UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY

The Practice of Yin Shun's Ren Jian Fo Jiao: A Case Study of Fu Yan

College, Dharma Drum Mountain and Tzu Chi Buddhist Compassion Relief

by

Jacqueline Ho

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS

DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES

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The purpose of this thesis is to investigate one of the growing movements known in Taiwan as Ren Jian Fo Jiao or 'Buddhism in the Human World' in Taiwan, propounded by an eminent Buddhist scholar Yin Shun (1906-2005). Three prominent

Buddhist organizations in Taiwan, which are Tzu Chi Buddhist Compassion Relief

Association, Dharma Drum Mountain, and Fu Yan Buddhist College, acknowledge being influenced by Yin Shun and identify themselves as the followers of Ren Jian Fo Jiao.

However, the problem is that their connection to the teaching of Ren Jian Fo Jiao is vague and ambiguous. In this thesis I explain how Ren Jian Fo Jiao is defined and practiced by the organizations' members. My explanation is based on the results of a social survey conducted during a thirty-day visit to Taiwan in May of 2006.

From this study I found that there was a strong perception of unity among adherents within the movement, because members claimed that there were no differences in thought between their organizations and the ideas of Yin Shun. However, an investigation of their activities reveals that the Ren Jian Fo Jiao movement is not unified in practice, because the organizations rely on different implementation methods. It was discovered that the practices of Ren Jian Fo Jiao are continually evolving to meet the demands of new environments and practitioners. This suggests that a certain degree of digression in the application of Ren Jian Fo Jiao is required to appeal to the needs of different people. The ability of Dharma Drum and Tzu Chi to keep up with the modern times, owing greatly to the vast financial resources of the groups, have led to the rise of innovative practices in those organizations. As a result, the original identity of the movement, which began as a Buddhist academic movement, has changed to a humanitarian movement, the major characterization of Ren Jian Fo Jiao.

iii Acknowledgements

I am greatly indebted to Dr. Leslie Kawamura for taking me under his wing and for encouraging and believing in me throughout my journey in the last three years.

I would also like to offer sincere thanks to Venerable Chien Hsu for his suggestions, translation help, kindness, and overwhelming guidance that enabled me to complete my thesis. Warm gratitude is also given to Henry Cao and Tina Jian for their translation help, and Yumi Onozawa for her formatting help. As well, I would like to express appreciation to the members of the examining committee: Dr. Lloyd Sciban, Dr.

David Wright, and Dr. Anne Moore. I am also grateful to the Department of Religious

Studies, which served as my second home for the last three years.

I would like to thank Venerable Seng Chia and the Feng family for making me feel welcome and for their hospitality in Taiwan during my study. In addition, I am thankful to the members ofFu Yan College, Dharma Drum Mountain and Tzu Chi

Buddhist Compassion Relief who participated in the survey, especially Charles, Chad Liu and Eric Hsu for their warm welcome, guided tours and patience with my questions.

Without the aid of the survey participants, this study would not have been made possible.

I am thankful to my friends, Mr. Brett Jordan Pearce and Boni Low-On, for their emotional guidance and support.

Lastly, I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my parents, Tony and

Tina Ho, for giving me the opportunity to study what I love, for their support and for raising me.

IV Dedication

I would like to dedicate this thesis to two people: my father, Tony Ho, who inspires me and gives me his unconditional love, and my guru, Lien Sheng, for his blessing, wisdom and compassion. Without the spiritual guidance of my guru, I would not have entered the Dharma gate of Buddhism.

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

Approval Page Abstract Acknowledgements Dedication

Table of Contents Chapter One. Introduction I. Buddhism in Modern Day Taiwan II. Yin Shun III. Ren Jian Fo Jiao IV. Fu Yan Buddhist College, Tzu Chi Buddhist Compassion Dharma Drum Mountain V. Problem VI. Goal VII. Methodology VIII. Overview of the Thesis Chapter Two. What is Ren Jian Fo Jiao? I. Discussion of Sources II. Main Components of Ren Jian Fo Jiao 1. The Historical Basis 2. The Central Focus of his Theory

3. Characteristics and Features 4. The Practicing Order of the Path 5. The Necessary Elements of Practice 6. Its Main Goal Chapter Three. Methodology and Demographics I. Survey Design

VI II. Interview Observation 40 III. Response Rate 42 IV. Demographics of Participants 44 V. Limitations of the Study 48 Chapter Four. Reaction of Survey Participants to the Definition of Ren Jian Fo Jiao 50

I. Conformation to Yin Shun's Views 50 II. Reasons for Disagreement 55 ^ III. Cohesiveness and Diversity Within the Organizations 57

IV. How Ren Jian Fo Jiao was Interpreted by the Survey Participants 57 Chapter Five. The Practice of Ren Jian Fo Jiao 64 I. Discussion of Sources 64 II. Report 65 a. The Practices of FuYan 65 b. The Practices of Dharma Drum 75 c. The Practices of Tzu Chi 89 III. Analysis 107 a. Source of Divergences 107 b. Divisions in Interpretations 111 c. Comparison of Institutional Applications 116 of Yin Shun's Theory d. Consideration of Espoused Motives 119 e. Yin Shun's Response to Divergences 121 Chapter Six. Conclusion 124 References 129 Appendix A. Certification of Institutional Ethics Review 136 Appendix B. Information about Survey Participants 137 Appendix C. Thesis Research Questions. Part A: Ren Jian Fo Jiao 139

VII Appendix D. Thesis Research Questions. Part B: About the Organization, Activities, & Philanthropy 147 1

Chapter One. Introduction

The rapid expansion of Buddhism in Taiwan and the emergence of new forms of

Buddhist expression have attracted, in recent decades, the attention of scholars of religious studies to explain the phenomena. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate one of the growing movements propounded by an eminent Buddhist scholar Yin Shun (1906-2005) known as Ren Jian Fo Jiao or 'Buddhism in the Human World' in Taiwan. The central question of this thesis is this: how is Ren Jian Fo Jiao defined and practiced by the members of Tzu Chi Buddhist Compassion Relief, Dharma Drum Mountain (DDM), and

Fu Yan Buddhist College,1 three prominent Buddhist organizations in Taiwan. Before elaborating on the goals, methodology and layout of this thesis, first some statistics and background information about Buddhism in Taiwan today, an introduction on Yin Shun's achievements, a synopsis of Ren Jian Fo Jiao, and the establishment of the relation of the three Buddhist organizations will be provided.

I. Buddhism in Modern Day Taiwan

Since the late 1980's, there has been "a rapid expansion in the number of Buddhist groups in Taiwan."2 The growth is the result of new policies made by the Taiwanese government, which was ruled by the one-party system, to move in a liberal and democratic direction. In particular, two laws play a direct role in the development of Buddhism in Taiwan. In 1987 martial law, which had previously restricted rights to practice religion, was abolished and a new act, entitled 'Law on the Organization of Civic Groups,' was implemented in 1989 to allow social and civic groups to form freely.3 As of 2006, there were today, according to

'i have used the abbreviations Tzu Chi, Dharma Drum and Fu Yan instead of their full titles throughout this thesis. 2Charles Brewer Jones, Buddhism in Taiwan (Honululu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1999), 183. 3Ibid., 181-183. 2 the Ministry of the Interior, over eight million Buddhists on the island. Buddhism is a religion with the highest membership and its numbers account for 35% of the country's total population.4 The popularity of Buddhism has even prompted Laliberte to suggest that to be labeled a Buddhist in Taiwan is to be considered to have a "prestigious" title.5

Buddhism has come to pervade the local culture and population to the extent that it is difficult not to come into contact with the many forms of religious expression being practiced by the Buddhist groups. For example, within thirty minutes of my arrival at the

Taipei International Airport, a locally televised commercial sponsored by Dharma Drum

Mountain that resembled a Hollywood film trailer could be watched. The advertisement featured Master Sheng Yen, the founder, standing valiantly on top of a mountain with his monk's robes blowing in the wind. While nature music played in the background, Sheng

Yen looked into the distance with his hands folded behind him and smiled. This iconic portrayal of Sheng Yen not only highlighted the high public profile of Buddhism in the mass media but it also supported Andre Laliberte's statement that some Buddhist monks share "the same visibility as pop stars."61 was later told that Buddhist sightings such as these were commonplace. Indeed, when walking or driving in the streets of Taiwan, large

Buddhist billboards and posters alongside shampoo and electronic ads could be seen.

Frequently monks and nuns, lay Buddhists dressed in special uniforms, and newspaper stands with pamphlets and free Buddhist literature could be seen. There are also dedicated

4The population of Taiwan is 22.8 million. See "Taiwan Yearbook 2006 - Religion." Government Information Office, Republic of China, 29 March 07 [government website]; available from http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/22Religion.htm#Buddhism; Internet; accessed 4 April 2007. "Statistics about the distribution of temples in the country combined with demographic data indicate that Buddhism is practiced all around the island." See Andre Laliberte, The Politics of Buddhist Organizations in Taiwan: 1989-2003 Safeguarding the faith, building a pure land, helping the poor (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004), 3. 5This is due to the fact that sociologists have discovered that more people "profess belief than those who "actually practice Buddhism." For a brief discussion see Laliberte, 3. 6Ibid., 2. 3

Buddhist television channels, some of which operate on a 24-hour basis, and radio shows, magazines, newspapers, and bookstores which are widespread in Taiwan.7 Buddhism has also influenced the economy to the extent that multitudes of vegetarian restaurants have been established to cater specifically to the Buddhist diet. Members of the Sangha typically enjoyed a 10% discount at these restaurants! These experiences led me to understand that the promotion of Buddhism in Taiwan was ubiquitous.

The reason which prompted my interest in the questions addressed in this thesis, however, was the discovery of the tendency for the new Buddhist groups to build large institutional structures, other than traditional temples, which had rarely or never been done before. For example, the organizations have built medical care facilities such as hospitals, retirement homes and orphanages, and educational institutes which include dedicated monk schools, Buddhist universities, elementary and high schools. To impart a glimpse of the size and magnitude of these facilities, the general hospital constructed by Tzu Chi exceeds ten storeys and covers an area of 46 acres and the Tzu Chi University, which includes a medical school, encompasses 160 acres of land.8 Buildings such as these tower over

Hualien, a small city with a population of 350,000, and are also found across the Taiwanese landscape.9 More specifically, when I first learned that Buddhists were building hospitals in the name of Buddhism in Taiwan, I was led to discover that the Buddhist groups had been religiously motivated by the idea of Ren Jian Fo Jiao also referred to as

"Buddhism in the Human Realm," "This-Worldly Buddhism," or "Humanistic Buddhism."

7Tzu Chi's Da Ai television network broadcasts 24-hours a day. 8Ministry of Education. "Study in Taiwan: Tzu Chi University," (Taiwan: National Tsing Hua University) [website]; available from http://www.studyintaiwan.org/schools/TCU.htm; Internet; accessed 11 April 2007. 9Hualien dot net. "Hualien City - Brief Introduction." Last updated 2006 [website]; available from http://www.hualien.net/en/; Internet; accessed 11 April 2007. 4

II. Yin Shun

Yin Shun is said to be the developer of "Ren Jian Fo Jiao," but he is relatively unknown beyond the borders of Taiwan and China due to the lack of English translations of his publications and his recurring illnesses, which prevented him from traveling far from his homeland. However, within the circle of Buddhologists and Buddhists who read Chinese works, he is regarded as "arguably the most influential Buddhist intellectual in Taiwan."10

In fact, Po-Yao Tien claims Yin Shun is "the most important Buddhist monk since the Sung

Dynasty."11 Yin Shun's significance lies in his more than sixty years of devotion to the study of Buddhism and the more than forty books that he published and in which he provided a Chinese Buddhist "response to the challenge of modernization and social change."12 Through his influential works, Yin Shun revived and undertook a modern systematization of Buddhism. He belonged to an early class of Buddhist scholars who re­ examined the sutric material based on the historical evolution of thought rather than adopting the lens of a particular philosophical school within the tradition, which was the customary and conventional methodological approach among Chinese Buddhist scholars at the time. Yin Shun is distinguished from modern scholars by his breath of coverage and thorough examination of the Buddhist material, which was based on multiple readings of

11 the entire Tripitaka. It has been said that his "command over what he has gleaned from many years of avid reading is so thorough that he can locate the exact 'chapter and verse' of a source in the books on his shelves," which is an impressive talent given the nature and

10Jones, 210. uPo-Yao Tien, "A Modern Buddhist Monk-Reformer in China: The Life and Thought of Yin-Shun" (Ph. D. diss., California Institute of Integral Studies, 1995), IV. See Whalen Lai in The Way to Buddhahood, by Yin Shun, trans. Wing Yeung (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1998), xviii for a brief discussion of Yin Shun among historical Chinese Buddhist thinkers. 12Tien, 57. l3Ibid., 304-305. 5 magnitude of Buddhist textual material.14 Yin Shun is also differentiated apart from most scholars by the fact that he is both a Buddhist monk and intellectual, and his works straddle both the popular and academic fields. As an insider of the faith, the direction of his writings is pragmatic. As a scholar, his career has been shaped by his opinion that the ways in which

Buddhists have been practicing the path to Nirvana have been obstructed by their misinterpretations of the teachings. It was Yin Shun's intention to locate where in the historical line of thought the misinterpretations have occurred. Ren Jian Fo Jiao is thus the culmination of his life's devotion to the study of Dharma and also his ultimate aim, which he proposed to be the correct understanding of Buddhism leading to Nirvana, based on an academic investigation of the faith. The intended audience of Ren Jian Fo Jiao is the

Buddhist community and potential converts.

III. Ren Jian Fo Jiao

From 1941 until 1989, when he announced that he would cease writing, Yin Shun began writing and lecturing about Ren Jian Fo Jiao in China.15 Although Yin Shun did not coin the term "Ren Jian Fo Jiao," he adopted and used it to refer to the most direct path to

Nirvana by adopting Buddhist worldly practices. Yin Shun sought the return of Buddhist practice to the time of the historical Buddha, a time in which any God language, deity worship, and rituals pertaining to death or the spirit world was completely absent. He applied this early Buddhist path to the bodhisattva path of later Mahayana thought which he regarded as the ideal path to Buddhahood. Yin Shun's concern was to find a practical way to cultivate Buddhism in modern times. His critics, however, argued that his proposed form

14, • Lai, xvi. 15The term was first used by Tzu-hang and Fa-fang in the Hai ch 'aoyin magazine in 1934. However, the term was mentioned in lectures prior to the publication. Tien, 260, 38. 6 of Buddhism was too nihilistic and they feared the tradition would no longer be recognizable if the faith was stripped of its most discernible traits.

The name, "Buddhism in the Human World," suggests the preconceived notion that there are other "worlds" or "realms" (jian) apart from the human one in which one may cultivate and seek a return to the human realm as the focal point. Yin Shun did not deny the existence of Buddha-deities, the spirit realm, or heaven and hell, but he argued that traditional Chinese Buddhists, mostly monks, have missed the spirit of Sakyamuni's teachings by focusing too much on death and the afterlife. The monks are escapist, he charged, because they view the human world as a place of suffering and pursue the desire to leave it. For example, they engage solely in passive activities such as meditation, reciting sutras and mantras, and participating in Dharma ceremonies. However, Yin Shun claims that reliance on these methods alone cannot help achieve the goal of Liberation.

Furthermore, the monks contradict the Buddhist vow of compassion by not doing enough to alleviate the suffering of fellow humans and by abandoning them in adopting a reclusive life. Yin Shun emphasized that one must rely on one's fleshly body and not on the merit or power of a celestial being to achieve Liberation. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to aid sentient beings as opposed to immersing oneself in Buddha worship. In his final vision of a realized Ren Jian Fo Jiao, Yin Shun advocated for the transformation of the human world into a real paradise on earth by his assertion of the Ren Jian Jing Tu or Pure Land on Earth.

IV. Fu Yan Buddhist College, Tzu Chi Buddhist Compassion Relief, and the Dharma

Drum Mountain

Fu Yan Buddhist College, Tzu Chi Buddhist Compassion Relief, and the Dharma

Drum Mountain are three Buddhist organizations founded in Taiwan between the early

1950's and 1990. All three claim to be practicing and propagating Ren Jian Fo Jiao. Their 7 relation to Yin Shun is also recognized by the fact that the members of Fu Yan College and

Dharma Drum Mountain venerate Yin Shun as their 'guiding master' (dao shi) and the members of Tzu Chi revere Yin Shun as its 'lineage master' (si gong).16 The initial connection of the Buddhist groups to Yin Shun, however, stem from his personal influence on the founders. This section will briefly expand on their affiliation to Yin Shun and provide an introduction about the prominence of each group.

The Fu Yan Buddhist College (fuyanfo xue yuan), which is a dwelling place for monks, was established by Yin Shun in Xinzhu, Taiwan in 1953 to serve as a college for

Buddhist learning and study.17 Education centers such as his were introduced by the

Buddhist revolutionaries Yang Wen Hui and Taixu in the early 1900's in China.18 The seminaries were established as a response to the growing recognition that, since classical times, there had been no official system of Buddhist study in the mainland. Although there existed Vinaya schools, training centers for monks, attendees were trained only to memorize and chant the sutras and to perform the Dharma rituals correctly.19 They were not required "to know the finer points of the Vinaya or the doctrine particularly well."

Furthermore, among the minority who had mastered the interpretation of a few traditional texts, they were biased according to their own school of thought. Therefore, Yin Shun sympathized with the need to revolutionize the monks in his day by raising the level of scholarship of the Sangha, because he believed that proper knowledge would cure the ills of

16The title 'lineage master' refers to and recognizes the direct relation of Cheng Yen to Yin Shun as his tonsured disciple whereas the term 'guiding master' alludes to Yin Shun's indirect influence as a mentor. I7Tien, 34. l8Holmes Welch, The Buddhist Revival in China (Boston: Harvard University Press, 1968), 15. l9Ibid., 103-105. 20Welch continues: "Lay people expected him (the monk), through his pure life, to accumulate merit, which he transferred through ritual to their benefit. If he had a deep understanding of doctrine or was punctilious in following the Vinaya rules, he was perhaps considered a more potent accumulator of merit, but lay people did not insist on this. So long as he could chant the sutras and ate no meat, it was probably enough." Ibid., 16. 8 wrong Buddhist cultivation. In classical times, lectures on the sutras were delivered in the chanting hall of monasteries; however, Fu Yan was modeled after the seminaries, which adopted "the western educational format of lecture and discussion classes." The operations of the seminaries founded by Yang Wen Hui and Taixu, for example, were vastly different from the monasteries in that they "employed monastic and lay instructors, provided blackboards for use by teachers and students, and required academic course work not only in Buddhist studies and languages but in secular subjects, such as history, literature, and psychology, as well."21 Fu Yan was the first institution to promote Yin Shun's Ren Jian Fo

Jiao by encouraging graduates to travel to other continents to spread, what he considered to be, the most accurate view of Dharma. According to him, it was the responsibility of the

Sangha to propagate Ren Jian Fo Jiao.

One of Yin Shun's nun disciples, Wang Chin Yun, shared and committed her life to

Yin Shun's mission. In 1963, Wang took refuge from Yin Shun and was tonsured by him and given the Dharma name Cheng Yen by which she is known today. Yin Shun gave

Cheng Yen the simple instructions, "Be committed to Buddhism and all living beings."

She recalls, "It took my master only a couple of seconds to utter this short phrase, but I have spent the last four decades doing my best to attain it."24 In 1966, Cheng Yen founded a grassroots charity group named the Tzu Chi Merits Society in Hualien, Taiwan with a

Don Pittman, Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism: Taixu's Reforms (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2001), 97. 22"Dharma Master Cheng Yen," Tzu Chi Foundation - Buddhist Compassion Relief, 18 March 2007 [official website]; available from http://www.tzuchi.org/global/master/index.html; Internet; accessed 4 April 2007. Following ordination, a monk or nun is given two new names. The first name, known as the Dharma name (fa had) is given at the tonsure or head-shaving ceremony. Afterwards, the novice monk typically seeks a master whom he or she follows as an apprentice and is given a domestic name (nei hao) by which he or she is referred to only by the master. 23King Pong Liu, "Keeping Up Our Enthusiasm," Tzu Chi: Buddhism in Action. Summer 2006, 1. 24Ibid., 1. 9 mission "to provide relief and assistance to the poor." Originally, it was only a small group of thirty housewives who saved a portion of their grocery allowance to donate to those who could not afford medical care.26 However, realizing the need for greater assistance Cheng Yen made the resolution to raise enough capital to build a hospital for the needy. Through the fund-raising efforts of the original members and the charismatic nature of Cheng Yen, expressed by her hard-work ethic and the simplicity of her teaching 'Great

Love' or da ai, the membership of the society snowballed and the society spread from

Hualien all across Taiwan. Known as the Tzu Chi Buddhist Compassion Relief Association today, it is one of the largest Buddhist organizations in Taiwan with a membership of over ten million people and branches in every continent of the world. Tzu Chi actively promotes Ren Jian Fo Jiao through its activities in charity, medicine, education and culture.

If one visits its gift shops, one can find a vast assortment of books, biographies and DVDs on Yin Shun.

Another monastic figure who has recognized the influence Yin Shun had on his spiritual development is Sheng Yen. Sheng Yen's lineage master Dongchu studied alongside Yin Shun at the Minnan Buddhist Institute in Xiamen, China in the early

"Dharma Master Cheng Yen," Tzu Chi Foundation - Buddhist Compassion Relief, 18 March 2007 [official website]; available from http://www.tzuchi.org/global/master/index.html; Internet; accessed 4 April 2007. 26"Dharma Master Cheng Yen," Tzu Chi Foundation - Buddhist Compassion Relief, 18 March 2007 [official website]; available from http://www.tzuchi.org/global/master/index.html; Internet; accessed 4 April 2007. ""About Tzu Chi," Tzu Chi Foundation - Buddhist Compassion Relief, 10 April 2007 [official website]; available from http://www.tzuchi.org/global/about/index.html; Internet; accessed 11 April 2007. Regarding the membership numbers Denoon writes, "This membership figure is based on Tzu Chi's loose definition of a Tzu Chi member as anyone who ever donates money to its foundation. The number appears to be an exaggeration when taking into account the fact that only roughly half of these donors continue their contributions on a monthly basis." See Gloria Denoon, "Tzu Chi: The Practice of Non-Self and Its Unintended Consequences" (Ph. D. diss, New York University, 2006), 1. 10

1930's.28 At Minnan, Dongchu and Yin Shun had been exposed to the notion of Ren Sheng

Fo Jiao or 'Buddhism for the Human Life,' put forth by the founder of the institute Taixu.

Dongchu shared the same goal as Taixu and Yin Shun for uplifting the quality of Sangha education. Due to Dongchu's unforeseen death in 1978, however, he was unable to complete this goal and left all responsibilities to his disciple Sheng Yen.30 Sheng Yen was

"the first bhikshu (monk) in contemporary Chinese history to obtain a doctoral degree," through his enrollment in advanced Buddhist studies at Rissho University in Japan in

1975. Recognizing Dongchu's unfulfilled wishes, he founded the Chung-Hwa Institute of

Buddhist Studies (CHIBC) in 1985, which opened its doors to both monks and lay students.32 In an expansion move to relocate to a larger 43.2 acre site in Jinshan mountain in 1989, the new facility was given the name Dharma Drum Mountain by which it is known today.33 The new base serves as a "world centre for Buddhist education" to promote Ren

Jian Fo Jiao through culture, spiritual practice, and charity.34 The campus accommodates a college, the renowned CHIBC, an international conference hall, library and information center, and a meditation center. Dharma Drum presently has 500,000 members worldwide and is trying to establish a Buddhist pure land on earth.35

V. Problem

Although the members of Fu Yan, Dharma Drum, and Tzu Chi acknowledge their being

Hu, Muin. Sharing Dharma Drum Mountain, trans. Wenming Kuo, Belinda Li, Luh Nelson and Shujen Yeh. (Taipei: Dharma Drum Corporation, 2005), 26. 29Dongchu launched the magazine publication Humanity and oversaw the reproduction of the Taisho or Chinese Tripitaka to spread knowledge about Buddhism. Ibid., 26-28. 30Ibid., 54. 31Ibid., 34,38. 32Ibid., 46. 33Ibid.,47, 63. 34Ibid., 52, 134. 35Ibid., 132-133. The membership figure was provided by Mr. Charles, the guest services liaison of Dharma Drum Mountain headquarters, in May 2006. 11 influenced by Yin Shun and identify themselves as the followers of Ren Jian Fo Jiao, their connection to the teaching of Ren Jian Fo Jiao is otherwise vague and ambiguous. For example, do the beliefs of Dharma Drum and Tzu Chi members closely follow the views of

Yin Shun or do their perceptions of Ren Jian Fo Jiao exhibit a nuanced definition of the founders' views? Furthermore, are the opinions of Sangha students at Fu Yan, who are formally trained in Yin Shun's methodologies and are perceived by Yin Shun to be the carrier of his ideas, close to those of Yin Shun? Are the attitudes of followers within each group coherent or divided among one another? How do the attitudes of each group compare with other groups? If differences are found, what issues separate them and if similar, is it possible to find a common strand which links them to one another? These unanswered questions have prompted the necessity for this thesis and will be addressed in the paper.

VI. Goal

The two goals of this thesis are to explain 1) how Ren Jian Fo Jiao is defined by the members of Tzu Chi. Dharma Drum, and Fu Yan, and 2) how Ren Jian Fo Jiao is being practiced by these groups in Taiwan. The first goal seeks to examine whether there are any changes, major or minor, in thought by comparing the writings of Yin Shun with the views of the members. In this regard, my primary focus is not to investigate the cosmologies of the founding leaders through a literature review. This is due to the fact that English availability of primary materials is scarce and that the expressed opinions of the founders do not necessarily espouse the opinions of its followers, who are the integral base of the organization. The second goal is not totally different from the first goal but is a means to further elucidate and explain it. The second goal seeks to understand how the interpretation of Ren Jian Fo Jiao by the organizations has shaped their practice. Here, members have been requested through a survey to explain, in their own words, the perceived correlation 12

between their organization's goals and what the organization is currently doing. This

investigation was done owing to the fact that Yin Shun did not intentionally discuss

specific forms and ways to practice Ren Jian Fo Jiao because he believed that the needs of

sentient beings at the time would determine the necessary course of action.

VII. Methodology

In this thesis, three methodologies will be utilized to answer the proposed questions. They

include translation work and exegesis, a social survey, and a comparative analysis. In order to establish Yin Shun's position on Ren Jian Fo Jiao, I first translated two chapters of his

Buddhism in the Human World Which Conforms to Reason and is Suitable for the Times, which best summarizes the essential Ren Jian Fo Jiao. Based on the translation, I have extracted the fundamental points of his thesis and created a questionnaire, which contained direct quotations from the translated material. Second, I conducted a social survey in a thirty-day visit to Taiwan in May of 2006 by visiting the headquarters and branch offices of

Fu Yan, Dharma Drum, and Tzu Chi, and administered 31 interviews to the members.

Lastly, the new data was interpreted by using a comparative methodology whereby, the members' responses from the questionnaires were compared with Yin Shun's writings on

Ren Jian Fo Jiao, which were provided by the translation. Therefore, the primary research methods which make up the case-study are translation work and empirical data collection.

VIII. Overview of the Thesis

The results of the research are presented in the six chapters comprising the present thesis.

In Chapter Two, a summary of findings noting the major points of Ren Jian Fo Jiao based on the thirty-three page translation is provided. Chapter Three encompasses a report on the

36The number of questionnaires completed was determined by the number of people who were willing to participate in the study during my stay in Taiwan. 13 research methods used, the parameters of the study, and experiences in the interviews; and

Chapter Four presents the statistical and qualitative results of the survey to explain how

Ren Jian Fo Jiao is defined. Lastly, in Chapter Five a report on the practices of the organizations and a comparative study of the organizations' practices in relation to Yin

Shun's proposal will be explained. Chapters Four and Five contain the bulk of the answers to the main question of how the three prominent Buddhist organizations in Taiwan define and practice Ren Jian Fo Jiao. In Chapter Six, a summary of findings in the case study and the major characteristics of the Ren Jian Fo Jiao movement in Taiwan is given.

By fulfilling the stated goals of the thesis, the author intends to achieve three broad aims. They are 1) to contribute to the growing knowledge of Yin Shun in English, 2) to provide a current picture of Buddhist practice affected by Ren Jian Fo Jiao in Taiwan, and

3) to introduce English readers to a growing global movement which has begun to set foot in every continent. 14

Chapter Two. What is Ren Jian Fo Jiao?

I. Discussion of Sources

The most concise work of Ren Jian Fo Jiao (f£3£3yifc^Aft \%^. Qi Li Qi Ji Zhi

Ren Jian Fo Jiao) is Yin Shun's Buddhism for the Human World which Conforms to

Reason and is Suitable for the Times, written in Chinese. The Buddha in the Human World

(\%fc- Afal - Fo Zai Ren Jian) is another major work regarding Ren Jian Fo Jiao and is contained within an anthology entitled Miao Yun Collection (Miao Yun Ji). Several articles

from this volume including "The Road from Man to Buddhahood" and "The Basic Purpose

TO of Following the Buddha" have been translated into English in pamphlet-form. Brief mention of Ren Jian Fo Jiao can also be found in his Roaming the Dharma Sea for Sixty

Years (You Xin Fa Hai Liu Shi Niari) in Chinese, and in The Way to Buddhahood (Cheng

Fo Zhi Dao), which is the most comprehensive work of Yin Shun's thought in English.39 In regard to this thesis topic, the practice of Ren Jian Fo Jiao in Taiwan, Scott Pacey has penned an article which examines the various notions of Ren Jian Fo Jiao among prominent

Taiwanese Buddhist organizations. His work is entitled "A Buddhism for the Human

World: Interpretations of Ren Jian Fo Jiao in Contemporary Taiwan." A thorough investigation of Yin Shun's methodology in his proposal of Ren Jian Fo Jiao in Po-Yao

Tien's dissertation, "A Modern Buddhist Monk-Reformer in China: The Life and Thought

37This title has been translated as Human Buddhism Suitable for the Principle and Opportunity in Tien Po-Yao's dissertation. While Po-Yao has chosen the transliteral translation of the terms 'qi li' (^S) and 'qi ji' (M^), the translator has adopted the meaning-translation for clarity. 38See Yin Shun, "The Road from Man to Buddha," trans. Fayen Koo (New York: The Institute for Advanced Studies of World Religions, 1994) and Yin Shun, "The Basic Purpose of Following the Buddha," trans. Fayen Koo (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Buddhist Book Distributor, 1999). 39Tien has translated the title of You Xin Fa Hai Liu Shi Nian as Sixty Years of Study and Practice of Buddhism. See bibliography in Po-Yao Tien, "A Modern Buddhist Monk-Reformer in China: The Life and Thought of Yin-Shun" (Ph. D. diss., California Institute of Integral Studies, 1995), 312. 15

of Yin-Shun" is an excellent and foundational secondary resource on his life and views.

Regarding supplementary material, Don Pittman's pioneering work Toward a Modern

Chinese Buddhism: Taixu's Reforms, establishes crucial background knowledge of Taixu's

Ren Sheng Fo Jiao, which provided the impetus and guidance for Yin Shun's later

development of Ren Jian Fo Jiao.41 Other works in English that encompass research on Yin

Shun but are not directly related to the subject of Ren Jian Fo Jiao consists of two kinds:

short introductory features of his biography, including an entry contained in The

Encyclopedia of Buddhism, and second, articles which pertain to research in other areas of thought such as his influences from the Chan and Pure Land school.42 To date, no complete primary work on Ren Jian Fo Jiao has been translated into English.43

This chapter will present an abstract of Ren Jian Fo Jiao based on my translation of

Buddhism for the Human World. I summarize Ren Jian Fo Jiao into six components which are presented in the following order: 1) the historical basis given by Yin Shun, 2) the central focus of the theory, 3) its characteristics and features, 4) the practicing order of the path, 5) four necessary elements of practice, and 6) its main goal.

II. The Main Components of Ren Jian Fo Jiao

See chapter 8, "Yin-Shun's View on Jan-Chien Fo-Chiao" in Tien, "Modern Buddhist," 255-265. 4I"My interest in Ren Jian Fo Jiao was the result of Master Taixu's influence." Yin Shun, A Buddhism for the Human World which Conforms to Reason and is Suitable for the Times (Taipei: Right Hearing Press, 1990), 33. 42For a synoptic biography of Yin Shun, see Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 1st ed., s.v. "Yin-Shun," by William Chu. Yin Shun was briefly recognized as a modern Buddhist reformer among a list of prominent figures in Charles S. Prebish, The Faces of Buddhism in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 30. See Scott Hurley's "The Doctrinal Transformation of Twentieth-Century Chinese Buddhism: Master Yinshun's Interpretation of the Tathagatagarbha Doctrine," Contemporary Buddhism: An Interdisciplinary Journal 5 (2004): 29-46, and Charles Jones' "Transitions in the Practice and Defense of Chinese Pure Land Buddhism," Buddhism in the Modern World: Adaptations of an Ancient Tradition (England: Oxford University Press, 2003), 125-142 for other discussions of Yin Shun. 43I have rendered into English chapters six and seven of Yin Shun's Buddhism for the Human World which Conforms to Reason and is Suitable for the Times, that best establishes Yin Shun's definitive position on Ren Jian Fo Jiao. 16

1. The Historical Basis

Ren Jian Fo Jiao represents a return to the original spirit of Sakyamuni. This is based on the view that the true purpose of Dharma, the Buddha's teachings, was lost during the historical development of the religion because as Yin Shun writes, "Due to the long development of the Buddha Dharma... the special characteristics of 'the two-footed

Tathagatha' was lost."44 In this introduction, Yin Shun discusses the reason for his proposal of Ren Jian Fo Jiao.

Ren Jian Fo Jiao is not a new teaching because Ren Jian Fo Jiao is the teaching of

Sakyamuni and this is directly expressed in the quote, "The Buddha Dharma is 'Ren Jian

Fo Jiao.'"45 By making this statement, Yin Shun is clarifying that Ren Jian Fo Jiao does not deviate from the original teaching of Sakyamuni but is tantamount to the Buddha Dharma expounded by Sakyamuni. In this way, the term Ren Jian Fo Jiao is simply a convenient way to refer to the original intentions of the historical Buddha because Yin Shun confidently declares,

The Buddha's teaching is his clairvoyance of the human world and the great path of Self-A wakening and Awakening-others, a topic which is the focus of Ren Jian Fo Jiao and on which he subsequently expands. 6

2. The Central Focus of his Theory

Ren Jian Fo Jiao is human-focused and not deity-focused. This refers to the practitioner's need to rely on the power of himself and not the power of deities to achieve

Awakening. Yin Shun writes, "Relying on Other-Power can be timorous. Only by stressing

The phrase "two-footed" is an expression Yin Shun used to emphasize the human-ness nature of the historical Buddha. Yin Shun, A Buddhism for the Human World, 33. 45Ibid., 33. 46Ibid., 33. 17 on Self-Power and not others, can the spirit be 'self-sovereign.'" Although Yin Shun does not elucidate the terms 'Other-Power' and 'Self-Power' in the text, Tan Luan's commentary on the Pure Land sutras provides some evidence into the usage. According to

Inagaki, T'an Luan was "the first to use the term 'Other-Power'" to depict the dependence of devotees on Amitabha and the power of his vow.48 The power of Amitabha's vows

"enables the devotee to be born quickly in the Pure Land through repeating the Name ten times" by "transcend[ing] the course of the ordinary bodhisattva stages."49 "Because of the

Other-Power," Inagaki writes, "one who entrusts oneself to Amitabha can quickly realize

Enlightenment."50 'Self-Power' occurs when the cultivator "does not avail himself of the

Other-Power" and instead, cultivates only according to his own effort.51 The Self-Power path is "extremely difficult for ordinary beings" but it is the route which Yin Shun defends and endorses.5

In the beginning of chapter six, Yin Shun underlines the importance of human existence and the human realm by emphasizing the human nature of Sakyamuni. He refers to an excerpt from the Ekottara-agama Sutra (Zhen Yi Ah Han Jing), "All Buddhas emerge from the human world and do not become Awakened in the heavens."53 He explains,

The Buddha is not a heavenly god or an angelic being but he is someone who became Awakened in the human world. He was able to receive the Buddha Dharma, understand the Truth and obtain self-Liberation because he was born in the human world.54

47Ibid., 40. 48Hisao Inagaki, The Three Pure Land Sutras: A Study and Translation from Chinese (Kyoto: Nagata Bunshodo, 1995), 89. 49Ibid., 90. 50Ibid., 90. 5lIbid.,90. "ibid., 122. 53Yin Shun, Buddhism for the Human World, 33. 54Ibid., 33. 18

By reiterating the Buddha's birth, ability "to receive the Buddha Dharma," and Awakening in the human world, Yin Shun implores practitioners to wake up to the preciousness of their human existence and seek Awakening in the human realm just as the Buddha did, instead of heaven. This is exemplified in the unique message of the Ekottara-agama Sutra, "Thus, it states [in the sutra]: 'It is difficult to become a human being.'"55 This comment is fittingly completed by the passage in Yin Shun's "The Basic Purpose of Following the Buddha:" "In order to understand the basic purpose of following the Buddha, one must first recognize the value of human existence... ,"56 The centeredness on all things pertaining to the human world and human beings is the defining characteristic between one who follows the path of

Ren Jian Fo Jiao and one who does not. Those who rely on the power of deities or Other-

Power to practice Buddhahood are following another path. Yin Shun defines this boundary in chapter seven of Buddhism for the Human World, "As a disciple of Ren Jian Fo Jiao, one needs to make the choice between the human world and the heaven. There is no intermediary."57

Yin Shun criticizes ". .. the idealization of divinizing ghosts and gods. . ." in

Buddhism because he claims that this kind of anomaly developed only after the Buddha's

CO death, as a result of the faulty memory of later disciples. This is evident in his statement,

Due to the 'constant memorization of the Buddha by the Buddhist disciples' as a reason, the elements of idealization and faith increased and as a result, Buddhism naturally became more similar to Hinduism.59

In chapter six Yin Shun also remarks, "Due to the long development of the Buddha Dharma

"ibid., 33. 56Yin Shun, "The Basic Purpose of Following the Buddha," trans. Fayen Koo (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Buddhist Book Distributor, 1999), 17. 37Yin Shun, Buddhism for the Human World, 45. 58Ibid., 33. 59Ibid., 40-41. 19

as a result of 'The Buddhist disciple's recollection of the Buddha after the Buddha's

Nirvana,' the idealization of divinizing ghosts and gods could not be avoided."60 Yin Shun

refers to the incorporation of Hindu deities into the Buddhist pantheon as a way to explain

the "idealization" that occurred in Buddhism.61 He states:

First, for example, Manjusri is the combination of Sariputra and Brahma. Samantabhadra is the combination of Maudgalyayana and Indra. These two became the new aids of the Buddha. In the heaven of Shiva (Akanistha), there is the perfect Vairocana. The deities in the lower realm of heaven, such as the demon kings, Dragon King, yaksas, kimnara and so forth, all appear as the figures of great bodhisattvas in the Mahayana sutras. Although the sutras emphasize the bodhisattva practices... these deities surpass worldly saints. This seems to show that worldly practices are inferior to these deities (which explains the tendency for heavenly beings to develop). Also, countless deities have since become the great bodhisattvas in the Avatamsaka assembly and [have also gained] the status of yaksa. For example, Vajrasattva is even higher than the tenth-stage bodhisattva. This shows that heavenly beings are favored over worldly beings. .. .62

Due to the association of lower heavenly beings with bodhisattvas, Yin Shun criticizes the opinion that practices leading to lower planes of rebirth in heaven, such as the sphere of yaksas and kimnara, are favored over practices leading to birth in the human realm known as the Human Vehicle.63 This is apparent in the statement, "This seems to show that worldly practices are inferior to these deities."64 Consequently, cultivators seek Awakening by means of alternate vehicles of birth rather than the Human Vehicle. Because of these developments in Buddhism, Yin Shun claims he was inspired to "find support for

Buddhism in the human world in the evolution of Buddha's thought" and thus he wrote The

b0Ibid., 33. 61Ibid., 33. 62Ibid., 40. 63"A vehicle is a form of transportation that can carry people from here to there. The doctrines taught by the Buddha are vehicles that bring sentient beings out of birth and death and lead them to the state of ultimate liberation." The human vehicle refers to the set of teachings of Sakyamuni which enable one to obtain birth in the human realm. Yin Shun, The Way to Buddhahood, trans. Wing Yeung (Massachusetts: Wisdom Publications, 1998), 140. Yin Shun, Buddhism for the Human World, 40. 20

Buddha in the Human World in 1941.65

3. Characteristics and Features

Ren Jian Fo Jiao is the most direct but gradual path to Buddhahood. Although Yin

Shun did not completely reject deified worship, as expressed in the passage "I am not denying the faith and practice of Deism," he considered "the chanting of the Buddha's name [nienfo]" together with the use of "incantations" for protection from deities, the goal of "being reborn in another pure land," and the seeking of "benefits for the present life - such as eliminating disaster, curing illness, seeking longevity and so forth" as an expedient means or upaya {fang bian) to attract people to the practice of Buddhism.66 Yin Shun calls this "the Dharma door [fa men] of 'upaya.'"67 These practices do not lead directly to

Buddhahood and Yin Shun even considers them degenerative and "similar to the lower classes of deism and sorcery."68 He recognizes the validity of the experiences gained from such practices as can be demonstrated by the statement,

When they [the practitioners] have such experiences from practice and have complete confidence in themselves to the extent that they choose to convey them to other people, they cannot be considered as liars.69

70

Yin Shun later cautions though, "However, not being a liar is not equal to being correct."

Yin Shun gives the following example in which he explains how these forms of practice result only in limited levels of accomplishment: The existence of Indian deities is allowed mainly for the purpose of reducing obstacles in the process of propagation. The Indian deities show their respect for and offer sincere protection of the Dharma. For example, in the preparation of mandalas the heavenly deities are shown as safeguards outside the gate [to the Pure

65Ibid., 44-45. 66Ibid., 40, 44. 67Ibid.,41. 68Ibid., 41. 69Ibid.,41. 70Ibid.,41. 21

Land]. Only a few of them, however, are allowed to come inside the gate and become the extra-circular members.71

Yin Shun presents the case of the dharma protectors in which their cultivation is not sufficient to transport them directly into Buddhahood, as it is evidenced by their limited capacity to enter the Pure Land. When cultivators approach the final steps of Awakening, they must practice the difficult path of Ren Jian Fo Jiao to achieve Liberation. There is no easy way or more direct road to Awakening than Ren Jian Fo Jiao. This is hinted in the passage,

If one is dazzled and confused by the alleged limitless virtue of the Dharma door of 'upaya' ... one loses the meaning of 'Buddha appears in the human world' and moves astray from the correct practice of Humanistic Mahayana.72

Because upaya practices cause one to move "astray," they add to the distance between the cultivator and Buddhahood by becoming detour pathways. These methods are thus considered a hindrance to cultivation.

Regarding the length of time needed to travel the path to Buddhahood, the process is slow and occurs over countless lifetimes. Yin Shun describes the road ahead in "The

Basic Purpose of Following the Buddha": "It is a gradual way upward, and . . . it will take him a tremendous long time and require the accumulation of boundless merits." Yin Shun believes that the road to Liberation is long, arduous and miserable, and requires three eons:

"Three eons are not only limited and miserable but for a bodhisattva, it is required for the

74 spirit to take a long journey which has great responsibility."

In chapter seven, Yin Shun rejects all methods of instant Attainment as taught in the tantric schools, further concretizing his claim that the distant plodding path represents

71Ibid., 45. 72Ibid., 45. 73Yin Shun, "The Basic Purpose of Following the Buddha," 22. 74Yin Shun, Buddhism for the Human World, 40. 22

"the true Mahayana spirit."73 He admonishes,

Among those earnest practitioners there is a strong craving for quick achievement. Ideas such as 'attainment within one life,' 'full enlightenment in three lifetimes,' 'right to the mind for the revelation of true nature and the attainment of Buddhahood,' 'immediate attainment of buddhahood,' or 'getting to be reborn in the pure land upon death' spread around and became popular. As a result, the true Mahayana spirit. . . remained in obscurity in the traditional thought of 'the most comprehensive, simplest and most sudden' Buddhism.76

In this excerpt, Yin Shun once again steers the reader towards what he believes is the correct way to Awakening.

4. The Practicing Order of the Path

Before one begins on the path of Ren Jian Fo Jiao one must first accept and follow the Noble Eightfold Path. Yin Shun writes, "[The Eightfold Path] is what the one who wishes to be Liberated must practice."77 He continues, "This is called 'The Path of the

Ancient Sage.' Without this [the eightfold path], there is no Liberation."78 Yin Shun places the most emphasis on the first principle of the eightfold path, proper seeing, because according to him, "by relying on proper seeing, one can generate proper speaking, proper acting, proper living and then 'the cleansing of one's mind.'"79 In The Road from Man to

Buddhahood, Yin Shun explains the notion of proper seeing by referring to it as "the indispensable faith and understanding" which is necessary to "follow the Buddha's path."80

This "faith and understanding" requires the acceptance and adoption of basic Buddhist truths such as the four noble truths, no-self, pratltya-samutpada (yuan qi), the law of cause

"ibid., 44. 76Ibid., 44. 77Ibid., 35. 78Ibid., 35. 79Ibid., 35. 80Yin Shun, "The Road from Man to Buddha," trans. Fayen Koo (New York: The Institute for Advanced Studies of World Religions, 1994), 13. 23 and effect, karma, and birth and death to name a few.81 The following paragraph in the middle of chapter six represents an abbreviated discussion of the importance of comprehending these preliminary principles:

The world is like this. Sentient beings or humans cannot correctly understand pratltya-samutpada because of their "ignorance" regarding themselves, others (sentient beings), and external objects. They do not have the proper views and generate defilement (and cupidity) as a result. Due to ignorance, attachment (and karma) is created. Because of karma, the 'bitter fruits' arise.... One should know the causes of "accumulations" of suffering and defilements, such as Mesa (caused by ignorance, cupidity and so forth). One should also understand the principle "Because this becomes extinguished, so the other is extinguished" that is based on the principle "Because this occurs, the other occurs" of pratltya-samutpada. By removing ignorance due to the proper seeing of pratltya-samutpada, one will never become attached to permanence, happiness, self and what belongs to the self. Cupidity also will no longer occur and subsequently, the present life will also not be disturbed by external objects and one will obtain Liberation and freedom.

By failing to understand principles such as pratltya-samutpada and no-self, for example, ignorance, suffering and other sorts of unfavorable obstacles are created for the practitioners. Thus, the acceptance and understanding of the foundational teachings is the intrinsic framework by which all cultivators should orient their behaviors and practices as

Yin Shun proclaims, "Beginners need to learn this method and Liberated practitioners should learn this even more."83

Within the cultivation of the Noble Eightfold path, Yin Shun also placed significant emphasis on the accumulation of knowledge. To reiterate a previously quoted passage from

Chapter Six of his work, "By relying on (the path of) proper seeing, one generates proper speaking, proper acting, proper livelihood and then the 'cleansing of one 's mind."'84 In his discussion, Yin Shun perceives the Eightfold Path as a progressive process by which the

'ibid., 13. 2Yin Shun, Buddhism for the Human World, 37. 3Ibid., 35. 4Ibid., 35. 24

"cleansing of one's mind" is obtained as the final result. The purity of the mind is just as

important as the accomplishment of knowledge. Towards the end of Chapter Seven of his

work, Yin Shun admonishes:

'The unity of benefitting oneself and benefitting others indicates that altruism should not be carried out to the negligence of purifying one's own body and mind. Otherwise, how can you deliver others if you cannot deliver yourself in the first place?' Therefore, in order to benefit others, one must study extensively and purify the body and mind (just like if one wants to serve people, one should study hard at school).85

Although Yin Shun does not explicitly state the subject "one must study extensively"

above, he advocates the importance of being educated in both worldly and Buddhist

subjects.86 Taixu expounds the Buddhist educational goals as,

... the expansive goal of preparing people to become global citizens and contribute to a harmonious global culture. For this, a holistic form of education was needed that would lead both children and adults towards a richer, modern vision of the complementarity and interdependence of all peoples."87

An education in Buddhism is most imperative in this broad objective; Tien comments,

Yin-shun considered the scholarly research of Buddhism and Buddhist practice inseparable. He emphasized that the true meaning of Buddhist studies is to deal with the defilements of the body and mind, which will lead to final liberation.88

The establishment in Taiwan of the Fu Yan College, a Buddhist school for the Sangha, by

Yin Shun exemplified his impending demand for institutional instruction.

5. The Necessary Elements of Practice

Ren Jian Fo Jiao is the practice of the Mahayana path of the bodhisattva (pusa dao).

After one has adopted a proper understanding of Buddhism, one then takes on the more difficult and serious task of bodhisattva work which is the underlying basis of all action and

'Ibid., 48. ;Ibid.,45. Pittman, Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism, 192. !Tien, "A Modern Buddhist Monk-Reformer in China," 47. 25 thought in Ren Jian Fo Jiao. Yin Shun asserts, "After one has acquired sufficient faith in and understanding of the Buddha, one should start following the example of the bodhisattva of ten goodnesses." He later continues,

The path from humans to bodhisattvas and then Buddhas is generated by the mind to practice the bodhisattva path, and [the mind to] attain the perfect Buddhahood by learning the bodhisattva path.90

This is what Yin Shun refers to as the "central thesis" of Ren Jian Fo Jiao.91 In another manner of speaking, unless an individual adopts the vows of the bodhisattva, the vow of helping all human beings to achieve Awakening, then he or she cannot be said to be practicing Ren Jian Fo Jiao.

In "The Road from Man to Buddha," Yin Shun defines his understanding of bodhisattva as follows:

Many people do not understand the term 'Bodhisattva'; there is much misunderstanding concerning it. 'Bodhisattva' is an Indian word made up of Bodhi and Sattva. Bodhi means enlightened mind and Sattva means a sentient being. Therefore, a Bodhisattva is a sentient being who seeks after the great enlightened mind. There are different grades of Bodhisattvas, some are high, and some are low. To an ordinary mind, the term Bodhisattva usually reminds one of such great Bodhisattvas as Mafijusri, Samantabhadra, Avalokitesvara and Ksitigarbha. Actually, any person who made up his mind to become a Buddha is a Bodhisattva.

In the above paragraph, Yin Shun deconstructs the view of the deified bodhisattva of

"supernormal powers" and the "magnificent body," and brings the elevated status of the bodhisattva down to an ordinary and attainable ideal which can be reached by humans.93

One who manifests the vow of the bodhi-mind (puti xin) and "seeks after the great

89Yin Shun, "The Road from Man to Buddha," 17. 90 Yin Shun, Buddhism for the Human World, 47. 91Ibid.,47. 92Yin Shun, "The Road from Man to Buddha," 17-18. 26

enlightened mind" is known as a human bodhisattva. The notion of a human bodhisattva

and one's role in the world are well-articulated by Pittman:

Rather than focusing on the glories of distant pure lands, which were accessible through reliance on the spiritual merit and power of other great bodhisattvas and Buddhas, Taixu visualized this earthly world transformed into a pure land by the dedication and sacrificial hard work of thousands of average bodhisattvas who were mindful of what their concerted witness could mean.95

It can be seen from this passage that within a humanity-oriented Buddhism, "average

bodhisattvas" are not only preferred but take precedence over the celestial bodhisattvas.96

The path of the bodhisattva is brought about by actualizing the ten good deeds (shi

de) of the bodhisattva on the basis of compassion:

We should rely on the supporting condition of compassion [bei xin zheng shang] in practicing the bodhisattva way. In addition, we should also possess the effort to practice the ten good deeds as the activity for benefiting others in order to safeguard the Buddha Dharma and benefit sentient beings.97 Yin Shun mentions only briefly the ten good deeds, also known as the ten good precepts in

Buddhism for the Human World, but offers an elaboration in The Way to Buddhahood:

The ten good deeds are divided into three groups: physical, verbal, and mental. There are three physical good deeds: not killing, not stealing, and not engaging in improper sexual conduct.... There are four verbal good deeds: not lying, not backbiting, not speaking evil words, and not engaging in frivolous speech.... There are three good mental deeds: having no greed, no anger, and no deviant 98 views. ...

Ibid., 18. In my observation of interacting Dharma Drum members, they referred to one another as pu sa. 95Don A. Pittman, Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism: Taixu's Reforms (Honolulu: University of Hawai'I Press, 2001), 222. 96Ibid., 222. 97Yin Shun, Buddhism for the Human World, 48. 98"Not backbiting means not destroying the harmony of others through gossiping and thereby sewing discord and dissension. Not speaking evil words means not using offensive language that causes other to be very embarrassed: scolding, mocking and ridiculing, criticizing bitterly or meanly, attacking maliciously, exposing others, and so forth. Not engaging in frivolous speech means not talking uselessly in a way that leads to stealing, sex, lustful love songs, jokes, and heedless conversation, or in a way that superficially touches on any and every subject. . .. Having no greed means having no desire to possess another person's wealth, spouse, power or position, or plans to take possession of these. It also means being content without greed. Having no anger means being without hatred or the idea of harming others. Having no deviant views means having the right views of the existence of good and evil, of karmic results, of past and future lives, of ordinary people and sages, and so forth." See Yin Shun, The Way to Buddhahood, 91-92. 27

The ten good deeds are explained as "the foundation for all good conduct" for those on the bodhisattva path."

The three essentials of bodhisattva practice refer to bodhi vows, great compassion and wisdom of emptiness, which Yin Shun borrows from the Prajhapdramitd Sutra. Yin

Shun defines these terms in "The Three Essentials in Practicing the Teachings of the

Buddha" and thus: "The ultimate aim of all practices is to attain perfection in these three virtues."1 In the last sentence of Chapter Seven of Buddhism for the Human World, he reiterates, "none of these three virtues are dispensable."101

The first essential, bodhi vows or Supreme Bodhi, is tantamount to the wisdom of the Buddha.102 The vows point to "our determination to attain perfect Enlightenment" which is based on having "faith that the Buddha has attained Supreme Bodhi."103 Yin Shun elucidates on the kind of faith in The Basic Purpose of Following the Buddha. He remarks,

Why do we venerate, praise and admire, pay homage and make offerings to the Triple Gem? .. . [they] indicate a longing for the perfect wisdom and noble virtue of the Buddha and the Sangha, for the absolute refuge in the Ultimate Truth; a longing that we too may be enlightened to this perfect Truth.104

Great compassion, the second element, is attributed to sympathy, loving kindness, appreciative joy, and equanimity.105 Yin Shun states,

To be compassionate is to have the mind intent upon relieving living beings from their miseries. To have loving kindness is to be intent upon giving living beings

"Ibid., 92. l00Yin Shun. "The Three Essentials in Practicing the Teachings of the Buddha." vol. 1 of The Miao Yun Collection in Selected Translation of Miao Yun, trans. Neng Rong [independent database on-line] (Hank Fu, 14 May 1995, accessed 29 December 2006); available from http://www.purifymind.com/Writing5.htm; Internet. 101Yin Shun, Buddhism for the Human World, 49. I02Yin Shun. "The Three Essentials in Practicing the Teachings of the Buddha," available from http://www.purifymind.com/Writing5.htm; Internet. 103Ibid., available from http://www.purifymind.com/Writing5.htm; Internet. 104Yin Shun, "The Basic Purpose of Following the Buddha," 23. l05Yin Shun. "The Three Essentials in Practicing the Teachings of the Buddha," available from http://www.purifymind.com/Writing5.htm; Internet. 28

enjoyment and happiness.106

The third principle, wisdom of emptiness arises as a result of practicing "non-attachment"

and of understanding pratltya-samutpada.107 Wisdom is a skill or quality which, together

with great compassion, can "lead us to the attainment of the fruit of bodhi."108 In sum, great

compassion represents the motivation which moves one to help sentient beings. Bodhi

vows symbolize the intention of following the bodhisattva path, and wisdom is the skill

cultivated as a result of upholding the vows and possessing compassion which makes it

possible to attain Buddhahood.

In Buddhism for the Human World, Yin Shun clarifies the three-fold dependence of

each virtue on the other:

If one only has compassion without bodhi vows or wisdom of emptiness then one will only become a worldly philanthropist. If one only has wisdom of emptiness without compassion one will not become a bodhisattva.109

He continues in subsequent pages, "Bodhi vows without wisdom breeds stupidity and

innocence. Wisdom without bodhi vows breeds wrong views."110

Ren Jian Fo Jiao is directed to and is most suitable for the youth. Yin Shun

establishes this position in the chapter entitled "Ren Jian Fo Jiao for the Youth" by asserting that "importance should be attached to converting young people to Buddhism."111

In Chapter Seven of the same work, he contrasts the inherent natures of the young and old.

According to Yin Shun, the aged concern themselves only with matters that increase the well-being of their future by seeking, for example, "longevity" or good "physical health"

l06Ibid., available from http://www.purifymind.com/Writing5.htm; Internet. I07lbid., available from http://www.purifymind.com/Writing5.htm; Internet. 108Ibid., available from http://www.purifymind.com/Writing5.htm; Internet. l09Yin Shun, Buddhism for the Human World, 39-40. ll0Ibid.,49. '"ibid., 48. 29

from the gods.112 This is the reason that he states, "That is why the aged tend to be multi-

deist."113 Yin Shun refers to this tendency as the "covetous [ness] of properties" and he later

forewarns, by quoting the Analects of Confucius, that "the aged should be 'guarded against

covetousness'" because this kind of mentality is the embodiment of deistic Mahayana or

"mystic Mahayana Buddhism," a development which he criticizes so adamantly.114 Yin

Shun further denounces the ideals of the aged as being empty and "increasingly hollow"

due to the selfish focuses on individual gain, which is in contrast to the noble path of the

bodhisattva.115 He explains, "If one studies and practices not for self-interest but for

compassion, then that is the correct cause in the bodhisattva practice."116 Because

"unappreciated youth quickly turns into old age," Yin Shun urges with the slogan, "Now it

is the time for the youth."117 This does not mean, however, that the old are incapable of practicing Ren Jian Fo Jiao as he explains, "This is not to say that aged people cannot learn

Buddhist practice. This is only to say that importance should only be attached to the young people.118

Ren Jian Fo Jiao is professed as the Buddha Dharma which has been adjusted to

"the thoughts of modern people."119 This premise appears in the declaration, "Whatever I have lectured or have written, my aim was to seek from the Buddhist texts, the Buddhist

Dharma that suits the modern times."120 Yin Shun's aim is apparent again in the following:

I was not a Buddhist master lecturing on Buddhist sutras nor was I the kind of

"zIbid., 46. "3Ibid., 46. U4Ibid.,46. mIbid., 46. 116Ibid., 48. 117Ibid.,48. "8Ibid.,48. "9Ibid.,47. 30

scholar who did research for the sake of research. What I wanted was to establish the belief, for myself, that my 'study of the Buddha Dharma' and 'study of Buddhism' was derived from the Buddhist texts on the hope of formulating the correct path which does not contradict the original meaning of the Buddha Dharma and, at the same time, which is adjusted to the thoughts of modern people.

The qualities of Ren Jian Fo Jiao which render it appropriate for modern minds can be summarized by four characterizations: Ren Jian Fo Jiao is rational, is moral, focuses on the conventional human world and emphasizes the "collective life" of humans.122 "Buddhism is a rational and moral religion," Yin Shun writes, due to its reliance on "the path of proper seeing in order to form belief." As discussed earlier, proper seeing involves the formation of judgment based on understanding and knowledge, and this view is fitting within a modern society wherein belief in and worship of deities is labeled as superstitious and is rejected on the basis of scientific discovery. In Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism:

Taixu 's Reforms, Pittman lends discussion to this idea:

In the contemporary world, Taixu stated, primitive theistic beliefs no longer carry any real force. Modern science has effectively swept away all god-language by correctly identifying it as a form of mere wish-fulfillment, as an ultimately debilitating self-deception. Therefore, Taixu concluded, any ethic for the present or future that is established on the injunctions, prohibitions, or expectations of heavenly deities has been totally undermined by science.124

By upholding ethical principles and moral behavior through the discipline of the noble eightfold path, the ten good deeds of the bodhisattva and the doctrine of cause and effect, this system for "judging right and wrong" is unique to Buddhism.125 Such an ethical framework does not rely on

. . . simple obedience to one's own set of divine commands (which are often in conflict with other people's divine commands) or on merely human calculations

121Ibid., 47. I22lbid., 47. I23lbid., 35. 124 Pittman, Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism, 160-161. I25lbid.,161. 31

about happy consequences or hidden motivations.126

The third feature of Ren Jian Fo Jiao, the emphasis on the conventional human

world, has already been discussed to some degree in previous points.127 Chapter six of

Buddhism for the Human World, however, offers another explanation regarding the

significance of the conventional world within the cosmology of Ren Jian Fo Jiao. Yin Shun

draws from non-dual notions expressed both in the Prajhaparamita Sutra and by Nagarjuna

to explain that the conventional world is the same as and no different from pratltya-

samutpada, tathata, Nirvana or sunyata. Yin Shun quoting from an excerpt of the

Prajhaparamita Sutra illustrates the non-dualism expressed in the text:

In the promotion of the Buddha Dharma there was a tendency towards the distinguishing between the conventional world and Nirvana known as 'conditional and unconditional existence.' That is why there is the statement in Mahayana Buddhism, 'color-form (five skandhas) is emptiness and emptiness is color-form (and so forth) to reveal the truth of the world. . .. The profound meaning within the doctrine of the Prajhaparamita Sutra is promoted from the perspective of sunyata and tathata, which are synonyms for Nirvana. However, sunyata and pratltya- 1 9Q

samutpada are non-dual.

From the perspective of pratitya-samutpada suggested in the sutra, it can be inferred that

there is no distinction, for example, between ordinary human experiences and the

Tathatagata's experiences, between the human world and sunyata, between self and no-self

and "between the conventional world and Nirvana."130 Yin Shun expresses this notion as "the unity of pratitya-samutpada and sunyata." 131

126Pittman asserts that this position is "a form of ethical naturalism" which is similar to notions put forth by Paul Tillich known as "theonomous" foundations for "ethical judgements." Ibid., 177. 127See p. 4-6 in this chapter. l28Sunyata is the Mahayana rejection of intrinsic existence or lnih svabhava' regarding the nature of pratitya-samutpada. By comprehending 'nih svabhava,' sunyata is obtained. By obtaining sunyata, one is then a tathata or tathagata which are synonyms for Buddha. 129Yin Shun, Buddhism for the Human World, 38. 130ibid., 38. mIbid.,48. 32

Regarding the topic of the fourth characteristic of Ren Jian Fo Jiao, Yin Shun requests that all humans seek Buddhahood while living amongst one another and within society at large. Taixu's criticism of the Sangha during his time, which sought seclusion and isolation from other people and the affairs of society during his time, captures the sentiment and rejection of such Buddhist cultivation that was condemned by Yin Shun as well:

First, they [the Sangha] are seldom interested in social service or the work of educating the society. The priests or rather monks are generally ignorant, and their services to society are confined to singing of masses or prayers in the funeral services.... Thirdly, the monks are always religious recluses, taking no interest in the affairs of the community or the country and they are in turn slighted by the Government or the ruling classes.132

Yin Shun believed the cloistral lifestyle is no longer relevant. Because the context of living in modern times has changed, it is not only very difficult to adopt this hermitic way of living but it does not follow the Buddhist consideration of compassion for other sentient beings. As a counter-measure to these sentiments, Yin Shun advocated the need to return to

Sakyamuni's original purpose in his establishment of the Sangha which was formed with the intention of having people "... live together in harmony, happiness, [and be] able to practice diligently and benefit oneself and others."133 He later stressed the fact that after

Siddartha's Awakening, he did not pursue a secluded life but lived amongst people.134 Yin

Shun recalls:

This is the secular time. .. . The Buddha and his disciples often 'traveled in the secular world to transform it.' Even those who live in mountains and forests need to travel to villages and towns to beg for food and in doing so, they are in contact with people and promote conversion according to the concrete situations.

'Pittman, Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism, 229. 'Yin Shun, Buddhism for the Human World, 34. lIbid, 49. !Ibid., 48-49. 33

Consequently Yin Shun alleges, "The Buddha Dharma is realized through collective life and gains its lasting existence in this fashion, which is different from the reclusive spirit of the Chinese people."

6. Its Main Goal

The ultimate aim of Ren Jian Fo Jiao is Awakening but this is not to be mistaken as a self- centered goal of an individual, but it is the seeking of Awakening for all of humanity. Yin

Shun clearly states,

Those who conduct the bodhisattva practice should undertake courses that benefit human beings, spread the voice of dharma, purify themselves and enlighten themselves without deserting secular affairs and secular people.137

The integration of all these constituents is known as "the period for collective organization."138 Yin Shun elaborates,

Disciples who conduct bodhisattva practices should also form themselves into wholesome organizations for the purpose of benefiting both others and themselves (not for the purpose of personal gains in terms of name and power).139

Collectivism is a way to avoid the inward focus on the self and selfish attainments, according to Yin Shun.

Ren Jian Fo Jiao is adaptable to the needs of society according to the times. This is the reason that Yin Shun states, "The greatness of the bodhisattva practice lies in its ability to be adaptable to the world and to benefit the world" and the reason that he titles Chapter

Six, "The Buddha Dharma which Conforms to the Doctrinal Truth and is Adaptable to the

World."140 Unlike Taixu, Yin Shun did not prescribe specific forms of bodhisattva action for followers of Ren Jian Fo Jiao to undertake. For instance, Taixu proposed an outline of

136Ibid., 49. I37lbid., 49. 138Ibid.,49. 139Ibid.,49. ,40Yin Shun, The Way to Buddhahood, 40. 34 reforms for the propagation of Ren Jian Fo Jiao in The Reorganization of the Sangha

System which included details such as,

... recommendations for markedly increasing the educational requirements for ordination, for requiring most monks to engage in physical labor to ensure the economic self-sufficiency of the monasteries, for terminating the vulgar commercialization of ritual practice, and for establishing various social-service and educational ventures.141

In contrast, Yin Shun adopted a more laxed attitude regarding reform action. Pittman remarks:

... as Yinshun has himself acknowledged, his temperament has always been suitable to a life of reflection and scholarship. He was never the frenetic organizer and social activist that Taixu was.142

Yin Shun believed the unique problems of humanity and the personal decisions of human bodhisattvas at the particular time would determine the course of action to be taken. Tien writes, "Although Yin-shun, as a philosopher of jen-chienfo-chiao,143 is not a participant in its application, he attracts and inspires his followers to put it into action and to greatly contribute to the new development of Chinese Buddhism."144

Summary

Taking into consideration the main points of Ren Jian Fo Jiao that have been discussed above, Ren Jian Fo Jiao can be simply stated as follows. Ren Jian Fo Jiao is a synonym for the correct path to Awakening which begins with the Noble Eightfold Path and then follows the Mahayana Bodhisattva path. The Bodhisattva path, requiring long and diligent cultivation throughout three eons, is the most direct road to Buddhahood.

Bodhisattva practice does mean that one should worship heavenly deities and seek

141Pittman, Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism, 230.. 142Ibid., 267. 143Jen-chienfo-chiao is the Wade-Giles spelling of Ren Jian Fo Jiao. l44Tien, "A Modern Buddhist Monk-Reformer in China," 286. 35 supernatural power or fulfillment of selfish desires but it is the actualization of compassionate human service in the world through the practice of the ten good deeds and the acquisition of knowledge. If one does not understand that Sakyamuni taught the Buddha

Dharma with the intention that humans attain Buddhahood as humans and not with the alternative that humans should prefer to be reborn into other pure lands, then one is not adhering to Ren Jian Fo Jiao, the correct path to Awakening. Ren Jian Fo Jiao is the compass which points one in the direction of Buddhahood through the essential principles of the bodhi vows, compassion, and wisdom of emptiness. It is not at all, however, a map which delineates the specific route or course of action. Nevertheless, devotees of Ren Jian

Fo Jiao especially the youth should seek the path to Buddhahood together and in each other's company by means of collective organization. This kind of Buddhism is, according to Yin Shun, what is most suited for the contemporary mind. Chapter Three. Methodology and Demographics

I. Survey Design

The case study for the purpose of this thesis was conducted with structured interviews, also known as researcher-administered surveys, wherein the researcher was present and respondents were given a set of questions that were prepared in advance. This format was favored over mailed questionnaires or phone surveys due to its typical association with higher response rates, fewer uncompleted and inappropriate responses, and fewer misunderstood questions.145 Structured interviews also allow for a greater control over the survey environment. For example, participants were able to ask for further clarification regarding questions which were unclear to them.

The survey was divided into two parts: Part A - Ren Jian Fo Jiao and PartB -

About the Organization, Activities and Philanthropy. The survey consisted of three main types of questions: open-ended, closed-ended, and contiguous.

In open-ended questions, respondents were asked to share their opinion(s) about a particular topic. An example of the open-ended question was: "If you could summarize Ren

Jian Fo Jiao in a few short sentences, how would you describe it?"

The closed-ended questions were - (1) dichotomous questions, where the respondent was expected to either answer "yes" or "no," and (2) multiple choice questions, where the respondent was asked to make one choice among three to four possible answers.

The contingency questions, was one in which a respondent was requested to further expand on an idea given in one's response to a previous question. For example, if the respondent answered "no" in regard to one's acceptance of the idea of Ren Jian Fo Jiao,

145 Earl Babbie, The Practice of Social Research. 5th ed. (Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing, 1989), 244-245. one was asked to further explain whether one's own organization adopted a teaching or philosophy which was similar to Ren Jian Fo Jiao. Given the combination of written, multiple choice, yes or no, and contiguous questions, there were a total of 101 and 128 possible responses for Part A and B respectively (See Table 1 below).146

Table 1. Division of Questions in Part A and B.

Type of Question: Part A PartB

Open-Ended 13 24

Closed-Ended: Yes/No 52 42

Closed-Ended: Multiple Choice 5 4

Contingency: Open-Ended 27 41

Contingency: Closed-Ended - 3 13 Yes/No

Contingency: Closed-Ended - 1 4 MC

Total 101 128

Part A contained materials quoted from Yin Shun's Qi Li Qi Zhi Ren Jian Fo Jiao and it focused on the philosophical aspect of Ren Jian Fo Jiao. Participants were questioned about their agreement with a statement regarding Ren Jian Fo Jiao. The survey contained both guided questions, which directly stated the opinion of Yin Shun and unguided questions, wherein the statement was not assigned to Yin Shun. A typical guided question took the following form: "One of Yin Shun's aims includes the need to make the Buddha Dharma

'lasting in the secular world.' Does your organization's goals also include this?" and often began with the words "According to Yin Shun." An typical unguided question took the

According to the enumeration of questions on the actual survey, there were sixty-six and ninety- seven questions in Part A and B respectively. Among them, twelve and thirteen questions in Part A and B respectively pertained to the collection of basic personal information. 38 following form: "Living a social life is favored over the reclusive life. Would your organization agree with this statement?" The unguided questions thus aimed to remove the possible biases of the respondents and solicit a more honest response.

Although guided questions allowed the researcher to inquire whether the respondents' opinion accorded with that of Yin Shun, it possessed the disadvantage of leading the respondent to answer "yes" in favor with Yin Shun, regardless of whether or not they comprehended or thought about the question.147

In addition to these questions, Part A also consisted of neutral queries. A sample of a neutral question was: "Do you consider Ren Jian Fo Jiao to be a movement?"

Part B revealed basic information about the organization which may not have appeared in writing but supplied the researcher with up-to-date information about the religious, social, and philanthropic activities that the organization held. As well, Part B provided information about the aims and motives of the adherents with respect to their activities in the organization. For example, participants were asked if there was any correlation between "the need to set up health-care facilities and Buddhism." Part B that consisted mainly of contingent questions, confirmed whether the group partook in certain activities such as funeral services or not, and of open-ended questions, which requested respondents to further describe and explain their activities. Unlike Part A, all of the questions in Part B were neutral and participants were not asked to compare their opinion(s) to that of Yin Shun. Eighteen surveys were collected in Part A and thirteen surveys were collected in Part B. Among those surveys, because four people completed both Part A and B, this resulted in thirty-one interviews and twenty-seven participants. The

147Feedback received indicated a high degree of difficulty regarding the questions (See page 45-46 in this thesis for further discussion), administration of Part A or B to the participants was done randomly. This resulted in a total of 3179 possible responses in 31 surveys.148

Participants were approached in-person at the branch or office of their organization and a verbal presentation was done in Chinese to introduce the translator, Chien Hsu, and me as the principle investigator.149 A copy of the University of Calgary ethics consent form containing the details, contact information, and aims and outline of the interview were distributed. If interested, candidates were allowed to preview a copy of the questionnaire, and appointments and schedules were arranged for a later date. The would-be participants contacted the translator by phone and interviews were conducted within seven days of initial contact.150 When we visited the Fu Yan Buddhist College, there were very few students on campus owing to the fact that the academic semester had ended, and many students had returned home for the summer break.151 The interviews were conducted in a quiet space on the premises and both the translator and I were present in the same room during the interviews.152

The sequence of the branches or offices which were approached were determined by their proximity to my temporary place of residence and the ease of access by

Given the maximum combinations of contiguous questions. I49I was dressed in casual attire, jeans and a t-shirt, and the translator, a Buddhist monk, was clothed in traditional robes. During all visits, the branches were open for normal business hours and no mass services were taking place. Initial visits were made between noon and 4 pm on weekdays. 150This was due to the limited number of members on-site at the time. 15'it is for this reason the representatives were asked to complete both Part A and B of the survey. Because many of the participants were faculty or administrative staff members, this affected the demographics of the Fu Yan sample population. 6 out of 9 surveys were completed by faculty or staff members as compared to 2 out of 9 and 1 out of 13 participants in Tzu Chi and Dharma Drum. The faculty and administrative members were all former students and graduates of the college. 152In Fu Yan, interviews were conducted in the main library on July 12, 2006. In Dharma Drum, interviews were conducted in an empty classroom on the second floor in the Luodong branch on July 7, 2006. In the Yilan City Dharma Drum branch, the survey took place in the dual administrative-study area on July 10, 2006. In the main headquarters of Dharma Drum in Jinshan, the survey was administered in the visitor cafe on July 11, 2006. In the Luodong branch of Tzu Chi, interviews took place in a private guest room reserved for VIPs and the public gift shop on June 30 and July 5, 2006. transportation. ^ In total, interviews took place in six cities: nine interviews were conducted at the headquarters of Fu Yan in Xinzhu and five were conducted at the headquarters of Dharma Drum in Jingshan. Six interviews were administered on two separate occasions at the Tzu Chi branch in Luodong and three surveys were completed in

Calgary, Canada by the Tzu Chi representatives.1M Four surveys were completed at each of the Dharma Drum branches in Luodong and Yilan City.

II. Interview Observation

Overall, the participants were enthusiastic about the survey. Many of them not only were cooperative, but also interested and pleased that I had chosen their group to conduct the research. Furthermore, the attitude of reverence and respect towards Yin Shun among the representatives was unanimous. Although some members of Tzu Chi and Dharma Drum, for example, admitted their lack of familiarity with Yin Shun's works they confessed their veneration for Yin Shun stemmed from the connection and high regard which Cheng Yen and Sheng Yen (their respective leaders) held for Yin Shun. Moreover, when a few of the

Dharma Drum members learned of my intention to research Tzu Chi also, and vice-versa, each one described its relationship to the other as "brother and sister organizations."

Members from both organizations expressed verbal mutual respect for the other and also for the Fu Yan Buddhist College. My interaction with the Fu Yan participants, however, was limited due to their occupation with other duties and study.

The representatives were accommodating and hospitable towards Venerable Hsu and

'"During the interim of the study in Taiwan, I lodged in Luodong. 154Although I visited Hualien, the extensive tour of the Tzu Chi headquarters did not permit additional time for the researcher to conduct interviews. Due to these time constraints in Taiwan, arrangements were made to complete the remaining surveys with three Tzu Chi representatives in Calgary, the hometown of the researcher. The participants in Calgary had previously lived in Taiwan and had immigrated to Canada. However, information about the years of residence in either countries was not obtained. 41 me. Upon entering the premise of the headquarters or branch, we were provided with chairs, tea, and refreshments were often served to us. Charles of Dharma Drum and Chad

Liu of Tzu Chi, who were the guest relations' liaison officers at the head office, offered an extensive tour spanning from two to three hours of the premises and provided an abundance of literature regarding their school.

The pilot or test interview took place at the Tzu Chi Luodong branch on June 30,

2006. The initial survey, which included Part A and B, consisted of over 200 questions and was in English. The initial interview required four hours to complete.155 Subsequently, the interview process was revised to increase efficiency and also the number of possible participants. Four changes were implemented:

1) The number of questions in Part A and B were reduced by one quarter.

2) The survey was translated and printed in Chinese.

3) Participants wrote their own responses according to their own pace on the

questionnaire.156

4) Multiple participants completed the survey at the same time.

Compared with the initial pilot interview, the self-administered responses were shorter, less elaborate and had a lower response rate. However, the changes resulted in an increase in efficiency and maximizing participation. The average completion time for each of Part A and B was reduced to approximately thirty minutes per respondent. Other completion times

155The interview was first administered orally in Chinese and the participants' responses were recorded in written form in English by the researcher. 156Hsu and I were seated at the same table during the surveys and participants were encouraged to consult with us regarding any uncertainties or needed clarifications about the questions. If an opinion was neutral or an opinion had not been formed, representatives were advised to leave the questions blank or write 'don't know' in the space provided. 42 ranged from twenty to forty-five minutes.157 The decision to interview multiple members in groups had an unexpected result, however. When members were surveyed in groups, a majority of participants, with the exception of those belonging to Fu Yan, discussed their questions with each other before proceeding to mark the same answers.158 Consequently, questions which may have been left blank were instead answered and this led to a possible homogenization of results. In the case of the Fu Yan members, this situation did not arise because they chose to complete the survey in separate study booths in the library.

Concerning feedback about the questions in the survey, members of T.zu Chi and

Dharma Drum who had not read Yin Shun's works reported a high degree of difficulty regarding the questions. Several members joked that the surveys, including the questions and manner of applying self-administered survey in groups, resembled a school examination. As well, prior to the survey the Tzu Chi members claimed that they were not qualified to answer questions in Part A and opted to complete Part B only. In regard to Part

A, the Tzu Chi members of Luodong arranged for me an interview with their long-standing members who they felt were more qualified to contribute to the study.159 The members of

Dharma Drum or Fu Yan did not express any preference regarding the section they completed. I received no post feedback from the Fu Yan members regarding the survey.

III. Response Rate

The overall percentage of questions answered or response rate of 88.5% was high in the study.160 The response rate for Part A was 93.5% and the response rate for Part B was

l57If the original interview format had continued to be used, only a few surveys from each group would have been collected owing to time constraints. 158When this occurred the participants were reminded that there was no right or wrong answers and were encouraged to respond according to their own views, 159This interview was the pilot test. 160The response rate was calculated as follows: 43

83.7%. The lower response rate of Part B was attributed to the higher number of written questions in the section. In addition, the response rate to written questions was lower compared to the yes/no and multiple choice questions by an approximate average of

Table 2. Percentage of Completed Responses (rounded to the nearest tenth).

Fu Yan Dharma Drum Tzu Chi

Part A-Yes/No, MC* 99.7% 96.1% 94.5%

Written 89.3% 83.1% 83.0%

Part A Total 96.8% 92.7% 91.4%

Part B - Yes/No, MC* 88.6% 97.3% 84.9%

Written 75.5% 83.3% 59.2%

Part B Total 84.2% 91.5% 73.9%

Total -(PartA&B) 90.2% 92.1% 81.9%

*Multiple Choice

14.6% in both sections (see Table 2 above). A reluctance to complete open-ended questions may be attributed to the fact that written responses generally required more knowledge, expertise, and time to complete in contrast to the closed-ended questions. Fu Yan answered more questions in Part A of the survey while Dharma Drum and Tzu Chi had comparably similar rates. The Fu Yan participants were mainly comprised of teachers and graduates of the college who had received long-term and formal academic training regarding Yin Shun's thought. Therefore, familiarity with the content in Part A was a possible variable which may have influenced the high response rate. The Part B response rate of Tzu Chi was considerably lower compared to Fu Yan and Dharma Drum. The Tzu Chi average in Part B was affected by the low response rate of 59.2% to the written questions. The researcher

|Y# of questions") x (# of participants) - (non applicable questions') - (# of don't know' & blank responses)] [(# of questions) x (# of participants) - (non applicable questions)] 44 observed a strong level of caution among the Tzu Chi members towards the portrayal of their organization in the study. For example, Chad Liu of Tzu Chi claimed the findings of two previous researchers had generated negative publicity for the organization. Hence, representatives may have been less reluctant to complete questions about which they were uncertain or they believed that the questions were best left unanswered. The 12.6% drop within the Fu Yan response rates from Part A to Part B was partly attributed to the reduced extent of their involvement in charitable and social activities, the main subject of Part B.

The response rates for Part A and B within Dharma Drum showed the least amount of difference compared to Fu Yan and Tzu Chi. As cited earlier, Dharma Drum members showed no preference regarding the section of the survey completed, which may have indicated a high comfort level towards both subject matters.

IV. Demographics of Participants

Table 3. Percentage of Male and Female Participants.

Fu Yan DDM Tzu Chi

Female 0 69.2% 55.6%

Male 100% 30.8% 44.4%

There were 13 male and 14 female participants in the survey. The Fu Yan members were all male monks owing to the college's strict enrollment of male Sangha members.

Slightly over half of the respondents from Dharma Drum and Tzu Chi were female (See

Table 3 above).

Table 4. Percentage of Participants According to Age.

Age Fu Yan DDM Tzu Chi

Under 20 0 0 0

20-29 33.3% 20% 7.7% 45

30-39 11.1% 20% 0

40-49 11.1% 40% 30.8%

50-59 44.4% 20% 53.8%

60-69 0 0 7.7%

In respect to the age of participants, 70.4% were between 40 and 59 years of age

and the mean age of participants was 44.9 years (See Table 4 above). There were no

representatives under the age of 20 or above the age of 70.

Table 5. Marital Status of Participants.

Fu Yan DDM Tzu Chi

Single 0 7.7% 44.5%

Married 0 92.3% 55.6%

Divorced/Widowed 0 0 0

Monk/Nun 100% 0 0

63% of participants were married and 18.5% were single (See Table 5 above). The

remaining 18.5% of participants were monks (See Table 5 above). All non-monastic

respondents over the age of 40 were married and all participants between the ages of 20 and

29 were single. There were no divorced or widowed individuals. At the time of the survey,

the Dharma Drum and Tzu Chi members informed me that the monastic members were

unable to participate in the survey owing to their engagement with dharma activities and

duties. Therefore, it was not possible to interview monks or nuns from the two

organizations in this study. The marital status of the monks from Fu Yan before their

: ordination is unknown.

Table 6. Question: "Do you live close to the branch or temple of your organization?" 46

Fu Yan DDM Tzu Chi

Yes 100% 76.9% 66.7%

No 0 23.1% 33.3%

77.7% of participants lived close to a branch or temple of their organization (See

Table 6 above). It is unknown whether proximity to an organization was a determining factor of one's membership to a particular group. However, one representative cited distance as his reason for leaving Tzu Chi in favor of membership in Dharma Drum.161 All of the Fu Yan members lived in dormitory housing on the college campus.

Table 7. Question: "How often do you attend services or functions held within this organization including visitations?"

Fu Yan DDM Tzu Chi

Less than once a week 0 15.4% 0

Once a week 0 30.8% 44.4%

More than once a week 100% 53.8% 55.6%

Almost all representatives, 92.6% of them, were actively involved in their organization and attended services or functions within their organization at least once a week, while more than half of them attended more than once a week (See Table 7 above).

Table 8. Question: "How would you rate your knowledge of the organization to which you belong?"

Fu Yan DDM Tzu Chi Minimal. I know very 0 0 0 little about the organization. Average. I am familiar 20% 46.2% 22.2% with the main

161The Dharma Drum branch was more accessible from his place of residence. This supports my previous observation that the relationship between both organizations was amiable. 47

teachings and activities of the organization. Informed. I have read 80% 53.8% 77.8% most of the literature about the organization and am up to date on current activities.

All members surveyed regarded one's own knowledge of the school to be average

or somewhat informed, while 66.7% of respondents considered themselves informed (See

Table 8 above). There were none who claimed minimal knowledge.

Table 9. Question: "How long have you been with this organization?"

Fu Yan DDM Tzu Chi

Less than 1 year 0 15.4% 0

1-3 years 20% 7.7% 11.1%

More than 3 years: 80% 76.9% 88.9%

81.2% of the respondents belonged to their own organization for more than 3 years (See

Table 9 above). During the survey the researcher discovered, through discussion, that many

members had belonged to the organization for more than 10 years.162 It can be confirmed that among those who belonged to the organization for more than 3 years, at least 40.9% of respondents exceeded 10 years,.

There was a significant correlation between age, marital status, knowledge about the organization, proximity of residence to the branch and attendance. 40.7% of the participants who were married, fell between the ages of 40-59, considered themselves informed about their organization, lived close to a branch of their organization and visited a branch more

162The researcher did not anticipate these results and failed to include multiple choice responses for this category. Attempts were later made to collect specific information about the number of years members belonged to their organization. However, the researcher was only able to collect 11 responses. 48 than once a week. Respondents who visited a branch once a week or less were found more likely to consider their knowledge of the school to be average, suggesting that those who visited the organization more than once a week were more inclined to be informed. Those who belonged to their group for more than three years were found to be more likely informed than those whose membership was less than three years. Participants who were single were less inclined to visit their organization more than once a week. Among the participants who were students or teachers, 71.4% visited their organization once a week or less. All participants who were monastics, self-employed, owned a business, or were retired visited a branch more than once a week. It is possible to assume that occupation and income were factors in the frequency of visitation. However, no information was collected regarding income and education levels. Furthermore, no significant correlations regarding sex were found.

V. Limitations of the Study

Owing to the reason that participants were selected by means of non-probability sampling, whereby participants were selected on the basis of their interest in the topic and their availability to cooperate in the survey, the participants did not constitute an accurate sampling of the true population.163 The small scale of the study, limitation of resources and collection of information from participants who were physically located at the headquarters of the organizations or in surrounding areas led to a bias in sampling. Moreover, interviews were not collected in all regions of Taiwan and three of the Tzu Chi interviews did not take place in Taiwan.164 Many correlations which are suggested in the study are based on preliminary findings and, in many cases, are assumptions at best. Further testing and

l63Babbie, 192. l64See footnote #153 on page 40 of this chapter for an explanation. 49 research are required.165 Despite the limitations of the population sample, the bias was coincidently effective in attracting and surveying members who were interested, active and informed about their group. It can be hypothesized that these individuals were likely to be dedicated and passionate, and shared similar ideals and goals of their organization thereby providing critical data about the people involved in the movement of Ren Jian Fo Jiao.

I am not formally trained in sociological methods and apologize for errors regarding unconscious biases. 50

Chapter Four.

Reaction of Survey Participants to the Definition of Ren Jian Fo Jiao

In Part A of the survey (See Chapter Three of this thesis) the participants of Dharma

Drum, Fu Yan and Tzu Chi unanimously claimed their organization accepted and adopted

Yin Shun's proposal of Ren Jian Fo Jiao and agreed with all of his main points. The members further concurred that there were no differences in thought between their organization and that of Yin Shun. The respondents' definitions of Ren Jian Fo Jiao fell within the framework of his proposal. In this chapter, the statistical results and major points of Yin Shun's definition of Ren Jian Fo Jiao will be expanded by means of the following four topics:

I. Conformation to Yin Shun's Views

II. Reasons for Disagreements

III. Cohesiveness and Diversity within the Organizations

IV. How Ren Jian Fo Jiao was Interpreted by the Survey Participants

I. Conformation to Yin Shun's Views

The initial evidence supporting the members' acceptance of Ren Jian Fo Jiao was directly expressed in the answers to three questions:

1. "Does your organization accept Ren Jian Fo Jiao?"

2. "Does your organization adopt ox follow Ren Jian Fo Jiao?" and

3. "Are there any differences in the interpretation of Ren Jian Fo Jiao between

your organization and Yin Shun?"

With regards to questions 1 and 2, all respondents acknowledged the acceptance and adoption of Ren Jian Fo Jiao by their organization and 94.1% of the answers to question 3 indicated the absence of theoretical differences between their organization and Yin 51

Shim's.1 6 Among the inquiries, the term Ren Jian Fo Jiao also was not rejected in favor of another term indicating the conscious attempt to conform to Yin Shun's views despite the fact that the term 'Ren Jian Fo Jiao' does not appear at the forefront of the organizations' promotional campaigns.

Conformation to Yin Shun's views is further substantiated by the results of the guided and unguided questions in the survey. When participants were asked about their agreement with the statements of Yin Shun in fourteen guided questions, an overwhelming

97.2% of responses concurred with his opinions (See Table 10 below; guided questions).167

Among the ten unguided questions in the survey the agreement rate was 84.3% (See Table

10; unguided questions). The lower but still relatively high rate forthe unguided questions not only suggests that members professed to conform to Yin Shun just as the direct and guided questions initially indicated, but also confirmed their agreement despite the obscurity of the statements' relation to Yin Shun's views. The overall consensus with

Yin Shun in the survey was 91.8%, which is high given the variance and amount of topics covered.169 Regarding the 8.2% variance of opinions, disagreement was not heavily attributed to one organization. The difference of percentage was caused by the opposing opinion of one person from either one or two organizations at most in all instances. A detailed breakdown of selected questions in the survey and the responses to them follows.

Table 10. Percentage of Dichotomous (Yes/No) Responses In Agreement with Yin Shun

Fu Yan DDM Tzu Chi

The statistics apply to those who completed Part A. l67The fi gure is an average of the guided questions total in Table 1-10. 168Agreement with Yin Shun's statements drop by an average of 12.7% among the results of 10 unguided questions (See Table 1-10). 169 The figure is an average of the three totals in Table 1-10. 52

Guided Questions 98.2% 94.3% 98.5%

Unguided Questions 91.3% 82.0% 79.5%

Total 95.2% 89.2% 91.0%

The percentage is based on the number of questions with responses.

The respondents concurred with Yin Shun's argument regarding the basis of Ren

Jian Fo Jiao which includes the reasons for recognizing the teachings of Sakyamuni, the need to restore them, the denial of Ren Jian Fo Jiao as a new teaching, and the emphasis on attaining Liberation as humans (See Table 11 below).

Table 11. Agreement Rate - The Premise of Ren Jian Fo Jiao

#. Question Fu Yan DDM Tzu Chi

18. Did Sakyamuni teach Ren Jian Fo Jiao? (answered 'yes') 100% 100% 100%

19. Is Ren Jian Fo Jiao a new teaching? (answered 'no') 100% 100% 40%

29. According to your organization, can Liberation be attained in 80% 100% 100% heaven? (answered 'no')

30. According to your organization, is Liberation exclusive to human 60% 62.5% 33.3% beings? (answered 'yes')

31. Yin Shun claims that Ren Jian Fo Jiao is the Buddha Dharma 100% 100% 100% taught by Sakyamuni and the original Buddha Dharma which was lost over time through the development of Buddhism. Would your organization agree with this statement?

32. Ren Jian Fo Jiao is the restoration of Sakyamuni's original 100% 100% 100% teaching. Would your organization'agree with this statement?

48. According to your organization, is it possible to practice Buddhism 80% 100% 100% without the physical body?

Participants also adhered to Yin Shun's interpretation concerning the importance of proper seeing and the key elements of wisdom, faith and compassion as the basis of the bodhisattva path (See Table 12 below).

Table 12. Agreement Rate - The Path of Practice 53

#. Question Fu Yan DDM Tzu Chi

33. Among the paths of the Eightfold Path, Yin Shun emphasizes the 100% 100% 100% path of proper seeing as the most important. According to Yin Shun, the path of'proper seeing' leads to the fulfillment of the other paths. Would your organization agree with this statement? (answered 'yes')

34. Buddhism is a religion based on wisdom and proper seeing as its 100% 87.5% 100% foremost principle and not on belief or faith. Would your organization agree with this statement? (answered 'yes')

39. According to Yin Shun, the 3 keys of wisdom, faith and 100% 100% 100% compassion are indispensable to the bodhisattva practice. One must have all three keys and without them one will not become a bodhisattva. Do you agree with this statement? (answered 'yes')

The respondents sided with Yin Shun's criticisms of the beliefs and practices which deviate from the direct path to Liberation (See Table 13 below). They include the denunciations of divinities and ghosts, incantations, the focus on Indian deities, and the definition of the Convenient Path. When further asked whether Convenient Buddhism was included within the goals of their organization, 88.9% of responses indicated 'no'.

Table 13. Agreement Rate - Criticisms of Wrong Buddhist Views

#. Question Fu Yan DDM Tzu Chi

37. According to your organization, was the original Buddha Dharma 80% 100% 100% void of divinities and ghosts? (answered 'yes')

38. According to your organization, should the Buddha Dharma be 80% 100% 100% void of divinities and ghosts? (answered 'yes')

40. Yin Shun considers the Mahayana Buddhist Dharma which 100% 87.5% 80% emphasizes incantation, chanting bodhisattva and dharma as the only method, a degeneration in faith and practice. Would your organization agree with this statement? (answered 'yes')

41. Many traditional Mahayana practices focus on the supernatural 40% 62.5% 20% power and miracles of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Is there a contradiction between this kind of Buddhism and Ren Jian Fo Jiao? (answered 'yes')

42. The original meaning of the Convenient Path is a way to lead 100% 100% 100% people to the Normal Path, according to Yin Shun. However, it has been misused by some Buddhists to refer to a convenient way to attain Liberation in one or two lifetimes. This latter use of the 54

Convenient Path is astray from the original meaning of the Buddha. Would your organization agree with this statement? (answered 'yes')

46. According to Yin Shun, the Buddha Dharma has always focused on 80% 100% . 100% humans. Indian deities were only incorporated for the protection of the dharma and the removal of obstacles. Would your organization agree with this statement? (answered 'yes')

Participants shared the same aims of Ren Jian Fo Jiao with Yin Shun which included the need to ensure the continued presence of Buddhism in the world, the dual importance of purifying the body and mind along with the study of Buddhism, the goal of benefiting oneself and others, and the duty to convert the youth (See Table 14 below).

Table 14. Agreement Rate - The Aims of Ren Jian Fo Jiao

#. Question Fu Yan DDM Tzu Chi

47. One of Yin Shun's aims includes the need to make the Buddha 100% 100% 100% Dharma "lasting in the secular world." Does your organization's goals also include this? (answered 'yes')

50. According to Yin Shun, one benefits others by purifying one's body 100% 100% 100% and mind and studying (the Buddhist texts) extensively. Does your organization agree with this statement? (answered 'yes')

51. In comparison to young people, old people are generally more 100% 100% 100% concerned with seeking longevity and health. Old people are more attracted towards deism and have a mind of covetousness. According to Yin Shun, the present time is the time of the youth. He emphasizes the important need to focus on "converting young people to Buddhism." Would your organization agree with this statement? (answered 'yes')

53. According to Yin Shun, one must benefit oneself and others 100% 100% 100% without self-interest for personal gain such as a better rebirth or blessings in the present life. Would your organization agree with this statement? (answered 'yes')

54. According to Yin Shun, "the human bodhisattva practice of the 80% 87.5% 100% Mahayana Dharma is the only dharma door which suits the young people." Would your organization agree with this statement? (answered 'yes')

Lastly, respondents acquiesced that modern times requires Buddhists to organize into groups and be proximate to secular affairs and people (Table 15 below). 55

Table 15. Agreement Rate - Period of Collectivization

#. Question Fu Yan DDM Tzu Chi

55. According to Yin Shun, it is now a secular time in which people 100% 80% 100% must make contact with other people. Buddhists should promote conversion without deserting secular affairs and secular people. Would your organization agree with this statement? (answered 'yes')

56. According to Yin Shun, it is now the time for "collective" or 100% 80% 100% "wholesome organizations" to promote the dharma. Do you agree with this statement? (answered 'yes')

II. Reasons for Disagreement

Upon closer analysis of the reasons given in writing for the participants' disagreement, the results indicate that the actual rate of discordance was less than the initial

12.7% decrease shown in Table 10 above. In fact, the low accordance rates of questions thirty and forty-one were primarily responsible for the decrease in the overall average (See

Table 11 and 13 above). The statistical results of the two questions was caused by an aversion or sensitivity to the words 'contradictions' and 'exclusive' contained in them.

When Yin Shun's name did not appear in the statement, the participants attempted to apply logic or reasoning. They were less likely to fully accept or fully deny the validity of the statement and instead, suggested exceptions or other possibilities to the case. For example question forty-one, which had a 44.4% disagreement rate, states:

Many traditional Mahayana practices focus on the supernatural powers and miracles of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Is there a contradiction between this kind of Buddhism and Ren Jian Fo Jiao (See Table 13 above)?

The members who objected to the occurrence of contradictions did not reject fully the statement in their written response but instead, both harmonized and defended the differences by drawing on the notion of upaya. A member from Tzu Chi explained,

There are such things as supernatural powers but they should not be the main focus. 56

Miracles are pratitya-samutpada. Without the right conditions, miracles and phenomena will happen but this is not the purpose of practice. There is no contradiction.

A similar response given by a Dharma Drum member states, "The supernatural powers and mysterious events appeared naturally in Mahay ana Buddhism. If we do not attach to them, there will not be any conflicts."171 The members of Fu Yan wrote, "No. Giving them what they want in order to lead them into Buddhism"172 and "This is the upaya of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas."173 The need to harmonize differences suggests that some members perceived the presence of negatively implicit meanings in the unguided questions. Given the examination of the reasons for disagreement, however, major discordances were not found.174

A notable division in thought was identified in question fifty-four (See Table 14 above). There was a 12.5% disagreement regarding Yin Shun's claim that the "the human bodhisattva practice of the Mahayana Dharma is the only dharma door which suits the young people." It is assumed that those who opposed the statement believe there are other dharma doors and not only one which suits the young people.175 Sheng Yen's statement upholds this view, "It is not an issue whether everybody in the world is converted to

170 Cheng Shi Yang, "Thesis Research Questions - Part A: #5," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 5 July 2006. l71Xu Li Liang, "Thesis Research Questions - Part A: #12," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 7 July 2006. 172Hi End, "Thesis Research Questions - Part A: #8," survey responses, Xinzhu, Taiwan, 12 July 2006. 173Shi Hai Zheng, "Thesis Research Questions - Part A: #10," survey responses, Xinzhu, Taiwan, 12 July 2006. l74Gloria Denoon also encountered similar issues in her study. She writes, "Of course, there are some gains on which they [participants] declined to comment and they showed discomfort in mentioning sensitive issues." ("Tzu Chi: The Practice of Non-Self and its Unintended Consequences" [Ph. D. diss., New York University, 2006], p. 62.) 175A contiguous option allowing respondents to offer an explanation was not available in this question. 57

Buddhism."176

III. Cohesiveness and Diversity Within the Organizations

Compared to the members of Fu Yan, the participants of Dharma Drum and Tzu

Chi were found to be more cohesive in their opinions as indicated by the fact that there were less responses in which disagreement arose (See 'Total' in Table 16 below). Possible reasons for the greater diversity among the Fu Yan participants may be attributed to the intellectual and academic nature of the members' roles as both monks and teachers in the organization. Steven Collins suggests that in the history of Buddhist thought, it was conventional for religious teachers to "personify ... the varied and conflicting innovations in intellectual and religious culture," in contrast to the more harmonious lay community whose concerns were less pedantic.177

Table 16. Number of Questions with Discrepancies Within Each Organization.

Type Fu Yan Dharma Tzu Chi Drum

Major Discrepancy: questions in which more than 1/3 of participants 3 5 8 disagreed

Minor Discrepancy: questions in which less than 1/3 of participants 15 7 5 disagreed

Total (Out of 46 total questions) 18 12 13

IV. How Ren Jian Fo Jiao was Interpreted by the Survey Participants

When participants were asked to define Ren Jian Fo Jiao in their own words, two of

Yin Shun's main emphases were reflected in the collective interpretations of the organizations. Respondents stressed the idea of attaining Buddhahood as a human and

176Sheng Yen. "Chan and Daily Life," Western Chan Fellowship (New York: Institute of Chung Hwa Buddhist Culture, 1990, accessed 15 July 2007), available from http://www.westernchan- fellowship.org/chan-in-daily-life.html; Internet. I77Steven Collins. Selfless Persons: Imagery and thought in Theravada Buddhism. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 37. 58

promoted the goal of Awakening for all of humanity. In almost every case, however, the

responses quoted the founder of the organization and used language specific to the

organization's doctrines. These responses verify the hypothesis made by others, such as

Scott Pacey and Charles Jones, regarding the presence of a "sectarian consciousness"

wherein the interpretation of Ren Jian Fo Jiao is determined by the views of the founder.178

In this section, the definitions of Ren Jian Fo Jiao will be summarized according to each

group and their use of unique terminology in the responses will be discussed.

In the case of Fu Yan, the founder is Yin Shun and the representatives' statements

directly followed his Buddhism for the Human World. Yin Shun wrote,

In the Zhen Yi Ah Han Jing it states, "All Buddhas emerge from the human world and do not become Awakened in the heavens. The Buddha ... is someone who became Awakened in the human world."179

Later in the book, he continues "it can be seen that the bodhisattva spirit is worthy to

follow. The greatness of the bodhisattva practice lies in its ability to be adaptable to the

world and to benefit the world."1 In Table 17 below, participants #7 through #11 quote

Yin Shun's ideas of the attainment of Buddhahood as humans and the practice of the

bodhisattva path in the human realm, in their responses.181

Table 17. Fu Yan Responses. Question: "If you could summarize Ren Jian Fo Jiao in a few short sentences, how would you describe it?"

Participant # Fu Yan Responses

Becoming a Buddha as humans and practicing the bodhisattva path to benefit sentient

178Scott Pacey, "A Buddhism for the Human World: Interpretations of Renjian Fojiao in Contemporary Taiwan," Asian Studies Review 29 (March 2005): 72. 179Yin Shun, A Buddhism for the Human World which Conforms to Reason and is Suitable for the Times (Taipei: Right Hearing Press, 1990), 33. 18u 180 Ibid., 48. 181 The statements of participants #8 and 9 reflect a further elaboration of Yin Shun's discussion on vinaya, education, and his criticisms about the prioritization of ghosts and deities in the work. 59

beings who are presently in the human realm.

8. The Buddha appeared in the world 2500 years ago. What he has spoken has become the sutras and vinaya which were all taught for human beings.

9. Ren Jian Fo Jiao emphasizes the achievement of Liberation by the Buddha in the human world and not the heavens. The main idea of Ren Jian Fo Jiao is the practice of the bodhisattva path by human beings. Buddhist education also concentrates on human beings and is not concentrated on the salvation of ghosts and deities. The Buddha Path is the ten wholesome deeds.

10. To complete the path of Buddhahood as humans and desire rebirth in the suffering world of human beings out of compassion.

11. To become a Buddha as a human being. All Buddhas originate from the human realm.

In contrast to the paradigmatic nature of the Fu Yan interpretations, the Tzu Chi respondents viewed Ren Jian Fo Jiao as the practical application of Buddhism in daily life.

To provide the context of their concerns Cheng Yen exclaims,

Buddhism is a positive and active way of living, and we Buddhists will continue with our good deeds to help the suffering masses, and bring joy to those living in 182

sorrow.

The responses of participants #7, 25 and 26 referred to this principle (See Table 18 below).

The following statement, "To turn compassion into action is the road, and we Buddhists are fellow travelers. The road is long and wearisome, but we can keep going as long as we have courage in our hearts," has been embraced by Tzu Chi members and the responses of 1R^ participants #25 and 26 have quoted these lines (See Table 18 below):

In promoting the ideals to purify the self and benefit others, the responses of participants #5 and #6 (See Table 18 below) also demonstrate the continuity of Yin Shun's aims in Tzu Chi which are reflected in Yin Shun's statement, "Those who conduct bodhisattva practice should undertake courses that benefit human beings, spread the voice of dharma, and purify and enlighten themselves without deserting secular affairs and l82Yu-ing Ching, Master of Love and Mercy: Cheng Yen (Taipei: Jing Si Publications, 2002), 271. 183Ibid., 130. 60 people."184

Table 18. Tzu Chi Responses. Question: "If you could summarize Ren Jian Fo Jiao in a few short sentences, how would you describe it?"

Participant # Tzu Chi Responses

5. To purify your mind, benefit others, stop the suffering of people in the world and bring them happiness. Buddhism should not be about self-cultivation, worshipping statues and chanting. We need to bring true Buddhism into the world, remove defilements and ignorance.

6. Purify ourselves and benefit others.

7. Buddhism must be practiced and not only studied.

25. The sutra is the path which is used for working. That is applying the dharma treasure of the Buddha in daily life.

26. Buddhism must be practiced. The sutras are the path and the path is the road.

Similar to the responses of the Tzu Chi participants, the Dharma Drum responses were also pragmatic in nature with regard to the three themes.

The first and major theme regarding the definition of Ren Jian Fo Jiao, found in six of the seven responses, is the assimilation or application of Buddhism into daily life as the foundation for all practice. This concern is a specific teaching of Sheng Yen and in an article published by Dharma Drum his thoughts have been contextualized as follows:

DDM promotes the incorporation of Buddhadharma into one's daily life. In fact, practice should not be limited to sitting meditation or attending sutra-expounding lectures. What then is the true practice? After one learns the methods of practicing, one should apply these methods to everyday life to help oneself and other people to live more at ease.185

The second theme of Ren Jian Fo Jiao is the application of Buddhism into daily life encourages and motivates one to influence and help others. For example, participant #14

Yin Shun, A Buddhism for the Human World which Conforms to Reason and is Suitable for the Times (Taipei: Right Hearing Press, 1990), 49. l85Guokuang, "Growth of the Dharma Drum Mountain Sangha," Sharing Dharma Drum Mountain: A White Paper on Happiness (Taipei: Dharma Drum Corporation, 2005), 157. 61

and #19 (See Table 1-19 below) states that the daily practice of Buddhism causes one to

"further learn Buddhist knowledge and gain compassion to treat people" and also to

"improve their views, correct their attitudes and methods of doing things and establish a peaceful society." From the latter quote, a third theme within the responses can be seen: the transformative effect of applying Buddhism in daily life gradually leads to the final goal of organizing a peaceful society.

Two of the Dharma Drum responses, as seen in the responses by the Tzu Chi participants, drew directly from Yin Shun's works. Participant #15 provided the historical context for the Ren Jian Fo Jiao proposal and participant #18 referred directly to his teaching in Buddhism for the Human World by emphasizing the importance of attainment in the human realm.

Table 19. Dharma Drum Responses.

Question: "If you could summarize Ren Jian Fo Jiao in a few short sentences, how would you describe it?"

Participant # Dharma Drum Responses

12. The purpose of the so-called Ren Jian Fo Jiao is to assimilate Buddhism into daily life and assimilate Buddhist practice into daily life.

13. To apply Buddhism in daily life.

14. To apply Buddhist doctrine into daily life in order to deal with problems and further learn Buddhist knowledge and gain compassion to treat people.

15. Before, Buddhist priests performed funerary rituals for their livelihood. As a result, Buddhism was only considered a religion for the dead. The practice of Pure Land only seeks rebirth in the Western Pure Land. However, the Buddhism promoted by Yin Shun not only serves the dead but also the living as well. It is also used for the application in daily life.

16. Ren Jian Fo Jiao begins with individual practice and individual learning in order to influence those people around you.

17. Ren Jian Fo Jiao assimilates Buddhism into the human realm and causes ordinary people to apply the Buddha Dharma in their daily lives. It causes Buddhism to assimilate into daily life and daily life is assimilated into Buddha Dharma. 62

18. The Buddha became Liberated in the human realm. Thus, the Buddha Dharma is aimed at the needs of human beings. The method taught by the Buddha is aimed at freeing humans from suffering and applying Buddhism into daily life to change the views and methods practiced in daily life. 19. Ren Jian Fo Jiao is the application of Buddhism in the world. It causes all sentient beings to be able to actualize Buddhism, improve their views, correct their attitudes and methods of doing things and establish a peaceful society. __

Given the wide distribution of the Ren Jian Fo Jiao movement, which encompasses large and prominent Buddhist organizations with a substantial membership base across

Taiwan and which operates under the leadership of multiple charismatic figures, the perception of unity in the movement with the aims and teachings of Yin Shun in the survey was unexpected. Rather than espousing the cosmologies of the organization's doctrines or brandishing the unique features of the individual's groups, the participants not only recognized the influence and adoption of Yin Shun's proposal but also conformed to his exclusive interpretation of Ren Jian Fo Jiao. In fact, the tendency of the respondents to agree with Yin Shun in the guided and unguided questions masks any possible existences of theoretical differences. Furthermore, the cohesiveness among individuals within the organizations seen in the unanimous agreement with one another on an average of more than 65% of survey questions demonstrates the striking unity of members' attitudes as a group. More than half of the members surveyed considered themselves familiar with the teachings of Ren Jian Fo Jiao and the referral to Yin Shun's works by the members of Fu

Yan, Dharma Drum and Tzu Chi in the written definitions demonstrate the continuity of his voice and thought. Although the participants emulated the voice of the organization's founders in their interpretations, an analysis of the results reveals that the theoretical foundations of Yin Shun's teachings were not modified. Alternately, his teachings were reworded in a language more appropriate for a common audience which can be seen by the contrasting articulations between Fu Yan, an organization disposed towards academic 63 research, and the lay organizations of Dharma Drum and Tzu Chi. Based on the statistical and qualitative analysis of Part A of the survey results, there is no substantial evidence in the case study to support that there are divisions in the movement of Ren Jian Fo Jiao. 64

Chapter Five. The Practice of Ren Jian Fo Jiao

The practice of Ren Jian Fo Jiao is discussed in view of Part B of the survey, and is divided into three sections: I. Discussion of sources, II. Report, and III. Analysis. However, before discussing 'II. Report' and 'III. Analysis' that constitute the bulk of this chapter, we should briefly discuss current sources regarding the practices of the three organizations.

I. Discussion of Sources

To date, there are no extensive studies on Fu Yan and Dharma Drum published in

English and current research on Humanitarian Buddhism, such as Stuart Chandler's

Establishing a Pure Land on Earth, have focused on Foguangshan, a Taiwanese organization founded by Master Xing Yun. There are concise introductions to Yin Shun,

Cheng Yen, and Sheng Yen and their respective organizations in Don Pittman's Toward a

Modern Chinese Buddhism: Taixu 's Reforms. In comparison, Tzu Chi has been the topic of study in several articles and subsections of recently published books. For example, Julia

Huang composed the article "Sacred or Profane? The Compassion Relief Movement's

Transnationalism in Taiwan, Japan/Malaysia, and the United States" investigating Tzu

Chi's expansion outside of Taiwan. Charles Brewer Jones devotes attention to the biography of Cheng Yen and the historical development and analysis of Tzu Chi in his

Buddhism in Taiwan: Religion and the State, 1660-1990.m Andre Laliberte has devoted a chapter of discussion to Tzu Chi's role in Taiwanese politics in The Politics of Buddhist

Organizations in Taiwan: 1989-2003.m A documentary on Tzu Chi entitled Portraits:

l8SSee Chapter Six in Don Pittman, Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism: Taixu's Reforms (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2001), 255-298. wl European Journal of East Asian Studies 2.2 (2003): 217-241. l88See Charles Brewer Jones, Buddhism in Taiwan: Religion and the State, 1660-1990 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999), 198-217. Dharma Drum is briefly mentioned on p 218. l89See Chapter Five in (New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004), 86-105. 65

Taiwan was also produced and aired on the Discovery Channel in December, 2005.19° The most comprehensive case study on Tzu Chi is represented by Gloria Denoon's dissertation

"Tzu Chi: The Practice of Non-Self and its Unintended Consequences." In addition to secondary and promotional literature in this thesis, information about the organizations' activities is compiled from my survey of participant responses, interviews, and field observations.

II. Report

The report contains information regarding the organization's founder, operations, goals, recruitment practices, its members, main activities, challenges, and the basic motives behind their practices. The diversity of practices in the organizations will be compared along with providing insight into the basic beliefs behind the practices.

The report serves to showcase results from Part B of the study, which indicate that the

Ren Jian Fo Jiao movement is not unified in practice because the organizations rely on different implementation methods. In summary, an analysis of all activities reveals that Fu

Yan espouses the academic study of Buddhism while Dharma Drum blends the study of

Buddhism and Chan meditation as its main practice and Tzu Chi practices charity and medical aid. a. The Practices of Fu Yan

Yin Shun

Due to Yin Shun's engrossment in book learning and experience with formal

Buddhist education, it was natural for him to adopt the same methods of intense Buddhist study and teaching in advocating Ren Jian Fo Jiao to others in his establishment of the Fu

Portraits: Taiwan Series (Taipei: Bow Wow Productions, 2005), film. 66

Yan Buddhist college. In fact, details of his early life reveal Yin Shun's love of books long before his encounter with Buddhism. As a child, Yin Shun was frequently confined indoors due to a string of recurring health problems and as a result, spent much of his childhood at home in self-study.191 Whalen Lai describes Yin Shun, "Luqin [Yin Shun's given name] had such an appetite for learning that he devoured all the books he could find."192 Yin

Shun's devotion to knowledge later led him to return "to the primary school from which he had graduated to take up a teaching position, which he held for the next eight years."

Owing to his later inability "to pursue a university education, Yinshun began an extensive self-directed reading program with a particular focus on philosophy and religion."194 Yin

Shun developed an interest in Buddhism at the age of nineteen and became immersed in the self-learning of difficult Buddhist texts and subjects such as the Diamond Sutra, outlines and commentaries of the Cheng wei shih lun (Consciousness-only), and the Madhyamika sutras.195 Hence, Yin Shun's propensity towards education had been established from early on and subsequently, multiplied in intensity following his ordination. After receiving his monk vows, Yin Shun received formal Buddhist education from Taixu's Wu-chang

Seminary and the Min nan Seminary and, because Yin Shun possessed an impressive foundation in Buddhism, due to his personal learning, he was asked to instruct at the

l91Because Yin Shun was born prematurely, his weak immune system put him at a greater risk of illnesses and only eleven days after he was born, he barely escaped death. (Po-Yao Tien. A Modern Buddhist Monk-Reformer in China: The Life and Thought of Yin-Shun. [Diss. California Institute of Integral Studies, 1995. Po-Yao Tien: UMI, 1995.] 9527895, P. 21.) 192"Introduction" in Don A. Pittman, Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism: Taixu's Reforms (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2001), P. xvi. 193 Don A. Pittman, Toward a Modern Chinese Buddhism: Taixu's Reforms (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2001), 265. 194 Ibid., 265. 67 seminary later. Yin Shun's career as a monk-scholar thus began in the teaching arena lecturing in monasteries and institutes in China and Taiwan such as the Huiri Lecture Hall in Shan Dong temple and the Chinese Cultural College.197 Outside of his teaching responsibilities, Yin Shun did not wander far from the academic arena. He favored the reclusive life and during retreats, he focused on producing extensive and systematic

1 OR writings on Buddhism. In the following quote, Pittman provides insight regarding the role Yin Shun's personal disposition played in his particular path of Ren Jian Fo Jiao:

In the revitalization of Buddhism in Taiwan, Yin Shun's unique role has been that of a master scholar and an advocate for a 'worldly' or 'humanistic Buddhism' (renjian fojiao). First, as Yin Shun has himself acknowledged, his temperament has always been suitable to a life of reflection and scholarship. He was never the frenetic organizer and social activist that Taixu was. In fact, he once wrote, 'it has become a part of my nature to love tranquility and shun activity.' As he admitted in his autobiography, 'I lack the spirit of a founder of the school (zushi) and have no ability for organization.' In short, Yinshun has stressed the value of solitude and quiet research both for himself and his students."199

Unlike the enterprising course that Cheng Yen and Sheng Yen adopted to form a socially active organization, Yin Shun emphasized "the value of solitude and quiet research," which is the inherent theme regarding the orientation of Fu Yan's practices. In the following section, details regarding the structure and organization of Fu Yan will be discussed.

Goals

When members were inquired about the goals of Fu Yan, members responded to the question with lofty Buddhist ideals. The goals of Fu Yan are summarized as follows: to

Lai writes: "Within a year he showed such proficiency and promise that Venerable Taixu asked him to instruct." He instructed on the Treatise on the Twelve Gates, one of the three principle works on Madhyamaka philosophy, at the seminary. Lai, P. xx. 197Pittman, 266. 198The subjects of his work included the development of Mahayana Buddhism, "the origins and development of Tathagatagarbha thought," the Agama sutras, and Indian Buddhist thought. His major work, entitled the Collective Works ofMiao-yun, is a compilation of his life's work consisting of twenty-four volumes. Tien, 37-38, 40. '"Pittman, 267. 68 promote Buddhism in the human world, to purify the body and mind for the benefit of sentient beings, and to promote the practice of the bodhisattva path as a human being.200

The first goal refers to the spread of Buddhism, which is focused on humans and not spirits or deities. The second goal refers to the removal of afflictions to eliminate the Buddhist problem of suffering. To explain, afflictions are categorized into two types in the Agama sutras: those belonging to the body caused by "faults in human action" and those belonging to the mind caused by "faults in human cognition," according to Yin Shun.201 Among the two kinds, afflictions belonging to the mind are perceived to be the root problem because they are linked to ignorance and attachment to "the illusion of a permanent and independent self which, in turn, causes one to engage in "self-centered activities."202 Yin Shun writes:

Although the retribution of suffering is caused by karmic force, the real problem is the afflictions. As long as afflictions exist, they will trigger and nurture karma; if the afflictions are eliminated, though there may be infinite karmic seeds, they will wither and lose their effectiveness.203

When all afflictions are removed, "then one truly is completely pure" and "one is liberated."204 Hence, Liberation is attained when the body and mind are purified. Regarding the third goal, the human bodhisattva path refers to the human "resolve to attain bodhi" by benefitting others and seeking "perfect enlightenment."205 The attainment of perfect enlightenment is achieved only by following the bodhisattva path because only bodhisattvas, due to their great compassion and detachment from the self, are able to

200Shi Ru Zheng, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #9," survey responses, Xinzhu, Taiwan, 12 July 2006; Shi Wu Zhen, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #7," survey responses, Xinzhu, Taiwan, 12 July 2006; Shi Hai Zheng, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #10," survey responses, Xinzhu, Taiwan, 12 July 2006. 201 Yin Shun, The Way to Buddhahood, trans. Wing Yeung (Massachusetts: Wisdom Publications, 1998), P. 131. 202Ibid., 130-131. 201 Ibid., 138. 204 Ibid., 130. 205 Ibid., 207. 69 completely eliminate all afflictions.206

Recruitment and Membership

According to one member, Fu Yan is popularly known as "one of the best places of

Buddhist Education for monks" in Taiwan and Fu Yan relies almost exclusively on Yin

Shun's famed reputation to attract members.207 In fact, one participant attributed Fu Yan's emphasis on monastic education as a unique feature separating it from other Buddhist organizations. Students learn about the college through word of mouth, the college's website, and exchanges the institute shares with other universities in the region. For example, Fu Yan receives visiting professors from other institutes for guest lectures and vice versa. Posters are also periodically used to advertise programs at the institute. The college does not, however, invest significant resources in advertising due to the limited admission capacity.209 The capacity of Fu Yan for admission is approximately 230 students.210 In comparison to Tzu Chi and Dharma Drum, which have a membership base often million and 500,000 members respectively, Fu Yan's participation in the Ren Jian Fo

Jiao movement is largely indiscernible.211

Despite the noble goals of the organization to benefit all sentient beings, membership in Fu Yan is limited to male monks. According to Shi Ru Yuan, this stipulation is owing to the already high number of Buddhist nunneries in Taiwan.212 In fact, Taiwan is the only country in which the number of Buddhist nuns exceeds the number of Buddhist monks.

206ibid., 206. 207Chien Hsu, interview, Calgary, AB, June 2007. 208Shi Hai Zheng, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #10," survey responses, Xinzhu, Taiwan, 12 July 2006. 209Although a documentary about the organization was once aired by the local television network. 210Chien Hsu, interview, Calgary, AB, June 2007. 21lTzu Chi statistics provided by Eric Hsu, interview, Vancouver, BC, March 2008. Dharma Drum statistics provided by Charles, interview, Jinshan, Taiwan, 11 July 2006. 212Chien Hsu, interview, Calgary, AB, June 2007. 70

Therefore, the establishment of a male-only institution caters to an important demand for

bhiksu education as opposed to a discriminatory attempt to exclude bhiksunis.

Due to the high restrictions and obstacles of admission to Fu Yan, the membership

requirements in Fu Yan are most demanding compared to Tzu Chi and Dharma Drum. Fu

Yan further screens potential candidates through a critical selection process whereby

candidates must complete two examinations, a written and an oral test, in which their

knowledge of Buddhism is assessed.213 Potential students must have a basic grasp of

Buddhism prior to entry. Furthermore, they are evaluated on their reading and written

comprehension of Chinese, which must meet a high school-equivalent level.214 In the oral

component, candidates are interviewed regarding their intentions and reasons for study.

According to Chien Hsu, the interviewer determines whether the candidate has the needed

stamina and "confidence in Buddhism" to complete the program because the institute

91 S

divests considerable resources to provide education free of tuition charges to all students.

The screening process and lack of admission space are factors, that considerably limit the

number of people participating in his form of Ren Jian Fo Jiao.

Curriculum

Throughout the curriculum, students build a broad knowledge base of Buddhism in both philosophy and language by studying the vast contents of the Tripitaka, a step which 916

Yin Shun regarded as a preliminary in the path of Ren Jian Fo Jiao. Yin Shun states,

"good and knowledgeable people must have studied widely and deeply all the sutras so that 213Chien Hsu, interview, Calgary, AB, June 2007. 214Given the language pre-requisites of the institution, membership has not been opened to an international audience and it is unlikely, given the lack of English and foreign-language materials in the college's library, that the college will include non-Chinese speaking members in its student base. Ibid. 215Chien Hsu, interview, Calgary, AB, June 2007. 2160ther than those who serve on the school board, all students in Fu Yan are regarded equally and there is no segregation between senior and junior monks. 71 they can teach the true Mahayana way."217 In total, there are three levels of education in Fu

Yan each requiring three years to complete. This includes a junior diploma level, a senior degree level, and a graduate research level. A completion of the entire curriculum is thus a lengthy process requiring nine years.218 Shi Ru Yuan explains that an estimated 90% of courses taught at Fu Yan pertain to Indian and Chinese Mahayana Buddhism. Subjects include Abhidharma thought, the Agama and Nikaya Sutras, Tathagathagarbha thought, the

Wei-shih school, the San-Lun school and various Vinayas.219 In regards to the remaining

10% of courses, they are comprised of Chinese literature and language courses, which are required for textual study.220

991

As stated above, the three Tripitakas serve as the guiding texts of the program.

However, the works of Yin Shun are also widely used and his interpretations of Buddhism serve as the "guiding thought" of the college.222 In fact, Buddhism for the Human World, the text selected for translation in this thesis, and The Way to Buddhahood are required texts in the classroom.223

Main Activities

Yin Shun regarded the bodhisattva path as a difficult and arduous course and this

2l7Yin Shun, The Way to Buddhahood, 34. 218Among the participants surveyed, four out of five had completed the junior and senior levels. The number who completed the final level is unknown. 2l9The lack of courses on Tantric Buddhism compared to other topics, coupled with Yin Shun's criticisms regarding the authenticity of the Tantras to Sakyamuni's original spirit, suggest the presence of bias towards a major incorporation of Tantric Buddhist studies in the college. 220Language courses include English, Tibetan, Japanese, Pali, and Sanskrit. Chien Hsu, interview, Calgary, AB, June 2007. 221Shi Hai Zheng, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #10," survey responses, Xinzhu, Taiwan, 12 July 2006. 222Shi Wu Zhen, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #7," survey responses, Xinzhu, Taiwan, 12 July 2006 223The college adopts a strict policy of only hiring male monks to teach. Exceptions to this are made, however, if the layperson is a male scholar by profession and accomplished in the field. Chien Hsu, interview, Calgary, AB, June 2007. 72 path is reflected in the lifestyle of the members because they must maintain the rigorous life of both a college student and a monk during their training. For example, attendees must rise daily at four o'clock in the morning to chant the sutras for an hour.224 The remainder of the day is divided between studying, doing homework, attending lectures, presenting papers, and writing examinations. Additionally, students are assigned chores to perform on campus and are required to chant the sutras for another hour in the evening. The strict discipline in the college is further supported by the limitation of extracurricular activities.

Students are not permitted to leave campus during the semester.226

There is also a traditional Buddhist monastery, the Fu Yan Abode, on campus where dharma ceremonies regularly take place. The rituals include repentance and the chanting of sutras, such as the popular Lotus Sutra and Diamond Sutra, and recitation of the vinaya, which are required practices for the students.227 According to participants, the correlation of these services to Ren Jian Fo Jiao serves to "comfort peoples' minds" and bring them wholesomeness.228 Shi Wu Zhen states, "chanting sutras provides comfort to people and the family."229 So long as such practices are not based on the belief of arriving at "other pure lands or heavens as their main purpose," one member states, there are no perceived contradictions between the practice of traditional Buddhist rituals and the ideals of Ren Jian

224Chien Hsu, interview, Calgary, AB, June 2007. 225Chien Hsu, interview, Calgary, AB, June 2007. 226Unless warranted by an emergency situation. Emergency cases include family death or illness. In such cases, they are then required to formally record their leave of absence with the college. 227Students must also perform funerary rites off-campus when necessary. Shi Ru Zheng, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #9," survey responses, Xinzhu, Taiwan, 12 July 2006. 228Shc i Ru Zheng, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #9," survey responses, Xinzhu, Taiwan, 12 July 2006. 2299Sh i Ru Zhen, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #7," survey responses, Xinzhu, Taiwan, 12 July 2006. 73

Fo Jiao. Participants also explained that the temple shrine serves as a memorial of the

Buddha and acts as "an exemplary model" or "object from which to learn." These views closely follow Yin Shun's criticisms regarding the perception of the Buddha as a salvific being.

Given the confinement of Fu Yan's main activities, the practice of Ren Jian Fo Jiao occurs almost exclusively within the inner walls of the institute. There are few public exchanges, except for the donation of rice and other food given by the college to the local needy, and there are no partnerships with other charities or organizations to additionally promote the organization's goals.233 Emphasis is placed on the individual to pursue the compassionate vow of liberating all sentient beings by committing to the arduous lifestyle of completing the rigorous training at Fu Yan. Yin Shun writes:

Resolving to attain bodhi mind means more than just occasionally thinking about becoming a Buddha in order to benefit sentient beings; it requires practicing with firm effort. . . It arises from the thought that others and oneself are the same, and that benefiting other sentient beings and cherishing oneself are also the same, which requires one to practice until one is willing to sacrifice oneself to benefit others.234

Fu Yan members undertake the responsibility of being Ren Jian Fo Jiao missionaries-in- training and later carry and spread Yin Shun's teaching beyond the walls of the institute to create a more permanent imprint in society. Alternately, the college serves as a custodian and safe keeper of Yin Shun's original interpretation of Ren Jian Fo Jiao by providing members with a precise and exact understanding of Yin Shun's comprehensive thought, not

Shi Ru Zheng, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #9," survey responses, Xinzhu, Taiwan, 12 July 2006. 23lShi Ru Zhen, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #7," survey responses, Xinzhu, Taiwan, 12 July 2006. 232Hi End, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #8," survey responses, Xinzhu, Taiwan, 12 July 2006. 233The organization is partnered with the Yin Shun Foundation to translate his works into other languages. Yin Shun, The Way to Buddhahood, 218. 74 only regarding Ren Jian Fo Jiao but also his perspective of the Tripitaka.

The propagation of Ren Jian Fo Jiao is demonstrated by one of five paths that graduates pursue upon completion of their program: The monks may return to the monastery they came from, teach at other Buddhist institutions, pursue further studies at universities abroad, stay at Fu Yan to instruct (pending they have completed all levels), or become a "common Dharma teacher," one who preaches the dharma to the laity. 35 Hsu estimates that among the seventy to eighty students enrolled at the college, five or six graduates including himself have currently pursued degrees in secular universities in North

America and Europe.236 Students are encouraged to acquire knowledge in worldly disciplines which may be beneficial in to propagating Ren Jian Fo Jiao to the masses.237

Challenges

There are four main challenges faced by Fu Yan on an operational level. First, there are difficulties in finding qualified teachers to maintain the high standards required by the specialized curriculum. Second, participants fear that a lack of interest among monks to study at the institute may lead to a dwindling student base and the necessary closure of the school in the future. Although membership is steady at present, the institute admitted in the past nuns in order to maintain student numbers. Third, the strenuous demands on students to perform both ritual and academic duties has led to a high drop out rate. Less than half of the initial admitted students, according to Hsu, remained at the diploma level at the time of his graduation.238 Fourth, the lack of funds to support the college's operations is a growing

235Some may even collaborate to build temples or institutes to promote Ren Jian Fo Jiao since Fu Yan does not have any other chapters. Shi Ru Yuan, interview by author, Calgary, AB, June 2007. 236Chien Hsu, interview, Calgary, AB, June 2007. 237Three Fu Yan graduates are currently enrolled in degrees in economics and religious studies in secular institutes. 238Chien Hsu, interview, Calgary, AB, June 2007. 75 concern. The college relies entirely on donations from the public, and past and present students. The monastery on campus is a source of sustaining support from lay Buddhists and visitors. However, the lack of lay involvement through charitable and social networks minimizes financial support from the public and lay community. In addition, Fu Yan is a small organization in comparison to Dharma Drum and Tzu Chi and does not operate other branches, which could generate income. Presently, the institute does not have any clear strategies for global expansion or overcoming their challenges. Participants explained that the challenges would be dealt with as they occurred.

b. The Practices of Dharma Drum

Sheng Yen

Dharma Drum diversifies its practice of Ren Jian Fo Jiao in a variety of cultural, charitable and environmental activities but its main focus is directed to Buddhist education and Chan meditation. Similar to Yin Shun, Sheng Yen the founder of Dharma Drum placed emphasis on doctrinal learning and details of his early life share remarkable resemblance to

Yin Shun in the fact that Sheng Yen grew up in poverty and was stricken by illness as a child. Sheng Yen was born twenty-four years after Yin Shun in the Jiangsu Province of

China in 1930, where he was exposed to the political and civil unrest during the Sino-

Japanese War (1937-1945). At the age of twelve, Sheng Yen took the ordination vows and lived in a Chan monastery where economic difficulties forced him to perform services for the dead for two years. This led to Sheng Yen's eventual disdain, along with Taixu and Yin

Shun's criticisms, for such rituals.239 Later, Sheng Yen joined a seminary founded by one of Taixu's followers where he was exposed to the Buddhist reformist stance of establishing

Pittman, 279. 76

standardized education for the sangha. Enrollment in the school steered him in an academic

direction and his similar experiences to those of Yin Shun as a monk in China during the

decline of Buddhism and his immersion in the reform way of thinking during the Cultural

Revolution led him to share criticisms and ideals similar to those of Yin Shun.

The critical blueprint of future practice in Dharma Drum was formed when,

following ten years of service in the army during which time he disrobed, and later returned

to the order again, Sheng Yen underwent an intense period of meditation and Buddhist

study.240 Sheng Yen differed from Taixu and Yin Shun by advocating the need to focus on

meditation, which he claimed was missing from the curriculum of Taixu's seminaries.241

During his six-year retreat, Sheng Yen concentrated on seated meditation and developed a

form of moving meditation, both of which comprise the root practices in Dharma Drum today. The organization's other strong focus on education stems from Sheng Yen's resolve to preserve Buddhism from extinction and is supported by his personal endeavor as a

scholar to promote studies of Buddhism in the modern world. His vision for continued

scholastic research is consistently maintained at the forefront of the organization.

Goals

Participants from Dharma Drum quoted, in startling unison, the slogan "to uplift the character of humanity and build a pure land on earth" as the two main goals of the organization in the survey.243 Given the explanations of the goals, the goals are similar to

Claiming that he had only learned to memorize sutras and that he had received no training in Chan philosophy or practice during his earlier residence at the Chan Monastery, Sheng Yen produced the work Orthodox Chinese Buddhism in which he advocated the need to raise the monastic level of education in order to preserve Buddhism from extinction. 24lPittman, 279. 242Ibid., 280. 243Muin Hu. Sharing Dharma Drum Mountain: A White Paper on Happiness (Taipei: Dharma Drum Corporation, 2005), 77. 77

those of Fu Yan. The first goal refers to the ethical and moral improvement of humanity,

which Sheng Yen believed was a strongly interwoven motif in Buddhism. The second goal

of creating a pure land on earth is achieved when everyone can abandon one's self-fulfilling

behavior and can act towards the betterment of others and society. The pure land on earth

refers to the ultimate establishment of peace on earth, which begins with an individual's

ability to achieve a calm state of mind. In the espousing of its goals, it is suggested that

Dharma Drum has removed Buddhist terms such as bodhisattva and Buddha, in favor of

common humanitarian ideas such as establishing peace on earth and the betterment of humanity to appeal to a wider and modern lay audience. However, the main ideas of Ren

Jian Fo Jiao such as promoting a form of Buddhism focused on humans, benefiting the self

and others, and abandoning self-fulfilling behavior, which is an outcome of practicing the bodhisattva path and removing afflictions, are embedded in the definition of Dharma

Drum's goals. All members, however, referred to the two goals as features separating them from the other Buddhist organizations.

Recruitment

Compared to Fu Yan, the channels by which Dharma Drum utilizes to inform others about the organization are more diversified and extensive. According to survey results, more than half of the respondents heard about the organization through the introduction of friends and co-workers who were existing members. The remaining respondents discovered

Dharma Drum through media such as advertisements and commercials, the vast plethora of publications and pamphlet materials, and lastly, through the attendance of public dharma lectures which are periodically delivered by monks. Many Dharma Drum advertisements are centered on outdoor themes in nature intended to depict the serene mind during meditation. In contrast to Fu Yan, wherein limited facility limits the number admitted, 78

Dharma Drum with its vast amount of resources devoted to advertising expresses its desire

to accept new members. Furthermore, the vast forms of advertising have served to create a

great visibility for the organization in Taiwan.

As a primary strategy to convert outsiders, Dharma Drum offers popular meditation

classes and seven-day Chan retreats to the public. The two courses "Meditation Pointers"

and "Beginners Meditation Class," for example, are designed specifically for introductory

purposes and were crucial in drawing public interest and involvement during the early days

of Dharma Drum.244

Membership

Membership to Dharma Drum is open to any interested person through a registration process where an official "Ceremony of Taking Refuge" certificate is issued to the new admittee. Enrollment to the organization is highly accessible because requests for memberships can be processed online, by phone, at the branches, or by attending refuge ceremonies conducted regularly. Ordained members from outside monasteries are also welcomed to join. However, they must undergo specialized in-house training to propagate the Dharma Drum message. Members typically don the Dharma Drum uniform consisting of navy blue trousers, a white polo shirt, and a navy blue and white ball cap featuring the organization's 'Buddha's palm' insignia, while monks and nuns are clothed in light grey robes typically worn by monks of the Mahayana tradition.

Although registration is uncomplicated, emphasis is placed on understanding what genuine refuge or guiyi encompasses. In fact, Sheng Yen has penned five articles explaining the significance of genuine refuge in-depth, which requires reliance on and faith

Dharma Drum (Taipei: Dharma Drum Culture and Education Foundation, 2005), 29. 79

in the Three Jewels, the adoption of the Buddhist precepts, and upholding the vow to attain

Buddhahood.243 Sheng Yen writes, "If you wish to be formally recognized as a Buddhist, you are encouraged to first learn and try to understand the teachings."246 This attitude is also latent among Dharma Drum members as one respondent stated, "We only want devoted members," when questioned about the organization's criteria for membership.247 In regards to the relationship which Dharma Drum members share with Sheng Yen, Dharma

Drum members Charles and Zhu Bi Wen claim Sheng Yen has the principle role of

"promoting, educating and instructing,"248 and serves as a "meditation master."249

Concerning members' contact with Sheng Yen, a member of the survey, Zhong Zheng Xun explains, "Basically few people can take the initiative to contact the spiritual leader. Most are passively contacted [the leader has to contact them]."250 However, some participants claimed that access to Sheng Yen can be gained through "special arrangements" or

"through the monks and nuns of Dharma Drum.",25 2

Main Practices

245The articles include: "What is Taking Refuge in the Three Jewels?," "The Different Stages of Generating Vows," and "How to Take Refuge in the Three Jewels." See Sheng Yen, Why Take Refuge in the Three Jewels?, Pocket Guides to Buddhist Wisdom: Buddhism for Beginners Series (Taipei: Sheng Yen Education Foundation, 2007) and Sheng Yen, The Meaning of Life, Buddhism 101 Series (Taipei: Sheng Yen Education Foundation, 2005). 246Sheng Yen, Why Take Refuge in the Three Jewels?, 3. 2470nce an individual has joined Dharma Drum they are regarded equal in status with other members, and they refer to each other by the titles "dharma brother, dharma sister or bodhisattva" to express their equality. Zhu Bi Wen, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #21," survey responses, Jingshan, Taiwan, 11 July 2006. 248Zhu Bi Wen, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #21," survey responses, Jingshan, Taiwan, 11 July 2006. 249Charles, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #24," survey responses, Jingshan, Taiwan, 11 July 2006. 250 Zhong Zheng Xun, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #20," survey responses, Jingshan, Taiwan, 11 July 2006. 25lZhu Bi Wen, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #21," survey responses, Jingshan, Taiwan, 11 July 2006. 252Charles, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #24," survey responses, Jingshan, Taiwan, 11 July 2006. 80

Process of Educating

In line with Yin Shun's aim to prolong the survival of Buddhism, Dharma Drum has

established a comprehensive system providing Buddhist education for monks, nuns, non-

members, and lay people including those who are not enrolled in formal programs. Sheng

Yen asserts, "If we don't devote ourselves to Buddhist education, Buddhism will not have a

future."253 He adds, "The continuation of Buddha's teachings relies on only one thing:

Dharma education." As a result, education is stated as the main focus of Dharma

Drum. In regards to the relation between the education facilities and Ren Jian Fo Jiao,

among the opinions of members, Xu Yue Li explains, "The Buddha Dharma is so great but

not many people know it. Therefore, it is necessary to educate Buddhists."256 In contrast to

Fu Yan, however, Dharma Drum offers Buddhist education to all persons and not only

male monks, which fulfills an important contribution to the goals of the Ren Jian Fo Jiao

movement. The ability of Dharma Drum to establish multiple institutions compared with Fu

Yan is, in part, owing to the greater wealth of the organization, which Fu Yan participants

cited as a challenge to the growth and operation of their organization.257

Academic institutes in Dharma Drum are divided into several kinds for different

groups. Just like Fu Yan, Dharma Drum established The Buddhist Seminary of Dharma

Drum Sangha University offering a four-year college program specifically to educate and

253 Tilling the Soil, Planting Good Seeds: The Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies (Taipei: The Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies, 2005), P. 1. 254Muin Hu, 77. 255 TIbid. , 77. 256Xu Yue Li, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #23," survey responses, Jingshan, Taiwan, 11 July 2006. 257The organization is financially supported through regular fund-raising activities and auctions, and through donations from Dharma Drum members and the public. "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #20- 24," survey responses, Jingshan, Taiwan, 11 July 2006. 81 train monks and nuns to promote the Buddha Dharma.238 Dharma Drum also created a

Buddhist research institute known as the Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies

(CHIBS), which is open to lay people, including members and non-members.259 The

CHIBS was created to "cultivate more high-caliber professionals to engage in building a pure land on earth."260 Though the institute only accepts twelve full-time students and ten part-time students per year, the CHIBS is more famed than the Dharma Drum organization outside of Taiwan due to the international exchanges it shares with the global academic community.261

The vast majority of members who are not formally enrolled in the college attend

"extension classes" on-campus or in Dharma Drum branches, which are the most popular and main method that Dharma Drum uses to educate its members about Buddhism and Ren

Jian Fo Jiao. In fact, a large group of surveyed participants received formal instruction on

Yin Shun's The Way to Buddhahood, considered to be "the Bible of Yin Shun's thought," through which 62.5% of Dharma Drum participants in the survey may have become

258The programs include the Dharma Drum Buddhist Seminary for "students between the age of eighteen and thirty" and a Postulant Training and Monastic Formation Program" for "students under the age fifty." In the seminary, students attend classes on "basic Buddhism, monastic rules and disciplines, Chan doctrine, history of doctrines, monastery administration, and training in ministry." Muin Hu, 94.

259For example, CHIBS holds regular international conferences in Taiwan to foster and share Buddhist research and publishes the new findings in its publications. CHIBS is also known as a pioneer Buddhist institute in promoting technology to preserve Buddhist texts and materials and has invested considerable resources, in collaboration with the Yinshun Foundation of North America, to produce a famed electronic version of the Chinese Tripitaka. Ibid., 88. 260The Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies offers a similar three-year diploma program to Fu Yan specializing in Chinese, Tibetan, and Theravada Buddhism, which is open to both members and non- members. Ibid., 88. 26lTilling the Soil, Planting Good Seeds: The Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies, 8. No information was collected regarding the activities of graduates from CHIBS. Consequently, comparisons with the missionary efforts of Fu Yan graduates are unknown. 82 familiar with from the writings on Ren Jian Fo Jiao.262 Direct instruction on Yin Shun's works within Dharma Drum is an indicator that Sheng Yen shares a close vision of Ren

Jian Fo Jiao with that of Yin Shun. In comparison to Tzu Chi members, Dharma Drum members as a whole received more formalized education on Yin Shun's Ren Jian Fo Jiao philosophy while informed Tzu Chi participants learned about Ren Jian Fo Jiao through self-study of Yin Shun's books.

Meditation

Following education, meditation is the second most important discipline in Dharma

Drum. Sheng Yen states: "Use meditation as a supporting discipline and the Buddhadharma as your guideline."263 Though Yin Shun did not promote meditation as a primary practice in advocating Ren Jian Fo Jiao, he did not deny its role in purifying the mind and also practiced meditation in his personal life. In his The Way to Buddhahood, Yin Shun criticizes those who neglect the importance of meditation:

Some people think that giving is an active good deed that benefits others whereas keeping the precepts is a passive virtuous deed that has an effect only on oneself. They wonder what good there can be in practicing meditation. These people do not know that purifying the mind is the goal of the Buddha Dharma and that within the worldly Dharma practicing meditation is the only way that one can achieve such a goal.264

Compared with the reasons put forth by Sheng Yen for meditation, the motives were similar to that of Yin Shun's ultimate goal of removing afflictions and purifying the mind.

262a. Regarding other courses, topics include "meditation training, study of Buddhist canonical languages, Buddhism in English, the chanting of Buddhist scriptures, and classes focusing on the practical application of Buddhism in daily life." Ibid., 12. b. Dharma Drum members also receive training on popular Mahayana texts such as the Vimalakirti Sutra, Diamond Sutra, Heart Sutra, Lotus Sutra and the Platform Sutra through traditional dharma lectures. Muin Hu, 52. 263Sheng Yen, "Chan Practice in the Daily Life," Dharma Drum Mountain; available from http://www.dharmadrum.org/chan/chan.aspx; accessed 18 February 2008. 264Yin Shun, The Way to Buddhahood, 93. 83

Sheng Yen wrote:

The practice of Chan meditation is a process of baring one's self, just like peeling the stem of a banana tree. After layer after layer of deluded thoughts are stripped off, not only is there no affected self to be seen, but there's not even a naked self there. First you try to expose your self, but ultimately you find there is nothing to expose at all. . . Once you reach the state of "no-thought," you will naturally realize that your existence in the past was just a series of accumulated afflictions and deluded thoughts, which are not your true self.263

Sheng Yen also believed that meditation was a practical method to reduce the "wandering thoughts" of individuals and provide an outlet from the stresses of modern life. He proclaimed, "it is a method of cultivation that will always fit the needs of the time," which conforms to the spirit of Yin Shun's Ren Jian Fo Jiao that Buddhism should be suited for contemporary persons.

Responsibility in Dharma Drum is first placed on the individual to rid him or herself of mental afflictions before extending help to others because it is believed that if one is lost and confused, it is even more difficult to uproot the worries and suffering of others. As a result, meditation retreats and classes account for a sizeable proportion of all activities in the organization. By combining the techniques of both the Caodong and Linji traditions of the Chan school, the organization's practice of meditation is referred to as "Silent

Illumination Chan."268 In fact, there are nine varieties such as outdoor, introductory, beginner, and advanced levels with durations varying from one to forty-nine days including

265Sheng Yen, "The Effects of Chan Meditation," Dharma Drum Mountain; available from http://www.dharmadrum.org/chan/chan.aspx; accessed 18 February 2008. 266Sheng Yen, from the same website as above. 267Sheng Yen, from the same website as above. 268"To understand Silent Illumination Chan, it is important to understand that while there are no thoughts the mind is still very clear, very aware. Both the sience and the illumination must be there. According to Hongzhi, when there is nothing going on in one's mind, one is aware that nothing is happening. If one is not aware, this is just Chan sickness, not the state of Chan. So in this state, the mind is transparent." Sheng Yen, In the Spirit of Chan, Chan Practice Series (Taipei: Sheng Yen Education Foundation, 2007), 29. 84

a unique form of meditation in motion known as the "Eight-Form Moving Meditation."

Members are encouraged to practice meditation daily and progress from one level to the

next while simultaneously performing other bodhisattva duties.270

Traditional Practices

In addition to Chan meditation, Dharma Drum also advocates two kinds of

traditional Mahayana practices as a way of expressing faith and as an alternative method for

achieving mental peace. In response to the use of practice, Sheng Yen replies:

Many modern people are turned off by religious rituals and ceremonies. In Buddhism, emphasis is placed on the practice of methods that leads to the actualization of wisdom and compassion. However, engaging in ritual can be a useful part of the practice because it gives form to our commitment to the path and serves as a guideline to deepen our understanding.... The normal way to express such feelings is through ritual.271

Zhu Bi Wen also explained the significance of rituals from a member's perspective, "These

activities are designated for people with different intellectual capacities in order to reach

mental and physical peace and open up their wisdom."272 Though there are no apparent

external differences in the rituals compared to those of traditional monasteries, participants were adamant to distinguish the different motives of the rituals in comparison to their practice of Ren Jian Fo Jiao.

The first type of ritual involves the Pure Land practice ofnien-fo or the recitation of the Buddha's name which is performed in groups on a weekly basis, varying from one-day services to seven-day intensive retreats. The second ritual, fa hui or dharma assemblies,

See Sheng Yen, Eight Form Moving Meditation, Chan Practice Series (Taipei: Sheng Yen Education Foundation, 2004) for more details. Dharma Drum, 29. 27lSheng Yen, "How to Take Refuge in the Three Jewels," Dharma Drum Mountain; available from http://www.dharmadrum.org/master/master.aspx; accessed 18 February 2008. 272Zhu Bi Wen, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #21," survey responses, Jingshan, Taiwan, 11 July 2006. 85 which consists of repentance, deliverance rituals, and making the bodhisattva vows, are performed regularly.27 Just as Fu Yan participants responded, Dharma Drum members insisted that the activities were not performed for the accumulation of merit, the fulfillment of wishes, or achieving rebirth in the Pure Land as traditional Mahayanists intended them.

Social Service

The greater goal of purifying the minds of others and benefitting others is practiced in Dharma Drum by means of social services, which are divided into two kinds: holistic ceremonies and international relief.

Holistic ceremonies serve the organization's humanitarian goals of spreading peace by providing emotional and spiritual support to members and non-members during rites of passages. Dharma Drum volunteers partake in Buddhist-style weddings, funerals, and birthday celebrations for the elderly as a form of public service aimed for the mindful wellbeing of others. "They all function to comfort people."274 For example, "End-of-Life chanting" services offer "consolation and blessings for the deceased and their families."275

Although such chanting services are typical Mahayana activities, Dharma Drum funerary rites are remarkably different in form and function because the services are unembellished.

For example, members do not burn incense and paper money, which are traditional funerary practices. Instead, funerals serve as a simple memorial to the deceased. They are performed to "transform the traditionally negative attitude people hold towards death" by encouraging people to "contemplate the deeper meaning of life," according to Hu.276 In accordance with Sheng Yen's criticisms of conducting funerary rites to generate income,

2 Dharma Drum, 28-29. 274Xu Yue Li, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #23," survey responses, Jingshan, Taiwan, 11 July 2006. 2 Dharma Drum, 32. 276MuinHu, 108. 86

Dharma Drum also does not rely on such practices to raise money. By maintaining critical

rites of passages, Dharma Drum upholds the cultural importance placed on family and filial

piety held by participants, while attempting to alter the underlying customary beliefs

regarded as unessential to the path of Liberation in the Ren Jian Fo Jiao view.

In the area of international relief, Dharma Drum established the Dharma Drum

Mountain Social Welfare and Charitable Foundation. In contrast to conventional forms of

humanitarian aid such as those practiced by Tzu Chi, which provides physical and material

aid to victims, the purpose of the Dharma Drum "emergency assistance and disaster relief

program" was established "to educate and provide counseling and solace to victims"

instead.277 The foundation, owing to Dharma Drum's prioritization on mental wellbeing,

provides relief of the mind in place of institutional aid.278 As a result of Dharma Drum's

conservative stance on international relief and minimal reliance on institutional

adjustments, the organization's charitable operations and number of institutions are much

smaller in scale and intensity compared to Tzu Chi. An example of the kind of service

offered by the foundation are the relief efforts distributed after the earthquake in Taiwan in

September, 1999. In his book, Sharing Dharma Drum Mountain, Muin Hu states, "Soon

after the quake, DDM [Dharma Drum Mountain] established calming-mind service stations

. . . and cleansing rituals for the affected areas." Dharma Drum relies on mediums such

as art festivals, meditation camps, peace talks, chanting services and the distribution of peace pamphlets as methods to relieve emotional distress caused by natural disasters,

Dharma Drum, 32. 2780n a small scale, however, Dharma Drum distributes relief supplies. For example during the annual "Winter Relief Drive," rice, cooking oil, and winter clothes are collected and distributed to "low- income households and orphanages." Muin Hu, 28-29. 279Ibid., 109. 87

poverty and war.280

Environmentalism

The concern for environmental preservation and protection, which is part of

Dharma Drum's fourfold campaign for purifying the mind, is an extension of the Buddhist

law of cause and effect towards ecological surroundings, and the application of the

Buddhist teaching of compassion and wisdom to care for the wellbeing of all life. Sheng

Yen explains the relationship between environmentalism and Buddhism as follows:

Spiritual environmentalism is based on the concept of cause and effect in cherishing and nurturing blessing, in the concept of compassion in preserving life, in being kind to others as well as to oneself, in having the wisdom and insight in understanding that protecting nature is beneficial to all sentient beings, including oneself.282

Though the promotional material of Dharma Drum advertises involvement in

environmentalism, the organization diverts little resources to environmental activism.

Similar to their stance on international relief, Dharma Drum adopts a conservative approach towards environmentalism,283 which is expressed by taking into consideration ecological precautions during the construction of its structures.284

Establishing a Pure Land on Earth

Among the three organizations, Dharma Drum voices its mission of establishing a

Ren Jian Jing Tu or 'pure land on earth' most emphatically. Not only is the goal explicitly

280Ibid., 109. 28lDharma Drum's campaign for purifying the mind involves "Four Kinds of Environmentalism": Protecting the spiritual environment, protecting the living environment, protecting the social environment, and protecting the natural environment." Dharma Drum, 19. Dharma Drum, 120. 283Members are cautioned not to be wasteful, habitually recycle in their daily lives, and take precautions to minimize pollution. Muin Hu, 85. 284Concentrated efforts are made to preserve the natural landscape of surrounding sites and precautions are taken to protect nearby streams and rivers from pollution during the excavation process and day-to-day operations of the facilities. Dharma Drum, 122. 88 stated in the organization's mission statement, but it is also repeatedly referred to as the reason behind all the endeavors of Dharma Drum. The organization has even erected a special exhibit in the Reception Hall to showcase the ways that Dharma Drum has already contributed to its establishment. Furthermore, the World Center for Buddhist Education, a

•campus encompassing the headquarters and all colleges and subsidiaries, has been constructed in Jinshan, Taiwan to "share with the world the vision and methods of building a pure land on earth."

At first glance, it appears that Dharma Drum is physically constructing a Utopia through its establishment of colleges and formal institutions. However, the buildings themselves are not to be mistaken as the pure land because the pure land is not a physical place but refers to the collective mental purification of all humans. When questioned whether the pure land was a physical pure land, all participants answered in the negative.

Dharma Drum's understanding of Ren Jian Jing Tu is drawn from the Vimalakirti Sutra which states, "When the mind is pure, the land becomes pure."286 In short, when the mind is free from afflictions, everything one perceives is also tranquil and pure regardless of the quality of the external environment. The purified mind serves as a colored lens to alter one's experience of the external environment.

Challenges

In the survey, two major obstacles were reported by Dharma Drum participants towards fulfilling the organization's goals. First, the organization's network has become increasingly complex and large leading to a lack of manpower in promoting its mission.

Charles, the Dharma Drum liaison, elaborates: "We require more monks and nuns in our

'Dharma Drum, 39. 'Dharma Drum, 19. 89

organization. Currently, we have 120 sangha members but we need 300 more at the main

branch and another hundred around Taiwan to spread the dharma."287 The second challenge

stems from overcrowding at the Jinshan headquarters. The novel architecture of the grand

halls mixed with the green landscape and scenery of the establishment have attracted many

visitors, converting the premises into a popular tourist spot. As a result, difficulties have

been created for volunteers carrying out their "guiding work."288 Participants referred to the

organization's "Four Steps for Handling a Problem" which is summed as the following:

"Face it, Accept It, Manage it, Let it Go," to deal with the challenges.289 However, specific

strategies were not discussed.

c. The Practices of Tzu Chi

Tzu Chi's practice of Ren Jian Fo Jiao spans into its four missions in charity,

medicine, education, and culture. However, its main emphasis is on charity and medicine,

in the form of institutional relief and volunteerism.290 The activities of Tzu Chi indicate that the founder Cheng Yen was less concerned with the visionary goal of prolonging the

survival of Buddhism, as Yin Shun and Sheng Yen were, and instead, focused on the

immediate relief of the physical suffering of others. In Tzu Chi, medical relief and aid have replaced the prioritization on Buddhist education. Cheng Yen's different approach towards the practice of Ren Jian Fo Jiao is shaped by her background and early experiences in

Charles, interview by author, Jingshan, Taiwan, 11 July 2006. 288Qiu Li Mei, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #22," survey responses, Jingshan, Taiwan, 11 July 2006. 289Regarding the four steps, Sheng Yen illuminates: "Karma must manifest in accordance with conditions. In any circumstance, if you can improve the situation, then do so. If you can't, then face it and accept it. Don't avoid it but strive to improve it. . . Unintended things will occur. When this happens, accept it and then try to find a way to deal with it, for this is just the way conditions are." "The Four Steps for Handing a Problem," Dharma Drum Mountain; available from http://www.dharmadrum.org /fivefold/fivefold; accessed on 18 February 2008. 290In comparison to Fu Yan and Dharma Drum, Tzu Chi has been widely-studied. Furthermore, Tzu Chi has a complex network. Apart from this a brief overview of the organization's activities and the disclosure of survey results, please refer to Julia Huang, etc. for a comprehensive analysis of the organization. 90

Taiwan.

Cheng Yen

Cheng Yen was born in Ching Shui, Taiwan in 1937.291 Following the end of World

War II in 1945, Taiwan served as a safe haven for Buddhist reformist monks such as Yin

Shun who fled from the mainland. As a native of Taiwan, Cheng Yen was not exposed to the persecution of Buddhism that Yin Shun and Sheng Yen experienced in the mainland.

Furthermore, Cheng Yen lived a life of relative solitude in a mountainous region during her early years as a nun, which may have shielded her from the perceived decay of Buddhism, as opposed to Yin Shun and Sheng Yen who were in the direct midst of the Buddhist reform movement. After reading the work The Complete Teachings of Master Taixu, which was edited by Yin Shun, Cheng Yen sought refuge in him in 1966.

Little is known about the kind of formal instruction or apprenticing Cheng Yen received from Yin Shun regarding Ren Jian Fo Jiao other than the simple instructions Yin

Shun gave her to commit her life to Buddhism and all sentient beings. Immediately following her ordination by Yin Shun, Cheng Yen retreated to a small hut to meditate and study the Buddhist texts. Therefore, Cheng Yen's understanding of Ren Jian Fo Jiao is presumably gleaned from self-study of his works. The absence of Yin Shun's direct and continual counsel, coupled with the lack of perceived urgency for the survival of Buddhism in Taiwan are contributing factors which may have caused Cheng Yen to diverge from Yin

Shun's scholarly focus. In addition, Cheng Yen's study of the four Confucian Classics has also led her to incorporate many Confucian ideas in her teachings. The most prominent •

291Due to burdens faced by her biological parents, who already had ten children, Cheng Yen was left in the care of her uncle and his wife, who she regarded as her father and mother. Little is known about Cheng Yen's childhood experiences, as she rarely speaks of her early life. 292Apart from Yin Shun's works Cheng Yen also intensely studied the Lotus Sutra, that became a primary and influential text in Tzu Chi later. 91 teaching is the notion of filial piety and goodness or "ren." Cheng Yen has appealed to her followers to extend the love and care one has towards one's family to all beings. Cheng

Yen elaborates on the path:

To take care of all the old folks as if they were our parents and to watch over all the youngsters as if they were our children is [sic] not only the traditional thought of China but also the spirit of true Buddhism.293

An in-depth investigation of Confucian ideas within Cheng Yen's ideology is beyond the scope of the paper. However, it is asserted that Cheng Yen uses Confucian ideas and terms to appeal to the Chinese cultural identity of her adherents and to communicate notions of

Buddhist ethics and teachings to a wide lay population. Yin Shun himself, however, focused little on Confucianism. He writes, "Although Confucianism is not totally devoid of a religious element... it lays little emphasis upon religion."294

Personal interests also played a deciding factor in Cheng Yen's lack of emphasis on

Buddhist education. Although Cheng Yen was a nun, she refused to accept alms believing that food and money could only be earned through hard work. She earned her income by knitting sweaters, making chickenfeed bags, and growing rice and sweet potatoes. As a result, it was likely that little time was left for Cheng Yen to fully engage in an academic study of Buddhism.

While Yin Shun's instructions provided Cheng Yen a source of inspiration for her charity campaign, the humanitarian direction towards medical care was shaped by two

Yu-ing Ching, Master of Love and Mercy: Cheng Yen (Taipei: Still Thoughts Publications, 2002), 108. 294Yin Shun, "How I Came to Choose Buddhism," trans. Douglas Lancanshire Chinese Essays on Religion and Faith (San Francisco: Chinese Materials Center, 1981), 56. 295"Ten Thousand Lotus Blossoms of the Heart: Dharma Master Cheng Yen and the Tzu Chi World" (Tzu Chi Buddhist Cultural Center: Taipei, 2004), 11. 296"The 1991 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Community'Leadership: Biography of Shih Cheng- Yen." Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation; available at http://www.rfmag.org/ph/ Awardees/Biography/BiographyCheng-yenShi.htm; accessed on 29 January 2008. 92

personal experiences. First, members of Cheng Yen's family were plagued by illness and

health conditions throughout her early life.297 Second, Cheng Yen came upon a pool of

blood left by an untreated patient, who had been turned away from a local hospital because

she could not afford medical treatment.298 The latter event propelled Cheng Yen to step out

of her secluded lifestyle and into the public limelight to raise money for the needy,

especially those who could not afford to see a doctor.299 Believing that financial assistance

alone was not enough, Cheng Yen later sought the establishment of an advanced hospital in

Hualien, which could become a means for carrying out and practicing the Buddhist

principle of compassion. The magnitude of the project exposed Cheng Yen's small

grassroots charity to a national and international audience resulting in the expansion of the

organization's membership base. Today, Tzu Chi has branched out into other areas of

humanitarian work. However, the bulk of activities in Tzu Chi is centered on medical aid

and charity.

Goal

Participants cited three goals in Tzu Chi. They are "To purify the human mind, to

harmonize society, and to eliminate disasters under heaven."300 The first goal is identical to the aims of Fu Yan and Dharma Drum in regards to the removal of afflictions to achieve

Liberation, which have already been discussed. The second goal is akin to Dharma Drum's

At age eight she was forced to care for her brother who was hospitalized for an extended period and at age fifteen, her mother nearly died from illness. At age twenty-three, Cheng Yen joined a small group of nuns and shaved her head in favor of an ascetic life of solitude when her father suffered a stroke and died. "The 1991 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Community Leadership: Biography of Shih Cheng-Yen." Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation; same as website above. 298"Ten Thousand Lotus Blossoms of the Heart: Dharma Master Cheng Yen and the Tzu Chi World," 12. 299The organization's charitable activities initially included the assistance of lonely elders, homeless people, and accident and crime victims to name a few. "The 1991 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Community Leadership: Biography of Shih Cheng-Yen." Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation; same as website above. Zeng Lu Huai, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #1," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 30 June 2006. 93

humanitarian stance of creating peace in the world. Unique to Tzu Chi, however, the

organization refers to Cheng Yen's teaching of Great Love or da at as a guiding principle

to achieve the lofty goal of harmonizing society. In "Introduction to Tzu Chi Foundation,"

the philosophy and application of Great Love is expanded on:

Tzu Chi was built in 1966 on a foundation of love and that remains our core mission today. Love is all-powerful; it can soothe and calm a fretful and disquieted heart, as well as heal the wounds inflicted by calamities. The hope of humanity lies in mutual help. In times of crisis or suffering, Tzu Chi volunteers are like a beacon of light... . Love is the sole driving force in their mission; they are givers of love, food, care, shelter and clothing, anything that will alleviate suffering. But in helping others, they also plant seeds of love. They expect nothing in return, other than for the same unconditional love to be extended to others. When those being helped can begin helping others, the cycle of goodness would have come full circle. 01

Similar to Dharma Drum, Tzu Chi has appealed to the use of common humanitarian terms

in place of Buddhist words to appeal to a wider lay audience. In Master of Love and Mercy:

Cheng Yen, Cheng Yen admits to her intention of simplifying Buddhism:

You don't have to use big words or fancy sentences. Some people say that I have created a new sect of Buddhism. That is not true. I am bringing Buddhism back to its original form, which is simple and down-to-earth.302

Her use of the term 'love' is a nuance in the Ren Jian Fo Jiao movement because the

Chinese word 'love' or ai has traditionally held a negative meaning in the Buddhist usage.

Ai is the same word for 'attachment' and is deemed as a selfish and negative emotion

associated with greed and hate. Yin Shun also referred to love as a synonym for afflictions of the mind, a hindrance which masks the true reality of non- self.303 Given Tzu Chi's explanation of da ai, however, it is used as a synonym for the Buddhist notions of compassion and bodhicitta or putixin. For example, love is described as the sole "driving

30iBuddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation; available at http://www.tzuchi.org/global/about/index.html; accessed on 29 January 2008. 302Yu-ing Ching, 146. 303Yin Shun, The Way to Buddhahood, 130. 94 force" for their mission work.304 This accords with Yin Shun's view that all good deeds should be performed with the sole bodhi resolve to benefit others without desire for personal gain of merits and blessings. The bodhi resolve coupled with the selfless intention is the practice of the bodhisattva path, which Yin Shun considered to be the direct path to

Buddhahood and also the central thesis of his Ren Jian Fo Jiao. The inclusion of Yin

Shun's thesis in the philosophy of Great Love is an indicator of the continuity of his teaching in Tzu Chi, albeit in a diluted form which is free from the heavy use of Buddhist terminology. In addition, Tzu Chi's use of love to "soothe" and "calm a fretful and

"5 AC disquieted heart" is parallel to the idea of purifying afflictions, which is found in the following statement: "It is stated, "Master Cheng Yen teaches us to use the religious spirit of compassion to purify human hearts and to wash away the sickness of the world."306

In the third goal of Tzu Chi "to eliminate disasters under heaven," disasters refer to the pain and suffering experienced by humans, which Tzu Chi seeks to eliminate in two ways. First, Tzu Chi relies on the hard work of volunteers to distribute relief in the form of physical and medical aid, especially in poverty or disaster-stricken areas which is regarded as the organization's top priority. In "Ten Thousand Lotus Blossoms of the Heart" it is stated, There are too many people suffering in the world. All of them need help, but the strength and resources of the foundation are limited. Tzu Chi can only choose those who need help the most.

Second, Tzu Chi relies on the volunteers' act of selfless giving to pass on the cycle of

30 Author Unknown, "Introduction to Tzu Chi Foundation," Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation; available at http://www.tzuchi.org/global/about/index.html; accessed on 29 January 2008. 305"Introduction to Tzu Chi Foundation," Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation; available at http://www.tzuchi.org/global/about/index.html; accessed on 29 January 2008. 30s"Ten Thousand Lotus Blossoms of the Heart," 44. 307lbid.,43. 95 goodness among others and perpetuate it until "the goodness in every human being is awakened" and world peace is achieved.308

Recruitment

Like Dharma Drum, Tzu Chi utilizes a variety of mediums such as publications and pamphlets, advertisements, and television programs to promote the organization. However,

Tzu Chi relies greatly on "the old members to recruit new members" and hosts regular "tea- chat" parties which involve existing members to share their experiences in Tzu Chi with those potentially interested in joining.309 A large majority of survey participants first heard about the organization through family and friends who were members. Some candidates were also attracted to the organization through the participation in the organization's local volunteer work. As Zhuang Mei Hui recalls "I first began as an environmental volunteer

1|A and was then invited by a fellow member."

Membership

Tzu Chi considers anyone who has donated money or donates on a monthly basis to be a member. A strict record of its membership base is kept by requiring all donors to register their information regardless of donation amount. During my visit, for example, I casually handed the Tzu Chi liaison a $1000 NT bill (equivalent to $33 US) in exchange for all of the books and DVDs they provided me. However, the liaison told me every penny donated to the organization had to undergo formal registration. Despite Tzu Chi's "loose" definition of membership, however, a person's position and level of involvement can be

308Cheng Yen, "The Cycle of Goodness," Great Love Around the World, April 2006, P. 5. 309Wu Heng Tai, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #4," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 5 July 2006. 310Zhuang Mei Hui, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #3," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 5 July 2006. 3llDenoon, 98. 96 determined by the subgroups to which they belong. The three major groups include volunteers, which are discussed on page 99, and commissioners and faith corps, the latter which is exclusively embodied by men. Regarding the organization's position on membership, Wu Heng Tai states, "It is most important to have a serious intent to join the organization."312 Wu's stance is also in line with a quote found in Master of Love and

Mercy: Cheng Yen: "She [Cheng Yen] made certain I understood that a half-hearted member is not what the foundation needed or wanted."313

In order to qualify to become a commissioner, "A nominee must be recommended by a certified Tzu Chi commissioner from her district, who vouches for the good character of her nominee."314 Commissioners serve as the spokespersons of the organization and perform designated jobs according to their interests or skills. As spokespersons, they serve as liaisons between the organization and the public, and between other volunteer members.315 Besides helping the poor and collecting money from regular donors, commissioners also function as social workers, acting as middlemen between the public and the government in Taiwan, by making community visits to assess the needs of the impoverished. More importantly, they embody the application of the organization's values of character building, leading by exemplary behavior, and performing good deeds. They demonstrate the core value of showing "loving concern for people."

Tzu Chi adopts a highly ritualized approach towards commissioner training, which

3l2Wu Heng Tai, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #4," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 5 July 2006. 3nYu-ingChing, 21. 3l4He Chen-ching, "The Role of Tzu Chi Commissioners," trans. Norman Yuan, Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation; available at http://www.tzuchi.org/global/offices/ commissioners.html; accessed on 29 January 2008. 315They are also responsible for recruiting new members and participating in tea-chat parties. 316 Eric Hsu, interview, Vancouver, BC, March 2008. 97 leads to official certification following a two to three year training program.317

Commissioners, following completion of training, are issued an identification card and a navy blue uniform, considered by Cheng Yen to be "a color of humbleness and

"31 Q patience." Their title, however, may be stripped when they do not comply with codes of conducts and do not perform regular volunteer work.319 In the program, they are required to learn the Tzu Chi Buddhist etiquette, which includes proper bowing, greeting, eating, and other formalities upon entering temples. Though similar formalities are found in Dharma

Drum, Tzu Chi places the highest prioritization on protocol and customs among the organizations.

In regards to the Faith Corps, they are an all male group whose duties are similar to commissioners, except that they do not need to fundraise and they are dressed in navy blue suit j ackets and trousers.

Cheng Yen's relationship to the members is that participants perceive her to be a model to emulate their behavior.321 Due to the sheer size of its membership, members

317There are two levels of training which are required: a beginner and advanced level. The beginner level requires 100 hours of volunteer work and canvassing from twenty households while the advanced level requires canvassing from forty households. Requirements will vary according to country. Eric Hsu, interview, Vancouver, BC, March 2008. 318The uniform is modeled after a traditional Chinese dress or qipao. Yu-ing Ching, 94. 319a. They must also volunteer regularly and donate a minimum of S100NT a month, equivalent to $3 US. He Chen-ching, "The Role of Tzu Chi Commissioners," trans. Norman Yuan, Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation; available at http://www.tzuchi.org/global/offices/commissioners.html; accessed on 29 January 2008. b. Upon graduation, commissioners are issued a number which also symbolize seniority in the organization. Members with numbers that have one or two-digits represent the earliest and original adherents of the group. Often times, senior members apprentice the junior members. Tzu Chi even specifies the hairstyle that commissioners must adopt which involves tying one's hair into a bun, wrapping it in a hair net and adorning a navy flower clip. Denoon, 100. 320"The members [also] serve as guards in Tzu Chi's large-scale activities to arrange venues, stand sentinel, direct traffic flows, give directions, and maintain order." Gloria Denoon, 95 32!Wu Heng Tai, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #4," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 5 July 2006. 98 claimed, "There is no individual interaction [with Cheng Yen]."322 If members have questions, they are usually answered by a representative.323 However, in special cases,

Cheng Yen may be contacted "through the Religious Affairs Department"324 or through senior committee members.

Main Practices

Health and Medical Aid

The involvement in the field of health and medicine is one of the strongest components of Tzu Chi's charitable program, and it is also a unique feature which separates the organization from the others in the Ren Jian Fo Jiao movement since Fu Yan and

Dharma Drum do not operate medical facilities. Cheng Yen prioritized the eradication of poverty and illness, perceived to be intertwined, and considered them to belong to the worst category of suffering because she believed it was most difficult for those suffering from physical pain and impoverishment to achieve purification of the mind. The following statement explains the perceived relationship between poverty and illness:

When Master Cheng Yen founded Tzu Chi, it was to help the poor. In her heart, she wanted to eradicate poverty. But she hadn't expected that no matter how long she worked, there would always be more and more poor people. As she visited the poor, she realized that poverty was the result of sickness. If you want to do away with poverty, you must first deal with sickness.326

Cheng Yen believed that only after this kind of suffering was dealt with could individuals then begin to spread goodness to others and subsequently, achieve peace and harmony in

322Wu Heng Tai, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #4," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 5 July 2006. 323Wu Heng Tai, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #4," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 5 July 2006. ' 324Zeng Lu Huai, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #1," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 30 June 2006. 325Zhang You Zhen, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #2," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 30 June 2006. 326"Ten Thousand Lotus Blossoms of the Heart," 21. 99 society.

The medical network of Tzu Chi is comprehensive and vast. Six hospitals have been established in Taiwan with the first and main general hospital located in Hualien.327 In addition, the organization has founded a "Silent Mentors" program to collect the donations of bodies and organs for medical research or transplant.328 For the impoverished in remote places, Tzu Chi also established mobile medical clinics to offer free assistance and care.329

In addition to the organization's goal to eradicate poverty and illness, the medical institutions are also established on the humanitarian principle that all human life is valued and therefore, deserves the equal right to medical care. Such a belief regarding the preservation of life is an extension of Yin Shun's call to recognize the preciousness of human existence, since one cannot practice Buddhism without the physical body.

Volunteerism

Volunteer work is the one of the most important activities in Tzu Chi because, as earlier discussed, it is one of the main methods of achieving the organization's goal to eliminate disasters. Volunteer work is also perceived to be the practical application of

Buddhism in daily life. Lastly, volunteer work represents Cheng Yen's resolve to provide an accessible form of Buddhist practice to everyone.

Almost all active Tzu Chi members are either irregular or regular volunteers in the areas of community, health, environmental, cultural, educational and administrative, or

327a. The other hospitals are located in Yuli, Guanshan, Dalin, Xindian and Tantzu. "Tzu Chi Medical Care Network in Taiwan," Medicine with Humanity, May 2006, 46. b. In the Tzu Chi hospitals, admission is free and security deposits are not required. Though the rich and poor are both admitted, the poor receive free medical care. Yu-ing Ching, 80. 328"Tzu Chi Medical Care Network in Taiwan," 46. 100

international relief. Gloria Denoon counted as many as nineteen volunteer groups within

the organization.331 One of the main categories of work include community volunteering

which involves door-to-door visitations to those around the community and giving regular

care to lonely elderly and disabled persons.332 Volunteers are also actively involved in

environmental recycling and they scour Taiwanese streets in search of newspapers, plastic

bottles, cardboard, and aluminum cans in addition to collecting refuse.333 The work of

volunteers also extends overseas into international relief missions where they assist in the

distribution of supplies and aid in the re-establishment of disaster-stricken communities.

Education

Although Tzu Chi's network of schools is large and extensive, the organization's

emphasis on education is exceedingly different from Fu Yan and Dharma Drum because all

of Tzu Chi's schools fall within two categories: medical colleges and non-religious schools

for youths.

While Yin Shun and Sheng Yen sought to preserve Buddhism, Tzu Chi's

establishment of medical training facilities, which include the Tzu Chi College of Nursing

and College of Medicine, served a need to supply and generate the expertise and manpower

needed to run the large medical network. Education became incorporated into Tzu Chi's

four missions only after the establishment of a nursing program, which was "the first

Commissioners and Faith Corps may also have the dual status of being a volunteer. 331Denoon, 96. 332Zeng Lu Huai, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #1," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 30 June 2006. 333Proceeds from the recyclables are donated. Cheng Yen, "A Path of Hope for the World," Tzu Chi Buddhism in Action, Fall 2006, P. 71. 334In the early development of the Hualien hospital, it was difficult to draw medically trained professionals to work in Tzu Chi's facilities. As a result, Tzu Chi developed its own medical program to train nurses and doctors through the Tzu Chi College of Medicine. Formerly known as the Tzu Chi Junior College of Nursing, The Tzu Chi College of Medicine is now incorporated ino the greater Tzu Chi University. 101 educational project" of the organization.333 Despite the large contrast from Yin Shun's application of Ren Jian Fo Jiao, continuity of his idea of the human bodhisattva has been expressed through the work of the nurses and doctors. Cheng Yen briefly explains, "In the mind of a patient, a conscientious doctor is a living Buddha, and a conscientious nurse is an incarnation of the Goddess of Mercy."33 Cheng Yen has provided a new framework to understand how the Buddhist application of compassion fits in the profession of its members.

Tzu Chi's education system for youths, which includes an elementary, secondary school, high school, and Tzu Chi University, does not offer an education in Buddhism; instead, it operates as an extension of Cheng Yen's goal to provide institutional care for the poor and needy.337 This observation is similarly recognized by Gloria Denoon who claims the program of schools "have taken on a philanthropy-like element."338 Tzu Chi's schools, however, cannot be considered completely non-religious in nature because, in addition to serving the needs of the poor, they were also established to provide "character training" for the youths.339 Character training refers to the unique form of "Still Thoughts education" which youths are given. The program teaches students to apply basic Buddhist principles in daily life and perform filial piety towards parents. The Still Thoughts collection refers to a set of aphorisms similar in style to Confucian proverbs, which were compiled from Cheng

335Yu-ing Ching, 86 336"Tzu Chi Education Mission: Introduction," Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation;' available at http://www.tzuchi.org/global/about/missions/education/intro.html; accessed on 29 January 2008. 337The university includes colleges of education and communication, humanities, life sciences, and technology. "Ten Thousand Lotus Blossoms of the Heart," 31. 338110. 339 "Ten Thousand Lotus Blossoms of the Heart," 27. 102

Yen's lectures and is considered to be the "bible" of Tzuchians.340 In examining the relation of Tzu Chi's education facilities to Ren Jian Fo Jiao, Wu Heng Tai explained: "We do not use religious methods but religious emotions to build education programs."341 Wu's comments points to the perspective within the organization that the communication of religious sentiment and feelings are more important tools to educate its members in comparison to traditional instruction methods such as the study and contemplation of

Buddhist sutras.

Charity

Though Tzu Chi refers to charity as a separate mission from medicine, education, and culture, almost all of its endeavors in the three other missions are considered charitable practices since the organization is itself, on the whole, a charitable organization. Within the organization, however, the charity mission refers to Tzu Chi's large global network in international disaster and emergency relief, which serves its goal to reduce the suffering of others. Relief assistance concentrates on rebuilding the communities of those affected by providing them with necessities, shelter, and even schools and centers of worship for traditions other than Buddhism in some cases.342 "The final goal of Tzu Chi's charity relief is to help recipients achieve self-sufficiency in the future."343 Their humanitarian efforts are spread over fifty countries and the magazine "Great Love Around the World" publishes

"The 1991 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Community Leadership: Biography of Shih Cheng- Yen." Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation; available at http://www.rfmag.org/ph/Awardees/Biography/BiographyCheng-yenShi.htm; accessed on 29 January 2008. Wu Heng Tai, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #4," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 30 June 2006. 342Supplies include "tents, sleeping bags, blankets, clothes, canned food, stoves, emergency medical supplies, family medical kits from Taiwan, and other everyday necessities." See "Ten Thousand Lotus Blossoms of the Heart," 42. 343Ibid., 32. information on the global relief efforts. As part of the organization's mission in charity,

Tzu Chi also prides itself in the operation of the largest bone marrow donor database in

Asia. It is interesting to note that Tzu Chi is the only organization in this thesis where the participants do not set their charitable activities apart from the others and instead, claimed their efforts were similar to the charity societies of other religions on the basis that what

Tzu Chi was doing was "also based on human beings."343 This finding raises the important distinction that the members of Tzu Chi do not try to brandish a unique voice in the community of all other charity organizations, which conveys Tzu Chi's conservative position on the desire not to be publically commended for its relief work.

Culture

Tzu Chi's mission in culture refers to the organization's large media network. The

Tzu Chi Cultural Center in Taipei is primarily responsible for all publications and the operation of the television network, Da Ai TV. It was created as a result of Cheng Yen's criticism regarding the lack of positive and beneficial programs in the current media to encourage others to do good deeds.346 Programs feature the stories of ordinary people performing compassionate acts and disadvantaged people achieving courageous feats:

They (the publications) are simple and easy to understand and they really touch people. The materials often have readers or audiences in tears. When people are deeply moved, they contact Tzu Chi and often become steady followers.347

The articles and stories inspire people to spread goodness, promote fearlessness and the ethic of hard work, and update and inform members about the organization's activities

344Please see "Chronology of Tzu Chi's International Relief Work," Great Love Around the World, April 2006, P. 166-175 for details about Tzu Chi's relief work in each country. 345Zeng Lu Huai, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #1," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 30 June 2006. 346Their publication materials include books, periodicals, audio and video tapes, and radio programs. 347Zeng Lu Huai, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #1," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 30 June2006. 104 around the world. Examples of the publications include the magazine Great Love Around the World and Tzu Chi: Buddhism in Action, which showcase the heroic acts of volunteers. Owing to the network, Yin Shun has a high visibility within the organization since his books, many of which are published by the organization, and films about him are readily sold in gift shops within Tzu Chi branches.

Traditional Practices

Two-thirds of participants acknowledged ritual to be an important part of their practice. As stated previously, the majority of lay activities are centered on volunteering.

However, portions of lay members partake in the chanting of Buddhist texts such as the

Lotus Sutra on the first and fifteenth of the lunar month and, in some cases, once a week in the branch halls.349 In Part A of the survey, Tzu Chi members claimed to perceive the

Buddha to be a "guiding teacher"350 and "role model."351 Therefore the rituals, like those belonging to Fu Yan and Dharma Drum, do not serve the purpose of worship. Instead, rituals serve to strengthen one's resolve to emulate the Buddha's conduct. Cheng Yen explains, "We are all human beings, the best of us a saint, but never a god. We can follow a saint's conduct and imitate his behavior, but it is unnecessary to worship him." She later continues:

For example an article was published in the Tzu Chi: Buddhism in Action about an armless man named Huang Yang-guang, a performer in the China Disabled Peoples Performance Art Troupe, who learned to write and perform daily tasks using his feet. In this article, it is recorded that Huang says, '"I hope that in addition to providing some entertainment to people. .. my performance can help inspire those who need spiritual guidance to find their inner strength and become stronger. . . What is more important is to have a healthy mind.'" Zhuang Shu-hui, Liang Miao-kuan, and Zeng Mei-ji, "Music and Dance. Sweat and Tears," Tzu Chi: Buddhism in Action, trans. Wu Hsiao-ting, Fall 2006, 28-31. 349The first and fifteenth are auspicious days to chant the sutras. Wu Heng Tai, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #4," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 5 July 2006. 350Elizabeth, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #25," survey responses, Calgary, Canada, 10 May 2007. 351Touei, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #26," survey responses, Calgary, Canada, 11 May 2007. 352Yu-ingChing, 7. Buddha is a man. Only a greedy and foolish man will think of Buddha as a wish- granting God, and then offer Buddha a promise, or the light of a few candles, or the fragrance of some incense, therefore expecting Buddha to give him whatever he wants in return. A good Buddhist must try his best to bring out the Buddha within himself.. . ,353

In the above quote, Cheng Yen reiterates one of the major characteristics of Ren Jian Fo

Jiao that Liberation is attained through self-power and not other-power in regards to the underlying intention of performing rituals.

The clergy of Tzu Chi are more intensely engaged than lay members in their practice of traditional Buddhist rituals by partaking in the activities daily at the Still

Thoughts Abode, which is a religious community that is separate from the main charity society and headed by Cheng Yen. The Still Thoughts Abode is the spiritual center of the organization and the place of residence for the Buddhist nuns and Cheng Yen.354 Unlike Fu

Yan, a male-only monastery, the Still Thoughts Abode is a nunnery.355 There, the nuns arise daily at 4:30 am to join Cheng Yen in worship and meditation, followed by a brief dharma talk given by Cheng Yen.356 Their practices include the recitation of the Lotus

Sutra and the 37 Paths Sutra, repentance, and the offering of incense.357 In contrast to other

Tzu Chi branches, the Still Thoughts Abode is a traditional monastery or temple similar to the Fu Yan Abode where ritual is exclusively performed. Unlike other Tzu Chi branches

353Ibid., 24. 3540n rare occasions, nuns visit branches to deliver talks and lectures and are sometimes featured in the magazines.

355There are no resident monks due to the Sangha precepts which do not allow nuns to ordain monks. At the time of her survey, Denoon estimated there to be approximately one hundred nuns at the Abode. 94. .356a. Yu-ingChing,45. b. In comparison to the number of members in the organization, Buddhist nuns constitute a minor group of approximately one hundred, all of who live at the Still Thoughts Abode. Their role in the organization involves "the basic maintenance of the Abode" and major duties include "gardening, housekeeping, cooking, making candles, chanting sutras, etc." Denoon, 94. 357Zeng Lu Huai, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #1," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 30 June 2006. that house no shrines, the Abode contains an altar comparable in style to those of Dharma

Drum which is simple and unelaborated.358 In branches there are meeting halls that serve multiple purposes for social gatherings or spiritual activities.

Though nuns live a life of relative seclusion in the Abode, they may visit branches to deliver talks and give interviews for the networks publications on rare occasions.

Because they do not accept alms, the nuns support themselves through handicraft trades such as the production of candles, food powders and rice, which are sold in the many gift shops in the Tzu Chi branches.360 Nuns also partake in funerary services in which the

Amitabha Sutra is chanted to comfort the deceased.361 In agreement with Yin Shun's criticisms of relying on the sale of funerary services for monetary gain, such practices are not performed for a fee.

Building a Pure Land on Earth

Although all participants claimed acceptance of the notion of 'pure land on earth' and Gloria Denoon asserts that its achievement is the ultimate goal of the organization, the term is rarely used in internal literature due to the move to minimize Buddhist terminology.362 The organization's stated goal to establish peace in the world and to eliminate disasters and suffering under heaven pertain to the outcome of achieving a Pure

a. In place of the shrine, all branches have a large mural in the assembly hall depicting the Buddha caring for an ill patient. See P. 44 in Yu-ing Ching, Master of Love and Mercy: Cheng Yen (Taipei: Still Thoughts Publications, 2002) for a detailed description of the shrine. b. The altar at the Fu Yan Abode adopts the same appearance as other traditional Mahayana monasteries which includes the figures of Mahasthamaprapta, Amitabha, Samantabhadra, and Manjushri among various other bodhisattvas and Buddhas. The shrine at Fu Yan is also colorfully decorated with traditional banners and carvings. 359Wu Heng Tai, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #4," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 5 July 2006. 360Due to her belief in the Confucian idea that nothing is gained without hard work, Cheng Yen does not believe in accepting alms. Therefore, the nuns of the abode are required to earn their food and shelter. 361Denoon, 56. 362The organization held a public convention entitled "Campaign to Create and Preserve the Pure Land" on the topic of establishing a pure land on earth. See "Ten Thousand Lotus Blossoms of the Heart," 33. 107

Land on Earth. Tzu Chi is actively engaged in establishing it. Just as in the responses of

Dharma Drum participants, all Tzu Chi members' responses denied that the pure land on

Earth is a physical place and acknowledged the Pure Land to be a spiritual abode achieved through the purification of the mind by everyone.

Challenges

No challenges were cited by the participants except that one member referred to the political tensions between Taiwan and China as an obstacle affecting the organization's volunteer work in China. This problem was also addressed in the documentary The Story of

Tzu Chi, produced by Tzu Chi;363 however, the documentary indicated that the issue was resolved with diplomacy and thus, Tzu Chi's volunteers were given permission to carry out their relief work.364

III. Analysis

The discussion of this section consists of five divisions:

a. Source of Divergences

b. Divisions in Interpretations

c. Comparison of Institutional Applications of Yin Shun's Theory

d. Consideration of Espoused Motives

e. Yin Shun's Response to Divergences a. Source of Divergences

In the discussion above, the divergences such as the background of the founders of the organizations, the application of Ren Jian Fo Jiao, the form in which Ren Jian Fo Jiao

262The Story of Tzu Chi (Taipei: Jing Si Publications, 2005), film, 364See P 16 in Yu-ing Ching, Master of Love and Mercy: Cheng Yen (Taipei: Still Thoughts Publications, 2002) for details regarding the political problems with their relief work. 108 became manifested, and so on have been brought to our attention. This information prompts us to inquire about the basis from which such divergences arose and about the need for the different methods used by these organizations to meet their goals.

There is insufficient evidence in Part A, discussed in Chapter Four, to suggest that the founders or its members premeditated the divergence because it was their perception that there are no divisions in the movement of Ren Jian Fo Jiao. It is also unlikely that the divergence was caused by the clash of the organizations' individual interpretations of Ren

Jian Fo Jiao, since all participants claimed adherence to Yin Shun's interpretation.

Based on the results of the survey Part B, we can deduce three reasons to explain the source of differences in the implementation of Ren Jian Fo Jiao, which are mutually related:

1. The natural disposition, character and background of the organizations'

founders which shaped the pragmatic direction of their groups.

2. The application of the definition of Ren Jian Fo Jiao to its actual practice.

3. The founders' attempts to further refine the practices of Ren Jian Fo Jiao to

meet the demands of a modern audience.

1. Regarding the first reason, in his The Way to Buddhahood, Yin Shun acknowledges and accepts the condition that personal inclinations inevitably lead to differences in practice. He writes:

Those who practice according to their understanding are different. They are always rational and want to find out the reasons first; they insist on getting to the bottom of the matter. After listening to the teacher's instruction, they want to add their own observations, analyses, and references to the sutras and discourses. Reaching a profound understanding, they believe firmly and practice diligently. Their minds are sharp, and they have the ability to guide others in their practice. Neither type of person is without some belief or wisdom, but people inevitably have an inclination 109

one way or the other. Not only beginners but even those who have attained enlightenment have different characters.365

Accordingly, each of the founders set forth to carry out Ren Jian Fo Jiao according to their individual skills, interests, and the opportunities, which manifested into the major pragmatic divisions of the organizations as the institution and membership increased in size.

The biographies of Yin Shun, Sheng Yen, and Cheng Yen reveal numerous factors and circumstances in their lives that shaped the direction of their practice. For example, Yin

Shun's lifetime battle with illness, his natural propensity for self-study, and his quiet demeanor contributed to his divergence from Taixu and led to his in-depth investigation of the Tripitaka. His favor of a reclusive life of study formed the basic disposition of the practices of Fu Yan. Likewise, Sheng Yen's similar background to Yin Shun, his appeal for meditation, and refuge in Chan lineage masters led to the meditative-based orientation of

Dharma Drum. Cheng Yen's refusal to accept alms, her preference for self-sufficiency, and her encounters with medically neglected victims led her to pursue more drastic and immediate forms of relief that formed the activities of Tzu Chi organization.

2. Despite the honest intentions and goodwill of the founders and their disciples to follow Yin Shun's Ren Jian Fo Jiao to its true code, the application of the definition of Ren

Jian Fo Jiao to its actual practice became problematic. Changes in the path from theoretical assertion to the actual application are inevitable due to the needs of the environment. In her study, Denoon made a similar observation. She writes,

Local Tzuchians surely must follow certain guidelines made by the headquarters, but these guidelines only provide a knowledge framework or repertoire from which local Tzuchians pick and choose what works for them, and from there create their

'Yin Shun, The Way to Buddhahood, 114. 110

own interpretation and practice that suits their group dynamics, local resources and social settings.366

Denoon's observation suggests that more changes in the implementation of Ren Jian Fo

Jiao from the organization's founder to the disciples were further produced when passed from the headquarters to local branches in a spiral effect. This indicates that the practices of

Ren Jian Fo Jiao are continually evolving to meet the demands of new environments and practitioners. Indeed, 23.5% of all participants surveyed believed that changes should be made to Ren Jian Fo Jiao. When asked to elaborate on the kinds of changes that should be made, members such as Cheng Shi Yang responded, "It should depend on the needs of sentient beings." 68 In spite of the differences in practices, a certain degree of digression in the application of Ren Jian Fo Jiao is not only necessary to appeal to the needs of different people, but it is also accepted and tolerated by its adherents.

3. Yin Shun did not outline the specific methods to practice Ren Jian Fo Jiao.

Therefore, freedom was allowed for its followers to improvise convenient methods to attract and sustain people to the movement which are most prominent in Dharma Drum and

Tzu Chi. For example, both organizations have created new slogans unique to their group such as the Tzu Chi phrase "Help the poor and educate the rich," and Dharma Drum's motto "Protect the Spiritual Environment." Both groups rely on the provision of volunteer opportunities to promote their group, rally new members, and fulfill the operative functions of the organization. They also utilize technology and new media outlets, such as satellite television networks and commercials, to create high visibility within the Taiwan public and

Percentage of participants who agreed that changes should be made, according to organization: 40% of Tzu Chi participants, 14.3% of Dharma Drum participants, and 20% of Fu Yan participants. 368Cheng Shi Yang, "Thesis Research Questions - Part A: #5," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 5 July 2006. Ill to educate existing members. The organizations' ability to continually maintain and provide modern media formats such as DVD, CD, lectures via satellite in real time, and internet websites have not only created ease of access of information regarding the organizations' but have also been crucial in maintaining cohesiveness within the groups.369 Both Dharma

Drum and Tzu Chi have recognized the value of environmental preservation as an extension of the Buddhist view of cause and effect, and in turn have created unique visible identities in regards to architectural style and large use of natural green space. Furthermore, considerable resources have been allocated to the promotion of cultural and entertainment programs in art, music, and drama, and the performance of rites of passages such as weddings and funerals, which are culturally important, have increased the variety of outlets for members to express their faith. All of these new methods to continually translate Yin

Shun's Ren Jian Fo Jiao to a modern audience have created an entirely new identity, so much so that the movement can be immediately recognized apart from traditional Buddhist groups. In fact, the ability of Dharma Drum and Tzu Chi to keep up with modern times, no doubt owing to the vast financial resources of the groups, have led to the rise of innovative methods that surpass the ingenuity Yin Shun showed in his development of a Buddhist college, considered revolutionary in his day. b. Divisions in Interpretations

The fundamental distinction between Fu Yan, Dharma Drum and Tzu Chi is the interpretation regarding the best way to study Buddhism. In the beginning of his The Way to

Buddhahood, Yin Shun declares:

369To elaborate, both Cheng Yen and Sheng Yen's lectures are digitally recorded and broadcasted to branches in other continents, and interviews with members from both groups in the Vancouver, Canada branches have confessed that the broadcasts are critical for them to stay updated about the organization's activities. 112

To study Buddhism means to learn from the Buddha, One takes the Buddha as one's ideal and one's mentor and learns from him incessantly. When one reaches the same level as the Buddha, then one has become a Buddha.370

Yin Shun did not explicitly state the specific method to study Buddhism but it can be

gleaned from his personal life and establishment of the Fu Yan College, that he personally

pursued the path of academic study through a direct reading of Buddhist texts. However,

when his teaching of Ren Jian Fo Jiao began to spread and influence others, new

interpretations regarding the most efficacious method to effectively bring people into the

dharma gate of Buddhism emerged. Though the nuances were unintended, they naturally

manifested when the founders Sheng Yen and Cheng Yen encountered problems regarding

the potential acceptance of the academic path by others. It was later argued that the nuances

changed the identity of the movement.

Sheng Yen adopted Yin Shun's approach to the study of Buddhism which is evident

by his use of the phrase "Education through Academics," but he raised the issue in

Orthodox Chinese Buddhism that the sutras are often too difficult for a common audience to understand.371 He writes,

You may get a big headache if you read Nikaya or Mahayana treatises, especially treatises of the School of Inherent Existence (youzong). Those unfamiliar terms, elaborate structures, and profound ideas are incomprehensible unless you are well trained in Buddhist studies. These writings will even be way over the heads of seasoned Buddhists of thirty or forty years' learning unless they are trained in philosophical reasoning and scientific methods.372

Later in the passage he claims that despite the difficulty of the textual material, they are still worthy of investigating. He writes,

So the question becomes, Are [sic] these kinds of scriptures still worth keeping and

3703. 37lDharma Drum Mountain (Dharma Drum Publications: Taiwan, 2007), 25. 372Sheng Yen, Orthodox Chinese Buddhism (Dharma Drum Publications: Taiwan, 2007), 58. 113

studying? Unless you do not care to develop yourself in higher culture, you should not answer'No.'373

In order to break through difficulties in study, however, Sheng Yen advocates the balanced

approach of relying on both direct readings of the texts and popular writings. He claims,

In brief, from the perspective of increasing circulation, we should make Buddhist writings more artistic and easy to read. But writings that deal with philosophical theory must be profound and elaborate. So on one hand we want to popularize Buddhism, but on the other hand we should not curse those writings that are difficult to understand.374

As an extension of his aim to increase the comprehensibility of Buddhism, Sheng Yen also

used the motto "Education through Public Outreach" and "Education through Caring

Service" to refer to practices in meditation and social service, which led to the new plan of

action to study Buddhism.375 In this way, Sheng Yen adopts a moderate position regarding

education in the movement by supporting Yin Shun's advocacy for academic reform while

combining it with other convenient methods to popularize Buddhism.

In contrast to Yin Shun and Sheng Yen, Cheng Yen's views are more liberal. She writes,

Some might wonder how we can thoroughly comprehend the Buddhist teachings if we don't listen to lectures on Buddhist sutras. Penetrating into the Buddhist doctrines doesn't mean you have to read all the sutras or listen to all the lectures. .. . How many of us can read all the sutras in our lifetime? All we really have to do is to understand the essence of the Buddha's teachings or guidelines. If we can understand one truth, we will understand all the truths.376

Citing the lengthy time needed to investigate "the true meaning of the sutras," Cheng Yen

•"•'ibid., 58. 374Ibid., 59. 375Sheng Yen elaborates, "Buddhism can be approached by studying the teachings and by practicing the teachings. It is not always easy to distinguish between the two. Deliberating upon and profoundly discerning the teachings can itself become a way of practice. Similarly, practicing to attain wisdom (prajna) requires stabilizing the mind (Samadhi) through understanding the teachings. Study and practice, like prajna and Samadhi, are thus intimately connected." Sheng Yen, The Six Paramitas: Perfections of the Bodhisattva Path (Elmhurst: Dharma Drum Publications, 2002), 6. 376Cheng Yen, The Thirty-Seven Principles of Enlightenment, trans. Norman Yuan, Lin Sen-shou, E. E. Ho, W.L. Rathje et al (Tzu Chi Cultural Publishing Co: Taipei, 2004), 12. 114 urged her followers to put simple Buddhist principles into action instead. In "Ten

Thousand Lotus Blossoms of the Heart," the perception of urgency is explained:

It might take years for an ordinary person to understand the true meaning of the sutras, and life was very uncertain. People could not afford to wait for years to start doing good deeds. Instead, the poor needed to be helped with kindness and compassion. So, the Master used simple words and touching life stories to teach the true meaning of Buddhism to her followers, and she asked them to 'just do it.' The earlier people started to do good deeds, the sooner people would be redeemed from their misery.378

By claiming that there was not enough time to fully comprehend the sutras and emphasizing immediate action, Cheng Yen inadvertently changed the direction of the study of Buddhism. Within Tzu Chi, the term 'education' is commonly used to refer to the academic institutions established to assist the poor. However, in my earlier reference to the elementary, secondary schools, high schools, and the Tzu Chi University it was revealed that they were established for the purpose of eliminating poverty and training medical professionals. No evidence of formal Buddhist study was found. In a follow-up interview to my survey done in Taiwan, in March 2008 in Vancouver I asked a Tzu Chi member, Eric

Hsu, to clarify the reasons for the lack of academic Buddhist institutions in the Tzu Chi organization. Eric Hsu, the secretary of the Vancouver branch gave a different interpretation of education in which he explained that, "Cheng Yen relies on stories, dialogue, and experiences in order for others to understand the real meaning of the

Buddha's teachings."379 Hsu went on to say,

Many outsiders have criticized Tzu Chi, saying that many people are not reading the sutras. We are reading the version modified by Tzu Chi for the modern people. ... Cheng Yen believes that her way is another way to understand the real meaning of the Buddha's teachings. Many people do not understand the sutras because they [the

377"Ten Thousand Lotus Blossoms of the Heart," 14. 378Ibid., 14. 379Eric Hsu, interview by me, Vancouver, BC, March 2008. 115

sutras] do not use daily dialogue. Even though the sutras are in Chinese characters and we can read it, we cannot understand it. We may find it boring so we will not understand what the sutra is really trying to say.380

He also adds,

The monks and nuns who chant it [the sutras] everyday, they understand the sutra. If they do not put it into action, however, Buddhism is still in the sutra. People are still suffering but the main purpose of Buddha's teaching is that action or practice is the first order. . . . Right now is the most important thing. We must focus on this 381

moment.

From these statements, it can be surmised that though the organization is not opposed to academic study, it places timely priority on education through action, namely relief work.

Even in private readings, Tzu Chi places focus on capturing the essence of the sutras rather than exposition on the discourse, and promotes readings of popular writings. It is not denied that a sizeable portion of Tzu Chi members is well read in Buddhist literature and in

Yin Shun's books. In my observations of two participants who had belonged to the organization for more than ten years, the variety of Buddhist materials they had gleaned over the years was impressive. The study of Buddhism in Tzu Chi occurs on a personal self-study level and the organization does not adopt the use of formal programs, such as those offered by Fu Yan and Dharma Drum, to educate its members.

The number of members in the Tzu Chi organization is more than ten times that of the Dharma Drum population. This attests to the success and appeal of the Tzu Chi organization in attracting a large number of adherents to the Ren Jian Fo Jiao movement.

Due to its rapid growth and large visibility, Tzu Chi's major emphasis on charitable relief work as a way to study Buddhism has overpowered the Ren Jian Fo Jiao movement's original identity. This has caused a great ripple in the organization by virtue of altering the

Hsu, (same as above). 'Hsu, (same as above). 116 movement's original identity, which was the academic study of Buddhism towards making the Ren Jian Fo Jiao movement into a humanitarian movement. It is for this reason that Ren

Jian Fo Jiao sometimes is referred to by scholars as Humanitarian Buddhism. Sheng Yen's definition of education has contributed in part to the change in identity; moreover, the method of carefully scrutinizing the Tripitaka, adopted by Yin Shun, is fading within the backdrop of the movement and appears to belong to the domain of a selected group of people. c. Comparison of Institutional Applications of Yin Shun's Theory

As discussed in Chapter Two of this thesis, the three principles needed in the practice of the teachings of the Buddha, according to Yin Shun, are faith or bodhi vows, compassion, and wisdom. If institutional establishments and outward forms are the measures that determine the application of these principles of Ren Jian Fo Jiao, then it would be the activities of Dharma Drum that indicate the greatest balance of the three aspects of faith, wisdom, and compassion. The practices of Fu Yan focus on faith and wisdom while the activities of Tzu Chi emphasize compassion.

In regards to Fu Yan's activities, the criteria of faith is established early in the screening process during the oral interview. As previously stated, participants' "confidence

TOO in Buddhism" played a major deciding role to their being accepted into the program.

Furthermore, faith is reinforced by the rituals practiced in the Fu Yan Abode, the traditional monastery on campus, where participants are continuously reminded of their bodhi vows through the recitation of the vinaya precepts. The college's emphasis on wisdom through the study of scripture is demonstrated by its wide coverage of the Tripitaka and major

Chien Hsu, interview by me, Calgary, AB, June 2007. 117

Buddhist schools of thought and by the length and intensity of the degree program. With regard to the application of compassion, however, the reclusive lifestyle of the monks coupled with the prohibition of students to leave campus considerably limited the widespread application of the ten good deeds. Although members certainly follow the bodhisattva path in their daily life, such actions are limited to fellow members on campus.

Furthermore, the fact that all members are male monks leads to almost a total exclusion of interaction with nuns, the Buddhist lay population, and the public. As a result, the lofty goal of the bodhisattva path to benefit all beings is minimized owing to institutional regulations.

Concerning the activities of Tzu Chi, its activities are prioritized on the principle of compassion while observable methods for the promotion of faith and wisdom are not as prominent, owing to the reformed views on education as discussed earlier. This is to say,

Tzu Chi adopts a liberal position regarding the acceptance of all people as members regardless of their religion or whether they convert or not.383 For example, one employee of

Tzu Chi informed me that he was a Christian by faith.384 Though it is unclear how many non-Buddhists there are in the organization, information published by Tzu Chi indicates that the presence of non-Buddhists in Tzu Chi is not uncommon. As one member recalls in one of the publications:

We have many doctors and nurses who are devoted to the Master, living their lives following her teaching, carrying out their duties as instructed by her, and yet are hesitating in becoming Buddhists. Neither the Master nor her followers ever told us that we should become committed to Buddhism. And the strange thing is, since there is no one to push us, most of us are studying the books on Buddhism willingly. Perhaps when I'm older and can truly understand Buddhism, I'll become a Buddhist.385

With the exception of the nuns at the Still Thoughts Abode who are Buddhists by faith, conversion is not required with regard to other members. 384The member did not participate in the survey. 385Yu-ing Ching, 92. 118

Denoon's study supports the view of a lack of Buddhist orientation among participants interviewed:

All the interviewees acknowledged that wanting to do good work is one of the major reasons that they joined Tzu Chi, but merely one third of interviewees admitted that they joined because this was a Buddhist group, and only two of these one third of interviewees mentioned the implementation of Buddhist cultivation as an initial incentive.

Certainly, by accepting members of other religions as Tzu Chi members, the organization is able to expand its membership base. However, the lack of pressure on members to convert to Buddhism coupled with the fact that members of other faiths have been long-standing members of Tzu Chi, makes it difficult to determine the extent to which faith is important in spite of Yin Shun's claim that one must take refuge in the three jewels to attain

Buddhahood.

Dharma Drum adopts the most balanced approach towards the application of Ren Jian

Fo Jiao as shown by its institutional markers expressing the principles of faith, wisdom and compassion. Regarding the criteria of faith, Dharma Drum strongly encourages interested persons to take refuge in the Three Jewels, which is demonstrated by conducting refuge ceremonies regularly. In addition, Dharma Drum has arrangements in place for members to formally take the bodhisattva vows and Sheng Yen has written articles to inform and to encourage members of the need to take up the vows. The practice of traditional Dharma ceremonies also provides members with a continuous opportunity to express their faith in the Three Jewels and express their resolve to attain Liberation.

Dharma Drum's focus on wisdom through academic study is confirmed by the extension classes, including instruction on Yin Shun's original works on Ren Jian Fo Jiao,

114-115. 119 in which a large majority of surveyed participants were enrolled. A survey of articles and books written by Sheng Yen also reveals an in-depth presentation of Buddhist philosophy and practical application while adopting a language which is tailored for a modern lay audience. For example, in Orthodox Chinese Buddhism Sheng Yen provides answers from an academic view to questions such as "Can a Buddhist divorce?," "Is Buddhism against Birth Control?," and "Do Buddhists have national consciousness?"388 Lastly, the focus on compassion is evident in the organization's humanitarian work in the areas of volunteer community work, cultural programs, and international relief. d. Consideration of Espoused Motives

If one considers the organizations' espoused motives as a measure of their practice of Ren Jian Fo Jiao, then the earlier stated deficiencies in faith, wisdom, and compassion pertaining to Fu Yan and Tzu Chi are further masked by the immediately observable institutional forms. For example, the vow of compassion is inherent among Fu Yan graduates because, upon completion of their program, they are encouraged to travel abroad and spread the teaching of Ren Jian Fo Jiao to others. This aim is one of the main reasons that Fu Yan members undertake the lengthy and arduous task of formalized study.

However, the lack of the organization's financial ability to support the graduates' endeavors to travel abroad limits the establishment of new organizational aims.

Regarding the lack of emphasis on Buddhist conversion and the notion of faith in

Tzu Chi, Denoon argues that the emphasis on spiritual practice is only downplayed "in face of the general public" and states that in the face of its members, "Tzu Chi leadership puts a

See, for example, his major works such as Subtle Wisdom: Understanding Suffering, Cultivating Compassion through Ch 'an Buddhism and Dharma Drum: The Life and Heart of Ch 'an Practice. J Sheng Yen, Orthodox Chinese Buddhism, 6-7. 120 premium emphasis on its members' obligation to cultivate themselves at the spiritual

i on level.'"07 In another manner of speaking, Tzu Chi publically espouses a neutral position regarding religion but is actually focused on Buddhist practice. Indeed, all participants from

Tzu Chi in my survey considered themselves to be Buddhists, pointing to the trend that members eventually converted despite the lack of pressure placed by the organization and initial motives of entrants. Wu Heng Tai claims that ideally, "The most important purpose is to lead them to Buddhism."390 Furthermore, in Cheng Yen's morning lectures, which were at the basis of producing publications such as the Thirty-Seven Principles of

Enlightenment, she encourages her followers to take refuge391 in the three jewels and study

Buddhism to attain Buddhahood, though the policies of the organization do not require it.392

Concerning the dharma path of wisdom in Tzu Chi, Eric Hsu explains that during the first forty years since its founding in 1966 the organization was initially focused on the instructions Yin Shun gave to Cheng Yen to be committed to living beings. Hsu claims that since 2004, Tzu Chi has focused on the second part of Yin Shun's instruction to be committed to Buddhism by its "launch of the dharma of Tzu Chi."393 This new focus on the dharma of Tzu Chi has resulted in the publication of lectures by Cheng Yen which are more engaged in exegesis of Buddhist sutras such as the Innumerable Meanings section of the

38T>enoon, 113. 390Wu Heng Tai, "Thesis Research Questions - Part B: #4," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 5 July 2006. 39lCheng Yen writes, "As disciples of the Buddha, we should imitate his great compassion and enter deeply into the wisdom of the dharma. We should emulate the purity and perseverance of the monks and nuns and chant the sutras every morning and evening. As we chant, we renew our commitment to the Three Treasures." Cheng Yen, The Thirty-Seven Principles of Enlightenment, 9. 3 2It should also be clarified that the preface of the Lotus Sutra is collectively read by many commissioners and faith corps at the branch on a monthly basis. Hsu additionally explains the importance of the practice towards the volunteer duties of the commissioners and faith corps: "The purpose of chanting is to calm our self, reflect, and think about what we have done in the last month. . . are there any mistakes, are we doing it properly?" Cheng Yen, however, does not require lay practitioners to recite the sutras. Eric Hsu, interview, Vancouver, BC, March 2008. 393Eric Hsu, interview, Vancouver, BC, March 2008. 121

Lotus Sutra. In the coming years it remains to be seen whether Tzu Chi will head towards the direction of establishing Buddhist academic schools in the new phase of this development. e. Yin Shun's Response to Divergences

Despite attempts to compare the organizations to Yin Shun's theory, there is much ambiguity surrounding Yin Shun's response to the divergences due to three main factors, which will be discussed subsequently.

First, Yin Shun did not place one organization in higher esteem over another in regards to its accuracy of promoting Ren Jian Fo Jiao nor did he criticize any anomalies. In an interview with Chien Hsu, a student and confidant of Yin Shun, his comments provide insight to Yin Shun's neutral opinion:

Venerable Yin Shun did not talk about his opinion in regards to the different practices of Cheng Yen and Sheng Yen. Certainly there are some differences. However, he did not criticize any of them or say that one is wrong and the other is right. He was concerned only with establishing the most authentic form of Buddhism. We do not know what he thought about the two [organizations]. If I must guess, however, he probably would not reject either because he would say different people require different methods. For example, some people like to meditate so they will join Dharma Drum. Other people, like me, prefer to study so we go to Fu Yan. And then some people like to volunteer, so Tzu Chi is a good organization for them. It all depends on one's nature. Everyone has a different nature. Even Yin Shun said so himself.395

Given the fact that Yin Shun has, in the past, published articles regarding his criticisms and disagreements with Taixu about Taixu's form of Ren Sheng Fo Jiao or Buddhism for the

Human Life, Yin Shun's lack of reference to the practices of Dharma Drum and Tzu Chi suggests that his silence was, as asserted by Shih Ru Yuan, a result of genuine impartiality

See pages 199-202 in Cheng Yen, Three Ways to the Pure Land, trans. Lin Sen-shou (Taipei: Tzu Chi Cultural Publishing Co, 2004), for a discussion on the Lotus Sutra. 395Chien Hsu, interview, Calgary, AB, June 2007. 122 and not the outcome of unvoiced objections. As one of the devotees who personally attended Yin Shun, Shih Ru Yuan recalls that even in private quarters Yin Shun did not express preference for the methods of one organization to the other.

Second, Yin Shun did not espouse that even the Fu Yan College was the perfect model and application of Ren Jian Fo Jiao. There is no evidence to suggest that Yin Shun claimed in writing that institutional education was the ideal or compulsory method for practitioners to actualize Ren Jian Fo Jiao. Yin Shun demanded only that one must study and practice Buddhism; he did not specify the amount of sutras one must glean, the years that one must engage in formal study or even the method to investigate the Buddhist materials. Instead, his promotion of institutional education stems from the conventional need to preserve Buddhism from extinction as opposed to serving the compulsory requirement for attaining Buddhahood, which is the ultimate focus of his Ren Jian Fo Jiao.

Lastly, the ideal method of comparing the practices and the basic theoretical instructions of Yin Shun's path to Buddhahood presents complexities regarding the initial basis for comparison because in The Road from Man to Buddha, Yin Shun claims that the method by which one begins is not important so long as one relies in the end on all three ways:

There are many ways of following the Buddha. Meditating on the Amitabha Buddha has its emphasis on faith and vow. Recitation and study of scriptures in order to understand the theories of Buddhism has its emphasis on wisdom. Those who lay emphasis on relief work stress compassion. All these meritorious ways one must learn and he may start with any of them. But a true follower of the Buddha must

396Regarding some of his disagreements with Taixu, Yin Shun briefly explains, "Four years ago in Sichuan, I wrote an essay on Buddhism in India which led to a continued debate between Venerable Taixu and me. Venerable Taixu wrote an essay in response to mine whereupon I respectfully wrote another essay responding to the points in his essay." Venerable Yin Shun (Taipei: Tzu Chi Cultural Publishing Co, 2005), film. 123

gradually practice all three of them with a view to achieving the great enlightened mind, which is his ultimate goal.397

When one examines the movement as a whole, one will find that each organization plays an important role in fulfilling a major component of the Ren Jian Fo Jiao movement by emphasizing principle elements which the other organizations may not yet have fully articulated.

The organizations maintain a close connection to Yin Shun's goal to eliminate human suffering by worldly means and establish a pure land on earth. Therefore, it is reiterated that while the practices of the organizations may vary, the ideal goals remain the same. Given this reality, the need to determine proximity to Yin Shun may place artificial importance to rank a true expounder of Ren Jian Fo Jiao. Instead, all organizations are intensely focused on the goal of liberating sentient beings as opposed to engaging in competition for authenticity.

Yin Shun, The Road from Man to Buddha, 7. 124

Chapter Six. Conclusion

Findings in this case study and the major characteristics of the Ren Jian Fo Jiao movement in Taiwan can be summarized as follows:

1) There is unanimous acceptance and adoption of Yin Shun's proposal of Ren Jian Fo Jiao by the participants of Dharma Drum, Fu Yan and Tzu Chi who agreed with all of his major claims.

2) The term "Ren Jian Fo Jiao" was not rejected in favor of another term indicating the conscious attempt to conform to Yin Shun's views despite the fact that the term 'Ren Jian Fo Jiao' does not appear at the forefront of the organizations' promotional campaign.

3) Members agreed there were no differences in thought between their organization and that of Yin Shun, and the respondents' definitions of Ren Jian Fo Jiao fell within the framework of his proposal.

4) There is a strong perception of unity among adherents within the Ren Jian Fo Jiao movement.

5) Compared with the members of Fu Yan, the participants of Dharma Drum and Tzu Chi are more cohesive in their opinions.

6) When participants were asked to define Ren Jian Fo Jiao in their own words, two of Yin Shun's main emphases were reflected in the collective interpretations of the organizations. They are: the idea of attaining Buddhahood as a human and the goal of Awakening for all of humanity.

7) Though the participants agreed with all of Yin Shun's main points, they quoted the founder of their respective organization and used language specific to the organization's doctrines in written responses. The responses of Fu Yan were found to be paradigmatic in nature while the responses of Dharma Drum and Tzu Chi were pragmatic.

8) Based on the statistical and qualitative analysis of Part A of the survey results, there is no substantial evidence in the case study to support that there are divisions in the movement of Ren Jian Fo Jiao.

9) The Ren Jian Fo Jiao movement is not unified in practice because the organizations rely on different implementation methods.

10) An analysis of all activities reveals that Fu Yan espouses the academic study of Buddhism while Tzu Chi relies on charity and medical aid. In comparison, Dharma Drum blends the study of Buddhism and Chan meditation as its main 125

practice.

11) There is insufficient evidence in Part A, discussed in Chapter Four, to suggest that the founders or its members premeditated the divergence because it was their perception that there are no divisions in the movement of Ren Jian Fo Jiao

12) Based on the results of the survey Part B, we can deduce three reasons to explain the source of differences in the implementation of Ren Jian Fo Jiao, which are mutually related: 1. The natural disposition, character and background of the organizations' founders which shaped the pragmatic direction of their groups. 2. The application of the definition of Ren Jian Fo Jiao to its actual practice. 3. The founders' attempts to further refine the practices of Ren Jian Fo Jiao to meet the demands of a modern audience.

13) The practices of Ren Jian Fo Jiao are continually evolving to meet the demands of new environments and practitioners, and 23.5% of all participants surveyed believed that changes should be made to Ren Jian Fo Jiao.398

14) In spite of the separation in practices, a certain degree of digression in the application of Ren Jian Fo Jiao is not only necessary to appeal to the needs of different people but it is also accepted and tolerated by its adherents.

15) The ability of Dharma Drum and Tzu Chi to keep up with the modern times, no doubt owing to the vast financial resources of the groups, have led to the rise of innovative methods that surpass the ingenuity Yin Shun showed in his development of a Buddhist college, considered revolutionary in his day.

16) The fundamental distinction between Fu Yan, Dharma Drum, and Tzu Chi is the interpretation regarding the best way to study Buddhism.

17) Due to its rapid growth and large visibility, Tzu Chi's major emphasis on charitable relief work as a way to study Buddhism has overpowered the Ren Jian Fo Jiao movement's original identity. This has caused a great ripple in the organization by virtue of altering the movement's original identity, which was the academic study of Buddhism towards making the Ren Jian Fo Jiao movement into a humanitarian movement.

18) The method of careful scrutiny of the Tripitaka, adopted by Yin Shun, appears to belong within the domain of a select group of people, which is fading within the backdrop of the movement.

19) Tzu Chi's membership numbers, which is more than ten times larger than the

Percentage of participants who agreed that changes should be made, according to organization: 40% of Tzu Chi participants, 14.3% of Dharma Drum participants and 20% of Fu Yan participants. 126

Dharma Drum population, attests to the success and appeal of the nuances in attracting a large number of adherents to the Ren Jian Fo Jiao movement.

20) If one strictly observes institutional establishments and outward forms as a measure to determine the application of Ren Jian Fo Jiao, then the activities of Dharma Drum occupy the greatest balance of the three aspects of faith, wisdom, and compassion. Alternately, the practices of Fu Yan focus on faith and wisdom while the activities of Tzu Chi emphasize compassion.

21) If one considers the organizations' espoused motives as a measure of their practice of Ren Jian Fo Jiao, then the earlier stated deficiencies in faith, wisdom, and compassion pertaining to Fu Yan and Tzu Chi are simply masked by the immediately observable institutional forms.

22) There is much ambiguity surrounding Yin Shun's response to the organizations' divergences for three reasons: First, Yin Shun did not place one organization in higher esteem over the other in regards to their accuracy of promoting Ren Jian Fo Jiao nor did he criticize any anomalies. Second, Yin Shun did not espouse the Fu Yan College to be the perfect model and application of Ren Jian Fo Jiao. Third, Yin Shun claims that the method with which one begins is not important so long as one relies on all three ways (faith, compassion, wisdom) in the end.

23) All organizations are intensely focused on the goal of liberating sentient beings as opposed to engaging in the competion for authenticity.

In 1995, Po-Yao Tien made the following statement in his dissertation:

Although Yin-shun, as a philosopher ofjen-chienfo-chiao (Ren Jian Fo Jiao), is not a participant in its application; he attracts and inspires his followers to put it into action and to greatly contribute to the new development of Chinese Buddhism. ... We can affirm that his proposal and interpretation of'jen-chien fo-chiao will be even more recognized and identified by the Buddhists of the coming years and show its influence. "

The results of this thesis attest to Tien's assertion that Ren Jian Fo Jiao has made an immense contribution towards the "development of Chinese Buddhism" by reinvigorating its popularity and ultimately, reviving its perceived decay by Yin Shun in the early part of the twentieth century.400 In fact, the Ren Jian Fo Jiao movement is quickly gaining ground

Po-Yao Tien, "A Modern Buddhist Monk-Reformer in China: The Life and Thought of Yin-Shun" (Ph. D. diss., California Institute of Integral Studies, 1995), IV. beyond the borders of Taiwan due to the immigration of members and the organizations' involvement in global relief work. According to participant responses, 55.6% of members currently perceive Ren Jian Fo Jiao to be a large movement in Taiwan and the remaining

44.4% of members consider Ren Jian Fo Jiao to be a large global movement today. Chen

Zhi Ren explains, "Buddhism is popular in Taiwan because of Ren Jian Fo Jiao. It is easier for Ren Jian Fo Jiao to be accepted because it addresses the daily lives and events that people face."401 A review of the survey answers reveal that the adherents of the organizations attribute the universality of the Ren Jian Fo Jiao message to modern society as the reason for its widespread acceptance and future reception in countries outside of

Taiwan.

Regarding the survey question of how Ren Jian Fo Jiao will affect the world and other Buddhists, Xu Li Liang comments,

The original purpose of Ren Jian Fo Jiao is to purify the mind and life of humans. Through Ren Jian Fo Jiao other religious people can have a connection with Buddhism, and their minds and lives can be purified.402

To the query "How will Ren Jian Fo Jiao affect the world and other Buddhists?" Chen Li

Ya responds:

The lack of spirituality is the most serious problem of modern humans. As a result, the most urgent thing to do is to promote the idea of protecting the internal environment of the mind.403

In Chen Hua Guang's answer to the same question, she cites another universal problem

401Chen Zhi Ren, "Thesis Research Questions - Part A: #14," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 7 July 2006.

402a. Following a 'yes' answer to the contingent question, "Do you believe Ren Jian Fo Jiao will affect the world and other Buddhists?," participants were asked to explain their answer. b. Xu Li Liang, "Thesis Research Questions - Part A: #12," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 7 July 2006. 403Chen Li Ya, "Thesis Research Questions - Part A: #15," survey responses, Luodong, Taiwan, 7 July 2006. which Ren Jian Fo Jiao can eradicate. She asserts,

The main conflict among human beings is selfishness. Ren Jian Fo Jiao can solve this problem, and when it is solved then all other problems are solved. Ren Jian Fo Jiao also leads Buddhists to stop thinking about themselves.404

In the last sentence of her statement Chen Hua Guang inadvertently raises the perception held by Ren Jian Fo Jiao believers that the Buddha and his disciples spent the bulk of their time practicing meditation alone and were more concerned with personal spiritual practice.

However, Yin Shun argued that the congregation was not completely secluded from each other and the rest of society. The Sangha still went into cities or towns to beg for alms and the disciples also formed into groups and lived together. So, aside from meditation they congregated to listen to the Buddha's teachings and verified their experiences with one another. Owing to this spirit, Yin Shun believed that in addition to personal spiritual practice the crucial aspect of worldly practice should not be missed.

This research has made it clear that in spite of the wide distribution of the Ren Jian

Fo Jiao movement with a substantial membership base across Taiwan and which operates under multiple charismatic figures, there is an unexpected perception of unity in the movements that have been based upon the aims and teachings of Yin Shun.

Chen Hua Guang, "Thesis Research Questions - Part A: #16," survey responses, Yilan, Taiwan, 10 July 2006. 129

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Certification of Institutional Ethics Review

UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY Celebrate ^/2006

CERTIFICATION OF INSTITUTIONAL ETHICS REVIEW

This is to certify that the Conjoint Faculties Research Ethics Board at the University of Calgary has examined the followingresearc h proposal and found the proposed research involving human subjects to be in accordance with University of Calgary Guidelines and the Tri-Council Policy Statement on "Ethical Conduct in Research Using Human Subjects". This form and accompanying letter constitute the Certification of Institutional Ethics Review.

File no: 4828 Applicant(s): Jacqueline D. Ho Chien Y.Hsu Department: Religious Studies A Case Study of the Practice of Yin Shun's Notion of Ren Jian Fo Project Title: Jiao in Taiwan Sponsor (if applicable):

Restrictions:

This Certification is subject to the following conditions:

1. Approval is granted only for the project and purposes described in the application. 2. Any modifications to the authorized protocol must be submitted to the Chair, Conjoint Faculties Research Ethics Board for approval. 3. A progress report must be submitted 12 months from the date of this Certification, and should provide the expected completion date for the project. 4. Written notification must be sent to the Board when the project is complete or terminated.

„ . _ . JUN19 2Q06 Janice Dickin, PhD, LLB( Date: Chair Conjoint Faculties Research Ethics Board

Distribution: (1) Applicant, (2) Supervisor (if applicable), (3) Chair, Department/Faculty Research Ethics Committee, (4) Sponsor, (5) Conjoint Faculties Research Ethics Board (6) Research Services.

2500 University Drive N.W., Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1 N4 www.ucalgary.ca APPENDIX B

Information about Survey Participants

# NAME Survey Organization Sex Age Marital Years Date of Location Status as a Interview of Completed Member Interview (M/D/Y) 1 Zeng, Lu B Tzu Chi F 50 Married 15 6/30/06 Luodong, Huai Taiwan 2 Zhang, B Tzu Chi F 27 Single 1-3 6/30/06 Luodong, You Taiwan Zhen 3 Zhuang, B Tzu Chi F 47 Married 3+ 6/30/06 Luodong, Mei Hui Taiwan 4 Wu, B Tzu Chi M 57 Married 17+ 7/5/06 Luodong, Heng Tai Taiwan 5 Cheng, A Tzu Chi M 56 Married 20 7/5/06 Luodong, Shi Yang Taiwan 6 Chee, A Tzu Chi M 32 Single 13 10/22/06 Calgary, Loong Canada Saw 7 ShiWu A, B Fu Yan M 33 Monk 4 7/12/06 Xinzhu, Zhen Taiwan 8 Hi End A, B Fu Yan M 42 Monk 15 7/12/06 Xinzhu, (alias) Taiwan 9 ShiRu A, B Fu Yan M 40 Monk 13 7/12/06 Xinzhu, Zheng Taiwan 10 Shi Hai A, B Fu Yan M 50 Monk 10+ 7/12/06 Xinzhu, Zheng Taiwan 11 Shi Ben A Dharma M 25 Married 1-3 7/12/06 Xinzhu, Liang Drum Taiwan 12 Xu, Li A Dharma F 48 Married 3+ 7/7/06 Luodong, Liang Drum Taiwan 13 Wang, A Dharma F 56 Married 3+ 7/7/06 Luodong, Qiu Wei Drum Taiwan 14 Chen, A Dharma M 51 Married 3+ 7/7/06 Luodong, Zhi Ren Drum Taiwan 15 Chen, Li A Dharma F 49 Married 3+ 7/7/06 Luodong, Ya Drum Taiwan 16 Chen, A Dharma M 41 Married 3+ 7/10/06 Yilan, Hua Drum Taiwan Guang 17 Cai, Su A Dharma F 49 Married 1-3 7/10/06 Yilan, Hui Drum Taiwan 18 Zhang, A Dharma F 50 Married 12 7/10/06 Yilan, BiYin Drum Taiwan 19 Lin, Su A Dharma F 56 Married 3+ 7/10/06 Yilan, Zhu Drum Taiwan 20 Zhong, B Dharma M 22 Single <1 7/11/06 Jinshan, Zheng Drum Taiwan Xun 21 Zhu, Bi B Dharma F 50 Married 18 7/11/06 Jinshan, Wen Drum Taiwan 22 Qiu, Li B Dharma F 52 Married <1 7/11/06 Jinshan, Mei Drum Taiwan 23 Xu, Yue B Dharma F 58 Married 3+ 7/11/06 Jinshan, Li Drum Taiwan 24 Charles B Dharma M 60 Married 9 7/11/06 Jinshan, Liu Drum Taiwan 25 Elizabeth A Tzu Chi F 28 Single 3+ 5/10/07 Calgary, (alias) Canada 26 Touei A Tzu Chi M 26 Single 3+ 5/11/07 Calgary, Canada 27 Eshin A Tzu Chi F 58 Married 3+ 5/10/07 Calgary, (alias) Canada APPENDIX C • THESIS RESEARCH QUESTIONS

PART B (85 Questions): About the Organization, Activities & Philanthropy

Estimated Time: 1:00 hr to 1:15 hr

Date: ~

Time: Time Finished: _____

Place of Interview:

I. PERSONAL DETAILS

II. PERSONAL INFORMATION (Ql - Q13) (pp 1-2)

III. ABOUT THE ORGANIZATION (Q14 - Q45) (pp3 -4): 32 questions

IV ACTIVITIES (Q46-Q59) (pp 4^5): 14 questions

V. PHILANTHROPY (Q 60- Q97) (pp 6-8): 38 questions

I. PERSONAL DETAILS

Name: In Chinese characters

Age: Gender: Female Male

Marital Status: Single Married Divorced

Widowed t Current Employment: _ 140

APPENDIX C (Continued)

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THESIS RESEARCH QUESTIONS

PART A (59 Questions): Ren Jian Fo Jiao

Estimated Time: 45 min to 1:00 hr

Date: .

Time: Time Finished:

Place of Interview:

I. PERSONAL DETAILS

II. PERSONAL INFORMATION (Ql - Q12) (pp 1-2)

HI. REN JLAN FO JIAO - BELIEFS (Q13 - Q66) (pp 3-10): 54 Questions

IV. OBSERVATIONS AND TRENDS (Q67 - Q71) (pp 10-11): 5 Questions

I. PERSONAL DETAILS •

Name: In Chinese characters

Age: Gender: Female _____ Male .

Marital Status: Single Married Divorced

Widowed

Current Employment:

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APPENDIX D (Continued)

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APPENDIX D (Continued)

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