How Gender Groups Respond to Training in Post-Harvest Loss Reduction of Cassava: a Mixed Methods Study of Dewein and Senjeh Districts in Bomi County, Liberia

How Gender Groups Respond to Training in Post-Harvest Loss Reduction of Cassava: A Mixed Methods Study of Dewein and Senjeh Districts in Bomi County, Liberia

Cheryl Angela Williams, B.A., M.A.,

A Dissertation

Agricultural Communications and Education

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Approved

Dr. Amy E. Boren Alpizar Chair of Committee

Dr. Matt Baker

Dr. David E. Lawver

Dr. Charlotte Dunham

Mark Sheridan Dean of the Graduate School

December 2018 Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This material is based upon work supported by the United States Agency for International

Development, as part of the Feed the Future Initiative, under the CGIAR Fund, award number BFS-11-00002, and the predecessor Fund the Food Security and Crisis

Mitigation II grant, award number EEM-G-00-04-00013.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... ii ABSTRACT ...... iii LIST OF TABLES ...... ix LIST OF FIGURES ...... x CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Overview ...... 1 Purpose of the Study ...... 7 Statement of the Problem ...... 7 Specific Objectives ...... 8 Research Questions ...... 9 Delimitation of the Study ………………………………………………………… …10 Limitation of the Study……………………………………………………………… 10 Significance of the Study ...... 11 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 12 Overview …………………………………………………………………………….12 The Production and Utilization of Cassava ...... 12 Post-harvest Losses of Cassava ...... 14 Cassava Storage Techniques ...... 15 Extension Workers and Training of Farmers ...... 17 Gendered Roles in Agriculture ...... 18 Gender Disaggregated Approach in Agriculture ...... 20 Conceptual Framework ...... 20 Perceived Behavioral Control...... 22 Attitude toward the Behavior...... 23 Subjective Norms ...... 23 Intentions...... 23 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ...... 25 Overiew ...……………………………………………………………………………25 Research Design ...... 25 Research Ethics ...... 26

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Enumerator Selection and Training ...... 26 Qualitative Phase …...... 27 FGD preparation in Dewein & Senjeh Districts ...... 33 Prepartion for Individual Interviews…………………………………………….. 36 Standards of Rigor………………………………………………………………. 39 Training Manual ……………………………………………………………………. 40 Gender-disaggregated Training of Farmers ……………………………………. 41 Quantitaative Phase ………………………………………………………………… 41 Target Population and Sampling Population……………………………………. 43 Control of Error ………………………………………………………………….45 CHAPTER IV QUALITATIVE FINDINGS ...... 46 Overview ...... 46 Part I ...... 47 Emerging Themes from FGDs in Senjeh District ...... 47 Cassava cuttings theme...... 47 Durable farming tools...... 48 Training Theme...... 49 Commercialization Theme...... 51 Gender theme...... 52 Emerging Themes from the FGDs in Dewein...... 54 Marketing Theme...... 54 Needs Theme...... 55 Group Formation Theme...... 59 Gender Roles Theme...... 63 Storage Theme...... 67 Conclusion ...... 68 PART II...... 69 Emerging Themes from Individual Interviews ...... 69 Cassava Loss Theme...... 69 Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services Theme...... 70 Knowledge Transfer Theme...... 72 Gender Theme...... 74 Connection between themes from FGD and Interviews ...... 78

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Qualitative ...... 81 Research Question I...... 81 Research Question II ……………………………………………………………………82 Summary ...... 83 CHAPTER V QUANTITATIVE FINDINGS ...... 84 Overview ...... 84 Quantitative Results ...... 84 Testing of Assumptions ...... 85 Objective 1 ………………………………………………………………………86 Grand Mean of Constructs ...... 98 Reliabiity Test ...... 98 Attitude toward the Training ...... 99 Intentions toward Adoption …………………………………………………….100 Subjective Norms ………………..……………………………………………...101 MANOVA Tests .…………………………………………………………………. 102 MANOVA Results ...... 103 Conclusion ...... 104 CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION ...... 104 Overview……………………………………………………………………………106 Key Findings ……………………………………………………………………… 104 Research Question I ...... 104 Research Question II ...... 104 Agricultural Labor ...... 104 Agricultural Extension and Advisory Service Delivery ...... 104 Gender Inequalities ...... 104 Research Questions III to V ...... 104 Farmer's Desperate Need for AEAS ...... 104 The Need to Improve Agricultural Livelihoods and Poverty……………………..118 Discussion …………………………………………………………………………119 Recommendations ………………………………………………………………….121 Recommendations for Future Research ……………………………………………. 121 Recommendations for Agricultural Extension ……………………………………..123 Recommendations for Policy ………………………………………………….. 124 Limitations …………………………………………………………………...... 125

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References ………………………………………………………………………….127 APPENDICES ...... 127 A - IRB APPROVAL LETTER (PHASE I)……………………………………………141 B - FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS…………………………………………...... 143 C - INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEW QUESTIONS……………………………………….144 D - IRB APPROVAL LETTER (PHASE 2)………………………………………….. 145 E - LETTER TO CONDUCT RESEARCH …………………………………………..147 F - QUANTITATIVE TRAINING INSTRUMENT …………………………………..148 G - TRAINING MANUAL ……………………………………………………………161 H - INFORMATION SHEET AND ADULT CONSENT FORM……………………..178

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ABSTRACT

Globally, food losses from farm to market and production sites due to poor management in developing countries are contributing to increase in hunger. Post-harvest loss of major staples are experienced in the whole world and concerns on the topic are mounting. Cassava is a second staple crop in Liberia that is widely consumed in all 15 counties. The purpose of this study is to qualitatively understand the gender dimensions of post-harvest practices in Senjeh and Dewein Districts, Bomi County Liberia and to quantitatively understand how male and female farmers are being influenced to adapt the strategies and techniques of PHL reduction taught in a training; using the psychological constructs – attitude, subjective norms and intentions of Ajzen’s Theory of Planned

Behavior. Farmers were trained in gender-disaggregated training groups of male, female and mixed gender. The test of MANOVA was used to assess the statistical differences in the psychological constructs of farmers in their respective groups. The results indicate no-statistical differences, but farmers attitudes, subjective norms and intentions were positive to adopting the techniques. The training manual developed will benefit cassava producers nationwide.

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LIST OF TABLES 3.1. Summary of Qualitative Data Participants ……………………………………...34

3.2. Standards of Rigor in Mixed Methods Research……………...... 43

5.1. Correlation Coefficients for relations between

The three Dependent Variables……………………………………………………85

5.2. Summary of Participants Education…………………………… ………………..87

5.3. Summary of Participants Livelihoods……………………………. ………………..89

5.4. Summary of the Head of Household Status…………………….. ………………..90

5.5. Land Acquisition Methods of Male and Female

Participants…………………………………………………………………….... 91

5.6. Participants Pre-Training in Harvest and Storage

Techniques………………………………………………………………………. 93

5.7. Summary of Participants Post-Training Knowledge………...... 94

5.8. Summary of Participants Post-Training Knowledge by Gender…………………95

5.9. Summary of Participants Perception of Climate in their respective Gender Training Groups……………………………………….. 96 5.10. Summary of Participants Perceived Behavioral Control in their Training Groups…………………………………...... 97

5.11. Descriptive Statistics on Reliability……………………………...... 99

5.12. Levene’s Test of Equality of Variances for Dependent Variables…………………………………………………………………102

5.13. Mean and Standard Deviation Scores for Measures of the TPB as a function of Gender Training groups of Cassava Farmers…………………………………………….103

5.14. MANOVA Tests for Significant Differences in Dependent Variables …………………………………………...104

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. The Theory of Planned Behavior ………………………………………..22

Figure 3.1. Outline of the Study……………………………………………...... 26

Figure 3.2. Map of Bomi with the Map of Liberia insert…………………………….28

Figure 3.3. Organizational Chart of Actors that facilitated the FGDs……………….30

Figure 4.1. Connection between FGDs and Interview Themes…………...…………80

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Overview

The task to feed the world’s growing population which is projected to reach nine billion in 2050 is a serious challenge for global actors in agriculture research, policy and development (Parfitt, Barthel & Macnaughton, 2010). Though significant strides are being taken to meet this global challenge and increase food production by a remarkable margin, important issues of food loss and food waste, which play vital roles in hunger eradication are most times forgotten (Hodges, Buzby & Bennett, 2011). Globally, food losses from farm to market and production sites due to poor handling and limited infrastructural development in developing countries are contributing to increase in hunger.

Post-harvest losses of major staples are experienced in the whole world and concerns on the topic are mounting. The fight against hunger should be focused on crop losses (FAO, 2011) and food waste. Food loss and awareness of post-harvest losses was brought into global focus after the food crisis in the mid 1970s when the United Nations introduced the topic (World Bank, 2011). Food loss is experienced throughout the supply chain and affects both farmers and consumers. A recent FAO (2011) report on global food loss and waste indicate, “roughly one third of the edible parts of food produced for human consumption, gets lost or wasted globally, which is about 1.3 billion tons per year.” (p.4). Globally, 30-40% of crops are lost because of post-harvest losses; though some of the loss and waste happens during production, processing and distribution stage of agriculture (Adepoju, 2014; Meena, Kumar, Singh & Meena, 2009). This high

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percentage of crop loss is crippling agriculture in developing nations where the reliance on the sector is huge.

Agriculture in developing countries, remains the main source of employment, livelihood and income for 50% - 90% of the population (Kwa, 2001). Farmers play major roles in producing food, reducing hunger, enhancing food security as they make up 70 –

95% of the farming population (Kwa, 2001) in developing nations. These smallholder farmers mainly reside in rural areas, which is home to 75% of the poor population in developing countries (FAO, n.d). Post-harvest loss reduction strategies will be a major solution to reducing hunger, increasing food security and enhancing livelihoods of small- scale farmers in rural areas of developing nations (Kumar & Kalita, 2017 & Pearcy,

‘2011). This will be achieved when knowledge transfer from extension workers to farmers is prioritized.

Knowledge in agricultural innovations is important to build farmers’ capacity and develop their skills to upgrade their farms for improved productivity. It is vital for farmers to obtain agricultural knowledge to develop their capacities and improve their livelihood for increase in productivity (Pratiwi & Suzuki, 2017). The combination of sustainable technological products, changes and improved farming practices are key to increasing agricultural productivity, development and economic growth and improving food security (Kassie et al., 2013; Teklewold, Kassie & Shiferaw, 2013; Asfaw, Kassie,

Simtowe & Lipper, 2012).

Training of farmers should be a major focus of agricultural extension agents to ensure knowledge transfer. However, the lack of sufficient investment or concern from extension practitioners to empower farmers discourages them from adopting new

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams practices (Pearcy, 2011; McCown 2002). Barriers to farmers receiving knowledge on methods of farming to enhance their livelihood are related to a lack of understanding and concern about issues that promote the adoption of new strategies (Nyasimi, Kimeli,

Sayula, Radeny, Kinyangi & Mungai, 2017). Information flow from agricultural researchers to farmers through extension agents can tackle challenges in the sector and help farmers develop the needed techniques to produce high quality crops and reduce losses after harvest.

Several approaches have been employed by agricultural practitioners aimed at reducing food losses after harvest. These methods have ranged from training of farmers to adopt new technologies (Stewart, Langer, Da Silva & Muchiri, 2016), to integrated pest management strategies (Harris, Norton, Karim, Alwang & Taylor, 2013), livestock development (Ampaire & Rothschild, 2010), improved agricultural production (Ahmad,

Jadon, Ahmad & Khan, 2007), fertilizer and pesticide use (Pan, Kong, Zhang & Ying,

2017; Sabur & Molla, 2001), and post-harvest loss reduction (Abass, Ndunguru, Mamiro,

Alenkhe, Mlingi & Bekunda, 2014; Parfitt, Barthel, & Macnaughton, 2010). Training sessions are important aspects of knowledge transfer and can be conducted theoretically in conferences or training centers; or practically in farms and demonstration sites, sessions and field visits (Ampaire & Rothschild, 2010), all aimed at educating farmers on adoption of new techniques to enhance productivity. Training is one of the main requirements for agriculture development and improved productivity, especially in developing regions.

Agriculture represents one of the major economic developments in Sub-Saharan

African countries. It constitutes the major source of livelihood and important sources of

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams employment for the majority in the region (Fon & Edokat, 2012). Women play key roles in addressing dire issues in agricultural development, which puts them in important positions in the agriculture sector (Ogunlela & Mukhtar, 2009). Studies indicate that women are mostly active in small-scale farming and they operate with fewer purchased inputs [State of Food and Agriculture, 2016; (SOFA) & Doss, 2011]. Women’s contribution to the agricultural labor force puts them in key positions of ensuring economic growth, food security and nutrition in developing countries (FAO, 2015). They make up about 43% of the agricultural labor force in developing countries, with 20% in

Latin America 50% in East and Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa; though the rate may be higher in some countries (FAO, 2011).

These women are the primary players in agriculture where they spend most of their time engaging in farm work at every stage of the agriculture labor chain, whilst fulfilling their regular household care duties (Mukasa & Salami, 2016). Yet, despite women’s dominant role in agriculture, gender inequalities limit their access to needed information (Akter, Rutsaert, Luis, Htwe, San, Raharjo, Pustika, 2017) vital to improving their livelihoods. These inequalities range from land constraints, limited access to credit facilities, information, and to advisory and extension services (Mukasa & Salami, 2016).

Studies have shown that farmer training is an important tool widely utilized by development programs in developing countries (Ampaire & Rothschild, 2010,

Birkhaeuser, Eversen, & Feder, 1991). Agricultural extension services, particularly in

Sub-Saharan Africa are primarily directed at programs developed for men (Odebode,

2012). Agricultural inputs are provided to men, leaving women excluded from extension advice, training, and credit (Cohen & Lamma, 2011).

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Women in Liberia comprise over half of the agriculture labor force; the sector that employs most of the population, in smallholder agriculture, and are reported to produce over half of the output in food crops (Benefica, Ofosu-Amaah, & Tehmeh, 2010). These small-scale farmers play a major role in reducing hunger and food insecurity in developing countries and increasing attention is being given to them to ensure the food and nutrition security of the continent. In Sub-Saharan Africa, agriculture accounts for

21% of the continent’s GDP and women constitute 60-80% of the labor force to produce food both for household consumption and for commercialization (Palacios-Lopez,

Christiaensen & Kilic, 2017).

In Liberia, female farmers who produce the majority of food crops have limited access to cash crops; and their role as food crop producers ensures national food security and reduces household hunger (Benefica, et al, 2010). About two-thirds of the country’s population, mostly female-headed (78%) households, grows rice (Benefica, et al, 2010), the country’s major staple. Cassava is the second staple food in Liberia, and its production is dominated by more than 62% of female-headed households (GOL, 2010).

Numerous constraints to women’s rights in agriculture include limited access to cash crop farming, seeds, farming tools, credit facilities and training, despite the fact that they produce over 60% of the agricultural output (Benefica, et al, 2010). The

Government of Liberia, through the Ministry of Agriculture, established a gender and social development division within the ministry; and developed a gender policy to address the inequalities in Liberia’s agriculture sector by finding strategies to mainstream gender issues in the programs and activities of the ministry (MOA, 2012). Agricultural development programs and projects in the country are targeting gender mainstreaming

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams issues and are mandated to allocate 40% ratio of female farmer beneficiaries (in accordance with the United Nations resolution on gender equality in programs and projects) in the sector, mostly for Liberian farmers growing major food crops like rice, cassava and vegetables.

Cassava is a tuberous crop that is drought-tolerant and suitable for tropical climates; it is grown in developing countries where it is a major staple of the poor populations and where severe cases of undernutrition are rife (Montagnac, Davis &

Tanumihardjo, 2009). It is being explored as a potential biofuel crop in countries like

China and Thailand (Uchechukwu-Agua, Caleb & Opara, 2015, Zidenga, Leyva-

Guerrero, Moon, Siritunga & Sayre. 2012). Cassava is the second most consumed staple food crop in Liberia; grown in every region, it is an important income-generating crop that guarantees food for poor rural households [Government of Liberia (GoL), 2010]. It is considered a woman’s crop because women primarily perform all activities relating to cassava production and sale; from planting and tending fields to harvest, processing and marketing (UNIFEM, n.d). Liberia places high importance on cassava due to its propensity to reduce poverty among farmers and ensure food security, especially in rural

Liberia.

The drought-resistant crop contributes significantly to the empowerment of women who make up the majority of small-holder producers and carry out over 80% of trading activities in rural areas (GOL, 2010). The Agriculture Coordination Committee

(ACC) under the Agricultural Sector Coordination division in the Ministry of Agriculture is a public-private body, established to coordinate stakeholders in the sector. The committee formed a cassava-sector working group that developed the Liberia cassava

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams strategy aimed at empowering small-holder farmer organizations and fostering an entrepreneurship mindset among others (GOL, 2010). Cassava is extensively grown in every region of Liberia, but poor infrastructure and limited knowledge of post-harvest management techniques result in huge rates of loss, owing to the naturally occurring cyanide, which speeds the deterioration process of the tubers (UNIFEM n.d).

Purpose of the Study

The skills of farmers are enhanced through training to improve agricultural productivity, whilst enhancing food security and reducing hunger. The study aims to understand how male and female farmers are being influenced to adapt the techniques of

PHL reduction taught in the training; using the psychological constructs – attitude, subjective norms and intentions of Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior. The study will provide an understanding of the factors that guide farmers farmers’ psychological constructs in adopting an innovation.

Statement of the Problem

The African agricultural sector possesses untapped potential that can be beneficial to the continent when training programs to introduce new agricultural technologies are provided (Stewart, Langer, Da Silva & Muchiri, 2016). These trainings have mostly concentrated on technical issues, paying little attention to the psychological constructs that affect farmers’ decisions and behavior such as intention, perception and beliefs

(Borges, Lansink, Ribeiro & Lutke, 2014).

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A farmer’s decision to adopt an innovation is closely related to his/her cultural beliefs, attitude to the innovation and ties to their community; that dictate their positive or negative reaction to the goal (Ajzen, 2011). Training farmers in different gender groups to determine their adoption of an innovation is pertinent to addressing the problem of post-harvest loss reduction of cassava. Because of the patriarchal system in Liberia, coupled with cultural and indigenous norms, trainings for farmers are mainly targeted at males; though women participate in agriculture trainings, patriarchy and societal norms may hinder them from contributing to the sessions in the presence of men (Manfre,

Rubin, Allen, Summerfield, Colverson, and Akeredolu, 2013).

A serious problem affecting African agricultural extension systems is limited understanding of farmers’ psychiological constructs in determining whether or not to adopt an innovation. The process of assessing farmers’ attitudes and subjective norms which influences their intentions to acceping or rejecting to adopt an innovation, is key to understanding their decisions. According to Borges et al. (2014), TPB is a socio- psychological theory that is appropriate to understand farmers’ decisions and behavior, especially when those decisions are related to adopting a behavior.

Agricultural trainings are limited and when available, continuation and follow-ups are scarce; also, agents concentrate on impacting knowledge, paying little or no attention to farmers’ psysiological constructions.

Specific Objectives

The objectives that guided the study are:

1. Describe the demographic characteristics of the sample in Senjeh and Dewein

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District, Bomi County.

2. Describe the gender dimensions of post-harvest practices in cassava

production.

3. Determine whether there is a statistically significant difference in male,

female and mixed gender group of farmers’ attitudes towards adopting harvest

and storage training techniques to reduce post-harvest loss of cassava.

4. Determine whether there is a statistically significant difference in male,

female and mixed gender group of farmers’ intention to adopt harvest and

storage training techniques to reduce post-harvest loss of cassava.

5. Determine whether there is a statistically significant difference in male,

female and mixed gender group of farmers’ subjective norms to adopt harvest

and storage training techniques to reduce post-harvest loss of cassava.

Research Questions

1. What are the demographic characteristics of cassava farmers in Senjeh and

Dewein Districts?

2. What are the gender dimensions of post-harvest practices in cassava production?

3. What are the differences in male, female and mixed gender groups of farmers’

attitudes to adopt harvest and storage training techniques to reduce post-harvest

loss of cassava?

4. What are the differences in male, female and mixed gender groups farmers’

intention to adopt harvest and storage training techniques to reduce post-harvest

loss of cassava?

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5. What are the differences in male, female and mixed gender groups farmers’

subjective norms to adopt harvest and storage training techniques to reduce post-

harvest loss of cassava?

Delimitations of the Study

This study took a gendered approach to training farmers and is confined to two of four districts in one of 15 counties – Bomi, in Liberia. Study participants are limited to a calculated sample size of cassava producers in the districts of Senjeh and Dewein. The

Likert-style questions, which were administered to the participants in this study, are close-ended to streamline data collection methods.

Limitation of the Study

This study focused on smallholder producers of cassava in Senjeh and Dewein

District, Bomi County Liberia and is not generalizable to populations in other areas. The focus on cassava instead of other crops also limits the generalizability of the results. The time required to conduct the research and the high cost of data collection were also limitations to this study.

Assumptions of the Study

The following assumptions were made by the researcher in relation to the study:

1. The researcher assumed participants will provide honest and accurate answers to

the survey instruments.

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2. Participants in the study will be representative of cassava farmers in Bomi

County.

Significance of the Study

It is important to understand the psychological factors that determine a farmer’s decisions (Pearcy, 2011). Knowing the differences between male, female and mixed gender group of farmers’ attitudes, subjective norms and intentions to adopt techniques in harvest and storage of cassava for post-harvest loss reduction is key to achieving loss reduction of cassava. This will enable future studies in adoption of innovation for enhanced agricultural productivity to consider the importance of psychological constructs in farmers’ decision-making process.

Understanding the importance of a gender disaggregated approach in training to target the different gender groups is vital to addressing post-harvest loss reduction of a major staple. To understand how their attitudes, subjective norms and intentions correlate to adopt an innovation is necessary to ensure that post-harvest loss of cassava is reduced in Bomi County, Liberia. Results and recommendations from the study will help key actors in Liberia’s agriculture sector tailor effective training materials in the future.

Additionally, they could tailor their educational initiatives to be more cost effective by focusing on understanding methods that encourage the producers to adopt the new farming practices (Pearcy, 2011).

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Overview

The literature review for this study consists of review of documents on cassava production and post-harvest loss, extension workers and training of farmers in Liberia and gender-disaggregated approach in agriculture. Literature on the theory of planned behavior (TPB), gender issues in agriculture, cassava as a major staple in Liberia and the importance of post-harvest loss reduction will be presented in this chapter.

The Production and Utilization of Cassava

Many developing countries depend on root and tuberous crops for staples as they contain starch which, according to Chandrasekara & Kumar (2016) “are a substantial part of the world’s food supply and are also an important source of animal feed and processed products for human consumption and industrial use (p.1.).

Studies indicate that cassava originated in Latin America – Brazil and Bolivia to be precise and is considered one of the major crops that produce carbohydrates (FAO,

2013). Otherwise known as yucca, manioc, Brazilian arrowroot and tapioca (Manihot esculenta), cassava is according to Onyenwoke and Simonyan (2014) “a perennial woody shrub with an edible root which grows in tropical and subtropical areas of the world

(p.3853).

Cassava is being used differently in various regions; in Asia, South America and

Africa, the product is used by the poor who cultivate the crop because it provides a main source of calories for their families. About 88% of the cassava produced in Africa is used

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams for human consumption with more than 50% of the product processed (Westby, 2002).

The tuber is processed by drying, to make dipper, grating and frying to produce garri, and peeling and fermentation to make foofoo (fufu),. The cyanide can also be extracted and milled into flour to make bread and other pasteries. The leaves are popularly prepared with palm oil or vegetable oil and fish, meat or chicken and eaten with rice in many African countries. The tubers can also be boiled, roasted and eaten with butter, peanuts, gravy or palm oil or fried in vegetable oil. In Liberia, cassava is eaten raw with coconuts.

Cassava grows well in drought-prone areas and, because of its perenniality, harvesting can be done between the period of eight to 12 months. However, Onyenwoke and Simonyan (2014) state “if left longer than the optimal harvest time, another negative effect will occur due to the extensive in-field storage of cassava roots” (p. 3858). The delayed harvest can result in the tubers growing woody and fibrous (Onyenwoke and

Simonyan, 2014), rendering them only suitable for processing. Its tolerance of low fertile soil and drought-prone regions has branded cassava a crop of primary importance for food security of farmers living in fragile ecosystems and socially unstable environments (FAO, 2013).

Cassava has the propensity to change the economy of African regions, even though it is considered a “poor man’s” crop (Oyimbo, 2013). Onyenwoke and Simonyan,

(2014) described the crop as the “source of raw materials for a number of industrial products such as starch, flour and ethanol; the production of cassava is relatively easy as it is tolerant to the biotic and edaphic encumbrances that hamper production of other crops” (p.3854). In the Liberia cassava strategy document, it is stated that the sector can

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams lead to a significant boost in the areas of food industry, non-food industry, poultry and livestock and ethanol (GOL, 2010).

Post-harvest Losses of Cassava

Harvesting of cassava is done by hand to reduce scarring of the crop; the tubers are pulled out of the ground and removed from base of the stalk (Onyenwoke &

Simonyan, 2014), which can be replanted. Studies have shown that when cassava is damaged during harvest, it produces coumaric acid after 15 minutes, which continues when the tuber is harvested (Onyenwoke & Simonyan, 2014). The leaves can be harvested but the roots can stay unharvested from six months to two years (FAO, 2013).

The roots of cassava can still be preserved underground but as soon as the crop is harvested deterioration begins within 2-3 days (Salcedo & Siritunga, 2011) and the crop loses its value for consumption, commercialization, processing and industrialization purposes.

The deterioration process which is hastened when the tuber is scarred after harvest, is known as the “primary deterioration;” during this stage, the tuber goes through a process of physiological change where the root changes color from white to a bluish streak known as vascular streaking or vascular discoloration (Djabou, Carvalho, Qing,

Niemenak & Chen, 2017; Salcedo & Siritunga, 2011; Andrew, 2002). The second stage deterioration is caused by microbial spoilage (Onyenwoke and Simonyan, 2014).

Animals, rats, goats, wild pigs and insects also cause deterioration of cassava when stored in barns after harvest, awaiting transportation, processing or marketing. Farms that are

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams close to the forest are worst hit by animals who eat the roots prior to the crop being harvested.

The cassava tubers are bulky with about 70% moisture content (Hahn, 1994). To prolong the shelf life, it should be marketed early and processed into various forms to reduce the moisture content (Onyenwoke and Simonyan, 2014). Processing the cassava in less than 48 hours after harvest is required to prevent deterioration (Salcedo &

Siritunga, 2011).

Cassava Storage Techniques

The storage of agricultural raw materials is an essential aspect of food processing that ensures that food remains available even in time of scarcity (Osunde and Fadeyibi,

2011). Roots are living organs of a plant that continue to metabolize and respire after harvest; cassava tubers are used only to store energy, unlike the roots of sweet potato and yam that are reproductive organs (Westby, 2002). Traditional marketing and storage systems have been adapted to avoid root perishability (Aristizabal and Sanchez, 2007).

The adaptations range from setting up processing sites close to the farm to facilitate adequate supply for processing into non-perishable products (Weham, 1995, Onyenwoke and Simonyan, 2014).

Cassava tubers can be kept underground for up to 12 months after it is due for harvesting, as the soil can serve as a storage site for the crop (Chandrasekara & Kumar,

2016)). However, the longer the cassava root stays in the soil, the more fibrous and woody it becomes, and this will decrease it palatability and increase the cooking time

(Onyenwoke & Simoyan, 2014). Wenham (1995) and Ravi et al. (1996) reported another

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams negative effect due to extensive in-field storage of cassava roots is their increased susceptibility to attacks by pathogens as well as the reduction of extractable starch.

To increase shelf life, Onyenwoke and Simonyan (2014), advised that the roots be stored in boxes lined with moist sawdust or wood shavings, between alternative layers of roots from the bottom of the box to the top. They further noted that in addition to sawdust and wood shavings any other suitable parking material can be used and must be moist but not wet. In a study conducted by Osunde & Fadeyibi (2011) a study conducted in Uganda by Nahdy and Odong (1995) state that this storage method was tested in Uganda, and the box was lined with plastic. Osunde & Fadeyibi (2011) further explained that the study revealed that 75% of the roots remained healthy after four weeks in storage, provided the roots were packed immediately on the day of harvest. Also, to preserve the roots, a drainage ditch can be dug and covered with a thick coat of soil up to 10 - 15 cm, which will preserve the product for a period of two months; (FAO, 1999). However, according to FAO, (1999), during this storage time that bruised, or otherwise injured roots tend to undergo a wound-healing response that prevent vascular discoloration or reverse it. This method works well with transportation, especially when the crop is being transported long distances.

Cassava can also be stored in cold temperature for preservation. However, when kept below four degrees centigrade, the cassava roots do not show internal discoloration.

Processed cassava can be stored without much worry, especially when the product is dried to reduce moisture to a point where all physiological reactions and microbial growth are inhibited (FAO, 1999).

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Extension Workers and Training of Farmers

Agricultural extension is intended to build farmers’ capacity and ensure that their skills to improve yields are developed (Baloch & Thapa, 2016). Training farmers in innovative agricultural methods is the work of extension officers in the agriculture sector.

These officers are expected to be equipped with knowledge and skills about farming systems to inform farmers how to apply these skills to their farms and improve yields.

Agricultural advisory and extension services, which is intended to train farmers for productivity, are vital to educating them (Anaeto, Asiabaka, Nnadi, Ajaero, Aja, Ugwoke,

Ukpongson & Onweagba, 2012). Farmers need training to improve their yields and incomes in rural areas where resources are scarce. Increasing their agricultural efficiency requires continuous training in various aspects of agriculture to improve the standards of their families. Training is a necessity in agriculture because it provides farmers with information on how to solve and overcome problems encountered in the sector.

Liberia’s MOA leads the extension and advisory services (EAS) system, which is highly pluralistic, comprised of public, private and civil society EAS providers (Feed the

Future, 2017). The government through the MOA has emphasized the importance of extension training in major policy documents (GOL, 2010; GOL, 2008). This is mainly because MOA extension workers lack up-to-date skills and knowledge required to boost the sector (McNamara, Swanson & Simpson, 2011). In terms of the public extension staff, the MOA faces the situation where well over half the district agricultural officers

(DAOs) are over 50 years old (McNamara, Swanson & Simpson, 2011).

Also, the Liberian MOA struggles to attract and retain young extension officers, despite wide agreement on the need to employ younger staff (Moore, 2014). The MOA is

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams technically understaffed with extension agents and the few employed agents are constrained by various issues such as limited mobility, low salaries and inadequate technical knowledge and skills (GOL, 2010). Extension workers in Liberia are few and as a result, farmers in some regions do not have access to government extension staff; however, NGOs working in farming areas do provide support to these farmers (GOL,

2010).

Agricultural extension services are traditionally male-dominated, and this contributes to gender disparities in innovative practices (Kondylis, Mueller, Sheriff &

Zhu, 2015; Bowen, 1989), especially in developing countries. There is a large male domination in agricultural extension and advisory services (AEAS), with respect to farmers receiving information and extension workers who deliver AEAS (Manfre, Rubin,

Allen, Summerfield, Colversen & Akeredolu, 2013). Hence it is necessary to ensure that women farmers receive information relevant to their agricultural work, particularly with reference to crops, livestock and post-harvest technologies (MOA, 2012).

Gendered Roles in Agriculture

Division of roles among males and females in agriculture is an unspoken reality that has been in existence globally since early times. Smallholder farmers currently produce 90% of food in Africa and around half of all food produced worldwide

(ActionAid, 2011). Presently, according to the State of the Food and Agriculture Report

(FAO, 2015), the share of the female labor force in agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa is

60.1%. In many developing countries, agriculture is associated with males, regardless of

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams the work done by women to address the challenge of agriculture productivity (Ogunlela

& Muhktar, 2009).

The traditional norm in rural areas in Sub-Saharan Africa is that the commercial production of agriculture is a male responsibility. They prepare the land, irrigate and harvest the crops, with the help of the women and children in their families. Women in rural areas where agriculture is primarily practiced have multiple roles of caregiving, providing food and water for their homes and at the same time taking care of livestock owned by the family (FAO, 2009).

The Liberian agriculture sector is characterized by gender division in every stage of the farming process. Women produce over half of the output in food crops (Benefica,

Ofusu-Amaah & Tehmeh, 2010) in Liberia. The gender-awareness in agriculture report by Benefica and colleagues (2010) states that:

Roles played by rural women and men in ensuring food security for their

households and communities vary due to their different activities in the value

chain; while men grow field/cash crops, women are usually responsible for

growing and preparing most of the food consumed in the home. (Benefica, et al,

2010, pp.vii.)

In Liberia, women make up more than half of the agriculture labor force and about two-thirds of actors in trade and commerce (Benefica, et al, 2010). There is limited data on factors relating to what women in Liberia do, what resources they have access to and what they have control over (Feed the Future, 2017). In rural areas where agriculture is practiced, several factors are responsible for the gender division of labor today: some are gender-neutral, and others are gender biased (Sikod, 2007). Gender affects farmers’

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams access to labor, land and other agricultural inputs and can affect farmers’ preferences concerning outputs (SOFA & Doss, 2001).

Gender Disaggregated Approach in Agriculture

A gender-disaggregated approach is included in agricultural research to outline the differences in male and female roles and understand why they exist; and to ensure that the concerns of male and female farmers are met and integrated. Gender disaggregation is included in this study to identify the perception, attitudes and knowledge of male and female farmers when they are trained apart and when they are trained together as a group.

Experts in agriculture have used several strategies to address the challenges affecting the sector; ranging from gender disaggregated approaches, research and development aimed at discovering innovative agricultural practices; to rural policy development to enhance agricultural livelihoods and training farmers in various farming techniques to improve agricultural productivity (Croppenstedt, Goldstein, & Rosas, 2013;

Lu, 2010).

Conceptual Framework

The psychological constructs that determine farmers’ intentions, perceptions and beliefs when deciding to adopt innovative techniques are not taken into consideration during research (Borges, Lansink & Ribeiro, 2014). Borges et al (2014) conducted a study on understanding farmers’ intentions to adopt improved natural grassland and suggest that a socio-psychological theory is necessary to analyze farmers’ decisions and

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams behavior in the theory of planned behavior (TPB). TPB proposes that behavior originates from individual intentions, which in turn are determined by three central psychological constructs: attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavior control (Ajzen & Madden,

1986; Ajzen, 1985). The TPB has been used in several agriculture studies to understand farmers’ intentions, knowledge and decisions in adopting agricultural innovations

(Borges et al, 2014); these studies range from conservation (Beedell & Rehman, 2006), entrepreneurship (Bergevoeet, Ondersteijn, Saatkamp, , 2004), soil conservation

(Wauters et al, 2010), land use practices (Poppenborg & Koellner, 2013) and pro- environmental agricultural practices (Price & Leviston, 2014).

The TPB suggests that human behavior is guided by three considerations: beliefs about the likely outcomes of the behavior and the evaluations of these outcomes

(behavioral beliefs), beliefs about the normative expectations of others and the motivation to comply with these expectations (normative beliefs), and beliefs about the presence of factors that may facilitate or impede performance of the behavior and the perceived power of these factors (control beliefs) (Ajzen, 1985). TPB posits that when farmers’ attitudes and subjective norms are positive, the higher the chances of perceived control and the higher the probability of the person’s intention to perform the behavior or goal

(Ajzen, 1985).

In this study, farmers’ willingness to change their old techniques in harvesting and storage practices for postharvest loss reduction of cassava is linked to their intentions. Intentions in the TPB are determined by three central psychological constructs

(shown in figure 1) attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control (Borges et al., 2014).

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Perceived behavioral control.

Perceived behavioral control (PBC) is connected to an individual’s difficulty or ease in adopting a behavior. It is closely related to the individual’s intentions, which can be used directly to predict behavior change (Ajzen and Madden, 1986). Ajzen (1985) posits that behavioral control is a representation of an individual’s real control that can predict a person’s behavior.

Perceived behavioral control is linked to an individual’s belief; as proposed by Ajzen and

Madden (1986), as to how easy or difficult performance of the behavior is likely to be.

Attitudes toward the behavior

Knowledge Subjective (Pre-& Intentions Behavior Post- Norms Training)

Perceived behavioral Control

Figure 2.1. An adaptation of Ajzen (1991) Theory of Planned Behavior model.

The model shows pre-and post-training knowledge added before the psychological constructs to test farmers’ adoption of harvest and storage techniques for post-harvest loss reduction of cassava. Behavioral beliefs associate a behavior with 22

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams certain outcomes and other attributes, and they determine the attitude toward the behavior in line with the subjective values of outcomes and attributes (Ajzen, 1985).

Attitude toward the behavior.

In this study, farmers’ attitudes after receiving training in harvesting and storage for post-harvest loss reduction are assessed to reflect their perspective of the techniques.

The emotional reaction as a result of a person’s attitude after receiving information is linked to their behavior and actions. Male and female farmers’ attitudes towards training techniques in the study will be determined based on their beliefs (behavioral and cultural), which will predict their attitudes.

Farmers working towards achieving the goal of reducing post-harvest loss of a major crop in Liberia are likely to have strong positive attitudes to adoption of innovative methods of reducing post-harvest loss to achieve their goals. Borges et al. (2014) stated,

“attitude is the degree to which execution of the behavior is positively or negatively evaluated” (p. 165). Farmers’ anticipated change in behavior relating to harvest and storage techniques is voluntary. The observed attitudes during training in their respective gender groups, their willingness to adopt innovative techniques to achieve the goal

(reduction of post-harvest loss of cassava) will depend on their level of perceived control of available resources and opportunities.

Subjective norms.

Subjective norm refers to a person’s perception of the social pressure upon them to perform or not perform the behavior (Ajzen, 1985). This construct that is closely

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams directed to intentions specifically refers to how others whom participants care about would feel about them engaging in a particular behavior, relating to change. It concerns more about the perception of farmers regarding the thought that others close to them may approve or disapprove their decision to change beliefs and control over information received during training in post-harvest loss reduction of cassava.

Intentions.

Intention is directly connected to behavior change in TPB because it is the individual’s planned action that results in them adopting or rejecting a behavior. In TPB, intentions of an individual as a result of their behavioral or control beliefs are related to changes in attitudes and perception due to information received.

Intentions directed at behavioral, normative or control beliefs may succeed in producing corresponding changes in attitudes, subjective norms and perceptions of behavioral content – and these changes may further influence intentions in the desired direction (Ajzen, 1985). Ajzen and Madden (1986) suggest that transition from verbal responses to actual behavior should be completed in the intention stage to achieve the goal.

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CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

Overview

This chapter presents the methodologies that were employed for the study. It covers information related to the research design, instrumentation, data collection, data analysis, and research ethics.

Research Design

This is a mixed methods research study employing an exploratory sequential design (Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2011). An exploratory sequential study is typically conducted in two phases; phase one consists of qualitative data collection and analysis whose results are used to design the second phase of the study, which is quantitative

(Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2011). A mixed method design is advantageous because it gives strengths to the data that ensures a back-up for the weaknesses of either the quantitative or the qualitative design. Ivankova, Cresswell & Sticks (2009) quoted

Tashakkori and Teddlie, (2003) and Creswell, (2005) who stated that mixed-methods design provides a “purpose of gaining a better understanding of the research problem”

(p.2).

In this study, the first phase comprised focus group discussions (FGD) and interviews with individual cassava farmers and stakeholders in the agriculture sector in

Liberia and analyses of the qualitative data. The results provided information for the second and third phase of the study. The second part of the study which was conducted a year later was the training of participants selected for the quantitative data collection;

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams this was immediately followd by the quantitative data collection. Figure 3.1 shows the direction of the study.

Validation of Training Manual Quantitative Data Collection Training of • Quanatitative Data Farmers Analyses Quantitative Instrument Pre Training Materials Prep Analysis of Qual Data Qualitative Data collection Study Preparation

Figure 3.1. Outline of the Study

Research Ethics

The study was conducted with participants from the districts of Dewein and

Senjeh in Bomi County, northwestern Liberia. Research permissions was obtained from the Government of Liberia through the Ministry of Agriculture. This research also adhered to the ethical standards of the institutional research board (IRB) of Texas Tech

University (See Appendix A and B).

Enumerator Selection and Training

The statistics division in the Department of Planning and Development, Ministry of Agriculture manages an updated database of enumerators. This list was obtained from

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams the division and five enumerators were randomly selected. They were informed via telephone communication about the study and invited to a three-day training.

The enumerator training took place in the conference room of the Department of

Planning and Development, Ministry of Agriculture and lasted for four hours each day.

On the first day, the research background, objectives and part of the methodology were explained to the enumerators. On day two, the methodology, structure of the training, followed by the administration of the instrument were outlined to participants. On the third day, practice test of the instrument was conducted by each enumerator, whilst addressing questions and comments.

QUALITATIVE PHASE

Focus Group Dicussions

The first set of focus group discussions were held in Senjeh District, Bomi

County, a major cassava producing region in northwestern Liberia. Senjeh District is one of the five (a fifth district was founded in 2017) districts in the county, with a population of 29,325 (LISGIS, 2008). Figure 3.2 shows a map of Bomi County with the districts and their boundaries; the Liberian map is on the right-hand corner.

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Figure 3.2. Map of Bomi with the map of Liberia insert.

Senjeh District was selected together with Dewein District, which also boasts of a high number of cassava farmers, as the location of the study. Bomi County, which is a little less than 40 miles from Monrovia, the capital of Liberia, has been rated the most food insecure county in Liberia since the first Comprehensive Food Security and

Nutrition Survey in 2006 (GOL, 2013). Since then, the food insecurity status in Bomi

County has fluctuated between chronic food insecurity to moderate and back to chronic.

Chronic food insecurity indicates an enduring insufficiency in basic food consumption requirements that lasts for at least six months of the year; moderate food insecurity is indicative of a shorter span of time when basic food consumption requirements are not met (World Food Programme, 2013). Enhancing the food security of Bomi County requires the engagement of the small farmers in the districts to improve productivity, quality, and durability of staple foodstuffs. Farmers in Bomi County have benefited from agricultural programs and projects since the end of the civil crisis to rehabilitate the agricultural sector; yet farmers’ major crops – like cassava – are often lost after harvest 28

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams either in storage or enroute to the market. Understanding the particular storage and transportation challenges faced by small-scale producers of cassava is a critical first step in helping to alleviate their post-harvest problems. To achieve this, focus group discussions with cassava producers in Bomi County were initiated.

The first step in a focus group discussion consists of the identification and recruitment of participants. This process involved requesting and obtaining authorization and approval (Appendix – E) from the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA). Obtaining an authorization from the MOA when conducting a study on the sector not only ensures a smooth data collection process, but also assists the MOA in accessing information from the study to improve the sector. The MOA, which is the institution that is mandated to develop the agricultural sector, ensures that agricultural development programs are targeting the actual needs of the sector. The Department of Regional Development

Research and Extension (DRDRE), which works directly with field staff, was instructed to allow the Bomi County Agricultural Coordinator (CAC) to provide assistance to the research team. A CAC steers the affairs of the MOA in each of the 15 counties in the country. They are appointed by the Minister of Agriculture and report directly to the

Director of the DRDRE, who reports to the Deputy Minister of Agriculture. The CACs are masters in specific agricultural fields of study, which they use to contribute to agricultural development in the counties they are assigned. They are assisted by District

Agricultural Officers (DAOs) who execute extension services to farmers in every district of each county. There should be at least one DAO for each district but in some counties, they are short at least two or three DAOs. The DAOs provide advisory services to farmers in groups, as well as to individual farmers registered in the Ministry’s local and

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams national database. The county agricultural offices spearhead the supply of farm inputs to the county. They also collaborate with donor agencies working in the counties, as well as with researchers who conduct studies in the counties. They serve as a hub of information and services to the farming population in each county, from individual farmers to large plantations that hire local men and women, as well as providing backstop to projects in their districts by interfacing with donors, advising beneficiaries and training them on site in new technologies.

Letter of Authorization & approval from Minister of Agriculture

Meeting with DRDRE informs Meeting with Bomi County Bomi CAC CAC Agricultural Team for Sampling

Work with DAO Senjeh Work with DAO Inform Farmers Dewein District District

FGDs

Figure 3.3. Organizational chart of Actors that facilitated the FGDs

The CAC and the two DAOs in Bomi County provided the researcher with a list of cassava farmers in the county. Cassava farmers were purposively selected as the participants in the FGDs since this study is focused on post-harvest loss of cassava. The actual participants in the FGDs were then randomly selected from the list of cassava

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams farmers provided by the CAC and informed about the study, FGD venue, and time. A total of 40 farmers were selected for the FGDs as shown in Table 3.1. A total of four

FGDs were held: two in Senjeh District and two in Dewein District.

The first and second FGDs were held in Senjeh District at the Bomi Garri processing center with both male and female participants (n =18).

Table 3.1.

Summary of Qualitative Data Participants N = 46

Participant Venue n Date Collected

Focus Group Discussions

FGD 1 Senjeh 8 January 5, 2017

FGD 2 Senjeh 10 January 5, 2017

FGD 3 Dewein 10 January 5, 2017

FGD 4 Dewein 12 January 5, 2017

Individual Interviews

CARI Researcher Bong Cty 1 December 21, 2017

MoA Monrovia 1 December 28, 2016

Superintendent Monrovia 1 December 22, 2016

CAC Bomi Bomi Cty 1 January 3, 2017

CAC Grand Cape Mount Bomi Cty 1 January 4, 2017

DAO Bomi County Bomi Cty 1 January 5, 2017

Note: Senjeh and Dewein are districts in Bomi County. Bong and Bomi are counties and Monrovia is the Capital of Liberia.

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The first FGD started at 10 am with two elderly male participants, two male youths, two young females, and two older females and lasted for 40-45 minutes. Their farm sizes vary from one to three acres. All the male farmers in the group – with the exception of one youth – had been in cassava production since they started farming. The only youth who started farming barely a year ago was with a relative in Monrovia pursuing his education but had to return to Bomi following the death of his relative. The two younger women had infants in their hands during the FGDs and were married to farmers, as were the two older women. More than half of the married females in the

FGDs had moved to Bomi County from other regions in Liberia; however, the two older women were born in the county. All the women farmed on plots of land owned or given to them by either their husbands or their families. They also work as casual laborers in the cassava processing center where they peel and wash the cassava before it is put into the grating machine. The center has a small grating machine donated by the United

States Agency for International Development (USAID), which can grate one ton of cassava a day. The caretakers of the center, who are members of a youth group trained by the USAID in cassava value-chain practices, process cassava for farmers who pay a minimum amount per 50kg bag of cassava. The farmers who operate the center also bring in cassava from their groups and individual farms to be processed into garri. This is the

‘Bomi Garri’ which is mixed with either sugar and milk, groundnuts and sugar or coconut, packaged in Ziploc bags and supplied to supermarkets and convenient stores.

The addition of sugar mixed with grated coconut or groundnuts and packaging of garri for sale in supermarkets in Liberia, is a value addition practice that started when the agriculture sector was rehabilitated after the civil crisis.

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FGD preparation in Dewein & Senjeh Districts

Preparations for the FGDs in Dewein District, were similar to that of Senjeh

District. The discussions, which commenced around 2:00pm and 3:30 pm respectively, lasted for 45 minutes. Dewein is a small district where agriculture is the major livelihood for more than 75% of the population. (LISGIS, 2008).

The first FGD in Dewein had six males and four females. All the males were older than 35 years and the females ranged from 20 - 62 years. They depend primarily on agriculture with the exception of a middle-aged male who is also a primary school teacher in the district. He said cassava farming is his secondary source of livelihood which complements his salary as a teacher. Two younger females in the first FGD were high school students who grow cassava and process it into foofoo for sale in the market after school and during the weekends.

The second FGD had 12 participants (six females and six males), the two younger females, one 18 and the other 22 years, are junior high school students who depend on farming and sale of cassava to pay their school fees. The other women are farmers and traders; after harvesting their cassava, they process into foofoo for sale in Doula market – one of the largest markets in Liberia. One said she purchases dry goods like matches, candles, batteries, cigarettes and other necessities that are hard to find in the district; she also sells charcoal. The other older female sells boiled cassava with fried or smoked fish and gravy in the mornings. Among the male farmers, there was a farmer who works as a night shift security officer in a store nearby; the others were all farmers and charcoal traders.

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams

Unlike Senjeh which has a cassava processing machine in the vicinity where the farmers can easily transport the cassava from their farms, Dewein District did not have a processing center or machine where cassava farmers can process their produce. Land can be acquired by women, but when asked about ownership that includes title deeds, they respond that they are given land through word of mouth.

The FGDs in the two districts were conducted in local vernacular because most of the farmers, with the exception of about 12 males and eight younger females, could not read in English. Like the FGDs in Senjeh, the participants were briefed about the study and provided a consent form (Appendix H) before the discussions, which lasted 35-45 mins. After the FGDs all participants were served sandwiches, soda and water.

The third and fourth FGDs were held in a community palava hut in Dewein district, started at 2pm and lasted 45 minutes. A palava hut is an open physical structure, built with bamboo sticks or wood with the base and benches around fortified with cement. The sides are open sides for fresh air and the roofs are made with thatch or, in affluent households, covered with corrugated sheets (zinc). There are usually open spaces where hammocks, benches and chairs are put in for relaxation, community discussions, or settling disputes.

In the third FGD, there were four elderly females, two younger ones, and four males. Three males who were older than 35 years of age and one male youth, who had just dropped out of school, participated in this FGD. None of the males in the second

FGD had completed secondary education and only one female had reached junior high school. All the others had either dropped out of school before reaching grade six or had never attended school.

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams

The males were married or cohabiting with at least one child. One of the females had only one child and the others had more than three children. There was only one widowed female among the older ones; the others were all married females. All participants in the two FGDs were cassava farmers who process the majority of their produce into garri for commercial purposes and consume the rest. Some of the women, like the ones in the first FGD, are casual workers in the cassava processing center. They all peel and wash cassava during, and for a few months following, the cassava harvesting period, since that is the time when work is in demand. The women also classified themselves as housewives who farm and work in the processing site to help their husbands with financial care for the home. Two male farmers and three females were in seasonal farmer groups where they practice the kuu system by helping each other prepare the soil for planting and harvesting of the cassava. However, they all had one problem in common: post-harvest loss of cassava.

Questions for the focus group discussions and face-to-face interviews were developed to obtain information on cassava production and knowledge of post-harvest loss. The questions asked during the FGD ranged from the timetable of cassava post- harvest, the varieties of cassava produced, methods employed to reduce PHL, access to extension advisory services from private and public extension agents, and training received on PHL activities, among others (see Appendix B & C for detailed FGD and interview questions).

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Preparation for Individual interviews

Seven participants were purposively selected for in depth interviews based on the roles they play in working with and providing inputs to farmers. They were invited via telephones (which is the best way to contact individuals since internet connectivity is very low) to participate in the interview after obtaining consent from the Minister of

Agriculture (Appendix E). They were briefed about the nature of the study and upon acceptance and confirmation of time and venue for the interviews, the partipants were also informed about the written consent form they will have to sign. The adult consent form (Appendix - H) was presented to each individual before the commencements of the interviews for their signature.

The Deputy Minister interviewed is a qualified agriculturist who had worked in the sector since he was an undergraduate student. He has a Master’s degree in an agricultural discipline coupled with vast experience working in agriculture sectors in

Liberia and other West African countries where he travelled to study during the civil crisis. He also termed himself a farmer at heart since he grew up on a farm. He also acquired land in his hometown to start food production and processing. He said working with farmers puts him in a position to learn something new. He was a young agricultural subject matter specialist in his mid-thirties during the time of the interview.

Another participant – a middle-aged male – works as a representative of the then

Bomi County Superintendent and is also a farmer. The county superintendent is the head of the local administration who steers the political affairs of the country at the local level.

His understanding of PHL is vast because he had benefitted from trainings in Asia and other parts of Africa where he learnt PHL reduction in cereals. Interviewing him about

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PHL provided lots of information. He owns over 12 acres of rice farms in northeastern parts of the country and has a cassava farm in Grand Cape Mount County.

The Central Agricultural Research Institute (CARI) researcher was a young PhD student during the interview. He is in his early thirties with more than six years’ experience working in the agriculture sector. He has researched cassava before and his research is focused on transformation of cassava for genetic improvement. He has high hopes of reducing PHL of cassava in Liberia to ensure hunger eradication, especially in rural areas.

The CACs for Bomi and Grand Cape Mount counties are middle-aged agricultural subject matter specialists, with more than 10 years working experience in the sector.

They are also agriculture lecturers in local community colleges. The DAOs are also middle-aged men who have worked in the sector as extension agents and resided in Bomi

County for more than 15 years.

The interviews with the Grand Cape Mount County CAC and the Deputy Minister for DRDRE were conducted in the Ministry of Agriculture head office in Gardnersville,

Monrovia. The interviews with DAOs and the representative of the Bomi County

Superintendent were held in the Ministry of Agriculture office in Bomi County and the cassava researcher was met in CARI head office in Gbarnga, Bong County. The interviews which lasted between 15 – 25 minutes, were audio recorded. After initial contact via telephone to targeted participants, follow-up visits (to those in close proximity to the researcher) and more telephone calls were made because internet connectivity is very slow in Liberia. After targeted participants’ approval to participate in the interviews, a date and venue were set, according to their availability. Prior to the start

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams of every interviews, participants were given the adult consent forms (see Appendix – H) which they read and signed. The FGDs and all but one of the interviews were organized in participants’ and interviews’ natural environment which allowed them to relax and freely discuss with the research team.

The qualitative data were analyzed by initially conducting peer debriefing meetings with the enumerators to ensure validity of the material. The lead researcher transcribed the recorded and written information obtained from the interviews and FGDs word by word. Deductive approach was used to analyze the data, with the research questions being used to group the information collected, whilst checking for similarities and differences. During the FGDs, the researcher took time to clarify whether responses to questions were individual or collective experiences; they were experiences shared by farmers in the districts. The notes from interviews and focus groups discussions were analyzed using open and axial coding to create themes to explore connections between the themes. For reliability, an external researcher, the Home Adviser for the lead researcher re-coded the data and compared the codes to the original analysis to determine whether both coders labeled components of the transcript same (Ary, Jacobs & Sorensen,

2010). Saturation was achieved when, after re-coding of the data by the Home Adviser, the none-emergence of new codes proved that the qualitative data was fully analyzed.

Saturation, according to Urquhart (2013), is defined as “the point in coding when you find that no new codes occur in the data” (p.194).

The information obtained from the qualitative study provided details for the development of the training manual. The results also aided in the preparation of the and the quantitative data instrument.

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Standards of Rigor

The mixture of FGD, individual interview and literature review ensured triangulation of data for credibility in the study. Also, for transferability, direct quotations from FGD and interview participants reponses were used to provide a rich verbatim description of their experiences. To ensure consistency, the FGDs and interviews were conducted in several locations with four different group of farmers and several interview participants, as suggested by Ary et al. (2010), to determine dependability of the study. Code-recoding of data, triangulation and audit trails are strategies that were also employed by the lead researcher to ensure dependability. Audit trail, according to Ary et al (2010), “provide a mechanism by which others can determine how decisions were made and the uniqueness of the situation” (p.502).

The reliability of the Likert-scale used to measure the TPB constructs were investigated using Cronbach’s alpha (α) coefficient to measure the internal consistency and validity among the groups of farmers. This ensured the validity and consistency of the instrument. Table 3.2. shows the standards of rigor employed in the study.

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Table 3.2.

Standards of Rigor in Mixed Methods Research

Qualitative Quantitative Criterion Strategies

Dependability Reliability Consistency Triangulation,

interrater

comparisons and

audit trail

Transferability External Validity Generalizaion Thick, rich

description

Credibility Internal Validity Truth Value Triangulation

and peer

debriefing

Source: Ary et al. (2010)

Training Manual

The training manual was developed after the FGD and interviews were transcribed and analyzed. The manual is divided into four sections: the first part of the manual includes the importance of PHL and the nutritional value of cassava. Part two provides readers with a basic understanding of terms used throughout the manual. It includes the definition of words relating to PHL management and prevention, food security and other agricultural terms. The third section deals with detailed steps in harvesting and storage techniques to reduce loss during and after harvest of cassava. The final section deals with how to conduct a loss assessment of cassava in the field. Planning

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams a study, timing of the study and steps to conduct data collection including staffing, budgeting and equipment needed. The manual will provide a detailed blue print on PHL management of cassava for future use in the sector. Information from the training manual were obtained from other manuals (ACF, 2014) and studies conducted by researchers studying PHL management (Abass et al, 2014; Adepoju, 2014; FAO, 1999; FAO, 2011 &

FAO 2015).

Gender-disaggregated Training of Farmers

The venue of the educational training was the Ministry of Agriculture office in

Tubmanburg, Bomi County. Male and female cassava farmers received theoretical and practical trainings based on results from the FGDs and interviews. The lead researcher who is a female, conducted the theoretical and practical trainings, using a PowerPoint format with contents drawn from the training manual. The manual was developed to serve as a reference for trainers and other extension staff in the ministry to use in the future. The theoretical and practical sessions were presented in the Liberian vernacular to facilitate comprehension and easy discussion between the lead researcher and farmers.

The sessions started at 9:00 am and continued until 3:00 pm, with a one-hour lunch break at noon and a snack break after the training.

The farmers were randomly assigned to training groups based on their gender.

Group one consisted of the all-male training group; group two was the all-female training group; and group three consisted of the male and female farmers in the mixed-gender training group. Each farmer in the study received the same training on cassava PHL strategies for one-day. There were 48 farmers assigned to the all-male group and they

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams were divided into two groups of 24 cassava farmers that were trained on days one and two respectively. The all-female group had 52 participants who were divided into two groups of 26, trained on days three and four. They were divided to prevent over crowding of the training hall and ease discussions between farmers and with the trainer (Lead

Researcher). There were 39 farmers in the mixed group and they were all trained on the fifth day.

During registration each day, participants were numbered for identification. The same educational material was offered to all training groups of farmers in the study. The training was divided into three sessions: in the morning sessions participants learned the importance of cassava, the definitions of terms used in the training, and discussed tools used for harvesting cassava. Participants also learned about the preparations and planting time for the different varieties of cassava, preferred time for harvest, then precautions for harvest. This was followed by discussions about the tools, methods and time of harvesting employed by the farmers in their various communities.

After lunch break, in session two, methods of post-harvest handling of cassava and strategies to reduce loss were taught. This was followed by farmers’ discussions on the methods of storing cassava they employ. Session three was a practical demonstration of harvesting cassava with a not-too-sharp object to reduce scarring the tuber; and storage of the harvested tuber in dry and well-ventilated facilities. The training was interactive as farmers were allowed to stop the trainer and ask questions throughout the training.

At the end of the practical demonstration, which was the last session of the training, the quantitative instrument was administered to the farmers.

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QUANTITATIVE PHASE

The quantitative phase of the study included measuring the attitudes, subjective norms. and intentions of farmers in harvest and storage techniques to reduce post-harvest loss of cassava. To determine the effect of gender on training outcomes, farmers were randomly assigned to training groups of different gender composition (male, female and mixed gender).

In this phase the farmers were divided into their gender-specific training groups and were trained in their respective groups. This allowed for the assessment of the influence of gender on farmers’ attitudes towards harvest and storage procedures to reduce post-harvest loss of cassava, their perceptions of relevant others (e.g. family members, other farmers, etc.) regarding their adoption of the harvest and storage techniques, and their intention to adopt the techniques taught in the training. The training in harvesting and storage techniques for post-harvest loss reduction of cassava is the experiment; whilst dividing farmers (independent variables) into male, female and mixed gender groups is the manipulation. This was intended to measure how gender affects the dependent variables, psychological constructs (attitudes, intentions, and subjective norms). After collecting the quantitative data, it was cleaned and entered into the computer using the Statistical Package for Data Processing and analysis (SPSS), version 24, for quantitative analyses.

The instrument to assess the constructs of the TPB were Likert-style statements

(see Appendix F for survey instrument). The one-way Multivariate Analysis of Variance

(MANOVA) was used to test the differences in attitudes, intentions and subjective norms between the male and female farmers in the different gender training groups. MANOVA

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams is the test suitable to compare the differences in mean scores among several groups in a study (Warne, 2014). Mertler & Vannetta (2013) quoted Vogt (2005), who states

“MANOVA is utilized to simultaneously study two or more related DVs while controlling for the correlations among the DVs” (p. 16).

The statistical assumptions for MANOVA were tested before the multivariate analysis of variance test was conducted. The data was screened for normality, outliers and missing data, using descriptive statistics, measures of central tendency, graphic distribution, frequencies and percentages. The test of MANOVA is robust in cases where there exist moderate violations of normality, as long as the violation is related to skewness (Mertler & Vannatta, 2013). The one-way MANOVA is an omnibus test statistic that indicates the differences in two or more groups but not specifically show which group(s) are different (Field, 2013).

Target Population and Sampling Procedures

The target population is the larger population to which the researcher wishes to generalize the findings of the study (Ary et al., 2010). The target population in this study consists of male and female cassava farmers in Dewein and Senjeh Districts. The accessible population refers to the subjects that are actually within access of the researcher and are available for drawing a sample (Ary et al., 2010). The accessible population in the study are the male and female cassava farmers from the two districts who agreed to participate in the trainings and the study.

Simple random sampling was used to select cassava farmers in Dewein and

Senjeh Districts, Bomi County for the quantitative phase of the study. There are 195 and

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157 registered cassava farmers in Dewein and Senjeh Districts respectively; therefore, a sample size of 169 participants from the two districts will be targeted for the quantitative study, as calculated using The Research Advisers (2006) with a .05 margin of error. The accessible population was 139; these are the number of participants that accepted the offer to participate in the training.

Control of Error

Sampling error is the difference between a population parameter and a sampling statistic (Ary et al., 2010). One way of managing sampling error is through a large sample. In this study, targeting a large sample size of 169 participants, then using the assessible population of 139 and ensuring homogeneity of the population and helped to control sampling error. This provided a large enough base to control sampling errors of the mean (Ary et al., 2010).

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CHAPTER IV

QUALITATIVE FINDINGS

Overview

The main purpose of this study was to explore the statistical differences in the psychological constructs of male and female cassava producers to analyze their decisions and behavior in adopting an innovation to reduce post-harvest loss reduction of cassava.

The conceptual framework by Ajzen (1985), the Theory of Planned Behavior, guided the study and helped the researcher to understand male and female farmers’ intentions to adopt innovations, their pre- and post-training knowledge and how decisions to adopt innovations are determined among training groups of female, male and mixed gender farmers.

This chapter will share the results of the qualitative data collection and how these results were used to design the instrument used for the quantitative portion of this research. This chapter is divided into three parts: Part one will present the emerging themes from the FGD in Senjeh and Dewein Districts, followed by emerging themes from the interviews in part two. Part three will weave together the themes from both the

FGDs and the interviews and describe how these results answered the research questions, were used to design a training manual, and were distilled into topics for a quantitative instrument. The information obtained from the qualitative study provided details for the development of the training manual.

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PART I

Emerging Themes from FGDs in Senjeh District

Cassava cuttings theme.

This theme is related to farmers’ access to cassava cuttings in their region.

Though Senjeh is less than eight miles from Tubmanburg, the capital of Bomi County, the road to the district is deplorable and sometimes inaccessible during the height of the rainy season. Some farmers complained that the sandy soil in the area causes the cassava stem to dry up before the cassava is harvested. This reduces the cuttings they are supposed to get from an acre of land to facilitate cassava production during the next planting season. They are forced to travel to farmers in other districts to purchase the cuttings; because the MOA supplies cuttings only once a year, or sometimes not at all.

The high cost of transportation increases even more when there are loads to carry. An older male farmer said “this is an issue affecting some of us here in Senjeh; I have met with a handful of farmers who are also experiencing the problem of dry stems thereby making it difficult for us to get cuttings”. Another female respondent said:

The government is helping us get cuttings through the CAC but we do not get them every time we are ready to plant cassava. We are forced to go to nearby farms even though some have similar issues. So we sometimes invite other farmers to meetings where we discuss the issue and send two persons to Tubmanburg to buy cuttings for us. This helps in reducing transportation cost to and from the district.

Only five farmers in the second FGD complained about cassava stems drying before they are harvested thereby causing scarcity of cuttings for planting season. They also give their monies to a trusted farmer who goes to Tubmanburg to purchase cuttings.

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This theme contributed to the general ‘needs’ theme, because it gave insight into participants’ basic production needs. It accentuated farmers’ requirements in ensuring improved production of cassava.

Durable farming tools.

The second FGD focused on the availability of durable farming tools to enhance their livelihood. All the farmers agreed that farming tools like shovels, hoes and cutlasses spoil after using them a few times. When asked how they obtain farming tools, nearly all said the government supplies them with wheelbarrows, hoes, and shovels once a year. They say before using the tools, especially the wheelbarrows, they have to take them to blacksmiths to reinforce certain parts of the tools to ensure that they last for at least a few months. An elderly female participant said:

….we are poor farmers and tools are expensive; I agree we are given farming tools but in order to use them for a long time, perhaps till we receive some more tools from the government or any other donor, we have to somehow strengthen before we begin using them.

Another elderly male farmer said “….even when we buy tools because of the cost of strengthening it added to the purchase cost, my family sometimes use the tools and make some money before we take them to the blacksmith”. Some male farmers mentioned that if the government would buy tools from local blacksmith shops either in Monrovia or in the neighboring counties, the need for reinforcing the tools would disappear as the local blacksmiths already know how to strengthen the tools so that they are more durable.

This was the only FGD where farmers talked about the need for locally-made farming tools. It also contributed to the needs theme developed from all the FGDs.

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Training Theme.

This theme focuses on capacity building in cassava production strategies for improved yield. Training in innovative practices for cassava production is a means of providing farmers the skills and transferring knowledge for hands-on experience.

Farmers in the FGD stressed the importance of training for more knowledge from experts to improve their cassava production. An older male farmer said:

Sometime ago after the civil war, NGO extension workers used to come train us how to fight pests, how to plant cassava stems and how to prevent rodents from eating the cassava on the farm before we harvest; when they left the government extension workers would come once a while but as the time goes the visits become about two or three times a year.

About 90% of the younger farmers with the exception of two males, had received training on cassava processing methods, which includes cassava flour, garri, and pastries such as cake. When the topic of planting and harvesting techniques to reduce post- harvest loss of cassava came up, the farmers had no knowledge of such techniques.

Even the term “post-harvest loss” was foreign to the farmers; after explaining the process of harvesting to reduce loss, the farmers admitted they have never been taught such techniques. A young female participant, when asked about proper harvesting methods to reduce post-harvest loss, said:

I never went to school; I learnt about cassava farming from my parents who were also uneducated. They did not know about the big words you people use in cassava farming now. I was taught simply how to plant the cuttings, weed, and harvest the leaves just before the cassava tuber is ready.

Another young male participant who had received training in cassava production said:

Sometime in 2014, I represented my uncle who was in a group of cassava farmers benefiting from a Ministry of Agriculture project in Suehn Mecca District, Bomi County. We were trained to do the ridge and mounds planting method with one-

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meter space to allow the cassava tubers grow longer and wider. When we applied that method, the cassava grew very big that harvest, but we knew little about post- harvest management, so we lost some of the cassava we could not process on time.

The farmers explained that they cut bigger tubers of cassava after harvest to fit into baskets and bags for easy transportation to markets, processing sites, and homes.

This theme provided critical information for the development of the training material and quantitative instrument.

Training was mentioned several times during the FGDs in Senjeh, thereby the creation of this theme. Farmers mentioned that they are in need of training to enhance their cassava production. The district benefitted from a cassava value-chain training organized by a project in the MOA recently. However, the women who were in majority at the training, said the cassava processing techniques were too technical for their particular contextual realities. A female youth said “…the training was very good; we were taught how to make pastries with cassava flour, but the tools needed to make the flour is not available”. Another male participant said “….I would have preferred training in planting methods and other ways to prepare the soil so we can produce more cassava”.

One younger female said “….I did not participate in the training but I would recommend for the government to train us in how to better package our processed garri so we can attract more customers from out of the country”. Younger male and female farmers said they would recommend training in agronomical practices to improve cassava yields. In the first FGD, the youths called for training in preparing the tubers after harvest, so they will last longer for marketing. An older female farmer who processes cassava into foofoo for sale stated:

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…..foofoo is a processed form of cassava that is consumed in nearly all counties in the country; I recommend that government or donors train us in processing foofoo powder that can be packaged and sold everywhere in the country and even out of Liberia, as is done in Ghana and other neighboring countries.

The discussion about training was highlighted in the two FGDs in Senjeh District.

Even though the needs of farmers differed by gender, it was evident that they are in need of training to improve cassava production and processing.

Commercialization Theme.

This theme is related to marketing of cassava tubers and processed products of cassava. Farmers who sell raw cassava complained about the transportation difficulties they encounter when moving cassava from farm to market. The tubers are too heavy to carry long distances on foot and must be transported by vehicles. Motorbikes are the preferred means of transportation in rural areas because of bad roads. One of the female farmers said “we hardly get any profit out of the sale of raw cassava after adding transporting cost, which has doubled over the years. Our energy goes into growing and harvesting cassava but the returns is usually low”. Another female farmer said “that is why we prefer moving the cassava by bags to the processing site so they can be weighed and processed into garri or foofoo, which cannot spoil and bring in a little more profit”.

The group complained that when the raw cassava that is taken to the market is not sold before dusk, they either have to auction the produce before they go home or else they will have to pay extra monies to transport the raw tubers back home. A woman said:

As for me, I always go to the market with a bag of cassava. When I notice that customers are many and the bag is getting empty, I send my sister home for another bag. Whenever my cassava is not sold before nightfall, I just take it home and process into foofoo which I sell to get some money.

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Another male youth mentioned about export opportunities to improve their livelihood:

My household have to grow vegetables and bananas to sell so we can add to the cassava production sales to add to our household income: I hope we can get support from donors to export our cassava like other African countries. This will not only develop our agriculture sector but also help farmers grow from subsistence living

The problems of marketing cassava surfaced during the FGDs with farmers. This theme covers other topics brought up in the discussion such as feeder roads and group formation.

Gender theme.

This theme refers to the roles played by male and female farmers in cassava production. The discussion was centered around the gendered-roles occupied by men and women in producing and processing cassava. When the question of defined roles for each gender was brought up during the FGDs, a male farmer stated “…when I was growing up, women were the ones planting cassava and other vegetables for household consumption while our fathers focused on rice and rubber. Now things have changed; men are now in cassava production like the women”. Another older female participant said “….we do have the men brush the farm to prepare for cassava planting but women do that work also; my husband is sick and cannot do heavy work like before and our children are all girls. We start work before my son-in-law comes in to help when he is less busy”.

Harvesting cassava is a family affair because farmers cannot afford to hire laborers; therefore, the whole family joins to harvest even an acre of cassava farm. Those who are part of a kuu receive help from their members for whom they provide food for after a day’s work. However, most of the kuus are gender and crop-defined; this means

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams that male cassava farmers form their group and females have their own groups. There are a few mixed gender kuus in other commodities but there are usually gender-specific kuus in cassava production mainly due to the different roles in cassava production that are dictated by gender. After harvest and transportation to either the home or processing center, preparations for processing to garri, foofoo and dipper are carried out by females.

Manual grating is done by females but with the advent of the garri processer, the men who had received training on how to operate and service the machine are the only ones who operate the machine. The drying process and packaging are done by males and females.

The gendered division of labor in Liberia’s cassava sector is highly skewed with women playing key roles in every aspect of the production. Decision-making power is nearly 60/40 in favor of the men. This is mainly due to the land acquisition and ownership disparities which are prevalent in rural areas of Liberia. Usually after harvest, the men would advise the women on how the land can be used so the nutrients can be retained for good harvest. An older female farmer said “I have to wait for my husband to prepare the soil before I plant cassava. He is the head of the family, so we discuss things together”. Another female farmer said,

… my husband had advised me to mix-crop vegetables and pulses after each cassava harvest so I divide my farmland after harvesting cassava on one side I grow vegetables and local beans to keep the nutrients in the soil. He is knowledgeable about those matters because he has received training before so I wait for him to make decision on what can be done on the farm land after harvest.

This theme was prominent in all the FGDs and interviews because of the gender division of roles in cassava value chain.

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams

Emerging Themes from the FGDs in Dewein

Marketing Theme.

Dewein District is on the highway to Monrovia and closer to Douala market, one of the major markets that supplies smaller markets in the capital. Farmers take their produce to local markets in Bomi - Sass Town and Klay markets – on Wednesdays and

Fridays respectively.

After harvesting their cassava, the farmers in Dewein take their produce (raw or processed) to the market. They complained about the lack of cohesiveness among traders to set prices of a heap of cassava. There is a usual price of cassava which is mainly

LD$100 or LD$200 per heap depending on the size and amount of cassava in a heap.

Regional markets lack storage sites where farmers can pay for their goods to be stored. A male farmer said “….when we transport raw cassava to the market, we try to sell everything because if it remains, we have to take it back home and return the following day; hoping they are purchased before spoilage”. Raw cassava is loaded in baskets or empty rice bags and transported to and from the farm. An elderly female farmer said:

……some traders usually go to my farm to purchase cassava but they always negotiate by slashing nearly 40% of the cost price, leaving me with the option of either selling just to take off the burden of transportation or sticking to my price and transporting my produce to the market.

Farmers talked about the perils of marketing raw cassava especially when the batch taken to the market is not sold in a day. They explained that during the harvest period when cassava is in abundance and many farmers selling the produce, the price drops. A female cassava farmer said:

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When we take the cassava to the market during harvesting period and if we are unlucky to sell little or nothing, we are forced to banjo (sell something below its cost price) so we would not pay transportation to take it back home.

The farmers complained that among themselves they do not have a body that will monitor and regulate price. Many raw cassava sellers when they are forced with the choice of taking unsold cassava home or reducing the price sharply, choose the latter. An older male farmer talked about the difficulties of growing cassava when they are faced with difficulties of selling. He said even when they do process their cassava into foofoo, it takes long to sell when it is in abundance in the market. Farmers complained about poor feeder roads hampering early-morning transportation of cassava to the market. He said, “When customers drive close to the farm to buy the cassava, we are constrained to sell at a cheaper price because we want the cassava to go before it over stays on the farm and spoils”.

Farmers were quick to state that cassava farming is good because as a staple crop, it provides food for a period of time for their families and the rest can be sold. However, selling the cassava raw is associated with problems ranging from transportation, spoilage and storage. The request for the rehabilitation of farm-to-market roads was not new in the

FGDs, but in Dewein District road reconstruction and transportation at farm gates was echoed by nearly every participant.

Needs Theme.

This theme covers farmers’ requirements to improve cassava production, as discussed during the FGDs. The product requires little input as cassava grows well in tropical weather and thrives with little or no water and fertilizer, unlike other staples. This

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams theme reflects the requirements of farmers to improve cassava production and increase yields. Farmers are concerned that transfer of knowledge in modern agricultural practices to develop the cassava sector in Liberia are lacking. When asked about cassava planting methods, one of the male farmers who had just completed high school explained:

…..we dig the soil and bury the cuttings, then when it is ready for harvesting we cut the leaves few months before the tuber is ready for harvest and dig the soil with knife or cutlass, then take out the tuber; this is how it was handed down from our parents. However, when I was in Bong County in 2013, I attended a workshop on cassava planting methods which are completely different from what we do here. So, when I returned to Bomi and tried to teach my uncle about the new planting methods called heap and mounds, he cautioned me that the methods his parents were using that is what he will use.

Farmers noted that in order to increase yields and reduce pests and loss of cassava, they require processing centers close to cassava farms. Cassava processing to garri, foofoo and dipper is common in Dewein and Senjeh Districts. Only a few farmers in the FGDs sell raw cassava and they say the challenges associated with bad roads, poor markets, and rapid spoilage of the product are hampering their businesses. A middle-aged female farmer said:

The roads are bad and even a basket of cassava is heavy, talk of a bag. So, when we get processing sites close to our farms, we can take our produce for processing easily and this will reduce loss of cassava and income for us.

Another farmer mentioned that when processing sites are placed in strategic positions between farms and markets, it will encourage farmers to produce more cassava.

Several farmers said they needed training in innovative practices to increase yields, reduce loss and enhance productivity. The younger farmers in the FGDs,

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams especially males, were the ones requesting more training in cassava production. The farmers reiterated the importance of training of extension agents and farmers in innovations in cassava production.

Farmers also discussed about the need for tools, especially ones made locally in rural areas that will be affordable and durable. They expressed their dismay at the high cost of farming tools like hoes, cutlasses, wheelbarrows and shovels, which they say do not last long. A local government official said: “……... when people in the communities are taught how to make local farming tools, they will be available to repair them when they spoil …... also, the tools will be reasonable for the subsistence farmers to purchase.”

When asked whether they had received tools and cassava cuttings in the past six months from the government or other donors, a few responded they have received tools that are not durable and spoil faster, in less than three months of use. Some farmers in the first FGD knew that the tools should be strengthened before use so they can last longer however, they say the nearest blacksmith is very far away from the district. To reinforce their tools, they would either travel to Monrovia or to Tubmanburg where it is costly.

“……transportation is cheaper from Dewein to Tubmanburg city but the only blacksmith there is costly; so it is preferable to use the tools for a while and save some money to fix them later”, said a middle-aged male farmer.

Training was another key need the farmers mentioned during both FGDs. When asked about the amount of cassava they harvest on one hectare of land, a male farmer said:

….before we usually harvest about 40 tonnes of cassava from an acre but now we lose nearly 20% of the product before, during and a day after harvest., especially when we leave the cassava some days after it is due for harvest.

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Another female farmer said “…we need knowledge on how to preserve the raw cassava after harvest; government and NGOs have conducted several trainings in Bomi County but our district is always left behind”. A male youth who received training from a demonstration site in the Suehn Mecca district of Bomi County said “…farmers in this

(Dewein) district are in need of training in planting methods, harvest and processing of cassava to ensure that we reap the fruits of our labor”. Farmers in Dewein have received fewer trainings than their counterparts in other districts over the years. The female participants, especially older ones, said they have never participated in agricultural trainings other than cassava processing. One of them stated:

…..I grew up in this district with some of the women present here; some of them have never participated in trainings before. Only few of us cassava farmers have benefitted from trainings by either government or donors. Our district is passed over most times when other districts in the county are receiving these supports. The farmers also discussed about the need for farm to market roads to ease the problem of transporting cassava from farms to market or processing sites. Transportation plays an important role in cassava value chain. An elderly male farmer said:

…planting cassava is affordable for us because we engage in other things while waiting for the tuber to be ready but harvesting and everything afterwards is hard: if we talk about selling the raw tubers, we think of transportation to the market; when we talk about processing the tubers to garri, we have to transport bags of tubers to a processing site.

This, farmers explain, is costly and requires more work because there are no processing sites in Dewein District. At the time of the FGDs, the closest site was about 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) from the district. There was also talk of a processing site for cassava farmers in the district. “……when we get a processing site close to our farms, we will be able to process our cassava into garri for sale. We make foofoo because every step

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams in processing cassava into foofoo can be done in the home”. Foofoo production is a major cassava value-chain activity, carried out by females in Dewein District since garri processing centers were not in the district during the time of data collection. Mechanized foofoo production has not been introduced in Liberia, therefore processing is still done traditionally at the household level.

The needs theme provided an insight into what farmers need to develop their skills in cassava production in Dewein district to improve their livelihoods.

Group Formation Theme.

This theme refers to the organization of farmers into groups by either gender or crops grown. More often than not, farmers forming a group live in or near the same community. The term group formation/organization refers to the Kuu system where farmers’ groups help each other with farming activities where and when labor is required.

The majority of these groups help their members to prepare the land and sow, but the main farming activity in which help is required is harvesting of cassava. Organizing farmers into groups either by gender, crop grown or community, benefits the group as many programs and projects run by NGOs that deliver Agriculture Extension and

Advisory Services (AEAS) often provide inputs to farmers’ groups, but not individual farmers. A female participant stated that:

Being in a cassava farmers’ group is beneficial not only in terms of help during harvest but also being recognized by a project. My group benefited from a World Bank project where we received training in cassava processing that we are not familiar with in Liberia.

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The kuu system of farming is common in Liberia among subsistence farmers who cannot afford to hire labor on their farms. These farmers work together through an organized system of providing help to their members when they need to prepare the land and harvest their crops. A younger female expressed disappointment that farmers in their district form groups that do not last long. “…we need to form and maintain farmers’ groups because that is why we are not considered when other districts are receiving farm output”. Another farmer said they should form a group to regulate and ensure the price of raw cassava is maintained in the market. She said “when farmers take their cassava to the market and want to leave early or sell rather than taking it back home, they are forced to sell at lower price to attract customers”. A male farmer said the lack of organized farmer groups in the district may be the cause of them not receiving the recognition they should get. He said “…female groups break up faster than male groups here; I don’t know how this problem can be fixed but as farmers it is our duty to get serious members and organize them into group”. A female participant responded that:

….when we set rules for our farmer groups and fine those who violate them; I believe these measures can promote good behavior in groups. If we make up our minds to succeed we can still make it happen by understanding each other; we must understand that farmers’ group comes with many benefits and we cannot succeed without being in groups.

The farmers lamented about the stress and expenses involved in harvesting cassava and transporting the product from the farm. Hiring labor is expensive and there is an unwillingness from youths to work on the farm and when they do, they charge exorbitantly. In most cases, farmers that are not in groups are forced to either reduce the number of hired laborers because of high prices or organize their families to harvest the

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams amount of cassava they would require for household consumption and processing or sell in a day. One male participant said:

I have a family of two children under 18 with my wife and my two younger brothers; so, you can see I have few help to harvest my over two acres of cassava farm. I am not a member of any kuu and during the cassava harvesting period, my extended family members and friends who are also cassava farmers hardly have the time to help me harvest my produce.

Some of the farmers said though group organization is beneficial it is also sometimes hard to work with other farmers. They say it is difficult to get farmers to commit to group work in the absence of incentives. Three female farmers in one session, two of which were once members of an all-female group and the third, member of a mixed-gender cassava farmers’ group said they had negative experiences, which led to the dissolution of the groups. The farmer from the mixed-gender group said:

…..we usually work for the males even when they don’t have money to pay or food to feed us, hoping they would do same for us but when we need their services in the group and tell them we do not have money to pay, they would demand we feed them or else they will not work for us. So, we end up working with only females.

Another participant from an all-female group said work was going on well and they started a Village Savings and Loans Association (VSLA) to help them financially.

She said: “we started losing money because some members will take credit, fail to repay the money and when asked they always make excuses till they would leave the group; that was how we lost monies and members”.

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One of the older farmers said it is necessary for farmers to form groups because they are empowered when they work together and share knowledge with their counterparts. He said:

…when farmers are in groups and even one receives training in cassava production or processing, he/she shares knowledge with others in the group, who in turn transfer to other cassava farmers who are not even in the group. The government and donor partners always advise that farmers form groups, especially by gender because women work better and achieve more when they are together.

Another male farmer mentioned that organized farmers’ groups attract donors faster than individual farmers who work together occasionally, like those in kuu systems.

He explained:

…..I am not saying that the kuu system is bad because it helps farmers with the needed labor when they cannot afford to hire extra laborers during harvest period; but when farmers are in groups with organized structure that meet regularly, they are easily identified by donors and projects implementing agriculture programs in the country.

The amount of cassava harvested from a one-hectare (about 2.5 acres) farm varies according to the farmer and is connected to how the farmer takes care of his/her crops, their knowledge of planting methods and innovative strategies. A male participant reported that he usually harvests about eight tons of cassava from his one-hectare farm.

The majority of the farmers do not harvest all their crops at one time, so they cannot quantify their harvest per hectare. A female farmer said:

…I cannot afford to hire laborers to help me harvest my cassava farm and my kids are not many; my husband is always busy in the rubber plantation because you know, he has to be around with the few workers, so thieves will not steal the rubber. So, I have to manage on the cassava farm and harvest with my children day by day until we finish.

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A middle-aged female farmer explained that even though she is a member of an all-female farmer’s group, where they help each other prepare the farm for planting and harvesting, at times during the lean period she usually borrows cassava and sometimes rice from her neighbors with an agreement to pay back with cassava immediately after harvest. So, she usually harvests enough cassava to repay her debts, sells some for the day and saves the rest to eat for the next few days. After some more days, she explains that she harvests enough to process into foofoo for sale at the Doula market in Monrovia.

The importance of this theme is that it draws out farmers’ inability to employ modern methods of planting cassava and how basic inputs can upgrade them and develop their livelihood. The theme outlined the roles played by male and female farmers in cassava production in Dewein district, which led to the gender roles theme.

Gender Roles Theme.

This theme refers to work done by men and women in cassava production. The farmers outlined the roles men and women play in cassava production.

Participants in both FGDs in the district added to the topic of gender-assigned roles in cassava production. Similar to Senjeh District, the land is prepared by men and boys with females providing food for workers. An older male farmer in the first FGD explained that the strength and perseverance of men put them in a position to brush (a local name for clearing) grass and uproot trees to prepare the soil for farming. He said

“….women are there to prepare heavy food early in the morning and at dusk; by that time we would have finished clearing a whole land ready for planting”. A female farmer concurred with the male participant that before planting season, especially if the family

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams wants to extend their farmland, the men in the family plan when to start clearing the bush.

She said:

…the family usually borrow extra tools especially diggers and wheelbarrows from neighbors or friends, so the work can be finished in one to two days. Then we prepare either cassava soup or boiled cassava with gravy in the morning and cassava leaves or potato greens in the evening

A younger female participant said “in my household, I am the only older female so during the brushing period, I call my relatives and friends to help me prepare food for the group.”

In rural Liberia, women are food providers; they are expected to grow crops to feed the family and sell the rest for other household expenses. The gendered roles in cassava production were clearly outlined during the FGDs. In Liberia, food crops - with the exception of the major staple, rice - are considered female-owned. Though there are male farmers in Liberia’s cassava production, the majority of the marketers of the product, both raw and prepared (boiled and roasted), are females. Cassava processing into garri is mainly controlled by men because of the machine used to grate the cassava. They are trained to operate, service, and repair the cassava grater when the need arises.

However, women are hired to peel and cut the cassava into smaller pieces to ease grating process; after grating from the machine, the women put the grated cassava in cheese- clothlike bags to drain the water. Frying the cassava for the end product – garri - can be done by both men and women. Sieving the garri into smaller particles from the larger ones is mainly done by women. Traditionally, processing from cassava to foofoo and dipper (dried pieces of cassava made into powder) is mainly a woman’s job; though gender roles in the sector are currently changing. A male FGD participant disclosed:

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I have two pieces of land; the bigger one is where I recently started growing rubber and the smaller one, a little more than an acre where my wife grows cassava and some vegetables. The women in the family tend to the cassava and vegetable farm because it is my wife’s duty to provide food for the family.

Women, food production, and food preparation seem like a norm in Bomi County.

The female cassava farmers represented in the FGDs accepted the responsibility of providing food for the family. A female participant noted:

…It is how things are done here; a woman is given a piece of land by her husband or family members to grow food crops to feed the family. That is how things had been done since the days of our grand-parents and even before; we have been taught when growing up that a woman is expected to provide food for the family that is why we do not see this as something extraordinary.

The planting phase is usually carried out by females with males helping at times.

Tending to the crops to ensure the stem is strong enough to harvest the leaves for sale is a female’s job and harvesting of the tubers is done by everyone. The amount of cassava leaves harvested from a plant depends on the variety of the cassava, because some varieties can be harvested from six months, others nine months and others 12 months.

The fertility of the soil and the age of the plant also determine whether the leaves can be harvested three to five months after planting the tuber. One of the younger females explained that after harvest, everyone transports cassava tubers either to the barn or to the market, depending on the time the cassava is harvested. She said “…in Dewein, since we process cassava into foofoo mainly, we go straight home with the amount of cassava meant for processing and take the one meant for sale straight to the market”.

The process of making foofoo is the traditional method which takes days. After harvest, the cassava is peeled by younger females, then soaked in water for three to four days to ferment. Then the cassava is removed from the water, wrapped in cheesecloth-

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams like materials, put in baskets, and pressed with heavy logs and rocks. These baskets are placed on log stands to allow excess water to drain from the fermented cassava. The foofoo is prepared and sold by females. Whilst there are machines to grate garri before frying, there no known machines to prepare foofoo in Liberia.

The cassava leaves are also harvested and eaten. Cassava leaves are harvested shortly before the tubers are ready (to be harvested), and sold in markets or for household consumption. For consumption, the leaves are harvested from only a small portion of the farm to prepare for meals; Also for commercialization, from a one-acre cassava farm, the leaves can be harvestd twice or thrice before the tubers are ready for harvest. This depends on the variety of cassava, the soil and the climate. Some cassava varieties produce lots of leaves which are ready for harvest around three months after planting. A female participant said “the leaves are harvested several times to prepare meals for the household before huge quantities are harvested for marketing”.

The changing gender dynamics in the agriculture sector was portrayed in the

Dewein discussions when another female participant mentioned:

We have been the ones selling cassava leaves for decades, now because cost of living is hard in the country; boys and men who grind cassava leaves at the market are now selling the leaves also; it seems like they are taking our livelihood from us. They go to farms to buy the leaves and grind them in the market. Although some customers prefer buying the fresh leaves from us; most people purchase the ground leaves, which is ready for preparation.

The changing roles in cassava production was prominent in the discussions as male farmers are now venturing into tasks once performed by females. Cassava production was mainly a female task though men help in land preparation is now changing. More males in the FGDs are in production through commercialization of

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams cassava. It is important to note that processing of cassava into foofoo and marketing the product were solely female tasks but during the FGDs in Dewein District, some men say they process cassava into foofoo, especially when they experience a bumper harvest and want to preserve the cassava. This theme was formed when participants were responding to questions about roles of farmers by gender in cassava production and commercialization.

Storage Theme.

This is one of the themes vital to the study but was not discussed in depth during the FGDs. Farmers seem to know about storage but have resolved to either process the cassava a day or two after harvest, sell raw, or store small quantities for household consumption. Storing cassava seems like a nightmare to all the farmers; only five farmers in all the FGDs say they store their cassava; and they explained that the storage is just for a very short time. Generally, farmers in Bomi County only store their raw cassava for up to a week because the storage methods they practice do not keep the cassava fresh for more than a few days. When asked about their strategies to store fresh cassava, many explained that they bury their raw cassava in holes dug in their barns or kitchens; others store the cassava in bags and cover the top with dirt. Some farmers however, boil their cassava, and dry it completely on makeshift dryers and store until it is ready for consumption for up to 12 months.

Every farmer in the FGDs, even those who do not store their cassava, when asked how they store or will store the product say the best place is to dig a hole in either the kitchen or the barn and bury the cassava for three to four days. Some however say, when

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams cassava is left over from the market, all they could do is to pack them in baskets Farmers do not seem to know how to store fresh cassava for more than a week. Some were even unaware that cassava can be stored for up to two weeks and still remain fresh. A female participant said:

I have experienced cassava spoilage after digging it up from the underground storage in five days. Some were good, but others were rotten already. So, I just resigned to boiling the cassava, drying them thoroughly and storing for as long as possible. This, however, cannot be sold but only used for household consumption.

The storage facilities in Bomi County are barns made of either wood, zinc, or thatch. These makeshift structures are usually out in the yard close to the cooking area mainly used for storing many types of food for household consumption or crops awaiting processing. They are exposed to rodents and other animals foraging for food. The farmers grew up watching their parents and grand-parents store cassava in kitchens or buried underground, believing those were the best forms of storing cassava. Surprisingly, these farmers have no idea that fresh cassava can be stored for up to two weeks and even beyond.

Conclusion

The themes gave an insight to constraints facing cassava producers in Senjeh and

Dewein Districts, Bomi County. The themes from the FGDs were connected in a way that they provided information for the development of the training manual and the quantitative instrument.

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PART II

Emerging Themes from Individual Interviews

Cassava Loss Theme.

This theme refers to loss of cassava before, during, and after harvest. Interview participants mentioned that farmers in the county experience loss of cassava that is affecting their livelihood.

One participant explained that loss of cassava in the field is usually curtailed by setting traps to catch rodents that often start eating the tubers just before harvest. He explained that although loss of crops after hard work is every farmer’s nightmare, when the crop is lost in the field it is not so difficult to accept as when it is lost after harvest, which is more painful. He explained that “after working to harvest plots of land and realizing a bumper or even normal harvest, postharvest loss can reduce income expected from the sale of the product”. Another participant said “we need more scientists in the country who will research on the topic and help farmers find lasting solutions to the problem of loss and durability of cassava”. Postharvest loss of cassava was a concern for every interviewee. One participant said:

…postharvest loss should not be taken lightly in our country because we have limited capacity to fight it and other issues affecting the agricultural sector. We should train young scientists who will work together to provide solutions to the problems farmers are facing with postharvest loss of cassava.

Another participant explained that transporting the produce from farm to market/home also causes loss because the bad roads cause the cassava to drop on the way, reducing a bag or basket full of cassava. He stated “this is very heartbreaking for our farmers who toil in the scorching sun to fend for their families only to experience these types of loss”.

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One of the participants talked about the collection of updated and gender- disaggregated data to understand the plight of farmers. He said;

….we do not collect data as regularly as we are supposed to do; therefore, issues that should be recorded every farming season are not picked up on time to find solutions. Funding issues are taking us backwards as the agriculture sector needs frequent research and recommendations to farmers and policy makers. When strong policies are made and implementation is well monitored, we can boost of growth in the agriculture sector…

This loss of cassava theme contributed greatly to the development of the training manual and the instrument since the topic is key to the study.

Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services Theme.

The Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services (AEAS) theme refers to onsite and field demonstrations, advice, and training received by farmers from public and private extension agents. These extension agents guide farmers, so they can make decisions to improve cassava yields and techniques to reduce loss of the product before, during and after harvest.

Access to extension services in Bomi County is limited due to the low number of agents per farmers in the country. In Liberia the private sector, including NGOs, and the public sector provide extension services to farmers. Some interviewees stated that they get complaints from farmers who rarely see private and government agents for advisory services. Even when agents do make visits, the follow-up visits are rare and may take up to four to six months. Government agents can be reached when they cannot go on extension visits, said many of the farmers, but commuting to the local Ministry of

Agriculture office is not only time-consuming but difficult for them to leave their farms;

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams and the farmers cannot afford to make telephone calls due to the high cost of communication. When asked about extension agents, a MOA official confirmed that the government lacks extension agents in many of the counties to meet the advisory needs of the faming population. He said:

……this is one of the many challenges the Liberian agriculture sector is facing. We need to encourage and support our youths to engage in agriculture, so they can obtain the requisite training to fill in as agriculture extension and advisory services professionals.

An example of the limited availability of extension and advisory services for farmers arose in the FGDs. Nearly every farmer in the FGDs stated that they have never received trainings on planting methods, harvest strategies, or other innovations for improved productivity. A senior official of the Ministry of Agriculture said funding for conducting training sessions for farmers is limited: “Government lacks the resources to provide training for all farmers; we do try our best but limited funding is crippling our extension and advisory services to farmers”. Another said: “…. although international partners do provide training for farmers in projects, many of them are short-term projects that hardly have time to follow-up on farmers after the interventions.”

The interviewees talked about the limited number of government extension agents available in their districts. They say that this has led to farmers not receiving the frequent help in advisory services as required. A Bomi County official said:

“Government extension workers in Bomi County are so few and they hardly visit farms; even when they do, they do not spend enough time to teach farmers anything”. A government official said: “the Ministry of Agriculture is challenged with limited staff qualified to serve as extension agents, especially after the civil war; the few agents we have are insufficient to meet the extension needs of farmers in the counties.” Another

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams government official mentioned that the older workforce of extension workers in the country’s agriculture sector is affecting the sector in terms of effective performance. He said: “We have efficient extension workers in the counties, but they are ageing, and the younger generation of farmers are not willing to take over from them in the sector.”

Another interviewee stated that the low number of female extension agents is a disadvantage to female farmers, because they require someone who will understand the challenges they are facing. A county official said when he spoke to a female farmer group, they told him that when male extension agents visit their farms, they help with the problems the farmers incur, but they would prefer female agents so they can freely share their issues and problems and discuss with them as fellow women.

This is a very important theme to the study that provided insight on the extension advisory needs of farmers and the need for female extension workers in the sector. This theme is connected to the knowledge transfer theme because Agricultural Extension and

Advisory Services (AEAS) is a form of education of farmers in agronomical practices for improved agriculture.

Knowledge Transfer Theme.

This theme is related to advisory and education services provided by public and private sector extension agents to farmers. The need for regular training of farmers in agronomical practices for improved cassava yield was discussed in all the FGDs and interviews.

One of the participants mentioned that farmers should be updated regularly with innovation information practiced by their counterparts in other countries. He said, “we do

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams not have modern data collection instruments that can easily gather information but with the training of subject matter specialists, we can count on them to take their research back to the subsistence farmers.”

Transfer of knowledge is conducted by actors in the agricultural sector or experts consulted to train workers in the sector. One interviewee said:

The Liberian government through multilateral and bilateral donors have trained extension workers in and out of Liberia where they have had the opportunity to work in specialized laboratories and fields. When they return, the labs and equipment they require to conduct studies are not available in the country, so they try to manage, and science is not about managing but having the right materials to get good results. High schools and universities in the country are not equipped to meet present-day scientific requirements.

Another official added:

If Agriculture is meant to improve the lives of our rural people and move them out of poverty, we must ensure that our farmers are well trained and ensure policies are implemented to increase their livelihood. We need more qualified students in the sector; a country can never get enough subject matter specialists we need the right policies to build the sector. Agriculture programs implemented in rural areas should be well monitored so project beneficiaries can receive the inputs they are supposed to get.

Every interviewee stressed the need for agricultural statisticians, educators, and monitoring and evaluation experts who will be readily available to deliver to the sector.

One expressed dismay that tertiary institutions do not only lack scientific labs and equipment but are also in need of more scientists. He said:

Some of us can boast of an advanced degree in our special fields of study because we were opportune to travel out of the country for higher education. Though we need specialists, we do not have laboratories and research instruments for them to work. The problem is more complex than it seems. We have to start again from the primary school level so students will grow with the love for agriculture, and

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schools should have gardens which will serve as demonstration sites for agricultural science courses at the primary to secondary level.

Access to education, including opportunities for training was discussed from the gender point of view where there are reported disparities among male and female farmers. These inequalities range from access to land rights, information, education, hired labor and inputs for female farmers. One of the interviewees talked about the need for gender-tailored training materials that will enable female farmers, especially those with little or no formal education, to comprehend trainings in agronomical methods for good planting and value chain practices. He stated that: “scholarship opportunities should be upgraded for females in agricultural fields and vocational institutions should promote and encourage female participation”.

This theme is important to the study because it highlights the importance of knowledge transfer in the agricultural sector. This theme followed the loss of cassava theme because the interviewees stressed that knowledge transfer is very important to reducing loss of cassava.

Gender Theme.

Gender is a very important part of agriculture because the roles and requirements of male and female farmers are different. This theme developed out of the interviews focused on the gender roles of men and women, inequalities in the sector, and the improvements made since the end of the civil crisis in closing the gender gaps. A male government official interviewed said:

Societal norms and culture have placed women in a situation that subjects them to [be] food providers, home caretakers, and subsistence farmers. They grew up learning how to take care of their husbands and the

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extended families every hour of the day and being a farmer who grows food for the family and selling the rest to cater to their family’s needs is their responsibilities.

A male county official said:

I do not see anything wrong with this because a woman’s job is to take care of her family’s needs and make sure everyone in the family has food to eat; that is why the men give them land to farm when we marry them.

A government official said:

We recognize the fact that men and women in agriculture are treated differently based on cultural and religious norms. These laws are age-old and upheld by being transferred from one generation to another. Changing the minds of people who were taught at birth that men are superior to women and that they should be cared for by the latter is difficult. It is not a one month or one year job but a period of time and lots of planning. Changing cultural and societal norms requires time and the approach has to be well planned. This is what we have been experiencing when working directly with farmers.

Another official who works directly with farmers said:

My experiences working with farmers in the county where majority are women has opened my eyes to problems of gender inequalities. There are times when as a team we need to split up to visit farmers who are experiencing problems like pests or simply they need advice on some planting methods….Once I went to the farm of a woman who grows cassava and vegetables on her plot of land. I had to go there for three days in a row to teach her some things and also some farmers whose farmland are near hers. The husband was told that I visit regularly and most times alone. He came to the office to report that I go visit his wife……we have only male extension workers in the county and we are not enough to visit farmers in groups.

When extension workers receive a request or complaint from farmers in a certain village, they plan who should visit which farm based on the manner of complaints and the specialty of the agent. Since there are no female agents, only males are available to visit the farms. An extension agent said addressing issues like a jealous husband of a female

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams farmer is very important to the success of an agent’s work in their assigned district. He said:

I had to take my wife and kids to introduce them to the local chief so the word will go around that I have a family, especially a wife to put the men at ease. Though this hardly assures them but knowing that I have a family back home and they have known my wife sometimes put their mind at ease.

The gender imbalance in agriculture is causing problems not only for farmers but also for extension agents.

The multiple tasks of females in the sector is another important aspect of gender roles in agriculture. After cassava planting season, women continue to go to their farms because in most cases, they have vegetables, fruits and other food crops that require regular tending. Around the farm is where they gather firewood and after working there, they go fetch water to cook or do the laundry. One participant said:

We should not forget that women are taught these tasks are for them whilst men have their own work. This is why girls have problems going to school. Some parents prefer the girls to stay home and learn how to take care of their future husbands, but the boys are allowed to go to school. The families usually find money to send the boys to school but when it comes to girls, there is not enough money.

A government authority said inequalities are not only limited to tasks but also to the equal distribution of natural resources. He said:

In the case of land, we know that males are preferred to inherit but arable land acquisition is something that is overlooked. In some regions, there is sufficient water through districts, but some other regions have dry land where farmers have to walk long distances to fetch water for their vegetables. I have seen cases where a family has lots of farmland, some besides the stream where water is available for the plants but usually, the women in the family are given spaces far from water supply. Acquisition of arable land is another serious crisis affecting women who feed the family from their food crops.

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The interviews reflected the importance of best agronomical practices and the need for robust strategies and good policies to enhance cassava production in the country.

The researcher utilized the information gathered from the interviews to develop the training manual and the quantitative instrument to address the issue of PHL reduction of cassava in Dewein and Senjeh Districts in Bomi County, Liberia.

The gender theme cuts across all FGDs and interviews; it was clear that gender plays an important role in cassava production in the districts. The connection between gender and needs of farmers is clear in the sense that the requirements of male and female farmers vary because of their gender roles and responsibilities. On the other hand, gender differences in opportunities for female farmers is linked to cultural norms and religious practices that prohibit female farmers from accessing resources that could promote their livelihood.

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams

PART III

Connection between themes from FGD and Interviews

The term post-harvest loss (PHL) was strange to farmers. Only a handful had ever heard of the term. When they were explained what PHL means and how it occurs in cassava production, they wanted to know more to save their tubers. None of them had ever participated in PHL management training. Some farmers actually said they will appeal to government and donors to train them on PHL management. Their knowledge of cassava loss is limited to the product being eaten by rodents on the farm, orwhen the produce is kept for too long in a bag or other storage areas. Some even think the purple streak on the tubers is natural, when it is actually harmful. The interviewees also stressed the need to educate farmers and students about PHL management of staples. One thing that stood out during the FGDs was that farmers explained that after harvest, they cut large tubers into smaller pieces so they can fit in bags or baskets for easy transportation.

This actually increases the deterioration of the product.

The gender theme that was present in the FGDs and interviews was vital to the manipulation of the independent varibles for the experiment in the study. The gender dynamics in rural areas are different from those in urban and peri-urban areas. In some urban areas, the dynamics are changing to accommodate formal education of the population. The social construction of roles in cassava production is changing as younger male farmers, desperate to make a living in the sector are engaging in tasks that were once considered only for females. The gender role themes from the FGDs in the two districts and the interviews varied from gender-division of labor to access to education, land acquisition and ownership, and access to arable land. The issue of insufficient

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams female extension workers, which is causing social problems in farmers’ households, was briefly discussed with extension workers providing instances where their work was halted due to misconceptions. Looking at gender perceptions of training groups provided an insight of how women feel and express themselves when they are trained with their male counterparts, in an all-female group, or mixed with male and females.

The first three themes Cassava Cuttings, Durable Farmng Tools, Training and

Commercialization from the FGDs in Senjeh District are all classified under needs in the general themes. Their connection points to requirements farmers outlined that would improve their livelihood and help them tackle the problem of cassava loss. In figure 4.1, the connection between the themes from interviews and FGDs and their link to the general themes for the qualitative study is outlined.

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FGD Themes Interviews

Senjeh Dewein District District

Cassava Loss Cassava Marketin Cutting g

Durable Trainin Farming g Group AEAS Tools Format ion

Trainin Knowledg g e Transfer Gender Roles Needs

Comm ercializ ation Storage Gender

Gender

Figure 4.1. Connection between FGD and Interview Themes

The interviews and focus group discussions were conducted in Dewein and

Senjeh Districts in Bomi County, Bong and Montserrado County one year prior to the

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams training and quantitative data collection. Discussions were centered around participants’ understanding of postharvest loss management, planting and harvesting methods of cassava.

The qualitative data provided answers to the first and second research questions of the study.

Qualitative

Research Question 1.

The first research question was: What are the demographic characteristics of cassava farmers in Dewein and Senjeh Districts?

Dewein is the smallest district in Bomi County with a population of 12,783 people and Senjeh is the largest with a population of 29,325 (LISGIS 2008). The FGD participants were (20) male and (20) female cassava farmers, between the ages of 18-60 years. About 60% of the participants had never attended school and 25% had completed primary education; about 10% had reached junior high school with the remaining 5% completing senior high school. Agriculture is the main livelihood in the two districts, and a major source of income for 95% of the participants for the interviews and FGDs. Some of them had a secondary livelihood of charcoal burning and sale, trade and casual labor.

One participant’s main livelihood is teaching, and agriculture is his secondary livelihood.

Nearly 70% of the participants were married, 20% were cohabiting, 5% were widowed and the remaining 5% were single. Not all participants could provide actual sizes of their cassava farms but those who did know the size of their farm said their farm sizes range

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams between one to three acres. More than half (60%) of the participants are originally from

Bomi County with the rest (mainly females) from other counties in Liberia.

The population in Bomi County consumes cassava on a daily basis, even though rice is the main staple food in Liberia. The cost of rice and the hard labor involved in rice cultivation makes it hard for them to consume rice on a daily basis. Cassava farmers process cassava into foofoo and dipper for household consumption. Garri is processed mainly for commercialization, especially in Senjeh District, but serves as “emergency food” when hunger arises and there is no other food available. A female cassava farmer stated that:

…..rice is usually in abundance during harvest period. In my kuu, I help rice farmers who sometimes give us small quantity of the paddy for our homes. Many other rice farmers pay their debts in rice since there’s usually lots of rice around the community. So, during that time, we eat rice, especially in the evenings but we always eat cassava in the mornings.

Research Question 2.

What are the gender dimensions of post-harvest practices in cassava production?

Cassava cultivation in Liberia has the face of a female as the steps in cassava production in Bomi County are female-dominated. Farmers explained that soil preparation, planting of the cuttings, and weeding are mainly tasks for women, though men also help. Harvesting is carried out by male and female farmers, but processing is considered a woman’s task. However, even tasks that are designated for women can be done by men when the farm is large and there are few workers, or if men are the owners of the farm. One female farmer said:

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……in my family, the women and girls prepare the soil and do the planting of cassava with help from the men; though they have their own farms to work but my husband and other males unusually help me harvest if I have a contract from one of my customers to supply them with certain amount of cassava bags.

The gender themes from all the FGDs and interviews discuss in-depth how gender roles in cassava production are carried out. Gender dimensions in cassava production, portrays a gender hierarchy in the sector that has evolved over the years. Gender hierarchy, according to Ridgeway (1997), as “a system that advantages men over women in material resources, power status and authority” (p.218). Female farmers who make up majority of producers and marketers receive little or no training and have

Summary

The themes developed in this study show that post-harvest loss of cassava is recognized as detrimental to farmers’ livelihood in Liberia.

Major actors in the sector have placed a high importance on AEAS so farmers can have access to information, knowledge and skills to reduce PHL and enhance their livelihood. The findings provided a rich description of the gender inequalities in the sector in terms of challenges faced by female farmers and the changing roles in cassava production, processing and commercialization.

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CHAPTER V

QUANTITATIVE FINDINGS

Overview

Male and female cassava farmers in Dewein and Senjeh Districts were purposively targeted for the study; a sample size of 169, calculated using The Research

Advisers (2006) with a margin of .05 margin of error. The list of selected farmers was then disaggregated by gender and randomly assigned to the training groups for men, women and mixed gender.

Quantitative Results

The quantitative data were manually entered into SPSS 24 and screened to check for missing data and extreme values (outliers), using frequency distributions and descriptive statistics. There were non-random missing cases which were carefully investigated and the values missing from the cases deleted to ensure that they were not missing values from the dependent or independent variables. The missing values were from optional questions where participants were supposed to list land sizes for the number of land they have. Nearly 98% of participants had only one plot of land for cassava cultivation therefore, the second and third options were deleted. All the secondary optional values were missing; so, the missing values were addressed by deletion. In three cases, other missing values that were important to the study, such as land sizes for a plot of land, were estimated and the method of educated guess was used to replace the values (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007; Mertler & Vannatta Reinhart, 2017).

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The data were screened for univariate outliers using stem and leaf plots with box plots; an extreme outlier was investigated and found to be a case of data input error, which was corrected. The other outliers were carefully observed and considered to be part of the data due to differences in the study participants.

Testing of Assumptions

Normality was tested using Q-Q plots and there was some non-normal distribution of the dependent variable. However, the MANOVA test is robust to the assumption of normality, as some deviation from normality does not have a significant influence on the test (Laerd Statistics, 2018). Multicollinearity was tested using the

Pearson’s correlation; as shown in Table 5.1; there was moderate multicollinearity between the dependent variables.

Table 5.1 Correlation Coefficients for Relations between the Three Dependent Variables Measure 1 2 3 1. Attitude - .45 .37 2. Subjective Norms - .63 3. Intentions -

The assumption of linearity was assessed using scatterplots and there was a linear relationship between the dependent variables in each training group. Levene’s test was used to determine whether the variances between group combinations for the dependent variables were equal. Levene’s test was not statistically significant for the three

Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams dependent variables, attitudes (p = .19), subjective norms (p = .34), intentions (p = .08); thus, the researcher concluded that the variances for the dependent variables were equal.

Objective 1

Research objective one sought to describe the demographic characteristics of the sample population in Senjeh and Dewein Districts, Bomi County; its aim was to describe cassava farmers from the two districts who participated in stages two and three of the study. A total of 139 farmers participated in the training and the quantitative data collection and they were randomly assigned into gender groups. Group one, the all-male group, participated in days one and two of the training (n = 48). Group two, the all- female group and the largest group of farmers in the study, participated in days three and four of the training (n = 52). Group three, the mixed gender group, had the least number of participants (n = 39) and participated in day five of the training. Overall, there were slightly more males (n = 72) than females (n = 67) that participated in the study.

The educational level of participants is recorded in Table 5.2. The data show that most of the participants had received no form of education (46.8%), with only 0.7% of participants receiving tertiary and vocational education. One participant did not respond to the education question. On group two (females), which had the highest number of participants (n = 52), 63.5% of the participants had received no education. Not one participant in group two had completed high-school and none of the participants in group two or group three had received tertiary or vocational education. Table 5.2 and Figure

5.3 show the educational level of the participants in the study.

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Table 5.2. Summary of Participants’ Education Overall Male Female Mixed (n = 138) (n = 48) (n = 52) (n = 39) Characteristic F f % F f % F f % f f % None 65 46.8 14 29.2 33 63.5 18 46.2 Some Primary 20 14.4 7 14.6 6 11.5 7 17.9 Completed Primary 4 2.9 2 4.2 1 1.9 1 2.6 Some JHS 29 20.9 15 31.3 9 17.3 5 12.8 Completed JHS 6 4.3 3 6.3 1 1.9 2 5.1 Some SHS 7 5.0 3 6.3 1 1.9 3 7.7 Completed SHS 5 3.6 2 4.2 - - 3 7.7 Tertiary 1 .7 1 2.1 - - - - Vocational 1 .7 1 2.1 - - - -

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The main source of livelihood for 94.2% of the study participants was farming,

2.9% indicated the other category, 2.2% indicated trading, and 0.7% indicated hunting.

The 2.9% of participants that indicated other livelihoods as major source of income engage in the burning and sale of charcoal. None of the participants depended on fishing or food processing as a major livelihood source.

In the male group, agriculture was the main livelihood of 97.9% of farmers, followed by trading which was only 2.1%. For the all-female training group, 88.5% of the participants depended primarily on agriculture as their major source of income. The female group indicated that 3.8% of their major livelihood came from trading, and 5.8% came from other productive activities; none of the females indicated hunting as a source of income. In the mixed group, 97.4% depended on agriculture, with only 2.6% depending on trading. For secondary livelihood, trading was the highest with 28.8% of participants depending on it, followed by agriculture (28.1%), as shown on table 5.3.

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Table 5.3.

Summary of Participants’ Livelihood Overall Male Female Mixed Gender (N = 139) (n = 48) (n = 52) (n = 39)

Main Livelihood F f % f f % f f % f f %

Farming 131 94.2 47 97.9 46 88.5 38 97.4

Hunting 1 .7 ------

Trading 3 2.2 - - 2 3.8 1 2.6

Other 4 2.9 1 2.1 3 5.8 - -

*Sec Livelihood F f % f f % f f % f f %

Farming 39 28.1 13 27.1 20 38.5 6 15.4

Hunting 4 2.9 2 4.2 - 2 5.1

Fishing 1 .7 1 2.1 - - -

Trading 40 28.8 4 8.3 21 40.4 15 38.5

Food Processing 7 5.0 2 4.2 4 7.7 1 2.6

Other 28 20.1 16 33.3 4 7.7 8 20.5

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Most participants in the study were household heads, which shows they are the main breadwinners for their families. Overall, 64% of the farmers responded yes to the “are you the head of your household?” question; and 36% were not. In the all-male training group, 97.9% of participants were household heads and 2.1% were not. In the all-female training group, 26.9% of the participants were household heads. Finally, in the mixed gender training group 71.8% of the participants were household heads. The results are shown in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4.

Summary of Participants’ Head of Household Status

Overall Male Female Mixed

f f % f f % f f % f f %

Yes 89 64.0 47 97.9 14 26.9 28 71.8

No 50 36.0 1 2.1 38 73.1 11 28.2

Regarding land ownership, 31% of the participants obtained the land they farm on from their spouses. The males (34.7%) in the study were the highest number that received land from their spouses whilst females were the highest recipient of land inherited from fathers.

Approximately 26% of participants in the study claimed they inherited the land they farm on

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from their fathers and only 7.9% inherited land from their mothers. Twenty-five percent of the male respondents indicated that their fathers had provided them with land to farm, but the respondents were not the owners of the land. Table 5.5 shows participants land acquisition methods.

Table 5.5.

Land Acquisition Methods of Male and Female Participants

Overall Male Female

(n =139) (n = 72) (n = 67)

Acquisition Methods f f % f f % f f %

Inherited from Father 36 25.9 9 12.5 27 40.3

Inherited from 11 7.9 11 15.3

Mother

Given by Father 34 24.5 18 25.0 16 23.8

Given by Mother 14 10.0 9 12.5 5 7.5

Given by Spouse 44 31.7 25 34.7 19 28.4

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When asked who makes decisions on the types of crops to grow on their farmland, 75.5% of participants in the study said those decisions are made by male household heads.

Approximately 14% of males in the study say the decisions on crops to grow are made by their wives. In 8.6% of the cases, the participants indicated that the decision is made by other relatives. A small number of participants (1.4%) indicated that the decision on type of crops to grow on their farm is made after harvest and depends on whether harvest of the crop grown was good, or whether the soil needs to be conserved, then crop rotation is practiced.

Decisions on how participants’ household resources are used are mostly made by household heads (64.8%), with only 12.9% of participants responding that the decision is made by their spouses. In 22.3% of the cases, respondents indicated that decisions are made by other relatives.

Participants were asked about their harvesting and storage strategies prior to the training to assess their level of knowledge on the subject. On whether they had ever participated in trainings on cassava harvesting, 98.6% of the respondents had never been trained to harvest cassava for post-harvest loss reduction; and 97.1% of the participants had never being trained to store cassava. Out of the 2.9% and 1.4% of respondents who had participated in harvest and storage trainings to reduce post-harvest loss, 2.9% said the training was organized by a non- governmental organization and 1.4% said the training was organized by the Government of

Liberia. See Table 5.6.

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Table 5.6.

Participants’ Pre-Training on Harvest and Storage Techniques

Participated Never Participated

Trainings F f % f f %

Harvest 4 2.9 135 97.1

Storage 2 1.4 137 98.6

On post-training knowledge of harvesting techniques, 51.1% of the farmers strongly agreed that they had learnt a lot during the training, 27.3% somewhat agreed, and 2.2% disagreed. Regarding post-training knowledge of storage techniques, 53.2% of respondents strongly agreed that they had learnt a lot during the training, 23% somewhat agreed, 20.9% agreed, 2.2% disagreed, and .7% strongly disagreed. Table 5.7 shows the total percentage of farmers’ levels of agreement with the statement that they had learnt a lot about storage techniques to reduce post-harvest loss of cassava.

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Table 5.7.

Summary of Participants’ Post-Training Knowledge

Harvest Storage

Characteristic f f % F f %

Strongly Disagree 1 .7

Disagree 3 2.2 3 2.2

Agree 27 19.4 29 20.9

Somewhat agree 38 27.3 32 23.0

Strongly Agree 71 51.1 74 53.2

The post-training knowledge scores of farmers in their gender-disaggregated training groups show that the highest number of farmers in the male (56.3%), female (46.2%) and mixed gender (51.3%) training groups strongly agreed that they had learned something about harvest of cassava tubers to reduce post-harvest loss. Also, in the male (56.2%), female (50.0%) and mixed gender (53.8%) training group had learnt something about storage of cassava to reduce postharvest loss of thee product. Table 5.8 shows the participants’ post-training knowledge broken down among the male, female, and mixed gender training groups

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Table 5.8.

Summary of Participants’ Post-Training Knowledge by Gender Group

Harvest Storage

Training Groups Male Female Mixed Male Female Mixed

(n = 48) (n = 52) ( n = 39) (n= 48) (n =52) (n =39)

Strongly Disagree - - - - *1.9 -

Disagree 5.8 - - 5.7 -

Agree 10.4 21.2 28.2 14.6 21.2 28.3

Somewhat agree 33.3 26.8 20.5 29.2 21.2 17.9

Strongly Agree 56.3 46.2 51.3 56.2 50.0 53.8

*Note: All scores are percentages.

Participants were asked whether the climate in their respective training groups was conducive for learning and 37.5% of participants from the male training groups strongly agreed, whilst 3.9% and 7.7% from the female and mixed gender training groups respectively. Those who disagreed in the mixed gender group are 35.8% and 69.2% in the female group. About 18% from the male group were undecided and 12.8% from the mixed gender somewhat agreed, as shown in Table 5.9.

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Table 5.9.

Summary of Participants’ Perception of Climate in Respective Gender Groups

Male Female Mixed Gender

(n = 48) (n =52) (n =39)

f f % F f % f f %

Strongly Disagree 8 16.7 36 69.2 14 35.8

Somewhat Disagree 2 4.2 4 7.7 4 10.3

Disagree 3 6.3 2 3.8 1 2.6

Undecided 9 18.6 7 13.5 11 28.2

Agree 1 2.6

Somewhat Agree 8 16.7 1 1.9 5 12.8

Strongly Agree 18 37.5 2 3.9 3 7.7

Perceived Behavioral Control , which is an individual’s ease or difficulty in adopting a behavior; is closely related to an individual’s intentions one of the constructs which can directly predict any change in the individual’s behavior (Ajzen & Madden, 1986) towards adopting a behavior. Perceived behavioral control was measured using the grand mean of the questions that addressed participants ease and difficulty in adopting strategies and techniques to reduce PHL of cassava taught in the training. The perceived behavioral construct was a two item, seven point

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Likert scale (strongly disagree = 1- strongly disagree = 7). Participants in their respective training groups were assessed whether they would easily adopt the behavior or not. In the male training group, 66.7% of the participants strongly agreed that they will adopt the techniques taught in the training. About 48% of participants in the mixed gender training group strongly agreed and 28.2% agreed they will easily adopt the training despite their age-old traditional beliefs and practices relating to cassava production. As shown in Table 5.10, 17% of participants in the female training group somewhat agreed to adopt the techniques, whilst 73% of participants in the same group strongly agreed they will easily adopt the techniques.

Table 5.10.

Summary of Participants’ Perceived Behaviorial Control in their Training Groups

Male Female Mixed Gender

(n = 48) (n =52) (n =39)

f f % f f % f f %

Agree 6 12.5 5 9.6 9 23.1

Somewhat Agree 10 20.9 9 17.3 11 28.2

Strongly Agree 32 66.7 38 73.1 19 48.7

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Grand Mean of Constructs

The scales in the instrument were measured by calculating the grand mean of the statements representing each scale. The mean scores of ‘attitude’ were measured using the seven statements representing ‘attitudes to training’, the mean scores of ‘subject norms’ were measured using the eight statements representing the construct; and ‘intention’ was measured using the mean scores of the twelve; the mean scores of ‘internal and external factors that support intentions to adopt’ were measured using the 12 statements representing the construct. The only negative statement in the construct was reverse-coded to ensure that all statements were positive.

The reliability tests were conducted to obtain the alpha levels of each scale.

Reliability Test

Cronbach's alpha was used as measure of internal consistency to test the reliability of the scale. The constructs of the TPB were analyzed using Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients.

Cronbach’s alpha is most commonly used when there are multiple Likert statements in a questionnaire that form a scale and the researcher wishes to determine if the scale is internally consistent (Cronbach, 2004; Field 2013). The overall Cronbach’s Alpha was .772, which indicates a suitable level of reliability (Kline, 1999; Field, 2013). The Cronbach’s Alpha for perceived behavioral control construct which is a two-item contruct is .716, also a suitable level of reliability.

The initial instrument had 66 questions that included a negative statement in the attitude construct, and statements that were too leading in the support construct. Prior to data collection,

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the negative statements were deleted; five questions in the pre-training knowledge subscale were deleted and replaced with questions for post-training. Table 5.11. shows the descriptive reliability results of the subscales in the instrument.

Table 5.11.

Descriptive Statistics on Reliability Test

Construct M SD r1 r2 a

Pre-Training Knowledge 1.547 .886 -.027 .025 .834

Post-Training Knowledge 6.333 .784 .706 .571 .707

Attitudes 6.531 .917 .502 .374 .743

Subjective Norms 6.221 .889 .652 .529 .713

Intentions 5.173 .499 .671 .608 .733

Perceived Behavioral Control 6.522 .712 .678 .622 .716

Perception of Gender Groups 5.737 .772 .466 .329 .749

Internal & External Factors 4.499 .824 .395 .205 .761

SD= Standard Deviation, r1= Corrected Item-Total Correlation, r2= Squared Multiple Correlation, α= Cronbach’s Alpha. Items measured on a 7-point Likert Scale where 1 = Strongly Agreed and 7 = Strongly Disagreed.

Research Questions III to V

Attitude towards the Training.

Research question three sought to determine whether there were differences in male,

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female and mixed gender group of farmers’ attitudes toward adopting harvest and storage training techniques to reduce post-harvest loss of cassava.

The attitude of farmers in their respective training groups was assessed using a was a seven item, seven point Likert scale (strongly disagree = 1- strongly disagree = 7). The

Cronbach Alpha’s for the construct was .733 which is a suitable level of reliability.

The attitude of farmers to determine the degree to which they favor the PHL-reduction techniques was assessed with questions such as “I had other things to do with my time but being present in the training was necessary”. The relevance of the training to participants was assessed, their beliefs that the techniques taught and demonstrated would work on their farms and their concerns about PHL of cassava, were measured. According to TPB, a person’s intention to adopt a behavior is influenced by their assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of the behavior which they are expected to adopt. In this study, farmers after weighing the pros and cons of the adopting the techniques and strategies taught in the training, had a positive attitude toward the techniques. The results show that there were no differences in participants attitudes toward the training. Their attitudes were favorable with no difference in their gender training groups. They wholeheartedly accepted the techniques taught in the training.

Intentions toward Adoption.

Research question four sought to determine whether there were differences in male, female and mixed gender group of farmers’ intentions towards adopting harvest and storage

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techniques.

Farmers intentions towards adopting the techniques taught to reduce PHL of cassava, according to TPB is connected to the positivity of their attitudes and subjective norms and to a greater extent their perceived behavioral control (Ajzen & Madden, 1986); which is related to their ease or difficulty in adopting the techniques. Intention plays a key role in determining whether an individual will adopt a behavior or not. Intentions was assessed using a four-item, seven-point Likert scale where participants were asked about their willingness to adopt the techniques to adopt the techniques to reduce PHL of cassava and their confidence that the techniques taught will reduce PHL of cassava. The reliability when tested using Cronbach’s

Alpha was .733, which is acceptable. According to Borges et al., (2014), “behavior originates from individuals’ intentions, which in turn are determined by three central psychological constructs: attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control” in the TPB. The intentions to adopt was measured using In the study, there were non-significant differences intention to adopt the techniques were significant.

Subjective Norms.

Research question five sought to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference in male, female and mixed gender group of farmers’ subjective norms toward adopting harvest and storage techniques.

The subjective norm construct refers to the social pressure on an individual to either adopt a behavior or not. The construct was assessed using an eight-item, seven- point Likert

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scale (1 = strongly disagree – 7 = strongly agree). The reliability test show an acceptable

Cronbach’s Alpha of .713.

MANOVA Test.

Prior to conducting the Multivariate test of Analysis of Variance (MANOVA), the assumption of homogeneity of variance-co-variance matrices was assessed. Pillai’s Trace was used to interpret the results because the Box’s test was statistically significant

[! (12, 78299.785) = 10.331, 0 < .001], indicating that the assumption was violated (Mertler

& Vannatta, 2013; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007).

Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variances was used to test the assumption of homogeneity of variances. As shown in Table 5.12, the variances between the group combinations for the dependent variables are equal. The tests were all significant (p > .05), revealing the assumption for homogeneity of variance were equal.

Table 5.12. Levene’s Test of Equality of Variances for Dependent Variables F df1 df2 P Attitudes 1.654 2 136 .195 Subjective Norms 1.075 2 136 .334 Intention 2.475 2 136 .088

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MANOVA Results

The means score for attitudes for females was 6.47, whilst for males the score was 6.57.

As shown in Table 5.13, the mean scores for the subjective norms construct was 6.21 for males,

6.34 for females and 6.08 for mixed gender.

Table 5.13.

Mean and Standard Deviation Scores for Measures of the TPB as a function of Gender Training Group of Cassava Farmers

Attitudes Subj. Norms Intentions

Group M SD M SD M SD

Males 6.57 .53 6.21 1.07 5.24 .55

Females 6.47 .69 6.34 .78 5.18 .40

Mixed 6.57 1.43 6.08 .76 5.07 .54

Note: Subj.Norms = Subjective Norms; M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation. Items are measured on a 7-point Likert Scale where 1 = Strongly Agreed and 7 = Strongly Disagreed.

Although Wilks Lambda test is frequently used and most recommended, Pillai’s Trace is more robust, especially when there are unequal sample sizes (Mertler & Vannatta, 2013;

Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). The one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to determine the statistical differences in male and female farmers attitudes to training to reduce post-harvest loss of cassava; the intentions of male and female farmers to adopt training

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strategies; and the subjective norms that show male and female farmers’ perception of the social pressure upon them to adopt or not to adopt. The MANOVA test revealed that the difference between the training groups of cassava farmers on the combined dependent variables was not statistically significant, !, (10,260.000) = 1.061, Pillai′s Trace = > .05, ?@ = .051, AB shown in Table 5.14.

Table 5.14.

MANOVA Tests for Significant Differences in Dependent Variables

@ V F DEF DEG P ?

.901 1.391 10 260 .184 .051

Note: V= Pillai’s Trace; df = degree of freedom, dfH= Hypothesis degree of freedom, dfE= Error degree of freedom, ?@= Partial ETA Squared.

The results indicate that cassava farmers in the male, female and mixed gender training group had significantly similar attitudes to the training in harvesting and storage techniques taught in the training.

Conclusion

The MANOVA results indicated no statistically significant difference on the combined constructs of the Theory of Planned Behavior among male, female, and mixed gender training groups of cassava farmers in Dewein and Senjeh Districts, Bomi County. The quantitative

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instrument was unable to detect differences between the groups indicating the need for more in- depth qualitative work among this population.

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CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSION

Overview

The purpose of this study was to statistically assess differences in the attitudes, subjective norms, and intentions of male and female cassava farmers from Senjeh and Dewein District, in their various gender training groups, to understand how they are influenced to adopt harvest and storage techniques to reduce loss of cassava after harvest. The research sought to answer the following questions:

1. What are the demographic characteristics of cassava farmers in Senjeh and Dewein

Districts?

2. What are the gender dimensions of post-harvest practices in cassava production?

3. What are the differences in male, female and mixed gender groups of farmers’

attitudes to adopt harvest and storage training techniques to reduce post-harvest loss

of cassava?

4. What are the differences in male, female and mixed gender groups of farmers’

intention to adopt harvest and storage training techniques to reduce post-harvest loss

of cassava?

5. What are the differences in male, female and mixed gender groups of farmers’

subjective norms to adopt harvest and storage training techniques to reduce post-

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harvest loss of cassava?

The exploratory sequential mixed method approach was used to collect and analyze data from male and female cassava farmers from Senjeh and Dewein Districts, Bomi County, trained on harvest and storage techniques to reduce post-harvest loss of cassava. Three constructs of the

Theory of Planned Behavior, attitudes, intentions and subjective norms were used to quantitatively assess farmers’ possibility of adopting the strategies for PHL reduction of cassava in their districts. In this chapter, major findings of the study are discussed, implications for farmers’ adoption of techniques taught in training to reduce PHL of cassava and improve yields.

Key Findings

Agricultural development in Africa is important to reduce hunger, poverty and food insecurity. Rural areas require the necessary infrastructure to ensure a robust agricultural system to develop the sector and reduce poverty.

The qualitative portion of the study indicated several important issues for farmers in reducting post harvest loss of cassava. It also revealed some underlying factors required to facilitate work in cassava production.

The MANOVA test statistics was used to test the psychological constructs of the Theory of Planned Behavior that influence farmers to adopt strategies and techniques of harvest and storage to reduce post-harvest loss of cassava. The quantitative section of the study showed no-

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significant statististical differences in male, female and mixed gender group of farmers’ attitudes, intentions and subjective norms to adopt the techniques.

Research Question I

What are the demographic characteristics of cassava farmers in Senjeh and Dewein

Districts?

Cassava farmers in Senjeh and Dewein Districts are mainly females with little or no formal education. Nearly 68% of the farmers had never attended school with only 5% completing senior high school. Only one participant (.7%) in the study had tertiary education and one (.7%) had a vocational education.

Though farmers are not required to be degree-holders to succeed in agriculture; apart from practical farming knowledge, it is important for them to have at least a high school education in order to more appropriately analyze information and make informed decisions regarding their agricultural pursuits.

Agronomical practices and other topics to improve yields, prevent pests, and manage crisis are taught in trainings provided to farmers. Knowledge and skills training is a requirement for successful agriculture and ensures fruitful yields. When farmers lack basic primary and secondary education, they run the risk of not understanding theoretical and even some practical training materials. Females, who make up more than 60% of the Liberian agricultural workforce, are mainly uneducated because male children are typically selected for education

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when the family decides to utilize their meagre resources to educate their kids. This pattern has evolved into norms in rural areas where girls are given in marriage to older men who pay huge bride prices. Families consider girls to be the properties of their husbands, so they prefer educating boys. This practice has contributed to the dismal adult illiteracy rates in Liberia and is considered one of the most serious issues in the country. Adult illiteracy rate (57.9%), especially among females (62% women and 29% men) in Liberia is a major major socio-economic issue to be addressed in the country (LASIP, 2010).

Education Reform Acts for free compulsory primary education and free compulsory basic education for Liberian citizens have been passed and gender equality laws enacted to ensure equality in free education to boys and girls. However, many of these policies and laws, written in

English, are not fully understood by rural dwellers. The culture of not educating girls in rural areas, which has existed much longer than the education laws, requires constant sensitization in local dialects for easy comprehension of laws and policies.

The age of farmers has been proven to be a negative impact on agricultural labor in a country (Guo, Wen, & Zhu, (2015). Studies on the effects of aging farmers in agricultural population predicted that farmers’ age is closely connected to agricultural output in terms of labor. In their study on the impact of aging population on agricultural labor, Li and Zhao (2009) concluded that aging is not favorable to agriculture production and development. In their study on the impact of aging agricultural population on farmland output, Guo et al. (2015) added that the aging population of farmers is a potential threat for the future of agricultural development.

Farmers in the study above 36 years are 53%; those aged 18-35 years are 40.4% and the

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oldest farmer in the study was 81 years old. The aging population of farmers in the districts, among other factors is a risk to growth of the agricultural sector which has been crippled by civil and natural crises. This signifies a decline in the number of farmers who are expected to feed the population and ensure national food and nutrition security and eradication of hunger.

Interviewers talked about the need for agriculture to be made attractive to encourage youths in the country concentrate on the sector, as farmers and extension agents in the country are aging. This brings to light the problems associated with rural to urban migration which has resulted in the decline of youths that could provide labor to farmers and even take over from aging farmers in rural areas. Programs have been developed to address issues relating to youth development in the agriculture sector however, private sector involvement in agriculture is very limited.

Research Question II

What are the gender dimensions of post-harvest practices in cassava production?

Gender dimensions in Liberia’s cassava production sector point to females in all aspects.

During the FGDs and interviews, it was clear that women bear the brunt of agricultural labor in cassava production. The challenges faced by farmers are numerous in terms of infrastructure, access to credit, and agricultural extension, among others. However, there are marked differences in these challenges by gender. Female farmers experience worse discriminations, which limit their capacity to actively contribute to hunger eradication and enhancement of food security. This

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is a result of patriarchal laws and societal norms, coupled with religious limitations. Women were described by the FAO (2011) as the pillars of agriculture in Africa, who provide for nearly

90% of food and are responsible for growing, selling, buying and preparing food for their families. In the FGDs and interviews, women’s contributions to the agriculture sector were clearly outlined. A government official interviewed noted that “women are responsible for food production in Liberia; we grew up seeing our mothers farm and sell the products to send us to school. Now we should ensure their livelihoods are secured.”

Cassava production is mainly a woman’s task though men help along the way. According to the Liberian Agriculture Sector Investment Program document (GOL, 2010), “Women are the major players in the sector, they produce 60% of agricultural products and constitute the majority of smallholder producers (those with 15 or fewer acres of land) and the agricultural labor force”

(p.viii). Though they make up 80% of cassava commercialization workers in rural areas (GOL,

2010), infrastructural impediments are hampering their efforts to strengthen their livelihoods.

Gender division of labor in farming is visible where women are major players in planting, weeding, watering and harvesting crops.

The themes relating to gender in the qualitative part of the study focused mainly on the following areas:

(a). Agricultural labor: In harvesting, processing and marketing cassava, women are the ones bearing the brunt of the tasks. They, being the major food producers cater to the needs of the family. In the study, gender plays a key role because of the differences in male and female farmers’ needs, access to resources, delivery and acceptance of extension materials. Agricultural

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labor is a daunting task for women who play multiple (unpaid) roles of providing food by farming to feed the family and selling the remains to generate funds for school fees and other supplies, including medical; and care to every member of the family. SOFA & Doss, (2001) in their study titled, “The role of women in agriculture”, outlined the multiple roles played by female farmers; they stated that women’s “activities typically include producing agricultural crops, tending animals, processing and preparing food, working for wages in agricultural or other rural enterprises, collecting fuel and water, engaging in trade and marketing, caring for family members and maintaining their homes” (p.2).

Post-harvest labor in cassava production is tedious and time consuming mainly because transporting huge tubers either in bags or bowls involve walking long distances from farms to markets or processing sites. This involves women who carry huge bags of cassava on their heads for miles. Processing cassava into garri and foofoo primarily involves women who for the latter are the major processers. During the FGDs, participants outlined issues affecting cassava marketing, and interviewees admitted that there are numerous challenges affecting women in the sector.

A reoccurring phenomenon that has been in existence in the agriculture sector is the persistence of gender hierarchy which has subjected women to years of gender subordination and poverty. According to United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 1, “women are more likely to live in poverty than men due to unequal access to paid work, education and property”

(UN, 2017). This goal stresses on the importance of eradicating poverty, especially among women who have limited access to needed resources to lift them out of poverty. To achieve this

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goal in the agriculture sector, traditional norms that fuel gender disparities have to eradicated to allow women easy access to education, natural and basic resource and agricultural inputs, among others.

The changing gender roles in cassava production and marketing was highlighted during the discussions. Cassava production had always been a male and female task whilst processing, and commercialization, especially the latter, a female-dominated role in Liberia. Female participants in the study complained that their livelihoods are being taken over by males. The sale of cassava leaves in markets, is usually a female task whilst the leaves are grinded by boys; now, men sell and grind the leaves. In Liberia, food crops are primarily grown and sold by women, whilst males are mainly cash crop producers and marketers. Cassava production, processing and marketing are slowly being taken over by males.

(b). Agriculture Extension & Advisory Service (AEAS) delivery: Scarce resources and extension agents, especially females is an impediment to AEAS delivery in Liberia. The number of extension agents that are supposed to train farmers in a county are few for the number of farmers in the country. Organizing practical training which is most required by farmers is difficult for CACs and their teams because they lack the equipment to facilitate practical and theoretical trainings.

Extension agents in Liberia are mainly males who are expected to deliver AEAS to farmers, who are mostly females. Societal norms have prohibited women fraternizing with men who are not their husbands in the absence of the latter. Women seen in the company of men are labeled promiscuous and threats by their husbands to the suspected/alleged males or report both

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parties to village leaders are many. DAOs interviewed explained about societal norms that exist in rural areas; they say even though they try to establish confidence and reduce doubts by stating their missions when going to work with female farmers; there are instances when a suspicious husband throws a jealous fit when he has heard rumors from other villagers about an extension officer’s visit to his wife’s farm. These are challenges affecting the smooth flow of information from extension agents to farmers.

Trainings and demonstrations that are supposed to improve farmers’ knowledge about cassava production for improved yields are being suppressed by factors that can be managed.

Training of farmers in agronomical practices and other needed skills for agricultural development should be an ongoing practice. Qualitative data results indicated that though trainings are conducted by public and private extension agents, there are usually no follow-up visits and trainings to ensure that farmers practice what they were thought. Also, the low educational level of farmers in most instances prevent them from fully understanding theoretical trainings. In cases like this, practical on-site trainings are required but access to funding for practical trainings or field demonstrations are sometimes scarce.

The degree to which training impacts farmers vary according to their gender. Male farmers have ample time to attend to trainings with little or no distraction whilst female farmers with their multiple duties, when they find time to attend trainings, have to take their infants and toddlers along because they are the only caregivers in the home. During the study, three women attended the trainings with their infants They had to take time to nurse the kids when they needed to be fed or felt uncomfortable during the sessions. This distraction prevented them from fully

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participating in the training.

(c). Gender Inequalities: The age-old problem of gender disparities in agriculture surfaces whenever an assessment is conducted. In patriarchal societies, males are the heads of their families and they control affairs in the home. Though females are major players in family farming, they barely identify themselves as farmers. At the household and community levels, farmers’ identity is gender-biased even though they play substantial roles in farming and agricultural management (Gailie, Jiggins & Struik, 2013). Liberia’s agriculture sector, similar to many other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, has seen its share of gender inequalities that are hindering development. Women’s contribution in the sector, though enormous are usually overlooked and distribution of resources intended to ameliorate their livelihoods are marred with gender-disparities.

In the qualitative section of the study, the gender theme cuts across every FGD and interviews.

Participants complained about the scarce resources to upgrade their livelihood and when they are available, males are the primary beneficiaries. The reduction of gender inequalities is required to push agriculture forward and empower women in the sector.

Addressing the gender disparities in agriculture points to understanding cultural and societal norms and their implications to the development of the sector. Researchers should work in collaboration with male and female farmers, and policy makers to bridge the information and resource gap so gender inequalities in the sector can be reduced. Thorough sensitization is required for farmers, extension agents and policy makers to understand the consequences of gender disparities in the sector.

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Research Question III to V

What are the differences in male, female and mixed gender training groups of farmers’ attitudes to adopt harvest and storage training techniques to reduce post-harvest loss of cassava?

What are the differences in male, female and mixed gender groups of farmers’ subjective norms to adopt harvest and storage training techniques to reduce post-harvest loss of cassava?

What are the differences in male, female and mixed gender groups of farmers’ intentions to adopt harvest and storage training techniques to reduce post-harvest loss of cassava?

The factors that define farmers’ acceptance of an innovation or training in agricultural practices aimed at improving their livelihoods were assessed. Questions three to five were addressed quantitatively using the psychiological constructs attitudes, intentions and subjective norms of Ajzen’s (1985) Theory of Planed Behavior; and statistically assessed using the

MANOVA test statistic. There were statistically no-significant differences in the constructs of the TPB. Farmers in the male, female and mixed gender training groups accepted the techniques taught and wish to adopt them to reduce loss of cassava after harvest to enhance their livedlihoods.

A surprising phenomenon in the study was the positive attitude, subjective norms and intention by females to adopt the techniques taught in their respective training groups to reduce

PHL of cassava. Subjective norms which indicate pressure from family, friends, public and private sector to influence farmers decision to either adopt a behavior or not, show that farmers are eager to adopt the techniques and improve their livelihoods with or withouth the approval of their family, friends and donors.

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Previous studies have indicated women are less likely than men to adopt innovations.

Kondylis et al. (2016) explained how women’s barrier to adoption of innovation are marred by

“inequitable access to agricultural extension servies or exposure to inapt information (p. 436).

Whilst Murage, Pittchar, Midega, Onyanjo and Khan (2015) stated that differenes in “social expectations, roles, status and economic power of men and women can influence their adoption patterns” (p.84). Tanellari, Kostandini and Bonabana (2014) indicated that female-headed households are less likely to adopt innovations and they quoted Doss & Moses (2000) in their study on improved maize technology in Ghana, who also noted that “women living in female- headed households adopt at a lower rate than individuals in male-headed households” (p. 302).

This study however, portrayed a different view of female farmers’ willingness to adoption the techniques taught to reduce post-harvest loss of cassava. This showed the eagerness of farmers in Dewein and Senjeh Districts, Bomi County to improve cassava production in Liberia by reducing loss after harvest. The fact that the training was done by a female may have contributed to the willingness by female farmers to adopt the techniques; perhaps women felt empowered and were more likely to see themselves as able to adopt the innovation.

Some reasons for the anomalous findings could be the following reasons:

1. Farmers’ desperate need for AEAS: Farmers are so hungry for information to improve

their livelihoods that issues relating to gender took a backseat to these more pressing

needs. The results indicate that farmers recognize the importance of access to training

and information on PHL reduction to their livelihoods. The male farmers who were

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expected to have resservations about being trained by a female, concentrated on the

training and requested for regular access to training and on-site demonstrations. AEAS is

an approach that is aimed at developing the Liberian agriculture sector after years of

setback due to the 14-year civil conflict ad the Ebola Virsus Disease that crippled the

sector temporarily. AEAS play a key role in not only the promotion of agricultural

productivity and food security but also in improving the livelihoods of rural farmers. It

creates a link between public and private extension services and rural farmers with the

aim of overcoming challenges farmers are experiencing. When farmers have access to

the requisite information, resources, inputs, infrastructure and proper supervision to

utilize the information they receive, it will reduce post-harvest loss of cassava, improve

their livelihoods and eradicate hunger.

2. The need to improve agricultural livelihoods and reduce poverty: Literature has

shown that the agriculture sector in Liberia is dominated by the rural poor, who live on

less than one dollar a day (GOL, 2010). There is widespread poverty, especially among

rural households, where subsistence farming is predominantly practiced and farmers

experience “differences in poverty rates, access to basic services, and food security and

nutrition that have also contributed to regional disparities and vulnerability among

components of the population” (GOL, 2010; p.18). The dimensions of poverty in rural

areas must be looked at for projects and policies to address poverty reduction at all levels.

The documents drafted to reduce poverty in the country, Liberia’s Poverty Reduction

Strategy (2008 – 2011) and the Agenda for Transformation: Steps Toward Liberia

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RISING 2030 are intended to lift Liberians out of poverty and set the country to reach

middle-income status. Poverty in Liberia can be measured differently in rural and urban

areas because of the availability of basic necessities such as electricity and water supply

in urban areas that are lacking in peri-urban and rural areas. Rural households where

agriculture is predominantly practiced has the highest proportion of household poverty -

Grand Kru Count for example, at 78% (GoL, 2012). The agriculture sector was cited as

crucial for economic revitalization in Liberia’s Poverty Reduction Strategy (Zinnah and

Perry, 2011).

Discussion

The ultimate goal of the study is to understand the psychological constructs that control male and female farmers attitudes, intentions and subjective norms to adopt training in harvest and storage techniques in their respective training groups for PHL reduction of cassava.

The TPB has been widely used to assess decision-making abilities within the agriculture

(Ahnstrom, et al., 2008; Borges et al., 2014; Lopez-Mosquera, 2016; Senger, Borges, &

Machado, 2016), and the health (Fila & Smith, 2016; Sheeran, Norman & Conner, 2001) sectors, to understand how participants in a study are influenced to adopt a behavior.

Attitude plays a key role in a person’s evaluation of an object and has a fundamental influence on an individual’s intentions and behavior (Lopez-Mosquera, 2016). More than 50% of the farmers in male, female and mixed gender training groups expressed positive attitudes to the

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techniques taught to reduce PHL of cassava. There were no significant differences among the training groups because every farmer in the study requested the need for more knowledge to enhance their livelihood.

It is expected that farmers share knowledge of harvest and storage techniques learnt during the training with friends, members of their families and government and private extension agents. Subjective norms in the study has to do with farmers perception of the pressure from their families to adopt or not to adopt the techniques. The perceptions and beliefs of people close to farmers, especially in rural areas play a key role in their decisions to adopt an innovation or training technique or not. Though the MANOVA test results for the constructs of the TPB show non-significant differences, farmer’s willingness to adopt the techniques despite social pressure show their readiness to be rid of PHL issuers. Studies conducted have confirmed that people’s perception to adopting a behavior is determined by the external pressures that control their negative or positive response to the adoption (Lopez-Masquera, 2016; Ajzen, 1991). This study has proved that when farmers are interested in an innovation they believe will improve their livelihoods and has the propensity to increase yields and eradicate poverty, they will do all in their power to adopt the innovation.

Intentions is the construct in the TPB that is closely linked to behavior change. When the test statistics results indicated that there were non-significant differences in male, female and mixed gender group of farmers’ intentions to adopt the harvest and storage techniques taught in the training, it was evident that adoption of the techniques were influenced by farmers control

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beliefs, as advised by Ajzen (1991). An individual’s intention is linked to the changes in their attitudes and perception due to the information they receive as a result of their control beliefs.

Conner & Armitage (1998) stated that “Intentions represent a person’s motivation in the sense of her or his conscious plan or decision to exert effort to enact the behavior” (p. 1430). Farmers in every training group in the study expressed positive intentions to adopt the techniques taught in the training. This indicates that the techniques will be adopted by more than 90% of the farmers with ease though some were undecided and about 2% expressed some reservations in adopting the techniques when they are negatively pressured by their family members.

Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services (AEAS) link farmers with innovations in the agriculture sector and provide them with hands-on knowledge to build their capacities and ensure stability in their livelihood. Training of farmers to adopt innovative technologies and required skills is key to finding a solution to problems of malnutrition, hunger and food insecurity. Farmers require skills to tackle problems relating to loss of crops after harvest.

Cassava, being a major staple crop that is produced by mainly subsistence farmers has the propensity to feed rural population and provide a stable income for farmers.

Recommendations

Recommendations for Future Research

The findings in this study confirmed that innovations can be adopted by male and female farmers when it is closely related to their economic wellbeing. The MANOVA test statistics that

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was used to assess the influence of gender-disaggregated training groups of male, female and mixed gender to their attitudes, subjective norms and intentions to adopt the techniques to reduce

PHL of cassava was not significant. This brings out the fact that caution should be taken when interpreting statistical data when the study is a quantitative design. This study was a mixed methods design where rich discussions and interviews with participants complemented the quantitative results. Theoretically, it had been proven that there are statistically significant differences in male and female farmers attitudes, intentions and subjective norms when adopting an innovation. In the agriculture sector, due to their differences in needs and access to inputs, female farmers experience barriers when faced with decisions to adopt an innovation. Decisions to utilize farmland and which crops to grow had been made by males. About 75% of farmers in the study responded that decisions on which crop to grow on their farmland is made by males in their families. This points to the fact that subjective norms toward an innovation is based on male decisions on whether or not to adopt the innovation. When females are given the option to adopt an innovation, subjective norm plays a vital role in their response to positive or negative social pressure from families. This study should be replicated in other parts of the country to determine whether the gender dimensions in Bomi County differ from other parts such as the south eastern regions.

Methodically, the participants were divided into gender-disaggregated training groups and trained by a female trainer. When the study is replicated, the groups can be divided, the same training offered by a male and female trainer and comparison on the effects of their adoption process using the psyiological constructs of the TPB be conducted.

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Recommendation for Agriculture Extension

Cassava is a staple crop that has the propensity to reduce poverty, food insecurity and eradicate hunger in Liberia. PHL is experienced in every region in Liberia and farmers have little or no training in strategies and techniques to reduce loss. This training can be replicated nationwide to educate farmers on strategies to reduce PHL of cassava. Farmers in the study had no prior knowledge about post-harvest management About 98% of farmers had never received training in storage techniques to reduce PHL of cassava and 97% had never received training in harvesting techniques to reducec PHL of cassava. For a staple crop like cassava which is consumed nationwide, the agriculture sector should take the lead in providing trainings in the counties, starting with ones that are heavily-dependent on cassava production. Extension officers should be trained on how to administer the training using the PHL reduction manual, so they will provide nation-wide trainings to farmers and regular on-site demonstrations till the later understand how harvesting of cassava should be done to reduce scarring and stored to prevent loss.

The training for this study concentrated on harvesting and storage of cassava but farmers from both districts had no knowledge on the mounds and ridges (heap) method of planting cassava which allows the cassava to grow longer and bigger and ensures harvest with little or no scar on the tubers.

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Recommendations for Policy

Debates about agricultural development, rural livelihoods and farmers improvement has always been linked to policies and political discussions. Since the transformation of rural economies in some Asian and Latin American countries with the Green Revolution, the strategies employed then are being transferred to SSA countries (Dawson & Sikor, 2016;

Evenson & Gollin, 2003). Various strategies were used to ensure that farmers adopt new technologies range from development programs for small and marginal farmers, development of infrastructure, multiple cropping programs, among others. Similar approaches are currently being used in SSA to transfer skills and knowledge to farmers for agricultural development. AEAS agents have largely employed practical and theoretical, classroom and onsite training of farmers to ensure they adopt innovations that can change their livelihood and secure fruitful yields. In the study, formal education for farmers has clearly been portrayed as an important factor in ensuring that they fully comprehend materials taught to improve their livelihoods.

Liberia’s agriculture sector lacks private investment to help government rebuild the food system and revamp economic growth through agriculture in the country. Banks in Liberia do not offer credit facilities to subsistence farmers who lack the required collateral to obtain the loans.

Public sector investment can help restructure the sector to help government in reducing poverty of rural dwellers. Policies should be enacted to support tax reduction for private agricultural entities to improve, support and attract local and international investors to the sector. These policies should also address tax reduction on the importation of durable and low-cost agro-

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inputs. Farmers in the study complained about the durability of farm tools and the inaccessibility of agro-inputs to enhance their livelihoods. This will encourage private sector investment to the sector to boost agricultural development.

Government should set up committees in the agriculture sector that will spearhead implementation, monitoring and evaluation of projects and programs aimed at tackling poverty eradication in the country. These committees should ensure that poor rural communities receive equal quota of project benefits for male and dfemale farmeers whilst targeting and encouraging youths to focus on agriculture. Public sector investment in the sector should be encouraged to ensure massive investment for upliftment of the sector. Participants in the study requested infrastructural development, inputs and access natural resources, especially for women in the sector. Benfica et al. (2010) stated that “increased income- generating opportunities for women can have spillover effects in ensuring food security in the short term if it is used to improve education and nutrition outcomes, thereby contributing to break households” poverty cycle (p.2).

Government should embark on continuous sensitization and dissemination of information on the importance of agriculture as a business, to encourage rural and urban dwellers to invest in the sector. Gender equality issues, and encouragement of youths should be a key priority of government to push the agenda for transformation and increase agricultural activities to reduce poverty in the country.

Limitations

The study was conducted in two districts of five in Bomi County which is one of the

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smallest counties in Liberia, therefore, the findings cannot be generalized. The training sessions were short to ensure that each group receive theoretical and practical trainings. In the future, when agricultural extension agents are training farmers in strategies to reduce PHL of cassava, the trainings should last for three to five days with longer sessions and more interaction (trainer and trainee question and answer) time. The training was conducted in vernacular for easy comprehension. However, few participants had difficulty understanding the vernacular therefore, in the future, a translator for English or vernacular to local dialect should be recruited to ensure that sessions and materials are fully understood by farmers in the training.

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APPENDIX A – IRB APPROVAL LETTER (PHASE 1)

Dec 6, 2016 11:26 AM CST

Amy Boren Ag Education and Communication

Re: IRB2016-1024 How Gender Groups Respond to Training in Postharvest Loss Reduction of Cassava: A Study of Bong County, Liberia

Findings: Approved. Expiration Date: Nov 30, 2017

Dear Dr. Amy Boren, ,Cheryl Williams:

A Texas Tech University IRB reviewer has approved the proposal referenced above within the expedited category of: 6. Collection of data from voice, video, digital, or image recordings made for research purposes. 7. Research on individual or group characteristics or behavior (including, but not limited to, research on perception, cognition, motivation, identity, language, communication, cultural beliefs or practices, and social behavior) or research employing survey, interview, oral history, focus group, program evaluation, human factors evaluation, or quality assurance methodologies.

The approval is effective from Dec 6, 2016 to Nov 30, 2017. The expiration date must appear on your consent document(s).

Expedited research requires continuing IRB review. You will receive an automated email approximately 30 days before Nov 30, 2017. At this time, should you wish to continue your protocol, a Renewal Submission will be necessary. Any change to your protocol requires a Modification Submission for review and approval before implementation.

Your study may be selected for a Post-Approval Review (PAR). A PAR investigator may contact you to observe your data collection procedures, including the consent process. You will be notified if your study has been chosen for a PAR.

Should a subject be harmed or a deviation occur from either the approved protocol or federal regulations (45 CFR 46), please complete an Incident Submission form.

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When your research is complete and no identifiable data remains, please use a Closure Submission to terminate this protocol.

Sincerely,

Kelly C. Cukrowicz, Ph.D. Chair, Texas Tech University Institutional Review Board Associate Professor, Department of Psychological Sciences 357 Administration Building. Box 41075 Lubbock, Texas 79409-1075 T 806.742.2064 F 806.742.3947 www.hrpp.ttu.edu

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APPENDIX B – FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What is the timetable of cassava post-harvest activities?

2. What is the number of bags of cassava produced in a one-acre farm?

3. What are the various post-harvest methods employed by farmers?

4. What is the number of bags of cassava sold and the duration from harvest to time sold?

5. What is the duration of cassava storage for household consumption?

6. What is the frequency of cassava consumption, since it is a second staple to rice?

7. How do you harvest cassava in your region?

8. What are the gender dimension in cassava production?

9. What is the normal cassava consumption rate of a household?

10. How did you learn about caring for cassava after harvest?

11. What is your knowledge of cassava losses, the stages and factors that are most

problematic?

12. How do the losses vary between harvesting seasons and from year to year?

13. How do you access extension advice/services and how often?

14. Have you received training on post-harvest loss reduction, (if yes) when? Who offered

15. Brief explanation of the post-harvest loss reduction strategies taught

16. How effective were they?

17. What else would you like to learn about PHL of cassava?

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APPENDIX C – INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

1. How PHL is affecting the cassava farmers and whether the amount of loss per harvest is

recorded?

2. What are measures taken (by public & private extension agents) to help farmers reduce

losses?

3. How often have you trained cassava farmers in PHL reduction?

4. How many women and men attended training/outreach?

5. What are the barriers to women's participation in these trainings?

6. What are the ways women could be more engaged at a more meaningful level?

7. Tell me a little bit about gender roles in cassava production?

8. What are the known differences in agricultural/post-harvest practices of the cassava

farmers in Bomi County; their accessibility for transport, and general seasonal activities?

9. How is gender inequalities in cassava production managed?

10. Records on the cassava harvest for 2015/2016; loss recorded, the stages and factors that

are most problematic.

11. How the losses vary between harvesting seasons and from year to year?

12. Once the questionnaire is complete, each group will be given time to briefly say

something on the topic that was not mentioned during the interview.

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APPENDIX D – IRB APPROVAL LETTER (PHASE 2)

Feb 5, 2018 3:16 PM CST

Amy Boren Alpizar Ag Education and Communication

Re: IRB2016-1024 How Gender Groups Respond to Training in Postharvest Loss Reduction of Cassava: A Study of Bong County, Liberia

Findings: Renewal Approved. Expiration Date: Nov 30, 2018

Dear Dr. Amy Boren Alpizar, Cheryl Williams:

A Texas Tech University IRB reviewer has approved a renewal for the protocol indicated above within the expedited category of: 6. Collection of data from voice, video, digital, or image recordings made for research purposes. 7. Research on individual or group characteristics or behavior (including, but not limited to, research on perception, cognition, motivation, identity, language, communication, cultural beliefs or practices, and social behavior) or research employing survey, interview, oral history, focus group, program evaluation, human factors evaluation, or quality assurance methodologies.

The renewal is effective from Dec 1, 2017 and will expire on Nov 30, 2018. This expiration date must appear on your consent document.

Any change to your protocol requires a Modification Submission for review and approval prior to implementation.

Should a subject be harmed or a deviation occur from either the approved protocol or federal regulations (45 CFR 46), please complete an Incident Submission form.

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Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams

When your research is complete and no identifiable data remains, please use a Closure Submission to terminate this protocol.

Sincerely,

Kelly C. Cukrowicz, Ph.D. Chair, Texas Tech University Institutional Review Board Professor, Department of Psychological Sciences 357 Administration Building, Box 41075 Lubbock, Texas 79409-1075 T 806.742.2064 F 806.742.3947 www.hrpp.ttu.edu

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APPENDIX E – LETTER TO CONDUCT RESEARCH STUDY IN LIBERIA

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APPENDIX F – QUANTITATIVE TRAINING INSTRUMENT

Cheryl A. Williams Department of Agricultural Education and communications Texas Tech University Student Survey for Dissertation Topic: How Gender Groups Respond to Training in Post-Harvest Loss Reduction of Cassava in Dewein and Senjeh Districts, Bomi County, Liberia

This questionnaire has been developed to assess the psychological constructs (attitudes, behavior and intention) of a representative sample of male and female cassava farmers in Dewein and Senjeh Districts, Bomi County, Liberia in making decisions towards adopting new strategies taught in training to reduce post- harvest loss (PHL) of cassava. Your efforts to respond to the questions would encourage the study to get appropriate findings in contributing to knowledge in the academia. Please note that information collected will be used for academic purposes only and your confidentiality is assured.

This questionnaire has FOUR Sections. The first section consists of demographic characteristics of participants, i.e. participants’ age, gender, place of birth, educational level, marital status and livelihood (primary and secondary), etc. The second section relates to participants’ pre- knowledge of post-harvest loss of cassava and strategies to reduce them. The third section measures the predictor variables and intentions and the last section measures adoption variable

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SECTION 1 Demographic Information

1 2 3 4 5 6 What is your sex? How old are you? What is your marital Are you the head of your If answer to previous question What is your status? household (hh)? was 2, what is your relationship to the household head? place of birth? 1.Female 1. Married 1.Yes 2.Male 2. Single 2.No 1. Spouse …….. years old 3. Divorced 2. Daughter 4. Separated 3. Guardian 5. Widowed 4. Other 6. Cohabiting 7. Other Other, please specify………………………… Other, please ……….. specify………………..

7 8 9 10 11 12 What is your What is your main source What is your secondary What is your religion? What is the size of your How many adults educational level? of livelihood? source of livelihood? household (hh)? (male and female) and children below 18 (males and females) do you have in your home?

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1.None 1.Farming 1.Farming 1.Christianity 1.Male - Adults 2.Some Primary 3.Completed 2.Hunting 2.Hunting 2. Islam 2.Female - Adults primary 3.Fishing 3.Fishing 3.Buddism 3. Male – Boys 4.Some JHS 5.Completed JHS 4.Trading 4.Trading 4.Athiest 4. Female – girls 6.Some 5.Food Processing 5.Food Processing 5.Other 7.SHS 8.Completed SHS 6.Sewing 6.Sewing 9.Tertiary 10.Vocational 7.Oth 7.Other (specify) 11.Other er (specify) (specify)……

*- JHS – Junior High School. SHS – Senior High School

Section 1. Demographic information

13 14 15 16 17 18 What is the size Who owns the land (if land is owned by respondent) Who makes decisions Who makes What Ethnic group of your cassava you farm on? How did you obtain this land? on crops to grow on decisions on how the do you identify with? farm? the land? hh resources are used? Plot 1 – 1.Mine 1.Inherited from father 1.The hh head 1.The hh head 1.Gola Plot 2 – 2.My spouse 2.Inherited from mother 2. The respondent’s 2. The respondent’s 2.Vai Plot 3 - 3. My family 3.Given to me by father spouse (indicate if spouse (indicate if 3. Kpelleh 4.My spouse’s family 4.Given to me by mother husband or wife) husband or wife) 4.Bassa 5.Given to me by spouse 5.Other (please 3. A male relative 3. A male relative 5.Khran 6.Given to me by head of my specify) 4. Other (specify) 4. Other (specify) 6.Lorma spouse’s family 5.Gio 7.Given to me by head of my 6.Mano family 7.Madingo 8.Given to me by the chief 9.Leased/rented

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10.Other (specify. 8.other (Please specify)

Section 2 Pre-Training knowledge of storage and harvest techniques

19 I have participated in trainings on cassava 1. Yes 2. No storage techniques to reduce PHL before this one. 20 I have participated in trainings on cassava 1. Yes 2. No harvesting techniques to reduce PHL before this one. 21 I have received training on cassava storage 1. Yes 2. No techniques to reduce PHL before this training. 22 If answer to question 21 was yes; the 1. Government 2. NGO training was organized by the public (government) or private (NGO) sector? 23 I have received training on cassava 1. Yes 2. No harvesting techniques to reduce PHL before this training. 24 If answer to question 23 was yes; the 1. Government 2. NGO training was organized by the public (government) or private (NGO) sector?

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25 Before this training how did you harvest cassava?

26 Before this training how did you store cassava?

27 I was able to reduce PHL of cassava Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 because of previous training. Strongly agree

28 Before this training, I considered myself Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 skilled at harvesting techniques to reduce Strongly agree scarring of cassava

29 Before this training I considered myself Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 skilled at storage techniques to reduce PHL Strongly agree of cassava.

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Section 3. POST TRAINING

30 I have learnt a lot about harvesting Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 techniques to prevent scarring the cassava. Strongly agree

31 I have learnt a lot about storage techniques Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 to reduce PHL of cassava Strongly agree

32 As a result of this training, my knowledge Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 on cassava PHL loss and prevention has Strongly agree improved.

33 The topics taught in the training are Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 effective to reducing PHL of cassava. Strongly agree

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Section 4. ATTITUDES TO TRAINING

34 I had other things to do with my time but Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 being present in the training was necessary Strongly agree 35 I needed this training to reduce PHL of Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 cassava, even though I am an experienced Strongly agree cassava farmer. 36 I am concerned about PHL of cassava Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly agree 37 The harvesting techniques taught were Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 relevant to me Strongly agree 38 The storage techniques taught were Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 relevant to me Strongly agree 39 I believe the techniques for harvesting Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 demonstrated in the training would work in Strongly agree my farm 40 I believe the techniques for storage Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 demonstrated in the training would work in Strongly agree my farm.

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Sect. 5. INTERNAL & EXTERNAL FACTORS THAT SUPPORT INTENTION TO ADOPT

41 I get quarterly (every four months) visits Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 from government extension workers. Strongly agree 42 I get quarterly (every four months) visits Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 from NGO extension workers. Strongly agree 43 In the past 12 months, I have received tools Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 and cassava cuttings from the Ministry of Strongly agree Agriculture

44 In the past 12 months, I have received tools Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 and cassava cuttings from NGOs and other Strongly agree donors

45 I will have the time to employ the harvesting Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 techniques from the training Strongly agree 46 I will have the required labor to employ the Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 harvesting techniques taught in the training Strongly agree 47 I will have the resources to hire labor to Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 practice the harvesting techniques taught in Strongly agree the training

48 I won’t need to employ these techniques Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 from the training because I harvest the Strongly agree cassava I need per day

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49 I am part of a farmers’ group where we help Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 each other in cassava production Strongly agree

50 I have family and friends who help me Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 harvest and store cassava Strongly agree

51 I can afford to hire labor to harvest cassava Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 faster. Strongly agree

52 I have the necessary tools to facilitate Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 harvesting of cassava Strongly agree

Section 6. SUBJECTIVE NORMS

53 I am willing to adopt these harvesting Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 techniques from the training if my family is 7 Strongly agree not comfortable with them. 54 I am willing to adopt these storage Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 techniques from the training if my family is 7 Strongly agree not comfortable with them.

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55 I am willing to adopt these harvesting Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 techniques from the training if neighboring 7 Strongly agree farmers are not comfortable with them. 56 I am willing to adopt these storage Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 techniques from the training if neighboring 7 Strongly agree farmers are not comfortable with them. 57 I am willing to adopt these storage Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 techniques from the training if the 7 Strongly agree government is not comfortable with them. 58 I am willing to adopt these harvesting Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 techniques from the training if the 7 Strongly agree government is not comfortable with them. 59 If I adopt the strategies I have learnt, I will Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 be doing something positive for my 7 Strongly agree livelihood 60 Whether I adopt these techniques or not is Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 entirely up to me Strongly agree

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Section 7. INTENTIONS TO ADOPT

61 I will adopt these techniques to reduce PHL Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 of cassava Strongly agree

62 I feel under pressure to adopt these harvest Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 and storage techniques Strongly agree

63 I am willing to adopt these techniques to Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 reduce PHL of cassava Strongly agree

64 I am confident the techniques I have learnt Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 in this training will help me reduce PHL of Strongly agree cassava easily

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Section 8. PERCEIVED BEHAVIORAL CONTROL

65 I will definitely adopt the harvesting Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 techniques Strongly agree

66 I will definitely adopt the Storage Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 techniques Strongly agree

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Section 9. PERCEPTION OF TRAINING IN GENDER GROUPS

67 I was able to freely share my knowledge on Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 cassava production in my training group Strongly agree

68 Learning about cassava PHL in the training Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 group of farmers I was assigned to was easy Strongly agree

69 The atmosphere in my training group was Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 conducive to discuss cassava PHL Strongly agree

70 I would have preferred to be assigned to Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 training group with more men. Strongly agree

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APPENDIX G – TRAINING MANUAL

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Training Manual

Strategies to Reduce Post-Harvest Loss of Cassava in Dewein and Senjeh Districts,

Bomi County

Introduction

This post-harvest loss reduction of cassava training manual is a scholarly material for a dissertation titled “How gender groups respond to training in post- harvest loss reduction of cassava: A study of Dewein and Senjeh Districts in Bomi

County”.

The use of proper harvest and storage techniques in cassava production will ensure reduced rate of cassava loss after harvest. Though the manual is intended to help farmers reduce post-harvest loss of cassava by acquiring knowledge of proper harvest and storage techniques, extension workers will benefit from the manual for use in other cassava-producing regions in Liberia.

When farmers adopt improved harvest and storage, it is expected that their skills will be enhanced.

The importance of cassava

Cassava is an important staple crop in Liberia that is substituted to rice, the major staple to feed the more than half of the country’s 4.4 million population

(GOL, 2010). It generates food for the country’s rural poor who live on less than

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US$1.25 a day and serves as an important source of dietary energy. Cassava is an income generating crop for women who make up the majority of fresh and processed cassava sellers in Liberia. The government of Liberia recognizes the potential of the tuber to livelihood development and income generation of its people (GOL, 2010).

The tuberous crop is mainly produced on a subsistence level mainly on one or two acre-large farms in all regions of Liberia. Cassava is consumed by nearly every household, even in some where rice in the major staple. The end products of the tuber are fresh cassava that can be eaten raw with coconut, roasted or cooked as a morning or early afternoon meal, consumed with gravy, vegetable or palm oil together with fish, meat or chicken. It can be processed into the following forms:

- Foofoo (a fermented cassava cooked into a dough)

- Dumboy (cassava grated, boiled and pounded )

- GB (Cassava boiled and pounded cassava)

- Garri – (Cassava grated and cooked over slow head till water is

evaporated)

- Baby formula

- Animal feed

- Flour

o Bread

o Pastries

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Cassava production in Liberia promises long-term benefits to farmers and consumers mainly because it has the propensity to change the lives of subsistence farmers and reduce poverty and food insecurity in the country.

Definition of terms and concepts used in this manual.

Post-harvest losses.

Postharvest loss can be defined as the degradation in both quantity and quality of a food production from harvest to consumption. Quality losses include those that affect the nutrient/caloric composition, the acceptability, and the edibility of a given product. These losses are generally more common in developed countries (Kader, 2002). Quantity losses refer to those that result in the loss of the amount of a product. Loss of quantity is more common in developing countries

(Kitinoja and Gorny, 1999). A report by FAO indicates that at global level, volumes of lost and wasted food in high income regions are higher in downstream phases of the food chain, but just the opposite in low-income regions where more food is lost and wasted in upstream phases (FAO, 2013).

Post-harvest loss of cassava is complex because there are various species of fungi and bacteria that affect the tubers in different conditions. When stored at high humidity, fungal rotting begins. These losses are caused by various factors at different stages of the production and value chain process. FAO (1981) developed a table showing the causes of loss of tubers and their effects (FAO, 1981).

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Table 1 Causes of Loss in Roots and Tubers and their Effects Factor Mechanism Stage Affected Resulting Loss Mechanical Rupture Harvest Moisture loss Bruising Harvest, Access to pests Transport, and diseases Storage Crushing Transport, Total loss Storage Physiological Transpiration All stages Water loss before processing Respiration Dry matter loss Sun scorch In field after Tissue lifting degradation Chilling Cold storage Loss of palatability Inversion of End of Increased starch dormancy transpiration and respiration Sprouting Storage Pathogenic Necrosis and Pre-harvest Partial to bacteria & tissue complete loss fungi degradation Storage Downgrading Insect Boring & Pre-harvest Partial loss infestation Chewing Storage (fresh Access for or processed decay products) organisms Rodent & bird Chewing Pre-harvest Partial loss damage Pecking Storage Access for decay organisms FAO (1981)

Post-harvest loss of cassava.

Post-harvest loss is defined as the spoilage of cassava after harvest on-farm and along the value chain, that affects the quality and quantity.

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Quality degradation results when the nutrient/caloric composition of cassava is reduced due to the spoilage and results in low quantity of the cassava intended for commercialization, household consumption and processing (ACF,

2014; Kader, 2002).

Quantity loss is when a certain amount of cassava tubers are lost during and after harvest; this may be as a result of thieves

Food Loss.

Food loss is the reduction in food meant for human consumption, that takes place from the production stage to harvesting, through post-harvest (processing food value chain) stage onto the commercialization of the food (FAO, 2013).

Losses sometimes occur during washing or processing when the tuber is being sorted out, washed, peeled, sliced and boiled.

Food waste.

Food waste is referred to food lost at the retail and consumption stage. It is defined as food meant for human consumption, excluding animal feed and other products not edible, that is uneaten, left to spoil or past expiry date thereby rendering it unfit for consumption and thrown away. This does not include food originally meant for human consumption but directed to a non-feed use (ACF,

2014). Food waste is usually linked to consumer behavior and food preservation strategies which vary from consumer to consumer.

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Post-harvest handling.

Post-harvest handling otherwise known as post-harvest management is the care taken by farmers and harvesters during and after harvest to reduce loss and ensure the final quality of cassava.

Harvest.

Harvest is the most important phase, which should be carried out with very carefully to prevent bruising and scarring of the tubers. It is the process of gathering crops grown after a period of time. The time of harvest of various crops depends on the period of time the crop matures on the ground. Proper distinction should be made between the categories of crops and their maturity period; such as cereal and pulses, ears or seedpods (ACF, 2014) and tuberous crops.

Handling.

Handling cassava during harvest includes carefully digging and movement of the roots to reduce. During and after harvest, proper care should be taken not to break through the skin of the tuber. That is why it is advisable to avoid the use of sharp objects such as knives, cutlasses and spears to dig through the soil because breaking the skin causes scars which produces cyanide that quickens physiological and deterioration of the tuber between 24 – 72 hours.

Processing.

Processing is defined as the series of actions (including chemical or mechanical), taken to change raw materials during the industrial or domestic production of crops. This is done to reduce degradation which can lead to food

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Texas Tech University, Cheryl Angela Williams loss. Processing including losses due to spillage and degradation during industrial or domestic processing, e.g. juice production, canning and bread baking.

Distribution: including losses and waste in the market system, at e.g. wholesale markets, supermarkets, retailers and wet markets.

Transportation.

This is movement of the product from farm to market, houses/barns and other storage facilities, and processing sites. Care should be taken during transportation to avoid the crop spilling on the road before reaching the storage or processing site. In Liberia, cassava is transported in potato/rice bags, baskets, plastic bowls and other available containers to the house, market or processing site

(when available). In Liberia, transportation of cassava from rural to urban areas, farm to markets and processing sites are very tedious because of improper handling, packaging of tubers in containers and public transports. The climatic conditions which may either be very hot and humid or rainy reduces temperature management especially for long distance walks, rides. Proper air circulation is not assured during transportation and head hastens rot of the product.

Packaging can be a major item of expense in produce marketing, especially in developing countries where packaging industries are not well developed. The selection of suitable containers for commercial scale marketing requires very careful consideration. Among the various types of packaging material that are available: natural and synthetic fiber sacks and bags as well as molded plastic boxes seem to be more suitable and have greater promise for packaging roots and tubers and for their transport to distant markets.

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Post-Harvest Drying.

Cassava can be peeled and dried after harvest to reduce the moisture contents that hastens the deterioration process when scarred. The moisture in tubers is favorable for microorganisms, which should be chopped in preparation for drying. Drying the tuber largely depends on the weather and climatic conditions in the country. The length of time needed for full drying of ears and grains depends considerably on weather and atmospheric conditions. In structures for lengthy drying such as cribs, or even unroofed threshing floors or terraces, the harvest is exposed to wandering livestock and the depredations of birds, rodents or small ruminants. Apart from the actual wastage, the droppings left by these

„marauders‟ often result in higher losses than what they actually eat. On the other hand, if grain is not dry enough, it becomes vulnerable to molds and can rot during storage.

Deterioration of cassava during and after harvest results to losses that are caused by:

ü Mechanical damage

ü Decay organisms and pest infestation and

ü Physiological change.

The skin of cassava like many other tubers protects the crop from bacteria and fungi which cause the tissues to rot. When the skin is broken during or after harvest an entry point for bacteria and fungi invasion hastens deterioration process.

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Table 2, adapted from ACF (2014) who quoted Parfitt et al., (2010), shows the stage of generic food supply chain and examples of food waste.

Table 2 Generic Food Supply Chain and Examples of Food Waste Stage Examples of Food Waste Edible crops left in field, ploughed into soil, Harvesting, handling at harvesting eaten by pests; timing of harvest not optimal; crop damaged during harvesting

Threshing Loss due to poor technique

Drying, transport and distribution Quality and quantity loss of during drying, poor transport infrastructure; loss owning to spoiling/bruising

Storage Pests and disease attacks, spillage, contamination; natural drying out of food

Primary processing, cleaning, Process losses; contamination in process classification, hulling, pounding, causing loss of quality. grinding, packaging, soaking, winnowing, drying, sieving, milling

Secondary processing, mixing, Process losses; contamination in process cooking, frying, molding, cutting, causing loss of quality extrusion

Product evaluation and quality Product disregarded /out-grades in supply chain control

Packaging Inappropriate packaging damages produces; grain spillage from sacks; attack by pests Marketing, selling, distribution Damage during transport; spoilage; poor handling; losses caused by poor storage Post-consumer Poor storage/stock management; discarded before serving; poor food preparation; expiration End of life disposal of food Food waste discarded may be separately treated, waste/loss at different stages in fed to animals, mixed with other supply chain. wastes/landfilled

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Stage and Timing of Harvesting

Cassava harvest period is usually during the dry season especially immediately before the rainy season. Climatic condition, such as flooding sometimes force farmers to harvest their crops early to prevent destruction. The varieties of cassava tubers available in Liberia mature between six to 12 months after planting. However, due to infrastructural issues, farmers harvest cassava based on market demand to reduce spoilage of the tuber. Farmers sometimes prolong harvesting of the tubers awaiting better market prices for higher profit margins.

The time of the day cassava is harvested in Liberia is important to ensure easy removal from the soil and avoid scarring of the tuber. Cassava should be harvested in the early hours of dawn, before the sun comes up, when the soil is wet with dew to ensure ease of removing the tubers from the soil with the hands.

Tools used for Harvesting Cassava

Cassava can be harvested manually or mechanically. In Liberia and some other developing countries, where subsistence farming of cassava is largely practiced, cassava is harvested manually. Tools identified in Liberia for harvesting cassava are knives, hoes and cutlasses which are used to dig up the soil to remove the tubers.

To ensure that the tubers are not scarred during the digging process;

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- Use stick carved into a pointed not-too-sharp object

- Hands can be used to clear the moist soil (harvest at dawn) and uproot

the tuber from the ground.

The following steps should be taken to harvest cassava:

- Clear the moist soil with hand or the not-too-sharp object/stick;

- Outline the tuber in the soil and continue to clear soil;

- When the soil is cleared enough, and a large part of the tuber is visible;

hold onto the stem and uproot;

- Care should be taken not to break the tuber whilst pulling.

After harvesting, the tubers should be washed to remove dirt and inspected for cuts and scars incurred during harvest. They can then be prepared for transportation, consumption, commercialization, processing or storage.

Post-Harvest Storage of Cassava

Cassava storage is one of the methods to reduce loss of the product after harvest. Storage of cassava after harvest for a long period of time has posed serious problems for farmers and consumers. Storage of cassava is important because the tuber is preserved for a period of time. It involves holding and preserving the tubers over a period of time until they are required for consumption, marketing or processing. Storage ensures that the tuber is readily available all-round the year and this reduces scarcity and regulates price for the consumer.

The following should be taken into consideration when storing cassava:

- Always select tubers with no sign of pest or disease damage

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- No scar or mark should be on the skin of the tuber and no part of thee tuber

should be broken;

- Tubers should be kept in specially-designed storage units with proper

ventilation system;

- Storage units should be checked regularly to ensure the tubers are in good

condition.

To store cassava for longer period the following items should be available:

- Wood or bamboo sticks

- Nails

- Saw dust

- Soil

The following steps should be taken:

- Build a trench with wood or bamboo sticks and nails;

- Holes should be on the side of the trench to allow cross ventilation;

- The trench should be placed at least 2 inches above the floor;

- Fill trench with one layer of soil and one layer of saw dust until filled

partly to the brim;

- Wet soil and saw dust slightly so the mixture will be moist with no

excess water;

- Place cassava tubers with no scar in the bed of mixture and leave for as

long as three to five weeks.

- Check cassava weekly to ensure that the mixture has no excess water

and not too dry.

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Summary

The strategies and techniques to reduce PHL of cassava will enable subsistence farmers improve the quality of the tuber during and after harvest.

This training manual can be integrated into the extension and knowledge transfer system of the ministry to reduce PHL of cassava and enhance farmers’ livelihood.

Pictures

Cassava packed in 50kg rice bags

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Harvested cassava tubers

Transportation of cassava

Farmer proudly showing her just-harvested cassava

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Garri processing machine in Liberia

Storage unit for tubers

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REFERENCES

Action Contre la Faim (2014). Post Harvest Loss and Strategies to reduce them. Technical Paper, Scientiic and Technical Department. Retrieved from: https://www.actioncontrelafaim.org/wp- content/uploads/2018/01/technical_paper_phl__.pdf

FAO (2011). Global Food Losses and Food Waste: Extent, Causes and Prevention. Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i2697e.pdf

Kader, A.A. (2002). Postharvest technology of horticultural crops. 3rd ed. Univ. Calif. Agr. Nat. Resources, Oakland, Publ. 3311. Retrieved from: http://ucce.ucdavis.edu/files/datastore/234-2531.pdf

Kitinoja, L. and Gorny, J.R. (1999). Postharvest technology for small-scale produce marketers: economic opportunities, quality and food safety. Univ. Calif. Postharvest Hort. Series No. 21. Retrieved from: https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/19990310601

Parfitt, J., Barthel, M.and Macnaughton, S. (2010). Food waste within food supply chains: quantification and potential for change to 2050. Retrieved from: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/365/1554/3065

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APPENDIX H – INFORMATION SHEET AND ADULT CONSENT FORM

This form describes a research project that we are conducting in Liberia. We are requesting your participation in this research project. This form will tell you what will be asked of you. Please read over it carefully and let us know if you have any questions.

What is this project studying?

The research is titled “How Gender Groups Respond to Training in Post-Harvest Loss of Cassava in Dewein and Senjeh Districts, Bomi County, Liberia.”

What would I do if I participate?

This is a three-part research that will require your participation over a period of time. For now you will be asked to participate in an interview (and) or a focus group discussion FGD). You will be required to share your experiences, thoughts and feelings about postharvest loss (PHL) of cassava. Some questions will be about your experience as a farmer, or working with other cassava farmers who have experienced PHL. You will also be asked whether you have participated in training(s) to reduce PHL in cassava, whether the method(s) learned were beneficial to reducing PHL in your farm. The interviews and FGD will be audio recorded in order for us to obtain accurate information.

A year after the interviews and/or FGD (If you are a farmer), you will be requested to participate in a three-day training session before cassava harvesting period, where you will be taught PHL reduction methods. Then after the harvesting period, you will be requested to fill a questionnaire about the amount of cassava you harvest from a one-acre farm the periods before and after the training, the amount lost after harvesting before and after the training, storage, commercialization and value addition (if applicable) information. Other questions will be about how you feel and what you experienced.

The training sessions will be audio and video recorded. Here, a camera operator will be taking pictures and another will video record the whole training session. You will receive a separate form requesting your consent to audio and video recording and transcription.

How will I benefit from participating?

This is a scholarly research that will inform use the valuable information you provide details on postharvest loss of cassava. There will be no compensation for

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Can I quit if I become uncomfortable?

Your participation is completely voluntary. You can withdraw from the study at any time you wish. However, your help is highly appreciated.

How long will participation take?

We are requesting for 30-40 minutes of your time for the first phase of the research which will be taking place now.

The second (training) phase, participants will be required to spend 6 hours (10am to 4pm, with a 45 minutes lunch break at 12:15 and a 15 minutes snack break at 3:00pm) for the training at the Ministry of Agriculture Conference Room in Bomi County.

For the third phase (quantitative data collection), the research team will collect quantitative data from farmers trained in Bomi County and 45 -55 minutes of participant’s time is requested

Will my privacy be protected?

Yes. As a participant in this study, your privacy is important to us. Your name will not be used in the research; each participant will be given a unique number that will be used in the files. Your name will NEVER be shared publicly. In any report that will be published or presented, should your individual responses be reported, your name will never be included in the presentation/publication. In most instances, overall responses for the group of people in the study will be used.

The researchers associated with this project will have access to the raw data. All related documentation will be stored either in a locked file cabinet in the researcher’s office or on a password protected computer.

Who should I contact if I have more questions to ask?

The study is being conducted by Ms. Cheryl Williams and Dr. Amy Boren from the Department of Agricultural Education and Communications at Texas Tech University (TTU). Dr. Boren can be reached at [email protected].

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For additional questions, contact the Human Research Protection Program, Office of the Vice President for Research, Texas Tech University, Texas, 79409. You can call them at 806-742-2064 or email [email protected].

Statement of Consent for the first phase (Qualitative data collection) I will be available to participate in the INTERVIEW/FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION/BOTH (please highlight/underline which of the data collection process you will participate in, according to the email sent to you). Print Name: ______Signature of Participant: ______Date: ______

ii. Statement of Consent for the second and third phases (Training and quantitative data collection) I will be available to participate in the TRAINING AND QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION stage. Print Name: ______Signature of Participant: ______Date: ______

This consent form is valid for 12 months following HRPP approval. (Remember, even if you do say, “Yes,” now, you can change your mind later.)

AUDIO/VIDEO RECORDING TRANSCRIPTION CONSENT FORM

The title of the research is “How Gender Groups Respond to Training in Post- Harvest Loss of Cassava in Bong County, Liberia.”

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This study involves the audio or video recording of your interview/focus group discussion/training session. Neither your name nor any other identifying information will be associated with the audio or audio recording or the transcript. Only the research team will be able to listen to (and/or view) the recordings The tapes will be transcribed by the researcher and erased once the transcriptions are checked for accuracy. Transcripts of your interview may be reproduced in whole or in part for use in presentations or written products that result from this study. Neither your name nor any other identifying information (such as your voice or picture) will be used in presentations or in written products resulting from the study. The study is being conducted by Ms. Cheryl Williams and Dr. Amy Boren from the Department of Agricultural Education and Communications at Texas Tech University (TTU). Dr. Boren can be reached at [email protected]. For additional questions, contact the Human Research Protection Program, Office of the Vice President for Research, Texas Tech University, Texas, 79409. You can call them at 806-742-2064 or email [email protected]. By signing this form, I am allowing the researcher to audio or video tape me as part of this research. I also understand that this consent for recording is effective until the following date: ______On or before that date, the recordings (audio and video) will be destroyed. Participant's Signature: ______Date: ______

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