRDC will University of Guam continue to support work by these teams in Rosanne Turner business opportunities to increase the in- Janine Kennedy Mary Evans come of women with limited resourceseach state and to facilitate communication Rural Alaska CAP U.S. West and information-sharing across state lines through the formation of a Women's Co- Kathy James Louise Fortmann operative. Mei,. first effort will be to de- on this important issue of rural poverty. . Idaho Dept. of Environmental Policy velop and publish a crafts catalogue and WRDC will work with the National Health and Welfareand Management local recipe book. Persistent Poverty Chair to network the Idaho Rural Univ of California OREGON's team is designing a strat- western regional teams with those in other Development Council Berkeley egy to create dialogues throughout rural regions of the country.CI

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f Mkige Campbell. Allison Green. and Margaret Ellisontestified !o the positive effect on Elias Vigil explored the implications of provide skills training, and gambling as an economic development tool families and health of programs that develop a sense of self-worth, for creating work and income. lead to self-sufficiency among low-income women.

6 Western Wire Fall 1995

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Marie Cirillo Woodland Community Trust Cleatfork, Tennessee Presented by Ms. Cirillo at the Pathways from Poverty Conference sponsored by the Western Rural Development Center in Albuquerque May 18, 1995.

believe social capital is a fluid, improvisational and skillful ing from the non-government sector on ways to measure the value interplay among people who live, breathe, give and take from of social capital. Nations like the United States, Japan and the one another and their shared environment. It is a thing of value European Union rejected any strong, binding commitments to this that penetrates the atmosphere, that builds the spirit, that createsand other actions emerging from the non-government or civic the energy within a neighborhood or community. It is work or sector of society. Do these power blocks fear losing money? What labor mat does not stand alone but rather is connected to otherdoes money have to do with social capital? Or do they rather fear work or labor in ways that give it cultural integrity, social meaning losing power? If the world plays games other than monetary and community vitality. games, who will win? The issue we are addressing is not politi- Much of what I experienced in the convent was social capital cally correct. of this kind. We were a group of 105 young women, recently How do we harvest social capital so it can be a pathway from organized city girls who decided to be missionaries to ruralpoverty in the rural community? Must it be institutionalized? Is it America. We went out in bands of four with hardly a roof over ourmore important that it be internalized by a significant number of heads, with 1ittle money. with the constraints placed on us by apeople within and outside of institutions? Are financial and/or religious group. even if we were professionally trained teachers,other rewards necessary if it is to flourish? Where are the freedoms nurses, or social workers. We generally had one car with which tothat release the social resources, where are the controls to focus move into our various fields of work. There was little money, butthem so that capital can move us out of poverty. Is the "us" being we created an energy. a social capitai. that was effective. How moved out of poverty the poor, the nation, the community, or often do people get the opportunity to experience this? I believeneighborhood'? How much diversity exists within the sphere from the new government program Americorps, which requires volun- which one is trying to mobilize social capital? Each setting will teers to work aE a team, might be creating such an experience. Irequire personalized responses to all of these important questions. expect army life, clubs, non-profit organizations, committees and other groups like these might allow for a first hand experience. Institutional capacity It is very helpful to have experienced the effectiveness of social I moved into a place called the Clearfork Valley in Tennessee 28 capital before trying to harvest it or activate it among others. years ago. The immediate and dramatic change for me was that I It is the connectedness of social activities that generates social was no longer a sisterno longer enjoying the social capital we capital. It is the separateness of institutional, professional activitywere able to create. I was alone in a community suffering from the that costs a lot of money. At a time when our nation is heavily in great loss of over 80 percent of its population to the industrial mid- debt, is there any wonder that we are looking to honor social west. The Clearfork Valley is the space on the other side of the capital? Those who have it. and those who want it to happen more,mountain. It is the place you go to get the coal out of the earth for are asking the question. "How is it rewarded?" That is a key shipment to power companies. question for policy makers. At the social summit gathering of the It is clear now that the reason for the 3 million out-migration of United Nations in March and the planning for the UN women' s the '50s and '60s had everything to do with the capital investment gathering in September. there are many recommendations corn- in machinery. Labor was not needed for the production of coal any

Western Wire Fall 19957 We must imagine more to life than running to themarket place every time life getsboring at home. longer. Labor was needed in Cincinnati. We are moving into a very different lifenot all, are women who do much of the Chicago and Detroit. where the natural as we enter the 21st century. I don't mean unpaid work in the world. Women and resources of our mountain forest landsto suggest we return to a caveman exist- others who don't have cash are less mobile. wereshipped andprocessed.In ence, but as resources are depleted. asIf they have children or the elderly or the Middlesboro. Kentucky. twenty miles from humans become less mobile, as there isgarden to care for they are less mobile than the Clearfork Valley. was the Ford coal less money, we will have the challenge toothers. If they keep the house warm in camp. Owned by Ford Motors in Detroit,consider another way of being. Consider-winter and clean and cool in the summer this was security for their production. They ing social capital is an important piece of they are less mobile than those without had to come to Appalachia for the coal and any forward looking strategy. daily maintenance chores. Hence women the labor. Detroit had the capital. Obvi- more than men. in general, are more stable ously the social capital that builds commu-Community capacity within a community. This provides the nity had no accounting system in the world Pathways from poverty to what? If weopportunity to better connect things going of politics and economics. Working as I think poverty is caused by a lack of money on among people and with nacre. Their was now for the church with a S3.000and can be solved with money, we aresocial activity is connected. A cohesive- salary and a S3.000 operating budget. howbarking up the wrong tree. There are few ness is created and this cohesiveness adds could I start a sdf-helpeffort except through money trees left to climb. We must con-up to social capital. Such awareness can be social capital? The community needed it. I template each other and consider all theaided through a group process, but some needed it for myself. options for making life better. We must women, as well as men and children whose It is unfortunate that growth policies imagine more to life than running to the security and way of knowing come out of have moved the markets to the towns. Now market place every time life gets boring at a rootedness in community. ,:an act very everyone needs a car. gas money and insur- home. From TV to Marketin this habit independently while being keenly tuned in ance just to get food. This seems so foolish we as a society have gotten into there isto the whole, which builds social capital. it is no wonder that more people in mylittle hope for social capital. Indeed, suchNew institutions community are growing gardens today than habits detract from social development. last year. There are common grounds where One valuable way to develop skills for My experience tells me that once you listen food is being produced for the community. image and vision making is to learn fromto them, honor them by supporting their Local social capital activists are not think-those who have been without money and/ dreams, turn over a little money and try to ing about how to sell the produce. but or escape mechanisms for a long time. You find appropriate experts. local people can rather, how to have common meals. People might have to make them believe you trustmove mountains. Our community has need occasic ns to support the cohesion that their ways. You might have to find exer- health clinics, development corporations. turns their efforts into social capital. cises that return self confidence to them.a land trust, an adult higher education pro- It is unfortunate that the instinctual ca- You might be in a position to considergram. many child and parent programs. a pacities of the human being have been soways to reward rather than punish peoplepeer lending program, a plan for forest totally snuffed out of an urban industrial for being more open about the contribu-management and value added products. society. Indeed humans, like other livingtions they are making to the social capital garden and school activities, tire depart- things. were created with the capacity towithin their community. ments and small church efforts. Only one take care of their needs. They knew how to Women's deprivations are also agovernment building with one staff person do this long before money was invented. strength once we can appreciate the way is located within the Clearfork Valley. Now we don't know how to provide for social capital fits into the scheme of things. Working together ourselves without money. Who among usIs it not true that women know all about could grow our own food, build our ownunpaid work? They know what it is be-Over the years local citizen organizations shelter or sew our own clothing? As we lostcause they do it. It might not be recognized have established partnerships with the land, we lost these skills. We lost a kind ofbecause it is not paid for, but women know. Community Design Center in Knoxville, social interaction that comes from working Is it a male/ female thing'? Is it a socializa- with several Knoxville and Oak Ridge together as family and in community. tion process like collective living, like team churches, with TVA. The most committed Money created a whole new way of doingwork that gives one the capacity to mobi-partnership is between Carson Newman development. We have to find ways to start lize social capital'? Is it the absence of other College and Mountain Women's Exchange. undoing the trap money has built. Nowcapital that helps develop social capital.They are developing an appropriate adult everything that makes life easy comes fromjust as one who is blind often developseducation program which will give people the outsidethe world market and so- other senses to a greater degree than one the knowledge and skills necessary to work cial dynamism is limited to the politics and who is not blind'? Are there other factors in this community (as distinct from those economics of marketing. My community that sensitize one to recognizing and mov- needed in cities to which they tnight have is following the lead of several other coming with the power of social capital'? to migrate). munities and establishing a form of local I want to speak to long term residency in This year students on campus at Carson currency that allows for a good mix ofa community as especially important totheNewman College will further explore op- social and monetary capital. development of social capital. Most, buttions for a service learning program with

8 Western Wire I-all 1995 ;'

Woodland Community Land Trust. Thiswe each need of the other? Might it be the coal fields provides a particular insight will be an important exchange since one possible that the college partnership is whatinto the dwindling resources of the earth. major initiative is to get back a land base will in time bring the grassroots efforts theOf all the Appalachian states. Tennessee is from which social capital can interact. We measure of legitimacy that allows themnow the smallest producer of coal. We are not airborne people. We do not live inequal respect among the land barons? have all but run out of coal. We must finally cities. We need our land, and as we are now We don't have answers, but thanks to a face the reality of an unrenewable resource initiating a process to dialogue with the Ford Foundation grant to the East Tennes-that is no longer available to the global absentee land and coal companies we can see Community Foundation, we are one ofmarket. Local people face other problems. only hope that they will see some reason tofive rural community groups engaged in aShall they move away and leave the moun- share the mined-out lands with us. three year planning, action and policy set-tains to the wilds? Shall they look for other Timber companies have moved in and ting effort. This program is functioning inways to live? The problem and opportunity are clear-cutting our mountains. The onlyfour states and is directed towards an ex-Ecing the Clearfork Valley is that people hope we have is that the industrial giantsploration of the capacity community foun-are staying. There are no longer cities to that produce for a world market will come dations have to serve their rural constitu-run to as there were in the '60s. We can't to understand the need for social capital,ency. I do not know what approach is beingrun from poverty with some illusion that will contribute to the local efforts by turn- used in other states, but the East Tennesseewe will find answers in the cities. Many of ing over some land, possibly some money, Foundation decided to let the grassrootsus found jobs, but we also found family and even some expertise. Would it be too groups take the initiative. In our case wedisruption, community disintegration, much to imagine that we might do this inare planning for the year 2000 and whatdisinvestment and political ineptness as partnership with mutual respect for what happens after coal. Another group is plan-reported daily on the TV news. A genera- ning for communitytion of restless, rootless, disturbed, violent supported agricul-people cannot be tamed by capital invest- ture as a solution toments in bigger prisons, especially if only what happens afterone class of people are subject to punish- tobacco. Needless to ment for the sins of society. say with a $5.000 The social disintegration of American planning grant tosociety will take something other than capi- each communitytal investment. It will be the human com- group, much of ourmitment. the social capital and community success will rest oncohesiveness that will move us to another our ability to gener-intensity. So it is that the end of a coal era ate social capital inand the beginning of a 21st century is the planning and ac- causing local residents to look at each other tion process. and their land. They are quick to move to the conclusion that they must learn how to Conclusion live with their forest resources. Forests can One very importantbring them recreation, religion, education. reason we are being economics and politics. Social capital can pushed to considertransform the ruins of the social, political social capitalisand economic systems of the 20th century depletion of the into a surprising future. Given the chance, naturalresource the nameless, faceless communities that base of the U.S., and once produced fossil fuels might be the indeed the world.people who push the pendulum of change upon which finan-past dead center. Those of you who are cial capital is built.professional workers within mainline in- Wise use of re-stitutions can provide valuable assistance sources means using to such communities. As you come to value what is needed. effi- the ability of a community to generate ciently, with caresocial capitalto make separate things and with the intent part of the wholeyou will be intrigued to cultivate and re- with the way they fit your professional place that which is contribution into the scheme of their daily taken so that it re- life. This becomes a pathway for all of us, mains forfuture gen- each out of our own experience of personal Myrtle and Uncle 1::-avz Noble. Alpine. Oregon. erations. Living inand social poverty:3 Photo 0 James f,..loutier. 1 0 Western Wire Fall 19959 The Circle ofDevelopment and Indigenous Peoples

Sherry Salwav Black An abbreviated version oft/us article appeared on pages 27-29. Equal Means. Summer /992. published by Ms. Foundation jOr Women. Berkeley. CA.

The Wall Street Journal recently ran development, and to find new ways tothat human beings are but one part of In a story describing the resurgence of measure change that are based on a more nature, not dominant over it. In his book the Mexican economy. One of thehumane value system. The Absence of the Sacred: The Failure of Technology and the Survival of the Indian leading indicators of the successful new Indigenous world view economic development and its resulting Nations, Jerry Mander charts the differ- growth in income and purchasing powerWhere do indigenous people fit withinences between technological people and was the increased number of sushi bars indevelopment? What can we offer to change native people in attitudes about environment, economics, religion and philosophy, Mexico City. and improve the system? A fundamental Sushi 1327s. And we have been strug- belief, common to many indigenous tribal architecture, politics and sociocultural de- gling to develop new ways to measurepeople of North America and probably ofmographics. In their approach to life, tech- economic change that incorporate envi-the world, is that we have survived 500 nological and native peoples are in total ronmental and social costs. Sushi barsyears because we have traditional knowl-contradiction to one another, according to the answer was right in front of our faces.edge that we must share, knowledge that is Mander. our mouths actually, all of the time. critically important to the survival of the Economic and Of course. I say this tongue-in-cheek. world. development implications but the story is true. Unfortunately. it is We have had this knowledge all along because this story is true that we are allbut in the mad rush to take our material For a dozen years, First Nations Develop- working in the field of economic justice. resources and to Christianize our souls, the ment Institute has worked with American An economic system that uses the numberearly immigrants to this country over-Indian tribes and people to develop sus- of sushi bars as a measure of successfullooked, misunderstood, or de-valued ourtainable models that incorporate traditional knowledge and values. Because our vision development and the improved well-being fundamental beliefs, values and understand- of people needs an overhaul of its basic ing of the world. is in contradiction with technological civi- value system and its entire theoretical Much has been written recently about lization, indigenous people have much to offer in lessons of development. as well as framework. the indigenous people of the Americas, our contributions and our traditional knowl- survival. Changing the system edge. The reasons for this new found inter- Indigenous people are the original "systems theorists." viewing the world as ho- Someone important once said. "Admittingest are important: the quincentennial: the that you have a probLm is the first step in need for a cultural identity in the meltinglistic and interdependent rather than cat- egorical, separate, and linear. The world is solving it.- There k a development prob-pot of America: the social changes relating lem in this country and in the world. Women to multi-cultural diversity and political in dire straits because Western thinking and minorities have been saying it forcorrectness: and most importantly. I think, separates economics from the environment years: we know the results, up close and the search for a missing element in people' s and fails to recognize a relationship. At first glance. Indian reservations por- personal. The peopie in power. who ownlivesspirituality. tray a "legacy of failure." In almost 300 and control the assets for development, do The indigenous understanding has its reservations and 200 Alaska Native vil- not have a problem. That's the issue. basis in spirituality, a recognition of the There are efforts to change the field ofinterconnectedness and interdependence lages, the unemployment rate averages 60 percent. Some places it is as high as 95 economics to consider the environment asof all living things. a holistic and balanced more than an externality, to incorporateview of the world. Intrinsic to this view ispercent. and not one reservation has a healthy, indigenous private sector operat- sustainability and cultural relevance intothat the earth is alive and is the Mother. and ii 10 Western WireFall 1995 Individual Group 11__/101 Tribe

1111 Nation The Elements of Development

Individuals, community organizations, and tribes can use this diagram to formulate their development goals. By considering each Element, they can direct development in line with their social values, and evaluate their progress over time. Border Graphic: Karyn Gabaldon Chart: Kristin Prentice, Sphinx Graphics ing within the community. This is after First Nations' effort to develop impactcreated, number of businesses started, and $2.4 billion a year throughout the 1980s measurement and assessment tools thatincreases in employment and incomes. directed toward the economic develop- incorporate social costs started two yearsWhile these measurements are valid in a ment of reservations. ago as we celebrated our first decade ofnarrow definition of development, they In our work we do not view this as work. Research indicated that the state-of-completely ignore other important cultural, failure but rather as rejection of the inher-the-art in evaluating economic develop-personal and spiritual aspects of life, allow ent values within the economic system. ment programs had little to do with social little opportunity to incorporate the partici- Because the current economic system does change, social or environmental costs, orpants' definitions of success, and fail to not recognize our values, nor have the specific cultural differences, but focusedinclude all of the costs associated with ability to measure success by our terms and on what could be definitively quantified.economic growth. definition, we will never be successful byMeasurements of "successful" economic First Nations researched other, newly its standards. development included the number of jobsdeveloping measurements of social status,

12 Western Wire Fall 1995 1 1 development comes from within it cannot be done to or for people social costs, and change, much of which istem, and traditional knowledge are valid basis for circulation of goods and services, being done in Third World countries, suchand important. Individual accumulation of material goods as the work in Quality of Life Indicators. The two main axes of the circle ofwas not valued and leadership principles Social and Environmental Auditing, and development represent significant relation- involved sharing wealth with kinship net- quantifying the unpaid work of women. ships. Starting with the Control of Assets, work, and tribe. Western models of distri- While this group of measurements pro-we can view the inherent barriers to indig-bution and federal programs to acculturate vides a more holistic structure, some ele-enous development, traditional mecha-tribes have been superimposed on the tra- ments were still missing. nisms. and potential measurements. Ameri- ditional kinship systems, undermining their Prior to contact with Westerners, Ameri- can Indian tribes and people seek control of effectiveness but a complex kinship sys- can Indianpeople had complex socialtheir assets. their land base, natural re- tem continues to serve as the basis of tribal systems which guided every aspect of their sources, and financial capital. Without con- life, the creation and circulation of assets. lives. First Nation found that many of the trol, long term development cannot occur. and the method by which generations share values, traditions, and m-thods for redis- The principle of control of assets is appli-the culture and its values. tributing wealth are still in operation, validcable to any social and economic program Barriers to the kinship system as a and critically important to the continuedfor disenfranchised people. Without con-method of control and creation of assets well-being of the tribes. Indigenous com- trol of assets, you lack the ability to createinclude the Allotment Act of 1887. which munities have a fundamental basis inwealth from them. and your life is alwaysintroduced the concept of private property spirituality, a recognition that people exist in someone else's control. to native peoples and 100 years later con- within and are tied to their environment. For individuals, assets can be land, atinues to wreak havoc with the ability of Tribal people have their own understand- house, a savings account, an education and tribes and individuals to use the land and its ings about assets and wealth and aboutjob skills, traditional rights to hunt and fish resources effectively and to protect it for what constitutes leadership. in particular areas, businesses, trust funds future generations. The government wel- and access to credit. For a community,fare systems, superimposed on a complex Elements of development reservation, or tribe, assets can be pro-and existing system of giving, sharing and The Elements of Development is a frame- grams, land, indigenous institutions, envi- reciprocity have far-reaching effects on work that First Nations developed basedronmental quality, trust funds, tribal hunt-the breakdown of the kinship system. on our research, on established indicators.ing and fishing rights, access to credit, and Subsistence activities involving barter contemporary barriers and issues facingnatural and human resources. At the na-and trade can best be tracked through the tribes, the traditional worldview. and prin- tional level, for tribes, assets are trust funds, kinship systems. Traditional redistribution ciples of development. Not only can tribesfederal programs, their own indigenousmechanisms such as giveaways and pot- develop their own indicators and measure-institutions and tribal sovereignty. latches continue to flourish. Basic services ments of success and progress for each of In traditional systems, assets and wealth such as child care, car repair, and personal the vectors and axes, but the development were distributed through the Kinship net- grooming needs are met within the house- principles inherent in the Elements pro-work of extended families, which were the hold and extended families. vide a framework to guide decision-making in reservation development. To understand this framework, it is important to keep in mind sonie basic as- sumptions. First, this view of development goes beyond economics; it is the development of a people. Development that fo- cuses on one quadrant of the circle, say economics, and ignores other aspects of human existence, will never provide the necessary balance to improve the quality oflife for all and will never work for native people. Balance is a necessary component of native understanding of the world. Second. development comes from within; it cannot be done to people or for people but must come from people. The 1"7--_t Elements are only a guide which can be used by individuals and groups to develop their own measures of success and accom- plishment. A first step in empowerment is to recognize that your values, belief sys- 13 1 2 Western Wire Fall 1995 a At Taos Pueblo in northern New Mexico. a woman prepares a meal in her outdoor kitchen. Photo 0 Bruce Gomez. Recognition of these existing kinshipthe community, and the tribe to their localand economy must have people with a systems and their role in an economic resources. Measurements of self-employ- strong sense of Personal Efficacy. a sense redistribution system can be a first step in ment can be developed which recognize of confidence. A judgement we often hear a development strategy. Forexample, somethat a family unit is meeting local needsabout the poverty and lack of economic tribes are revising subsistence hunting andwith local resources. Intra and inter-tribaldevelopment on reservations is that the fishing codes to use traditional kinshiptrade can be developed to reinforce devel- people have no work ethic, lack a competi- systems for distribution of resources. opment of the larger family of tribal peoples. tive nature. and are self-effacing. Tradi- The relationship between Control of Within the control and distribution oftionally. indis idual achievements and ac- Assets and Kinshipconnects the individual.assets, are people. A strong communitycomplishments were critical io the \ ery existence of the tribe. resulting in a respect for others that w as misinterpreted as self- effacment and non-competi eness. Nati% e American children were taught from an early age to -think for yourself and act for others... What coukl be a better starting point for des eloping entrepreneurs. In Western society. mdis idual achie e- ments enhance the indis idual. lii tribal lite, individual achies ements are s a I ned kit-their benefit to the extended family and to the tribe. Individual roles and responsibilities are taught by the families and defined from an early. age. Child raising stresses the importance of building confidence. risk taking. innovation and experience. Tradi- tional societies are not static but are continually improving, not tor growth but for improved efficiency ----how to do it better People in theI do, Pueblo use \ood fuel e\clusi el lilt cookin. IndiolN and ow Photos) Ui tiLe ( ionic/

estern NA ItcI all 1995 3 Indicators of improvement in Personalcommunity-developed and controlled ism. Only much later will they recognize Efficacy for an individual may be self- microenterprise loan program on the Pine that something fundamentally valuable has esteem, the abi I ity to problem-sol ve, a posi- Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota. been lost. We have too many examples in tive outlook, or increased knowledge and People who never had access to credit nowtribes and on reservations where economic skills. On a community level, indicators do and are creating other assets and earninggrowth, per capita payments, capitalism. are improved tribal leadership. community income tied to extended families. The bor- and consumerism result in short term gains cooperation, the formation of associations,rowers grow in self-esteem and reliability, at the expense of long term development teamwork, follow-up and reliability. On aand their ability to solve problems indi- and our future generations. national level, indicators of success can be vidually and collectively has improved. I am encouraged by the rebirth of spiri- the sense that "we can do it.- a pride and They are more productive and have choicestuality among indigenous people, an effort joy in our people and our achievements. where none existed before. And, critical toto recapture and live the basic values of the Spirituality is the most difficult element development, they can see a vision of them- traditional culture and to use these to make to describe. It is from spirituality that oneselves as successful. more effective decisions about develop- gains a sense of vision, a sense of one' s self The Elements can also be used in eco-ment and the measure of success within our and one's place within the community and nomic decision making to incorporate Au.own culture. One example is tribes and within the larger universe. From that vi-of the costs and benefits associated with aIndian people who refuse to be lulled by sion one izains an ability to see choices: strategy. For example. as an increasingthe prospect of millions of dollars in rev- where to go, what to do with one's life, hownumber of tribes turn to gaming to earnenue and employment from waste disposal to have meaning for one's self and for the revenue, they find that tribal memberscompanies for turning reservations into larger community. Included within this enrolled in higher education programs aredumping grounds. The work being done in value system is understanding, tolerance. returning home to work at casinos, forsak- the area of environmental economics will respect for the earth and all living things.ing an education for immediate returns. provide tools for analyzing the true costs of dignity, future orientation, and an ability to There is a long term cost to the future of the these types of economic ventures. see a place for indigenous people and our tribe. This must be factored into decision- I am also encouraged by a growing contributions within that future. Spiritual- making, recognized as a cost, and the con- awareness of the problems created for ity is a sense of inner-directedness, a basicsequences of the action considered. women, for indigenous people, and for the value system, a cosmology of sorts. environment by the existing economic sys- How do you build spirituality into aWhat about the future tem. I am encouraged by efforts to change development framework and how do you I am simultaneously scared and encour-the system and the measures of success. I measure it? For indigenous people, a re-aged about the future. Scared, becausesee the indigenous worldview providing turn to or rebirth of traditional values andsushi bars can become measures of suc-the framework for thaz change and believe beliefs, a resurgence in ceremonial activi- cess. Indigenous people are not immune. the legends and stories of the Grandfathers ties, a healing of our souls must take place. They can also become worshippers of thewere trueit is truly our destiny to share On an individual level, indicators and mea- false idols of materialism and consumer-our knowledge with the worldia surements of spirituality can include in- stilling traditional teachings in the children. learning the language. practicing the values, creating visions for the future, recognizing and maintaining a balance in life. For the community and tribe, spirituality can be measured by tribal institutions including cultural programs, traditional methods and teachings which both empower and develop people. Tribes are returning to traditional natural resource management techniques which are now being recognized.as effective and valid. Using the Elements of Development The circle represents a complete. balanced diagram of the elements of development. First Nations is working with tribes and other native groups in the application of the Elements of Development. We can already see its relevance to the Lakota Fund. a Home of a Vietnam veteran on the Taos Pueblo. Photo 0 Bruce Gomez.

1 4 Western Wire Fall 1995 Pthibt4n erspeetsive by Ayano Baules, Associate Director Cooperative Extension Service Palau Community College Presented by Director Baules at the Pathways from Poverty Conference sponsored by the Western Rural Development Center in Albuquerque May 18. 1995.

poverty? What poverty? We ha.vecrops, fruits. and vegetables, not to men- In our small community, people had more than enough food to eat withtion the rich marine life, which has beenlarge. extended families. It seemed that extra to share, therefore we are notrecently declared by some world marine everyone was related by blood or marriage poor. Poor people do not have anything toauthorities as one of the seven undersea and shared almost everything from food to eat. People who do not have enough to eatwonders of the world. Life was laid-back, garden tools, even to their best clothes for zre lazy. Lazy people become poor. Poorwithout nine-to-five jobs, without schools special occasions. As was the custom in people do not share. The more you share, for children to attend. Life revolved around our village, my grandmother always shared the more you get. family and the community in which theeverything we had. But there were numer- Such was the attitude of Palauans in the family lived. With concerted effort, fami- ous occasions when we had to ask for fish, old daysas long as you had food on thelies were able to grow enough food cropsor borrow things from our relatives. One table and extra to share, you were not for themselves and to share with others.day I asked my grandmother, "Grandma, considered poor. Sharing was an indication of abundance.are we poor?" As a tropical paradise, the Palau islandsAbundance was an indication of industry, "Hush, little girl," Grandma warned. were blessed with abundant tropical root resourcefulness, and self-sufficiency. "Don't even say the word. You see, according to an old Palauan proverb, poverty is like a pillar of smoke. The smoke s pathway is influenced by the wind's direction and the smoke will graze those along its path until the wind changes its course. So poverty is a misfortune that tarries with us but temporarily. It comes and goes according to the winds of change. But if you keep on saying, 'I am poor. I am poor.' you'll invite poverty to come in and stay for good." With this wisdom of the elders, the indigenous people deemed poverty only a fleeting mishap and went on with daily routines to provide for their immediate families and to fulfill their obligations to the extended families. Palauans have always been ambitious (a trait which is some- times misinterpreted as being overly ag- gressive in their dealings with foreigners) for other comforts in life. There were those with special skills in native crafts-making. traditional medicine, canoe building. wea% - Ayano Baules, right, reminded participants of the social forces that influence poverty. Elders in ing. etc., who traded goods and services for Island communities recall a time when wealth meant abundant food and a healthy, loving money, using stone (for men) and turtle family rather than material possessions. Professor Baules is shown above with Pat Simpson of shell ( for women). They continued to share Guam at the WRDC Pathways from Poverty workshop . their wealth with the less fortunate, none-

16 Western Wire Fall 1995 1 5 theless. keeping their trade secrets within the deprivation of the basic necessities in outs from the government and other wouldbe benefactors. For others, poverty is de- ._the family. The stone and shell money are life. One may own a piece of land and a still used today for cultural or traditional house. but without a car, that person may fined as the lack of cash to buy what's new rites associated with childbirth. family re- he considered poor. and vice versa. in the stores. lationships and disputes. marriage, death. Many young people. as well as some As for me. I ponder when the wind of and real estate property. adults, could not keep steady jobs. As change is blowing..] On October I.1994. the Republic ofsoon as they got their first pay- _mat. Palau. an island nation made up of over 200 check. they tzot drunk or got high 1/4' islands (nine inhabited) regained its inde- on drugs and failed to report to pendence after more than a century ofwork. They went back to being colonial rule. In the 50 'years prior to its dependent on their families and Ar Lk,. independence. Palau was administered as relatives. part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific The few elders who still hold Islands by the United States according todear the old traditions are bewil- 41/ the United Nations mandate. Before the dered and worry about the future. United States. Japan ruled for 30 years, and Watching their grandchildren, the before that. Germany. which purchased elders wonder about their own chil- Palau from Spain. Spain is credited with dren, who rarely have time to see bringing Christianity to the islands. Spain their parents. The children are ei- and Germany had little economic impactther busy with their jobs or out on the islands. Japan and the United Statessomewhere with friends. had thc greatest economic impact and cul- Occasionally, the elders get to- tural influence on the indigenous people. gether and talk about the past with Natives were educated in formal schools at nostalgia and wonder it' western- home and abroad and were introduced to ization or the so-called modern- the foreign concept of capitalism. ization was at all beneficial to the During the U.S. administration of the islanders. They also wonder if pov- islands. Palauans were allowed the free-erty has been invited in for good dom of entrepreneurship. Many went bank- for the want of modern conve- rupt because they could not retain theirniences; for the need to nourish tV'Ct 71" capital investment while trying to gratify bad habits, such as cigarette smok- the expectat;ons of the extended families. ing, alcoholism, and drug abuse; As another Palauan proverb goes. "If one or for the mere expectation of hand- goes ovt-1-1-oard. we'll all go overboard.- meaning. we'll share the good fortune while it lasts aid when hardship comes, we'll all suffer toge Iher. Those who did not have the guts to Ft boundaries between their business and family affairs, suffered. But a few were able to become successful. Some even became sdf-made millionaires. The foreign concepts of capitalism and commercialism began to affect family relationships and people's attitudes toward life achievements. The concept of shared wealth is now diminishing. Free hand-outs from our foreign benefactors have also changed attitudes concerning industry, resourcefulness. and self-sufficiency that were so highly esteemed by the natives. Nowadar, definitions of poverty vary from (me person t) another depending on what each perceives as the cause of poverty rather than the economic level under which one falls. Poverty is defined in general as a Above, at a cultural arts festival, Samoan women practice the ancient artot' tapa. The women lack of material things and not necessarily use local dyes to paint traditional designs on poundedmulberry bark.

16 Western Wire Fall 1995 Poverty: amatterof value&

Carol S. Whitaker, State Coordinator Family and Consumer Education American Samoa Community College

While preparing my comments for for the couple to stay. She observed, "It is from relatives, close friends, and their min- both the Pathways from Pov hard to say no to people sitting on your isters. One of my students told me. "If I am erty workship and this article. I doorstep waiting to hear yes." The sixhungry, my neighbors are always willing talked with my Samoan friends about pov- children were with her for a variety ofto feed me. Of course, my aunties and erty. There is a consensus of opinion that reasons ranging from parents with insuffi- uncles are my neighbors." poverty does not exist in American Samoa. cient money for support to inability of the Strangers often stop to ask if they can My friends readily admit that incomes are parents to control the child's behavior. pick the fruit from breadfruit, banana, low here. The most often heard comment mango, or other fruit trees in private yards. is, "We have low incomes, but we don't Vehicles These requests are invariably granted. have poverty in American Samoa." Not all families own a vehicle, and there is Travel Poverty here is defined in terms of notbus service covering most of the main having food, clothing, and shelter. Samoaisland. The small Japanese pickup truck isWhen older parents want to travel, the is a communal society. and the members the most popular vehicle on the island.adult children often pay their fare. Re- are organized into large extended family Those who own trucks loan them to trusted cently. the mother of a friend of mine groups. Family members cooperate with relatives and friends and give rides to oth- wanted to visit her daughters in Hawaii. one another and share what they have. The ers with poor driving skills. Every so often. Those daughters purchased a plane ticket social structure in place insures that mem-a vehicle owner can't find the truck when and mailed it from Hawaii. My friend's bers are taken care of. If you do not have it is needed! son, who is less than two. Years old. flew money. you can go to your family and with his grandma so his aunties could spoil expect to be given a meal to eat, a shirt to Children him in Hawaii. Six weeks later the mother wear, a place to sleep, or money for school Families are large in Samoa and some was ready to return to Pago Pago. My activity fees. This is a reciprocal process couples have more children than they can friend sent her mom the return ticket. and when you have money, your familyafford to support. The couple may ask a Money members come to you for help. There are family member, a close friend, or a minis- no homeless people here and everyone has ter to rai::e a child. Those individuals asked When a man's sister died, he took out a food and clothing. to take a child inevitably agree. In some loan to help pay the funeral expenses be- Following are comments about the way cases, family members who understand a cause he was working and could qualify for family resources are distributed in Samoa. couple's financial situation will offer to the financial assistance. This sharing enables families to maintain take a child. The family may or may not At the grocery store where I often shop economic stability on low incomes. legally adopt the child they arc raising. on Saturdays. a man volunteers to stand outside, open the door, and carry groceries Housing Food to the car or bus stop. A few of the shoppers There are no homeless people in American Food is a very important aspect of the give this man a small tip. which he shares Samoa. People who need housing often culture. At weddings, graduations, funer- with the young children who don't have stay with relatives, friends, or ministers. als, and other large celebrations, people enough change for the gum ball machines. One woman had up to eight extra people who attend are always given a plate of food A colleague of mine gave me some living with her family during the past year. to take home to their families. People al-money one morning. She had won the The .iwo adults were no longer welcome by ways share food, whether it is a sandwich church bingo the night before and was the family with whom they had been living or half of a sandwich from someone else. sharing her winnings. Very few bingo win- so the woman and her family made a place Those in need can ask and receive food ners keep the prize money...1

1.6 Wotern Wire Fall 1995 17 FO,is

by Refugio 1. Rochin. Professor Michigan State University and University of California, Davis and Jose A. Rivera. Professor University of New Mexico Presented by Professor Rivera at the Pathways from Poverty Conference sponsored by the Western Rural Development Center in Albuquerque May 18. 1995.

Latino leaders have been grappling with the needs of theirone-fifth of them live in poverty. Poverty is more concentrated communities for decades. Now the time has come for among Latino youth: 40 percent of Latino children up to17 years national leaders to foster a public agenda which addresses of age live in poverty, more than twice the national average of 19 these needs. As evident throughout the United States. Latinos are percent. becoming a major, yet under-represented. population in a number The persistence of poverty is measured by time. In 1992, a full of critical areas of the economy; their needs are most evident in30 percent of the nation's Latinos were classified as poor. More public schools, in the labor market, in town and city governments. than seven million Latinos lived in poverty. Ten years earlier, in and in the private sectors of most places. 1982, 30 percent of all Hispanic persons lived below the poverty Despite their rapid growth to about ten percent of the U.S. level. For more than a decade, three of every ten Latinos has been population. accounted for by nearly 25 million persons who poor. Latinos are among the nation's poorestpeople. classify themselves as Hispanic. many portals of economic oppor- Although Latinos are only about ten percent of the total U.S. tunity are missing for Latinos. Latinos are not fully accepted intopopulation, they constitute close to 20 percent of the nation's the labor market or into higher education. Latinos are absent in poor. One of every five poor people in America,is Latino. professional spheres, partly because Latino teenagers are drop- Recent surveys reveal a number of controversial and negative ping out of high school at high rates. limiting their futures to dead perceptions of Latinos. Americans perceive Latinos as second end, low wage jobs. School-age Latinos are facing hard times with only to blacks in terms of being lazy rather than hard working and poverty and unhealthy living conditions. living off welfare rather than being self-supporting. White Neighborhoods are congested and costs of living are more university students in the midwest viewed Latinos as less produc- expensive, especially where Latinos are concentrated in barrios tive and less intelligent, more physically violent and rebellious, and colonias. In these communities. where Latinos are the major- than their white peers (Report No. 10 of the Julian Samora ity, there are few local businesses or public amenities. The Research Institute, 1995.) Non-Latino whites have also depicted absence of basic necessities forces Latinos to work and shop atHispanics as the nation's least patriotic group. Some nationally distances far from their own homes. influential politicians have gone so far as to suggest that Latinos Few Latinos are self-employed relative to non-Latino whites. threaten the physical and political integrity of the U.S. (Latino Business loans are limited and are usually below the amounts Voices, 1992, p.2). needed to help stimulate private investment and entrepreneurial Latino poverty is not an "American" problem. according to activities among Latinos. Since public safety and life itself is very many national politicians, because fromtheir standpoint. Latino uncertain for poor Latinos. many respond with short term coping poor are unworthy immigrants. Thisposition is exemplified in strategies, some of which result in gang activity and crime. recent passage of the "Welfare Bill" inthe U.S. House of What is alarming for coming generations is the concentration Representatives. Within the bill's 415 pages. ahout 8 pages and persistence of Latino poverty. It is particularly evident in the(sections 400, 403, 421 & 421 exclude itnmigrants (legal and southwestern states along the Mexican-United States border, inotherwise) from welfare benefits. This feature of the Republican both urban and rural areas. but Latino poverty ranges widely "Contract with America" would curtail immigrants' rights to throughout America. In the midwestern states, there are close to At right: Woman from San Luis Potosi with her daughter born inthe two million Hispanics ( with a huge population in Chicago)and U.S., in their home, northern San Diego county. Photo Q) Ken 1.ight.

1 9 1 8Western Wire Fall 1905

Social Security Benefits and to Medicaid.strong national economy may depend on a portionate number of poor Latinos, high --Think of the bill as anti-immigrant. strong. thriving Latino community. school drop-outs. even functionally illiter- ate men and women. Between now and Worse yet. no cohesive agenda existsTechnological forces for public officials, businesses, and com- 2000. nearly one out of three of the new munity based organizations to address the Electronic technology is quickly changing workforce entrants will come from single- deprivation and limited horizons of Latinos. the workplace. Itis a force that moves parent homes. Two out of five Latinos will On the contrary, high level public officials independently and ahead of solutions to have grown up in families below the pov- ignore Latinos' contribution to the employment security. A workforce is re- erty line. According to the Children's De- economy. What little research and infor- quired that is both highly skilled and adap- fense Fund, poor youths are almost three mation exists on Latinos is often ignored. tive to new forms of technology. If Latino times more likely to drop out of high school discounted, or blended in with other infor-youth are not trained to qualify for emerg- than their peers who are not poor. mation which denies the unique needs and ing jobs. they will be left in greater num- When we look at today's poorest conditions of impoverished Latinos. bers to tiuht among themselves for lowerLatinos. particularly in the so-called Interestingly, and in apparent contrast paying alternatives. This is not far fromunderclass in our communities, we must to these "American" positions. many busi- current reality. ask ourselves some questions. nesses in agriculture, textiles, and manu- Do early lives of Latino children lay facturing still base production on labor-Global forces the groundwork for a future with an ever- i ntensive. low-wage operations. which useThe expanding globalization of trade and higher premium on education and techni- Latino workers to a considerable degree. communication also affects Latinos. Inter- cal know-how? national competition is continually chal- How and where will low income chil- Forces that affect lenging businesses to maintain a well-edu-dren develop the necessary skills and atti- the status of Latinos cated. highly skilled, experiencedtudes to take advantage of the dynamic Behind the concerns of Latinos are major woi kforce. Latino youth are not being pre- forces of the economy? forces which affect their status in the Unitedpared for the international ecenomy. Will Latino youth have positive, rein- States and which alter the American Ironically, most Latinos are already bi- forcing social capital and healthy environ- economy. Three forces in particular call lingual. have multicultural skills, and know ments to enhance their capabilities and into question the policies and practices ofsomething of global competition for jobs. ambitions for a global, competitive world? ignoring Latino poor. Businesses and higher education should Americans in general should respond to feel compelled to recruit and develop Latino the particular needs ot' U.S. Latinos and Demographic forces talent. Without urgent Attention to the per- should work swiftly and positively toward Growth of the national labor force hassistent poverty of Latinos. these forcesimproved conditions. If a pathway is not slowed since the 1970s. largely as a result portend a critically heightened problem inestablished soon to prepare Latinos as fu- of declining birth rates and smaller fami- a few short years. The forces at work are ture workers for and contributors to lies within the white, non-minority popula- rapid and impinge especially on poorAmerica, the country's future prospects tion. At the same time, the composition ofLatinos. will be dim. the labor force has been changing to in- Knowledge of these forces and theirBasics for addressing clude more women and ethnic minorities.affect on Latinos should allow develop- Soon. only six workers will support ment of improved pathways from poverty. Latino poverty each retired couple. down from the 1970sLatino numbers are growing rapidly. IfTo effectively address Latino poverty, it is figure of 30 workers per pair of retired schooling, relevant skills, and better jobsessential that the following four prominent people. One of these six workers will beare more available, the abilities of allissues be thoroughly understood. Latino. Latino workers. however, are likely Latinos will be strengthened to rise above Heterogeneity and identity to lag behind others in their educationalpoverty and to contribute to future attainment. Their children attend preschoolgenerations. Latinos are very distinct from populations at half the rate of non-Latino white chil-THE challenge of African. Asian. and Native-Americans. dren. In 1993. 30 percent of Latinos aged Since the advent of Affirmative Action 16 to 24the ones who should be mostfor a Latino pathway programs. the federal government has pre- productive when baby-boomers start retir- The challenge before us is NOT that Latinos vailed with the blanket concept of "His- ingwere high school dropouts. compared will be a growing presence in the workforce. panics," i.e. people who self-proclaim their with 10 percent of whites and 14 percent ofRather, the challenge is. will Latinos be origin or heritage as coming from the Latin Hacks. Despite recent increases. Latinosable to do the kind ofjohs the United States American region originally colonized by earned less than 4 percent of all under-needs most, and will they have the oppor-Spain and Portugal. As such, Latinos con- graduate. graduate. and initial professional tunity to prepare for the future? stitute a diverse collection of national and degrees. At risk is American competitive- Because the next generation of Ameri-racial origin stemming from Mexico. Cen- ness and the health of our retirement sys-can workers will include so many moretral and South America. and Spanish lan- tem. In terms of the countrys future. a Latinos, it will inevitably include a dispro-guage nations of the Caribbean. 2 1 20Western Wire Fall 1995 Non-Latinos tend to lump Latinos intoand Spanish heritage music, arts, etc.. canand with regard to non-Latinos. To a cer- broad-based programs for "Hispanics" andgenerate a Latino call to a common cause. tain degree Latinos are "cooperative sol- fail to treat serious conditions of povertyOther factors for unification are issues ofdiers" joining common causes like marches among significant Latino sub-groups, such family (familia). immigration, work ethic for the United Farmworkers or protests as Chicanos or Central American refugees,and coma anity (la comunidad). The fol- against discrimination. This sense of trust who experience more poverty on average lowing b sic traits offer a clearer under-or cooperation, however, is not always than, for example. Cuban Americans or standing of how these factors generate the understood or appreciated by non-Latino immigrants from South America. Lump- Latino identity. whites, so when a thin line of trust is broken ing all Latinos as Hispanic misses impor- between Latinos and non-Latinos, often tant sub-cultural traits. Latinos, for ex-Family values an .1 structures suspicion and non-cooperation results. A ample, include mixed blood African de- A recent book (Whr Prospers: How Cul- lie or a sense of distrust can destroy com- scendants whose ancestors were slaves on tural Values Shape Economic and Politi-mitment and interest among Latinos who the sugar plantations of Puerto Rico, Cuba, cal Success by Lawrence E. Harrison, awork with non-Latino groups. Although and the Dominican Republic; descendants former U.S. official in Central America,the degree of cooperation, or confianza. of Spaniards whose families intermarried Basic Books. 1992) notes that while strong may vary widely among Hispanics them- with American Indians; Chinese descen- Hispanic family values lead to what isselves, the knowledge that such feelings dants whose forebears went to Cuba andperhaps the world's most humane treat-exist in general should be factored into Central America as contract laborers; andment of the aged by subsequent genera-anti-poverty work with Latino poor. full blooded Native American Latinos, sus-:h tions. "The radius of trust and confidence Anti-poverty campaigns tend to focus as the Mixtecos of Mexico who speak Span exclusively on female-headed households, ish as a second language. Ethnic and cul 01r assuming that they constitute the core of tural differences affect the way Latinos IN TERMS OF THE COUNTRY'S persistent poor. To be sure, the poverty rate view social programs. among Latino female-headed households The Latino population also differs in FUTURE, A STRONG NATIONAL is critical. Almost 50 percent are poor. The terms of historical incorporation into the ECONOMY MAY DEPEND number of female heads of household in United States. Some Latinos' heritage dates poverty among Latinos increased more back several generations, preceding the ON A STRONG, THRIVING than among non-Latinos. However, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo of 1848. when IATINO COMMUNITY. largest share of the increase iu Latino pov- most of the southwest belonged to Mexico. AM1111 erty can be attributed to married couples. Other Latinos trace their family' s arrival in The poverty rate of families of Latino the United States to the post-Mexican Revo- ends with the family, and that means thatmarried couples was 18.5 percent in 1992. lution, to the beginning of the 20th Century the sense of community ends with thesix percentage points higher than in 1979. when many entered this country to takefamily. It leads to nepotism, corruption."Moreover. Latino married couples ac- jobs in mining. agriculture, and railroad Obviously we do not agree with this blan-counted for 49 percent of the total increase construction. Many rural Hispanics traceket description of Latino families. Under- in the number of poor Latino families dur- their U.S. roots to post World War 11 andstanding the heterogeneity of the Latinoing the 1980s. increasing in number from the recruitment programs of U.S. farmerspopulation should lead readers to discount 298.000 impoverished couples in I 979.10 for labor. Today. there are many first gen- Harrison's depiction. 680.000 in 1992. eration Hispanics (i.e. foreign born) who Nonetheless, psychologists, social sci- It is important to remember that Latino are recent immigrants. Various legacies entists, and some anthropologists ascribepoor are found in all types of households. create characteristic differences and eachto Latinos various shades of adherence to single female as well as married couple. group attaches distinct values to their per-certain family values. The traits most com- When it comes to addressing Latino pov- sonal identification as American. Thesemonly attributed to Latinos. as compared erty in general. whole families can be very differences in heritage help to explain whyto non-Latino whites, are: (a) allocentrisni, poor and just as needy as the female-headed Latinos prefer to be called variously as group-orientation. less individualism andLatina households. either Mexican-American, mejicano, competitiveness; (b) sympathetic. conge- Chicano. Cuban-American. cubano. nial. relatively respectful of the needs and immigrant status salvadoreno. raza. etc. behaviors of others; ( c ) familistic. showing To work effectively with Latino poor is to Diversity of heritage, however, doesa relatively strong attachment to and soli-understand how immigration and immi not necessarily preclude common experi-darity among extended families; and (d ) grant status are associated with Latino con- ences of poverty. Although Latinos are not social closeness, enjoyment of personal ditions. Immigrant status and questions of all alike and do not comprise a single, associations and close distance in conver- immigration are sensitive matters, calling nonolithic community in the United States, sation. tor an informed understanding of civil rights there are many situations when Latinos In addition to these traits, we would add and protective labor laws. rally together. The presence of Spanisha unique form of trust, or confianza. that Only a fraction of Latinos. albeit a sig- language materials, bilingual programs. Latinos experience between themselvesnificant fraction, are directly affected by

0 Western Wire Fall 1995 2 1 For more than a decade, three of every ten Latinos has been poor.

ciency, and work experience. Second, there immigrant status. That is, 36 percent of all earn less and have higher jobless rates than are the characteristics of the labor markets -Latinos were born outside the United States do earlier, postwar immigrants and U.S. within which workers must function. Third, or its territories. Two-thirds, the majority, natives. Educational attainment and En- there are differences in how workers are are native born or U.S. citizens by right ofglish fluency are important factors to the treated/hired by employers, referring to the birth. Of the 25 million Hispanics in the success of Latinos in the labor market. traditional discrimination against Latinos United States today, only about nine mil- In this decade. Latino poverty cannot be based on skin color, nationality or immi- lion are foreign born. Of these, approxi- separated from immigrant status because mately 30 percent of the forehm born are many foreign born Latinos are recent arriv-grant status. Such factors, of course. should naturalized U.S. citizens. When we talkals who carry the burden of under- andbe considered in anti-poverty campaigns. about Latinos as an immigrant population. unemployment, limited education, and in- These factors reflect two conflicting characteristics of Latinos. Latinos work we should not lose sight of the fact thatadequate proficiency in the English Ian- about 18.7 million Latinos (75 percent ) ofimage. But it is a mistake to say that Latino hard but do not earn enough to escape poverty. Latinos are concentrated in low- the total 25 million, are U.S. citizens. More- poverty is due to immigrants and illegal over, of the foreign born population ofaliens alone, when it is clear that the over- wage jobs with few fringe benefits or opportunities for employment security and Latinos who are not yet naturalized citi-whelming majority of domestic Latinos upward mobility. In either case. Latino zens, the overwhelming majority are leital are U.S. citizens who are also experiencing workers do not receive recognition for the residents, living and working in the Unitedunder- and unemployment as well as lim- work they do or adequate attention to their States as legitimate taxpayers. ited human capital development. work-related poverty. Mexican Americans. the largest ifroupWork ethic and of Latinos, currently bear the brunt of im- A necessary agenda migrant bashing in California. Only aboutlabor force participation A successful agenda for alleviating Latino 33 percent (out of 14 million) were born inNo government account can claim that poverty must reflect experience and in- Mexico: the rest, or 67 percent, were bornLatinos are lazy or inactive workers. On sights from virtually everyonefrom pub- in the United States. the contrary, with few exceptions, Latinos No wonder that attacks on Mexicanare the most active participants in thelic officials and private citizens, from government, business, and non-profit institu- immigrants in general, and related mea- American labor market, beginning employ- tions, and particularly from scholars and sures for English-only documents, are ral-ment at an early age and working well into the usual years of retirement. professionals. The agenda must increase lying cries for most Latinos. Attempts to educational opportunities for Latinos and force assimilation on Latinos are being met While studies of labor force participa- upgrade skills, improve worker productiv- with resistance. Instead of backing downtion show a general trend toward declining ity, social capital. health. and income of to California's Proposition 187, for ex-rates of people at work or looking for work, Latinos. The agenda must give strategic ample. Latinos are registering to vote in Latino men, especially Mexican men, con- importance to ethnic and cultural dimen- record numbers, applying for U.S. citizen- sistently present a higher rate of labor force sions. The problems Latinos face must be ship, and reinforcing their interests ini- participation than the non-Latino popula- addressed from a variety of angles. lingual education, multieulturalism, reform tion in general. Unfortunately, Latinos also of school curriculum. etc. The resistance spend a great deal of time unemployed and High school graduation rates does not include, however, resistance to looking for work, due in part to the precari- Latino schooling from K-12 and high school learning English or to working hard in theous nature of their employment in industries which provide few worker protec-graduation rates have recently improved, Ameriean economy. As highlighted in percentagesremain Latino Voices, a recent book by Latino tions or fringe benefits of employment andbutdrop-out health insurance. Consequently, the me-appallingly high, particularly in inner-city scholars ( Westview Press 1992) Latinos school systems and rural areas. After years prefer reading and watching news in the dian earnings for Latino males who work full-time year-round, have been less than of concerted effort to improve completion English media. rates, a large gap remains between the The driving force behind the increase ofthat for non-Latino white males. Latino rate of high school completion and the Latino population is immigration. In In 1991. the median earnings of His- panic males ($20,054) was about 63 per- the white rate. The black rate of high school fact, the Latino foreign-born population graduation is higher than that of Latinos. grew by 84 percent between 1980 andcent that of non-Latino white males In low income school districts, Latino 1990. while the native population of Latinos(S31.765). while the median earnings of Hispanic females ($17.124.) was about 78students receive an inadequate basic edu- grew by 31 percent. And 50 percent of the cation. including limited instruction in lan- Mexican foreign born came to the U.S.percent that of non-Latino females guage. mathematics, and science. 1_,MN in- between 1980 and 1990. Immigration flom ( S21.9301. Several factors may account for somecome districts are less equipped to meet other parts of Latin America also reached basic student needs. Often the scho( s are new highs during the 1980s. In short, im- of these trends and differences. First, there unable to teach English language to Sp in- migration is a growing phenomenon, even are the individual characteristics thatwork- ers bring with them to the labor market.ish speaking students. These difficulties among Latinos. The connection to Latino must be considered in a pathway forchange. poverty is simply that recent immigrantssuch as education, English language profi- 23

22Western Wire I111995

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End of long day picking themes, labor camp. Yakima.Washington. Photo 0 Ken Light. Teenage full employment academic promise must be Teenage unemploymentis a crippling prob- continued. Link- vide Latinos with lem for Latinos, ing future awards and better employment especially in the citiesand job opportunitiesopportunities in the changing rural areas, where with staying in andgraduating from high economy. the shortage of after-school is a promising school, weekend andsummer jobs sus- way to reduce theCollege attendanceand tains the poverty cycle drop-out rate for Latinos.It is certainlya professional development of the so-calledway to develop the educational underclass. Joblessnessprevents young pipelineCollege attendance for Latinos whowant to enter higher rates are lowest for Latinos from contributingto their family Hispanic-Americans. income and from setting education. but who lackthe income for Nationally, fewer aside money for schooling. than five percent ofHispanics attend col- other purposes, suchas future schooling. lege, and most of Idle teenagers To that end, the"pathway" agenda those are in two-year may come to see theshould pursue ways schools. The HispanicAssociation of Col- undergroundeconomy. welfare depen- to expand studentleges and Universities dency. or petty experience and incomes byassisting Latino (HACU) estimates or serious crime as their that its membershipof 120 campuses only real choices. This youth with scholarshipsand/or entry-level (out can be countered of 3,500 in theUnited States) enrolls by after-school and jobs, work-study, andinternships. With 50 summer jobs that helprelatively decent work percent of all Hispaniccollege students. teenagers contribute tofamily support. experience and in- HACU's membership build good work habits. come. associated schooling couldbe the consists primarily and that provide incentive for the economically of schools withmore than a 25 percent on-the-job training.Likewise, financial disadvan- Latino enrollment. In awards to students who taged Latino toprepare for the future. In other words. Latinos show considerable the process, higher are concentrated in a fewplaces. mostly in education wouldpro-community colleges.

?4 Western Wire Fall199523 low-paid workers will also affect Once in college, staying there can be Individual leadership sv en tougher for Latino students, who are consumer markets, local businesses, only half as likely as white non-Latinos toGradualiy. but too slowly. Latinos are oc- retailers, and providers of goods and finish college. Up to half leave as freshmencupying positions of influence and leader- services. Again, jobs will be or sophomores; the loss continues after- ship in government, business, and affected. ward at a somewhat slower rate. Too many academia. Leadership brings with it the Lower incomes and greater poverty do not transfer from community colleges added responsibility of setting an example. will add burdens to the public sector. to four year colleges and universities. Too It is a responsibility none of us can ignore. The Social Security system will he many stop schooling with only limited We must identify and motivate the gifted to placed at greater risk. vocational training and options for work. pursue higher education and leadership Finally, we car. expect more social Colleges, universities, and professional roles. Developing future leaders is an area and political tensions or more schools shapeAmerica' s future profession-which must always be improved. Latino passivity and reduced moral spirit. als, leaders, and role models and have a professionals (especially professors I should as witnessed today in Eastern responsibility to strengthen their efforts tohe encouraged by their supervisors to de- Europe. increase Latino recruitment, retention, and velop leadership. and maybe political skills. Leaders of the United States must real- graduation. State legislators must demand Without such leadership, our agendas will ize that, as disastrous as it sounds, the more cooperation between K-12 and uni- not be heard. worst case scenario could be the terrifying versity educators to improve the training reality in the years ahead. and preparation of Latino students. Two possibilities But there is another scenario, one of The current situation of impoverished promise. hope, and true opportunity. It Private and voluntary Latinos translates broadly into two pos- does not take a great deal of imagination to organizations sible scenarios: one bad, one good. Therealize that if Latinos wilt account for Because government initiatives fall shortworst case scenario could be catastrophicmuch of the growth in the workforce, they of reaching the poor. private and voluntary not only for Latinos, but for the country as will have a great opportunity to move ahead. organizations must join the cause of anti- a whole. As this scenario unfolds, leaders recognize poverty. Where such programs exist, they In this scenario, the nation is caughtthat technological and demographic must be extended to Latinos. unprepared by the major changes in the changes have created the absolute neces- If organizations can generate millions workforce and the international economy. sity to bring Latinos and other minorities of dollars for buildings, equipment, art, Government, academic, and corporate ef- into the mainstream of the U.S. workforce. etc. can't programs for Latino poor be forts to respond remain isolated and inad- Latinos are brought into higher educa- generated? Nearly all fund raising pro-equate. in effect, placing band aids overtion in greater numbers and achieve a keen grams of universities avoid campaigns forgaping wounds. As the wounds go un- sense of participation in the development Latinos. Worse yet. on hardly any cam-treated, infection sets in, and the patientof America. Latino youth are instilled with puses are Latinos in charge of working slowly deteriorates until there is no hope. a sense of competence and ability and are with private and voluntary organizations. In real life, those wounds take the form motivated to develop the skills to rise suc- Legislators should look into this situation.of desperate family lives, crumbling school cessfully to the challenges of international systems. soaring dropout rates, unemploy-competition. Corporate and ment, crime, and drug addiction. The in- In this scenario, higher education re- executive leadership fections are endemic hopelessness and vio-sponds to every rung of the education U.S. corporations. administrations, and biglence. despair and desolation. For many, ladder, to the employment needs of Latinos, businesses have, with few exceptions. been all hope truly is lost. If the unskilled are notand to the forces driving society. Higher less than successful in bringing Latinos trained, if steps are not taken to raise theeducation also manifests a clear commit- into executive and policymaking roles.abilities of growing numbers of today's ment to individual students. to our diverse Looked at another way. CEOs have beenyouth. we can expect the following conse- society, and to curiosity. creativity, and most successful in patenting unbreakable quences. culture. glass ceilings against Latinos. There at c. of Business and industry will lack During these troubling times of fiscal course, some firms and administrators with prepared workers in key industries pressure. a great deal of imagination and strong affirmative action records for entry- and regions. leadership is required to develop and level and middle management. Even there, It may he necessary to employ implement an agenda that will make the however. Latino administrators are under immigrants with the appropriate second scenario a reality. The challenge is represented. Any company or administra- skills, even if many U.S. workers to create a blueprint for investing in youth tion that eschews Latino leadership will be remain idle or unemployed. and in higher education. The legislature at riska a society where one-third of The nation's in iernational con ipeti- alone cannot implement such an agenda. consumers and workers will soon be non- five position may deteriorate. Too much is at stake in the economy. All white, and where up to one-third of all new resulting in a multiplier effect. sectors must he involved to make this workers will he black. Latino. or Asian. Larger numbers of under-employed, agenda a reality.J

24Westein Wite Fall 1995 s marriage thesolution? Thesingle-parentfamily and welfarereform by Janet M. Fitchen,deceased Associate Professor andChair, Department of Ithaca College Anthropology Professor Fiwhen wasa Center Associate with the Western Committee in 1992-93. This Rural Development Centerunder the auspices of the article originally appearedas Vol. 3, No. 1, of Community National Rural Studies published by Cornell Community Development: Research Briefs and Rural DevelopmentInstitute in January 1995. and Case Studies Poverty and single-parentfamilies Over one-fifth of the nation's children are living inpoverty, but recent public and political dialogue reform: What is tne singleparent family? Would single-parent has focused lesson thefamilies no longer need poverty than on the cost of providingwelfare for those children. public assistance if theirfemale heads The Clinton administra.:cm were to tnarry the fathers of their vowed to "end welfareas we know it.- children? and the debate over how to reform the welfare systemhas heated Researchamong up since the 1994 elections. Many proposals center on the issueofrural low income single-parenthood. Marriage-based families welfare reform is attractiveSingle parenthood is still because of its commonsense appeal: two earners less common among therural poor than are better than the urban poor. but it has become increasinglycommon, charac- one: two parents are terizing 39 percent of rural better than one. But poor households with childrenin 1987. Poverty analysts havefound that rural single-parent it overlooks thecorn- lies face a triple fami- poverty risk: they are more likelythan metropoli- plc ;ties of stucture tan single parent families to be poor. to be in deeppoverty, and to ark. mily dynam-stay poor for a longer time. ics, and oversimpli- fies the relationshipThe studyarea betweensingle- Upstate New York. though parenting and pov- neither the most isolatednor the poorest of rural areas. providesa useful research site for consid- erty. ering the appropriateness of various welfare-reformstrategies. I do not intend toBetween 1990 and 1992 I downplay the risks conducted field researchamong low- income families in thesame upstate rural communities for children growing had previously explored where I up in low-income poverty and other rural issues.This extensive field research includedan exploratory examination of families with onlysingle-parent families. one parent. nor the economic and socialMethodology costs society bearsI began by reviewing for these children. written records of schools,welfare depart- ments. community action agencies.and other publ c and private 4 Rather, my purposesocial agencies. then followed with interviews and focusgroup is to ask policy-rel- sessions with their staffs. Janet Fitehen studied rural These practitioners referredme to local poveny in the evant questions con-low-income families with whom western region during her tenureas cerning the core con- I conducted focusgroup sessions and 20 unstructuredin-depth interviews. Center Associate of the NationalRural cept underlying mar- Studies Committee. On the basis of this research.I designed a detailed riage-based welfarenaire on residential and question- household history thatwas used in

Western Wire Fall 199525 child support will be forthcoming only if the father has an adequate income

interviews with 40 additional low-income marital history. In age, the women rangedself-esteem and a sense of direction, and ...mothers. Analysis of the histories. from 17 to 43, half of them 26 and younger, may not yet be ready to sustain lasting supportedand augmented by the other half 27 and oldel . In marital history, nine of relationships with partners. interviews and by institutional data, raisesthe women had never been married and 21 Appropriate intervention strategies for some questions about the common were separated or divorced. Cross-tabulat-these women, as for those of Group !, conceptualization of single parenthood and ing age and marital variables sorts thesemight include personal and parenting de- the policy thrust to reduce welfare rolls byhouseholds into four distinct groups, andvelopment combined with greater child focusing on "the single-parent family.- suggests that a menu of different ameliora- support from the children's father( s). Edu- tive stratecies would be needed to reduce cation and employment training can be Synopsis of findings their reliance on public assistance. quite effective for these women although Group I: Young and never married they will continue to need partial welfare No overall aversion (n = 5) assistance until they can obtain an ad- to marriage Strategies: Integrated case management equate income on their own. Out of the questionnaire sample. fully one- to build personal maturity, Group HI: Older and never married fourth (ten women) were married and liv- effective parenting and (n = 4) ing with husbands at the time of interview. workplace preparation. Strategies: Training for employment Of the 30 who weren't, 70 percent (21 These women became mothers between which utilized nurturing women) had already been married, but age 17 and 21, are currently between17 tendencies. their marriages had not worked out. Thus.and 23. and have not yet married. Indi-These women, ages 27 to 35, represent an over three-fourths of the sample (31 of the vidual and group interviews revealed that ainteresting and quite distinct situation. They 40) had at least given marriage a try. paramount interest in their lives is theirhave lived with a series of men, and have relationship with men; but accompanying had sufficiently difficult partner experi- Similarities between single- life-history materials suggest that the rela- ences, or have observed such negative parent and two-parent families tionships they form tend to be unsatisfac- marriage experiences among friends and Personal and economic characteristics oftory, unstable, and short-lived. relatives, that they vow never to get mar- married and single women in the sample Policy initiatives to entice these women ried. They may still be attracted and attrac- are surprisingly similar. The women were into marrying their current boyfriends as a tive to men and may bear the children of a similarly distributed across the age rangerequirement for maintaining welfare ben-series of partners. They tend to see their of 17 to 44; average age at birth of the firstefits or obtaining benefits for their next main role in life as mother; and they appear child was 19; and they had approximately child would be unwise. Rather than en- to be warm, competent mothers, extending the same number of children: 2.4 children couraging dependence on a man as a routethis role to the children of relatives or per single mother as compared to 2.2 peroff of welfare, an integrated case manage- neighbors, or to foster children. married mother. ment approach is needed that will focus on For these women, training and certifi- The ten women who were married none-building personal maturity, effectivecation for employment that utilizes their theless reported household incomes nearparenting, and workplace preparation tonurturing tendencies, such as home day- or below the poverty line (a criterion forreduce the risk of long-term welfare de-care, para-professional classroom assis- inclusion in the study). Significantly, in pendency. tant, or care of the sick or elderly, would be each case the woman was the primaryGroup II:Young and separated or more appropriate than marriage incentives. earner in her family since the husband divorced (n = 10) Group IV: Older and separated or lacked stable or adequately paid employ-Strategies: Personal ar,d parenting divorced (n = I I ) ment. At least two of the husbands were riot development, child support Strategies: Assistance to minimize employ ed due to disabilities, a few were in from fathers, education and duration of poverty, such as part-time or seasonal work, two were low- employment training. New York' s Child Assis- paid farm laborers, and two were self-The women of this group married young. tance Program. employed in marginal or occasional work. either before or soon after having their firstThe women in this group, like those in In these cases, the determining factor in child, and are still in their early- and mid-Group II, had been married but they be- family poverty was clearly not single20s (21 to 26). Several now have, andcame single later in life and are currently parenting, hut low and unsteady earninr others are seeking, a replacement partner, between 29 and 43. A few had only become capacity of husbands. though not necessarily a husband. Three of poor after separation or divorce. Most view these 10 women have children by othertheir extrication from a bad marriage, usu- Differences among men than their former husbands, inaddi- ally after several attempts, as a very posi- single-parent families tion to one or more children from the tive change in their lives, stating emphati- A close look at the 30 cases in the sample marriage. As one might expect, these cally that leaving the marriage was the best that would usually be classified as "single- women voice skepticism aboutthe ben- thing that ever happened to them and their parent families- reveals significant varia-efits marriage would bring for themselveschildren, even if it threw them into or tion, primarily on the basis of age andand their children. Several appear to lackdeeper into poverty, because it freed them

26Western Wire Fall 1995 from a husband whohad been violent, alcoholic, or unable Assistance Program, the mothercan retain to keep a job. a larger share of her paycheck from bined with my extensivestudy of rural Over half of these em- women subsequently ployment while still receiving families and the weight ofother studies went back to school, earned assistance:suggests that we should question a GED or an food stamp benefitsare cashed out, paper- the wis- associate degree froma community col- dom of marriage-based work and caseworkare streamlined, and welfare reform. lege, or took job trainingto upgrade their If single-parenthood is the client has greateropportunity to make not a monolithic, employment options. Their undifferentiated phenomenon. long-term pros- her own decisionsas well as to take respon- and single- pects, with or without eventual parent families are actually quite marriage,sibility for theirconsequences. diverse, it appear strong, and would be enhancedby is doubtful that marriagewould be appro- timely and adequateassistance to mini-From flawed "explanation" priate for all or effectivein moving all mize the duration of theirpoverty and toto illusory "cure" families off welfare. cushion its effectson their children. Misdiagnosed problems andconcep- Policy recommendations An innovative New York"alternativetual muddles may lead to welfare" program being to inappropriate or piloted in se-ineffective policyresponses. Though theReducing birthrates lected counties may beparticularly appropriate for this group of sample described here isa small one, theamong single women women. In the Child in-depth nature of fieldresearchcorn- As many analysts havesuggested, welfare -AV"- policy should focus lesson increasing the 4 marriage rate of singlemothers and more ,r on reducing the birth rateamong women who have not yet married,especially ado- lescents. However,popular proposals to deny public assistance forchildren bom to non-mg, -led mothers on welfareand to mothers under age 18 wouldbe more puni- tive than preventive intheir effect. Reduc- ing pregnanciesamong unmarried teens requires a long-range effortthat would be comprehensive, intensive, andexpensi ve but in the longrun far more effective. Marriage may not endpoverty Before enticingwomen on AFDC to marry the fathers of theirchildren. N.X it is essential to know whether themen they might marry would actually bring aboutan economically uplifting effect. Asseveral poverty scholars have pointedout, the critical questions are: Who are themen in the marriage pool, and whatare their economic prospects? A look at the 30"single" mothers in this sample indicates thatmarriage to the current men in their livcs wouldnot likely lead them off welfareor out of poverty. This doubt is confirmedby looking at the economic situation of the10 married women in the sample. each of whomwas serving as her family'sprimary earner. For a woman receiving AFDCto marry an inadequate earnermay bring rather mini- mal economic improvementto the household. The policy implicationof this is that low and unsteady earningcapacity of Int n must also be addressedbeforeurging more marriages. Brenda with irr father, Alpine, Oregon. Photo 0 JamesCloutier

?8 Western Wire Fall 199527 Conceptual issues Child support Critique of the single-parent family as a category ofanalysis _requires jobs for men Full and regular payment of child support On the basis of these household histories and additional individual and group would lift many children off of welfare and interviews, I suggest that the widely accepted paradigm of "the single-parent above the poverty lineeven if not a single family" and the classification of families as either "two-parent" or "single- marriage took place. However, despite court parent" has four policy-relevant shortcomings. This orders and national legislation. child sup- I .It sets up a misleading contrast between the two opposed categories. port will be forthcoming only if the father exaggerates differences between poor households withunmarried mothers and has an adequate income: and so again, it is those with married mothers. essential to raise the ability of men to 2. It implies a uniformity among families within each cateaory. Thisglosses over obtain and keep good jobs. si2nificant differences among sinule-parent families in terms of family situation and household structure. Marriage can create problems 3. It lacks a temporal dimension. In so doing. it fails to capture thedynamic Household income should not be the only nature of family composition and partnering relationships overtime as house- criterion for assessing children's well-be- holds slide back and forth between having a single-parent. two resident parents, ing. Even in cases where marriage to the or one parent and a non-marital partner. child's father would lift a woman off wel- 4. It lacks a qualitative dimension. As a result, both the weaknessof many two- fare. it would not improve the child's well- parent hOmes and the stability and strength of some non-marital partner being if it leads to abuse and violence. relationships are obscured. and the quality of relationships children have with a Reducing welfare rolls by urging women mother's non-marital live-in partner is ignored. to marry absent fathers of their children These conceptual problems have real-life consequences. Programeligibility is could be inappropriate or harmful. often limited to single parents, but it is difficult to decide if anapplicant is "single," for example, in the common case of women on AFDC stilllegally Extended families are married but no longer living with their husbands, or women living with a long- an overlooked resource term non-marital partner. Many families do not fitthe overly simplistic classifica- Policy emphasis on the number of resident tion system, and the categories fail to reflect real-life complexities. parents derives from a nuclear family model, and totally overlooks the extended family from which many single women economies to level the playing field so that References derive housing, financial and social sup-rural single mothers are no more jeopar- Fitchen. Janet M. 1991. Endangered Spaces. port, and child care. It also denies ethnic dized than their urban counterparts? To lift Enduring Places: Change, Identity and diversity in family patterns. Rather than rural women and their children from pov- Survival in Rural America. Boulder. CO: ignoring the extended family, welfare re-erty, a more promising strategy than mar- Westview Press. form should encourage and strengthen theriage incentives already exists in the many Lichter. Daniel T. and David J. Eggebeen. support single mothers and their children local comprehensive employment training 1991. "Children Among the Rural Poor. may be able to derive from extended fam-programs and in new, broad-based educa- 1960-1990." Paper presented at the annual meetings of the rural Sociological Society, ily networks. tional opportunities for women on welfare. Ultimately, though, keeping single moth- Columbus. OH, August 1991. Looking beyond marriage ers and their children out of poverty re- Lichter, Daniel T.. Felicia B. LeClere, and Diane K. McLaughlin. 1991. "Local Focusing on marriage as a way to reduce quires strengthening the economy so that Marriage Markets and the Marital welfare rolls perpetuates a model of indi- adequate jobs are available for women and Behavior of Black and White Women." vidual or family deficit, and entirely misses for men. reducing the gender-based earn- American Journal of Sociology 16:843- systemic economic, racial-ethnic, andings gap, and providing more opportuni- 867. locational factors that contribute to theties for advancement above starting wage Ross. Peggy J. and Elizabeth S. Morrissey. arowing need for public assistance. Espe-levels. 1989. "Rural People in Poverty: Persistent cially in rural areas, weak employment Most scholars, policy-makers, and prac- Versus Temporary Poverty." In Proceed- opportunities may contribute more thantitioners agree that some form of public ings of National Rural Studies Committee. assistance will continue to be necessary. pp. 59-73. Corvallis. OR: Western Rural "weak family values" to rising welfare Development Center. rolls. and that the present system needs change; but beyond that, there is little consensus. Addressing rural needs On all sides, however, it must he recoy Because of weak economies, single-parent nized that a pro-marriage policy, or any families living in rural areas are even more other welfare reform. is no substitute for an likely to be poor than comparable urban anti-poverty policy.j The research repined here was supported by ( metropolitan ) families. The relevant ques- the Ford Foundation through the Aspen tion, then. is: What can be done in rural Institute's Rural Economic Policy Program. 29 28Western Wire Fall 1995 Employment hardship and rural minorities which compares to "only" 33.2 percent among central city blacks. In short, rural Native Americans. African Americans, and Latin Americans perennially.rank among the poorest of the poor. a fact that poverty researchers and policy makers often neglect. What is employment hardship? Economic deprivation in the United States is due largely to employment hardship of by Leif Jensen one sort or another. Employment hardship Department of Agricultural Economics is defined by both job quality and access to and Rural Sociology employment. First, for those who are fully The Pennsylvania State University employed, earnings vary widely in response This article is excerpted from an article of the same title which appeared in a special issue of to many factors such as occupation and The Review of Black Political Economy,Spring 1994, pp 125-144. labor market conditions. In particular, workers in certain occupations are known When people think about the eco- conducted by the U.S. Bureau of the Cen-to have higher poverty risks than others. nomic difficulties besetting sus. The first set of four bars shows poverty Second. poverty also is related to the de- racial and ethnic minorities inrates for (1) all individuals, (2) people gree of attachment to the labor force. Other the United States, they often visualize theliving outside metropolitan (metro) coun- things equal, those who are laid off or who plight of the ghetto poor in America's inner ties, (3) people living inside metro coun- endure cutbacks in the number of hours of cities. Recent research and media interest ties, and (4) that subset of metio residents work available will experience greater dep- in the so-called urban underclass has only living within central cities. Together, they rivation than those employed full-time, intensified this image and highlighted thetell a story familiar to many. Thefull-year. In both respects nonmetro mi- unmistakable links between race, class andnonmetropolitan poverty rate (15.9%) isnorities are worse off than either nonmetro poverty in urban America. It may come as much higher than that for all metro areas whites or central city minorities. a surprise that in many ways minorities in (12.1%), but is not as high as that among rural areas of the United States are at a central city residents (18.7%). Employment hardship greatest greater economic disadvantage than their The other sets of bars indicate povertyamong rural minorities counterparts in urban areas. rates separately for five basic race/ethnic Nonmetro minorities are especially likely Figure 1 shows the percent of Ameri-groups: whites. African Americans, His-to be sorted into what might be called cans with incomes below the official pov-panics, Native Americans, and all others"poverty prone occupations." These are erty threshold. It is based on data from the combined (mostly Asian). Glancing acrossoccupations whose full-time. full-year 1990 Current Population Survey (CPS)this graph also reveals another familiarworkers have above average poverty rates. story. The poverty ratesThey include such jobs as private house- Figure 1. Poverty rates for individuals by race/ethnicity and among African Ameri- residenc. 1989. hold service workers, food service work- cans (30.8%), Hispanicsers. and machine operators. Overall, about 11 (26.3%), and Nativeone third of full-time workers are in these Americans (22.9%) faroccupations, but within each race/ethnic exceed that for non-His-group, the percent in poverty prone occu- panic whites (8.4%). Per- pations is higher among nonmetro than haps surprising, however. central city workers. Nonmetro African 1) is that when these key Americans (67.7% ) and Hispanics (62.2% ) ao.r0 ifo I race and ethnic groups are are especially disadvantaged in this regard.

/FA I r considered separately, Underomployment.One broad approach to poverty rates are appre-employment hardship concerns access to le ciably higher in nonmetroadequately paying full-time. full-year em- I i r areas than in central cit- . ' . ployment in the first place. While the ma- 111 0 l ies. For example, the pov- jority of workers are adequately employed, 9 9 e 0.0 / di r city rate for nonnietrosome workers are said to be underem- 'Mo. A In. iii :I. aw Ii11. blacks is 40.0 percent Arn.:met. ployed. Teamically, the underemployed ( two out of every five include thoseout of work and actively I ,tAl 0Nonrnor..0 I Mal NOW DIwale ( entral Cow. nonnietro blacks live be- seeking a job (the unemployed ); those who lowthe poverty line), are out of work. would like a job. but have

Western Wire Fall 199529 the plight of the working poor is inescapablyrooted in the structure of the U.S. economy given up trying to find one (discouraged Prohletns with the human capital idea. there is a close association between workers): those who would like to workHuman capital theory can go only so far in children's perceptions of their life chances more hours if their employer had the hoursexplaining employment hardship among and how meritocratic they feel society is on ( involuntary part-time workers): and those rural minorities. First, this theory does notthe one hand, and how hard they try in whose full-time wages are insufficient to say much about the mechanisms that give school and the stability of their post-school- bring them much over the poverty thresh- rise to group-wide disadvantages in human ing employment on the other. Also, there old (the working poor). Underemployment capital endowments in the first place. Sec- appears to be a strong association between is more prevalent among minorities thanond, it also does not say much about why beliefs about local employment opportuni- among non-Hispanic whites, and issome groups, nonmetro women for ex-ties, feelings of self-efficacy, level of ef- especially severe among nonmetro minori- ample, get less in return for the humanfort, and labor force attachment. The im- ties (even in comparison to inner city capital endowments they do have. Finally,plication is clear. Rural minorities tend to minorities). human capital theory fails to account forbegin the game at an economic disadvan- The w(irking poor.Recent years have seen why. with human capital and other corre-tage, and tend to be at a disadvantage increasing popular alarm over the working lates of poverty controlled, racial and eth- throughout life for that reason. poor. In a country where lack of initiativenic minorities continue to have higher pov- Apart from the effects of disadvantaged and other personal deficiencies are com-erty rates than non-Hispanic whites. Incircumstances of birth, status attainment mon explanations for the existence of pov- short, it does not recognize the possibilitytheory and evidence helps identify points erty. the plight of the working poor isthat there are structural features of thein the achievement process where racial inescapably rooted in the structure of thelabor market and stratification system thatand ethnic discrimination can enter. Evi- U.S. economy. They are poor. but it is not work against people of color. Consequently. dence suggests that minority youth face all for a lack of trying. Figure 2 shows rates of the policy recommendations that evolve manner of biases, resulting in lower educa- working povertythe percent of full-time.tend to emphasize raising the human capi-tional attainment. With schooling com- full-year workers whose income is below tal of individual workers, and to ignore (ifpleted. discrimination may circumscribe 125 percent of the poverty line. Compared not council against) efforts to engineer the employment chances. A recent study shows to metro areas or their central cities, work-economy and society itself. that African Americans have lower socio- ing poverty is particularly prevalent in Status attainment, discrimination, and the economic status than whites partly be- nonmetro areas and is especially apparentlifecourse. Status attainment research holdscause, other things equal, they are more among nonmetro minorities. that an individual's socioeconomic statuslikely to experience underemployment. in adulthood is the result of a lifelongMany inner city employers avoid hiring Exp:aining the plight process. This process begins with the cir-African American workers fearing they of rural minorities cumstances of birth and then operatesmay lack good work habits, sufficient de- Rural minorities have less humancapita/.through such things as grades in school, votion to the firm, or adequate skills. Re- Human capital theory holds that the wageseducational and occupational aspirations, cent research shows that given a choice workers capture in the labor market arethe influence of significant others on these between an equally qualified white and determined in part by their value to em-aspirations. educational attainment, and black applicant, employers are significantly ployers. This value is reflected by the bundle the status of one's first job. Status attain- more likely to choose the white. The result of skillseducation, training, and work ment models have impor-Figure 2. Near-poerty rates among those employed full-time. experiencethat workers have to offer. tant implications for eth- full-year. 1990. Many studies have found a positive effect nic stratification and the of skills on income. intergenerational persis- According to human capital theory,tence of poverty among

wage differences between populationrural minorities. These 3) groups (e.g., between African Americansmodels specify how pov- and whites), should be traceable to gross erty in childhood can act human capital differences. Rural minori-as a detriment through- Li ties do have comparatively low levels ofout life. Research shows

human capital. The percent of individualsthat those with low status ) who have completed high school is lowerorigins are less likely to r among African Americans, Hispanics. andbe encouraged or ex- Native Americans than non-Hispanicpected by parents and whites, and minorities in nonmetro areasteachers to go on to col- are especially disadvantaged in this regard. lege, and they are less Ira) ! MI, . tal "%bitl. A f m:31) 1-i) :Dam: More sophisticated analyses of povertylikely themselves to as- A m.-D .:.)I A Dem-in indicate that these lower skill levels partly,pire to greater education but do not completely, explain the higheror occupational status. IN NA0 Nonmetn,Elfoul Metro0Irmdc Cam) Caw, poverty rates of non-whites. Other studies show that 3 t 30Western Wire Fall 1995 is a checkered work history that may be underemployment attest. racial and ethnic mum wage, for example, should be raised misconstrued by prospective employers as minorities have more limited access to to the point where full-time, full-year work- a lack of work commitment. Unemploy-well-paying work. Even in the best of cir-ers earn at least poverty-level wages. So ment and displacement seem to have long-cumstances, employment generation inthat this is not a one-time fix, the minimum term 'scarring' effects on labor market nonmetro areas is problematic, especially wage should also be indexed to inflation. prospects. Less research has examined if the goal is well-paying jobs. To attract By reducing their tax liability, an increase whether and how these processes operate new industries, nonmetro communities in the Earned Income Tax Credit also would in rural areas. compete with one another and must offerput more money in the pockets of workers. Economic segmentation: Dual labor mar- incentivessuch as tax breaks or infra- In addition to the obvious and immediate kets. Some researchers theorize that thestructure developmentthat can put thebenefits to the working poor, these mea- U.S. labor market has two identifiable and communities at risk. Once an enterprise sures could heighten aspirations and school distinct sectorsprimary and secondary moves in, the new jobs, particularly sala- achievement by providing realistic hope that differ by the set of occupations within ried positions, may not go to local residents. for all future workers. each. Jobs in the primary labor market are At a theoretical level, there is reason to Labor supply policies seek to get people characterized by high wages and job secu-believe rural places with high minorityworking by raising human capital and rity, good benefits, and ample opportuni-concentrations may be particularly disad- breaking down barriers to employment. To ties for advancement. Conversely, second- vantaged in their efforts to generate orhelp rural minorities, policies need to ad- ary labor market jobs have low wages and maintain local employment, in all likeli- dress the special problems that arise from poor benefits, are unstable and unskilled, hood they would have lower levels of bothrural residence and minority group status. and offer little chance for skill acquisitioninvestment and human capital and wouldFor example, policies need to address the or upward mobility (including movementtherefore have a harder time attracting new lack of public transportation systems and into the primary labor market). Figure 3economic enterprises or retaining existinginadequate day care facilities that typify shows that, compared to both metro work- ones. They may also have poor community many rural areas. ers generally and those in central cities,services, infi-astructure and other ameni- With respect to human capital develop- nonmetro workers are more likely to haveties in demand by firms. Regardless ofment several initiatives should be consid- secondary occupations. More important,economic concerns, some firms may pre- ered. Head Start programs prepare young- nonmetro Native, Hispanic and African fer to avoid locating in areas of high minor- sters for school and they can enhance aca- Americans are particularly likely to haveity concentration altogether. If true, thisdemic performance, reduce dropout rates, secondary jobsboth in comparison to scenario wouid lead to highly uneven pat- and improve ultimate employability. Un- whites and to their counterparts in more terns of economic development acrossfortunately, because Head Start is not a urban places. Those in secondary occupa-spacepatterns that are stratified alongnationwide entitlement program, it is un- tions are more than twice as likely to beracial and ethnic lines. Research showsavailable in many rural areas. Giving Head poor than those in the primary sector ( 1 1.6%that recent industrial restructuring in theStart entitlement status would dispropor- vs. 4.4%. respectively). southern United States typically resultedtionately benefit rural minority children. Factors affecting demand for labor: Un- in employment gains in predominantlyPolicies also need to address disparities even development. As the above data on white counties, and employment losses inacross rural and urban districts in their black counties. ability to support quality education. Mecha- Figure 3. Percent whose current or longest held occupation is in the lower tier of the secondary labor market nisms to channel state and federal funds to Research & policy disadvantaged school districts need to be

11 implications developed or enhanced. These monies Rural racial and ethnic should be used innovatively, for example. minorities are among theto help pay off the college loans of prom- 31 poorest of all Americans. ising young teachers who settle in rural To the extent that the na- areas: to provide incentives for high school tion feels this is a prob- completion (e.g.. college tuition assistance ): lem that deserves atten- or to develop education programs to retrain tion, government policiesadult workers. 3, will need to be compre- Discrimination did not end with the hensive and multifaceted. Civil Rights Movement. Evidence sug- First, because rural mi-gests that racial and ethnic minorities con- norities suffer dispropor- tinue to be treated unfairly in the pursuit of education and good jobs. More controver- It tionate employment hard- 1. Mgt A tn .t. t.11- 11 0' ship, they have more tosial but no less necessary, therefore, are Amen . A0,11..o gain from generic poli-preferential policies that offer rural racial

Ttctl 0 tvormtutt 0-1-0t.111ctst DImule I entral Cato cies to help thc low-in-and ethnic minoritiesspecial benefits. come worker. The mini-Rural minorities, for example, could be

32 Western Wire Fall 199531 The social scientist and rural America

Emery N. Castle, Professor Emeritus Oregon State University and Chair National Rural Studies Committee Excerpted from remarks made at the awards ceremony. Rural Sociological Society. August 19, 1995. Alexandria. Virginia.

Adecade ago I wrote an essay en- affairs. agricultural policy, natural resource also a sizable contingent of highly edu- titled "The Forgotten Hinterlands: and environmental policy, and monetary cated people around the countryside con- Rural America.1 My message was and fiscal policy. cerned with rural issues who are associated with non-governmental organizations. Not that rural America had been neglected in Before proceeding to my main mes- all of these people are contributing to the the scholarly literature. One consequence sage, it is appropriate to ask if there has scholarly literature but some are. was that we knew less than it would have been significant change in the described Even as public support for rural social been desirable to know about 97 percent of situation during the past decade. science has declined, there has been a heart- the nation s land and approximately one- On the discouraging side, institutional ening display of interest by the public fourth of its population. Another was that funding for rural social science research foundations in things rural. W. K. Kellogg, there was only a small cadre of people able and education has declined in common Ford, and the Northwest Area Foundation to contribute to debate and discussion about with support for scholarly work generally. the public policy issues affecting rural Neither has there been political support for provide examples. America. rural public policy initiatives during the Need for understanding When making this argument. I was re- past decade. spectful of the high quality research in the There have also been encouraging de- Despite these encouraging developments. Economic Research Service of the USDA. velopments. When there have been oppor- there has not been significant fundamental I was also familiar with the rural program tunities, the scholarly community has re- improvement in general understanding of then emerging at the Aspen Institute fi-sponded positively. As a result it is now rural America since 1985. Rural America nanced by the Ford Foundation. Nor was I easier to identify academics from a range is still thought of as being primarily agri- ignorant of excellent scholarship withinof disciplines who have done rural socialcultural and relatively homogeneous. It is rural sociology, agricultural economics, science work than it was a decade ago. also considered to be conservative politi- and geography. My argument was a rela- They are to be found in prestigious private cally, fundamentalist in religion, backward tive one. It was that rural America had been universities, in government, in public uni- educationally, and exploitative of the natu- neglected relative to such subjects as urban versities, and in four year colleges. There is ral environment. All of these conditions do

(Continued from previous page) targeted for retraining under the Job counter persisting discrimination in hiring, periods heighten awareness of the scarcity Opportunities and Basic Skills training pro- affirmative action policies should be of jobs and raise fears that targeted minor- gram under the 1988 Family Support Act. strengthened. In particular, the size-of-firm ity group members are shielded from the Also, affirmative action in education has threshold below which companies need vicissitudes of market forces and given been successful in the past and should not comply with affirmative action guide- unfair advantages in securing a job and remain a viable policy option. lines should be lowered to raise the pool ofpromotion. This brings us back to the issue of re- Of course. reducing racial and residen- eligible firms. This would be especially search. Evidence suggests there is greater tial differentials in education and constraints helpful in rural areas where average firm to labor force participation will do little size is smaller. As a last resort, perhaps the political support for preferential government programs that target minority groups good without commensurate concern forgovernment should consider a program increasing the demand for labor. The pre- providing stable work for at least povertyamong those who recognize the structural ceding discussion suggests several policy level wages to all able-bodied poor who barriers these groups face. Even those options. Incentives need to be offered to need a job. whites who express little or no traditional industries willing to locate in rural areas of To be sure, political support for a num- prejudice tend to rely on individualistic explanations for persisting race differences high minority concentration. These incen- ber of these measures is currently quite in economic status. Dissemination of sound tives could include federal and state-sup- limited and has tended to follow research results confirming these struc- porf1.1 infrastructure development and tax macroeconomic cycles. It is probably no tural barriers may serve to rekindle popular breaks. Programs need to be developed to coincidence that acrimony in the public provide low-cost start-up capital to entre- debate on governmental intervention strat- support for much needed legislation.j The author thanks Yoshimi Chitose for preneurs seeking to establish promising egies on behalf of minorities correspond assistance in producing the graphs. economic enterprises in these areas. To with periods of rising unemployment. These

32 Western Wire Fall 1995

tflek, %. 4110k Access to economic opportunity may be the greatest challenge over the coming decades. exist, but by no means universally so. tists and humanists need to communicatemore scholarly work about the country- As social scientists we know that ruraland learn from one another. It is conceiv- side. They believe the subject is too com- America changes rapidly, is diverse, isable one process will accommodate bothplex and amorphous to be amenable to non-agricultural and that it is connected in needs. But the needs are different and should scientific study. Others contend wjth the many places to, and interdependent with, not be confused. notion that improved understanding will urban places and international markets. Rural America is rife with numerous make it possible to better the human condi- Furthermore, we are usually quick to specialized interest groups. There are those tion. In other words, they question whether pounce on anyone who does not share this interested in rural health, rural education,the benefits of a better understanding will kind of understanding. and rural housing. There are small townjustify the effort. Even so, our research often suffers be-and city, other jurisdictional interests, and I do not resent such skeptics. Under the cause it fails to reflect these fundamentalparticular commodity interests as well. The best of circumstances research is a difficult characteristics. For example: more one thinks about the matter the longer undertaking. Powerful motivation is re- Rural America has never been a stablethe list becomes. Unless these interestsquired to call forth the sustained effort place even though some things changelearn from one another, and mutually en- necessary to produce useful results. Some more slowly there than elsewhere. Societ-large and modify their conceptions, it isresearchers are motivated by intellectual ies are on trajectories as they move throughdoubtful there will ever exist anything ap-curiosity and some are driven by a desire to time and rural places are dependent on the proaching a widespread, comprehensiveimprove the lot of rural people for reasons remainder of society in the adjustment they understanding and appreciation of this place of nostalgia. sentiment, or equity. can make. As economic and social change we call rural America. The emergence of But we need to look both more broadly occurs, the contribution of those placesCrossroads: An Assembly for Ruraland more deeply for motivation. Rural with relatively sparse populations andAmerica is a pioneering effort to addressAmerica is a part of the total society. And greater space change as well. This may this specific need. The idea here is to create we need to understand rural America so result in an exodus from rural areas, a newa new organization, an assembly, to fosterthat we can better understand and improve wave of immigrants or both. Externalcommunication among the many diversethe total society of which we are a part. change may become a kind of whiplashgroups interested in rural America. I am Access to economic opportunity may well with rural places at the end of the whip.delighted to announce on this occasion that be the greatest challenge our society will Rural areas adjust, adapt, and evolve. TheseWilliam Falk has agreed to lead an effort face over the coming decades. The techni- conditions make it hazardous for rural so- over the next several months to evaluate cal change which is transforming our soci- cial scientists to extract models from thethe feasibility of the Crossroads idea. ety will reward those who have access, past for desirable future adjustments. They Communication among representativescontrol, and understanding. Those who do need to use such concepts as equilibrium, of the rural social sciences and humanities not will likely become residual claimants sustainability, and determinism with greatis an important but distinct need as well.to economic opportunity, wealth, and in- care and precision. The Agriculture and Rural Economy unitcome. Access and control now tends to be A failure to account properly for rural within ERS/USDA historically has per-associated with the center of population. diversiTy may invalidate scientific gener- formed a great service in this respect. TheEven though some rural places are grow- alizations in two ways. If we fail to account Aspen-Ford program has also made a sig- ing in population it usually is because of for diversity when we sample. our gener-nificant contribution. And I like to thinktheir natural amenities or lower cost for alizations are likely to be incorrect. Butthe National Rural Studies Committee hassome service, such as retirement living. inferences will also be incorrect if diver-been useful. But the need continues forwaste disposal. or prison sites. Even though sity is not appreciated. The fact that no twosome entity to provide leadership in foster- they are experiencing population growth. places are identical means that change willing communication and stimulating schol- they may not be becoming better off. rela- affect all places differently. arly work. Budget cutting has weakened tively. More is involved here than distance Rural social science is preoccupiedthe rural social sciences in both the USDAand sparsity of population. but taking such with the performance of the extractive in- and the Land Grants. The National Ruralvariables into account will contribute to dustries. One would never guess that rural Studies Committee is now completing thebetter understanding of the general phe- America is predominately non-agricultural first major phase of its work and its future. nomena. And better understanding is the by looking at the program of many ruralor that of its successor organization, isonly hope we have for management and social science societies and associations. unclear. Crossroads, standing alone, maycontroW be unable to provide the necessary leader- 'Castle. Emery N. The Forgotten Hinter- Two needs ship but it is of great importance that lead- lands: Rural America. 1985. Annual Report Two needs stand out if rural America is toership be provided. Resources For the Future. Washington D.C. become better understood. One is that diverse rural interests need to know oneWhy study rural America? another and share perceptions and concep- Some of my friends believe I have beer. tions. The other is that rural social scien-misguided in my attempts to encourage

34 Western Wire Fall 199533 center projects: progress report

Business Retention & Expansion The Northwest Service Academy atof Soil Conservation Districts to coordi- --on the Oregon Coast Trout Lake will provide a team of 8-10 nate the program. Three pilot projects were In the Central Oregon coastal communities members to be trained by Cooperativeconducted durinc..oe summer in Cascade. of Douglas County, approximately one Extension. Department of Health, and pri-Payette, and Burley. fourth of the businesses rely on tourism for vate business professionals. These trained Home*A*Syst was adapted from 50 percent or more of their trade. A pro-volunteers will work with Extension per-Farm*A*Syst, a step by step worksheet for gram that teaches employees how to de- sonnel to help people on individual home-evaluating practices that effect water qual- liver quality customer service would be asteads complete the Farm & Home Waterity developed under the auspices of the great benefit to these firms. Suggestions Quality Assessments. The Yakima Nation North Central Regional Center for Rural like that are just what the Lower Umpquawill provide hydro-geologic expertise, as-Development. The four regional rural de- Business Retention and Expansion Tasksist in selecting areas to deliver the pro- velopment centers have been instrumental Force was looking for as a result of theirgram, and provide publicity. in hosting workshops around the country recent study. Farm*A*Syst consists of a series ofof what is now a national program sup- A total of 52 businesses completed aeasy, step-by-step worksheets for rankingported by the U.S. Department of Agricul- survey and interview conducted by theeach farmstead activity or structure that ture-Extension Service, the Soil Conserva- Lower Umpqua Economic Developmentcould create a risk ot' groundwater con- tion Service, and the U.S. Environmental Forum in cooperation with Oregon State tamination. It is designed to help farmersProtection Agency. For more information University Extension Service. Using ma-voluntarily assess and reduce groundwater contact Kent Foster, Home*A*Syst Project terials adapted for the western region un-contamination from farmstead activities.Specialist. (208) 338-5900. der the auspices of the Western Rural De-Other variables, such as soil, geologic and velopment Center. a team of four volun- hydrologic features are also rated and used Northwest Service Academy's teers interviewed business owners in Dou- to identify specific actions to protect drink- (AmeriCorps) acheivements glas County about local conditions thating water. The system can be used by foster success or create problems. As afarmers on their own or in consultationin first year result of the program, three firms requestedwith local experts and was developed in The Northwest Service Academy (NWSA) assistance with issues that related to theWisconsin and Minnesota with partial fund-created partnerships with more than 70 possible closure or relocation of their busi-ing from the North Central Regional Cen-local non profit community organizations, ness and 22 companies requested further ter for Rural Development. school districts, and agencies to help mobi- information and assistance. The four regional rural development1 ize in excess of 7,600 community The Lower Umpqua area was rated acenters have been instrumental in hostingvolunterrs to "get things done" in the Pa- good-to excellent place to conduct busi-workshops around the country of what is cific Northwest. Since September 1994, 90 ness by 58 percent of the people surveyed. now a national program supported by theAmeriCorps members of the NWSA have Reliable utility service, high quality water. U.S. Department of Agriculture-Extensiongiven more than 150,000 hours of service and good police and fire protection were Service, the Soil Conservation Service,to local activities in the Columbia Gorge among the most favorable aspects of theand the U.S. Environmental Protectionregion of Washington and Oregon. community, but lack of adequate housing Agency. The accompanying Home*A*Syst In the community, the NWSA: constitutes a major concern in the business program was developed to prevent pollu- Restored a section of Kelly Creek in community. Thanks to the R & E survey.tion by helping individuals identify high Gresham strategies to improve housing, public trans-risks in their rural homes and act to reduce Assisted with renovation of the portation, and other local facilities are part those risks. Andrea Lee Transitional Shelter for of the long range plan for economic devel- women and children leaving domestic opment in the county. violence Rural Idaho homeowners Built the first community showers protect drinking water for Columbia River tribal villagers Northwest Service Academy Help is on the way for rural homeowners in Organized and led NIKE sponsored assists Farm*A*Syst in Yakima Idaho who want to assess activities orbicycle rides with teams of grade school Nation conditions on their property that may ad-children from NE Portland neighbor- Groundwater education and protection isversely affect groundwater and drinking hoods the goal of a new generic version ofwater supplies. The new Idaho Home Helped build homes with Habitat for Farm*A*Syst/Home*A*Syst that will be*A*Syst program, recently launched byHumanity pilot tested in a cooperative effort of Wash- agricultural groups and state and federal Assisted with Project Second Wind, ington State University Cooperativeagencies. should reach statewide imple-Oregon Food Bank's canned food drive Extension. Region I 0 of the U. S. Environ- mentation by the end of this year. Constructed two handicap-acces- mental Protection Agency. the Yakima In- Its use will result in voluntary actions to sible neighborhood community gardens dian Nation, and the Northwest Service prevent water pollution. A project special- Went door to door in northeast Portland to educate 1,200 families about Academy ( AmeriCorps Volunteers). ist has been hired by the Idaho Association 3b 34 Western Wire Fall 1995 l, the dangers of lead poisonintt game in cooperation with the U.S. Forest National Rural Helped build four community Service for the Washington Park Zoo. Studies Committee playgrounds Eight hundred students played the game. For his outstanding contributions to the On national forest lands. NWSA teams: Fifteen hundred science students quality of rural life through teaching. Helped implement the President's visited the banks of the Salmon River research, institution building. and policy forest plan by obhterating logging roads. near Mt Hood to learn from AmeriCorps analysis and advisinit. Emery N. Castle gathering critical scientific data through members about watersheds, salmon, and was presented the Distinguished Service to snag analysis. surveying 465 miles of methods of data collection and analysis. Rural Life Award by the Rural Sociologi- forest roads, and revegetating hundreds NWSA members visited another cal Society (RSS) at their 1995 annual of acres of wildlife habitat 1.500 students in the classrooms and meeting. Planted more than 43,000 trees and taught subjects ranging from worm-bin Castle is the chair and founder of the shrubs to enhance salmon runs in two composting to tire ecology. National Rural Studies Committee (NRSC), national forests and one scenic area One hundredtennew NWSA funded by the W.K. Kellogg Foundation Fought the Wenatchee fire. the AmeriCorps members have begun a yearand the four regional rural development largest forest fire in Washington state of national service servin2 ten counties on centers to increase the attention of higher history. and assisted with subsequent both sides of the Columbia River in Or-education to issues of concern to rural restoration and flood control efforts egon and Washington. Thirty-five mem- America. The NRSC made substantial con- In the classrooms. NWSA members: bers are based at a residential center in tributions to the Task Force on Persistent With the students, nature-scaped the Trout Lake, Washington serving the mid- Rural Poverty. Also supported by the W. schoolyard of George Middle School in Columbia area and another 75 non residen- r. Kellogg Foundation and the regional northeast Portland to attract migratory, tial members serve the Portland-Vancouver rural development centers, which organize neotropical birds metropolitan area. NWSA AmeriCorps and conduct thePathways from Poverty Built a new community park and members are 18 years and older and com- workshops around the country, the Task nature trail for Floyd Light Middle mitted to one year of national service. In Force was formed to clarify the factors and School and its neighborhood return they receive a taxable living allow-dynamics of 5ociety that precipitate and With students of Shumway Middle ance of $163 per week (well below mini- perpetuate rural poverty. School in Vancouver. WA, cleaned up a mum wage), health insurance, child care Edwin Mills, Gary Rosenberg Profes- wetlands area which will be used as a and, at the end of their year of service, sor of Finance at Northwestern University living science laboratory $4,725 to pay off existing student loans or and a member of the National Rural Studies Developed a land management plan for further education. Committee. commented: "I suspect that for a 120 acre demonstration tree farm The Western Rural Development Cen- Emery's greatest contribution to rural south of Oregon City with students from ter was instrumental in obtaining the grant studies has been institutional...He is Binnsmead Middle School in North that funded creation of the Northwest Ser- genuinely an intellectual leader and en- Clackamas. OR vice Academy. WRDC administered the courages and inspires other workers with Developed the Salmon Life Cycle program durine its initial year of training. vision and understanding." conferences

Farm and Ranch Recreation $marter, Better, Faster... Montana, January, 1996 Milwaukee, Wisconsin Montana State University Extension has joined the state Depart- April 21-24, 1996 ment of Ag, Travel Montana. Tourism Countries, and the U.S. Hosted by the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater Continuing Small Business Admin to sponsor a full day workshop offering Education Program. the conference is aimed towards assistance information about opening farms and ranches to tourists. Six providers and support staff for home-based business owners. sessions in as many locations begin January 17 in Great Falls and Special focus areas for this third annual national home-based conclude February 2 in Poison. Business and marketing experts business conference are networking, regulatory and legal issues, will address subjects such as cash flow, feasibility analysis. and technology, resources, growth and transition. issues for physical business plans. Successful farmers and ranchers operating rec- disabilities, and counseling skills. For further infbrmation reation businesses will be on hand in the afternoon to talk about contact pertinent issues. For information about a workshop in your area National Home-based Business Conference and to register for a session, contact c/o Continuing Education Travel Montana University of Wisconsin-Whitewater 1424 9th Avenue Roseman 2005 Helena. Montana 59620 Whitewater. WI 53190 (406) 444-2654 (414)472-1917

36 Western Wire Fall 199535 ;t:4A4(le ta t , Akki'

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