Motor Development: Theoretical Models

Credit line FPO © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION CHAPTER 3 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC MotorNOT FOR SALE Development: OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

KEY TERMS © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Descriptive Product Triangulated Hourglass Model Explanatory Category of movement of motor development Phases of motor development Reflexes Heuristic Inductive method Rudimentary movement abilities Algorithm Deductive© Jones method & Bartlett Learning,Fundamental LLC movement skills © JonesHourglass & heuristic Bartlett Learning, LLC ProcessNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONSpecialized movement skills NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

© Jones &CHAPTER Bartlett Learning, COMPETENCIES LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Upon completion of this chapter, the reader will be able to:

■■ Define life span motor development. ■■ View an individual’s motor behavior as “more” or “less” advanced on a developmental continuum rather than regard it as “good”© or Jones“bad.” & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ■■ Demonstrate an understandingNOT FOR SALEof neural, OR physiological, DISTRIBUTION perceptual, and cognitive changesNOT across FOR the life SALE span. OR DISTRIBUTION ■■ Distinguish between inductive and deductive theory formulation. ■■ Describe the phases of motor development. ■■ List and describe the stages within the phases of motor development. ■■ Explain how the requirements of the movement task, the biology of the individual, and conditions of the learning ©environment Jones & interact Bartlett with Learning, the Triangulated LLC Hourglass Model of motor development.© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ■■ NOTDemonstrate FOR SALEknowledge OR of DISTRIBUTIONboth how and why using a heuristic device NOTas a metaphor FOR SALE for understanding OR DISTRIBUTION is helpful in conceptualizing the products and processes of motor development.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonestheoretical & Bartlett models, Learning, ours, too, LLC will fall short. It has, KEY CONCEPT however, served as a plinth (basis) by many for bet- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ter understanding of what is occurring and why it is The processes and products of motor development occurring in this amazing process that we call motor across the lifespan may be conceptualized through development. use of a triangulated hourglass heuristic. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION CONCEPT 3.1NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

major function of theory is to integrate existing Few comprehensive theoretical models of motor facts, and to organize them in such a way as development exist. But there are commonalities in the to give them meaning. Theories of develop- models that do exist. Ament© Jones take existing & Bartlett facts Learning,about the human LLC organism © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC andNOT provide FOR aSALE developmental OR DISTRIBUTION model congruent with NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION these facts. Therefore, theory formulation serves as a The first function of a theoretical model of motor basis for fact testing and vice versa. Facts are import- development should be to integrate the existing facts ant, but facts alone do not constitute a science. The encompassed by the area of study. The second function development of a science depends on the advance- should be to serve as a basis for the generation of new © Jones & Bartlettment of theoryLearning, as well LLCas on the accumulation of facts.© Jones facts. & Bartlett One might Learning, argue that LLCthe facts could be inter- NOT FOR SALETheory OR plays DISTRIBUTION a critical dual role; namely, it has servedNOT FORpreted SALE in more OR thanDISTRIBUTION one way, that is, from different and continues to serve as an integrator of existing facts theoretical perspectives. This is entirely possible and and as a basis for the derivation of new facts (Beller & desirable. Different viewpoints generate theoretical Bender, 2017; Bigge & Shermis, 2004; Lerner, 2006). arguments and debates, the spark for research to shed © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCnew light on differing theoretical© Jones interpretations. & Bartlett Learning, Even LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONif theoretical differencesNOT do notFOR exist, SALE research OR should DISTRIBUTION ▸▸ Describing and Explaining be undertaken to determine whether the hypotheses derived from the theory can be both experimentally Motor Development and ecologically supported. Theory should undergird all research and science, Until© Jones the 1980s, & Bartlett interest Learning,in motor development LLC had and the© study Jones of motor & Bartlett development Learning, is no exception. LLC beenNOT concerned FOR SALE primarily OR DISTRIBUTIONwith describing and cata- It is ourNOT view FORthat developmental SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONtheory must be both loging data, with little interest in developmental mod- descriptive and explanatory. In other words, the devel- els leading to theoretical explanations of behavior opmentalist should be interested in what people are across the life span. This research was necessary and typically like at particular age periods (description) important to our knowledge base, but it did little to and why these characteristics occur (explanation). © Jones & Bartletthelp us answerLearning, the critical LLC questions of the underly© Jones- & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORWithout SALE a theoreticalOR DISTRIBUTION construct, research in motor ing mechanisms that drive motor development and development, or any other area, tends to yield little the factors that affect these processes. Only a limited more than isolated facts. However, without an existing number of comprehensive models of motor develop- body of knowledge (facts), we cannot formulate the- ment exist, and there are still few comprehensive theory, and without the formulation and constant testing ories of motor development.© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCof theory, we cannot hope© Jonesfor a higher & Bartlett level of under Learning,- LLC As motor developmentNOT FOR research SALE hasOR progressed, DISTRIBUTION standing and awarenessNOT of the FOR phenomenon SALE OR that DISTRIBUTION we it has become much more theoretically grounded and call motor development. contemporary work has strong theoretical founda- tions grounding the studies. The intent of this chapter is to present a comprehensive model of motor devel- CONCEPT 3.2 opment,© Jones based & Bartlett on two specific Learning, theoretical LLC viewpoints: © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC descriptiveNOT FOR SALEphase-stage OR DISTRIBUTIONtheory and explanatory TheoreticalNOT modelsFOR SALEattempt toOR describe DISTRIBUTION and explain dynamic systems theory. We will present this model behavior and may be inductive or deductive. in the form of an hourglass accompanied by an overlapping inverted triangle. Our intent here is to use this © Jones & Bartlettvisual representation Learning, LLCas a way to conceptualize both© Jones &A Bartlett theory is Learning, a group of LLCstatements, concepts, or NOT FOR SALEthe descriptive OR DISTRIBUTION products (hourglass) and explanatoryNOT FORprinciples SALE thatOR integrateDISTRIBUTION existing facts and lead to processes (inverted triangle) of motor development the generation of new facts. The phases of motor as it typically unfolds across the life span. As with all development presented in this chapter are not based

© Jonessolely & Bartlett on the accumulationLearning, LLC of facts. Such a model © JonesObservable & Bartlett movement Learning, may be LLCgrouped into three would result from using an inductive method of functional categories according to their purpose and NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORtheory SALE formulation. OR DISTRIBUTION In the inductive method, the across all of the phases of motor development: stabi- investigator first starts with a set of facts and then lizing movement tasks, locomotor movement tasks, tries to find a conceptual framework around which to and manipulative movement tasks, or combinations of organize and explain them. The deductive method the three. In the broadest sense, a stability movement of theory formulation, as© usedJones here, & is Bartlett based on Learning,infer- is LLCany movement in which some© Jones degree & ofBartlett balance Learning, LLC ence and has three primaryNOT qualifications:FOR SALE OR First, DISTRIBUTION the or posture is required (i.e., virtuallyNOT FOR all gross SALE motor OR DISTRIBUTION theory should integrate existing facts and account for activity). In a narrower sense, a stability movement is existing empirical evidence that bears on the content one that is both nonlocomotor and nonmanipulative. of the theory. Second, the theory should lend itself to The category conveniently encompasses movements the formulation© Jones of & testable Bartlett hypotheses Learning, in the LLC form of such as twisting,© Jones turning, & pushing,Bartlett and Learning, pulling that LLC If , then statements. Third, the theory cannot be classified as locomotor or manipulative. In NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION should meet the empirical test; that is, experimentally this book, stability, as a category of movement, is tested hypotheses should yield results that lend fur- viewed as more than a convenient catchall term, but ther support to the theory. as less than a global term applicable to all movement. The use of a deductive, rather than an inductive, The stability movement category refers to any move- © Jonesmodel & Bartlett enables usLearning, to see how LLCwell-accumulated facts fit © Jonesment that & places Bartlett a premium Learning, on gaining LLC and maintain- NOT FORtogether SALE into OR a cohesive, DISTRIBUTION understandable whole. It also NOTing FORone’s equilibrium SALE OR in DISTRIBUTION relation to the force of gravity. enables us to identify the information needed to fill in Thus, axial movements (another term sometimes used gaps in the theory or to clarify or refine it. The phases for nonlocomotor movements) as well as inverted and of motor development model outlined here are deduc- body rolling postures are considered here as stabil- tively based and serve as© a Jones model for& Bartletttheory formula Learning,- ity LLC movements. So, too, are standing© Jones on & one Bartlett foot or Learning, LLC tion. In subsequent sections of the text each phase will remaining upright while sitting in a chair. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION be explored in greater detail. The locomotor movement category refers to movements that involve a change in location of the body relative to a fixed point on the surface. To transport oneself ▸▸ The Phases of Motor from point A to point B by walking, running, hopping, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC jumping, skipping,© Jones sliding, & Bartlettor leaping Learning,is to perform LLC a DevelopmentNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION locomotor task.NOT In our FOR use ofSALE the term, OR such DISTRIBUTION activities as The process of motor development reveals itself pri- the forward roll and backward roll may be considered marily through changes in movement behavior over both locomotor and stability movements—locomotor time. All of us, infants, children, adolescents, and because the body is moving from point to point, sta- adults, are involved in the lifelong process of learn- bility because of the premium placed on maintaining © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesequilibrium & Bartlett in an unusual Learning, balancing LLC situation. NOT FORing SALEhow to OR move DISTRIBUTION with control and competence in NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION response to challenges we face daily in our constantly The manipulative movement category refers to changing environment. We are able to observe devel- both gross and fine motor manipulation. Gross motor opmental differences in movement behavior. We can manipulation involves imparting force to (projec- do this through observation of changes in process tion skills) or receiving force from (reception skills) (form) and product (outcome).© Jones &A Bartlettprimary means Learning, objects. LLC The tasks of throwing,© catching,Jones &kicking, Bartlett and Learning, LLC by which motor developmentNOT FOR may SALE be observed OR DISTRIBUTION is striking an object, as well as NOTtrapping FOR and SALE volleying, OR DISTRIBUTION through studying changes in movement behavior are gross motor manipulative movements. Fine motor throughout the life cycle. In other words, a “win dow” manipulation involves intricate use of the muscles to the process of motor development is provided of the hand and wrist. Sewing, cutting with scissors, through an individual’s observable movement and typing are fine motor manipulative movements. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC A large number© Jones of movements & Bartlett involve Learning, a combination LLC behavior,NOT which FOR provides SALE us OR with DISTRIBUTION clues to underlying NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION motor processes. of stability, locomotor, and/or manipulative movements. For example, jumping rope involves locomotion (jumping), manipulation (turning the rope), and CONCEPT 3.3 stability (maintaining balance). Likewise, playing soc- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonescer involves & Bartlett locomotor Learning, skills (running LLC and jumping), NOT FORFrom SALE a “distance” OR DISTRIBUTION the process of motor development NOTmanipulative FOR SALE skills OR (dribbling, DISTRIBUTION passing, kicking, and may be viewed as phase-like and stage-like. heading), and stability skills (dodging, reaching, turning, and twisting).

© Jones & BartlettIn summary, Learning, if movement LLC serves as a window© Jones learn & Bartlett more about Learning, his or her LLC body and the outside to the process of motor development, then one way world. These movements are also believed to begin to NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALEof studying OR DISTRIBUTION this process is through examining the neuro-network the brain to the body. sequential progression of movement skills through- Primitive reflexesmay be classified asinfor mation- out the entire life span. The following phases of motor gathering, nourishment-seeking, and protective development and the developmental stages within responses. They are information-gathering in that each phase are designed© Jones to serve& Bartlett as a model Learning, for this LLCthey help stimulate cortical© Jones activity & and Bartlett development. Learning, LLC study. (See FIGURENOT 3.1 for FOR a visual SALE representation OR DISTRIBUTION of the They are nourishment-seekingNOT FOR and SALEprotective OR because DISTRIBUTION four phases and their corresponding stages.) there is considerable evidence that they are phyloge- netic (species specific) in nature. Primitive reflexes Reflexive Movement Phase such as the rooting and sucking reflexes are thought to © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC be primitive© Jones survival & Bartlettmechanisms. Learning, Without them,LLC the The first movements the fetus makes are reflexive. newborn would be unable to obtain nourishment. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Reflexes are involuntary, subcortically controlled Postural reflexes are the second form of involuntary movements that form the basis for the phases of motor movement. They are remarkably similar in appearance development. Through reflex activity, the infant gains to later voluntary behaviors but are entirely involun- information about the immediate environment. The tary. These reflexes seem to serve as neuromotor test- © Jones & Bartlettinfant’s reactions Learning, to touch, LLC light, sounds, and changes© Jones ing & devices Bartlett for Learning,stability, locomotor, LLC and manipulative NOT FOR SALEin pressure OR DISTRIBUTION trigger involuntary movement activity.NOT FORmechanisms SALE OR that DISTRIBUTION will be used later with conscious These involuntary movements, coupled with increas- control. The primary stepping reflex and the crawling ing cortical sophistication in the early months of post- reflex, for example, closely resemble later voluntary natal life, play an important role in helping the child walking and crawling behaviors. The palmar grasping © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Lifelong Lifelong Lifelong competitive recreational daily living utilization utilization utilization

The stages Approximate of motor age periods of © Jones &development Bartlett Learning, LLC development© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC

NOT FORLifelong SALE utilization OR stage DISTRIBUTION 14 years old andNOT up FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Specialized Application stage 11–13 years old Movement Phase Transitional stage 7–10 years old

Proficient stage 5–7 years old Fundamental Emerging stages 3–5 years old Movement Phase © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Initial stage LLC © Jones 2–3& Bartlettyears old Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Precontrol stage Rudimentary 1–2 years old Reflex inhibition stage Movement Phase Birth–1 year old

Information decoding stage Reflexive 4 months–1 year old Information encoding stage Movement Phase In utero–4 months old © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION FIGURE 3.1 The phases and stages of motor development.

© Jonesreflex & Bartlett is closely Learning, related to later LLC voluntary grasping and © JonesThis sequence & Bartlett is resistant Learning, to change LLC under normal releasing behaviors. The labyrinthine righting reflex conditions but may be influenced by child-rearing NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORand SALEthe propping OR DISTRIBUTION reflexes are related to later balancing practices. The rate at which these movements appear abilities. The reflexive phase of motor development will vary from child to child, however, and depends may be divided into two overlapping stages. on biological, environmental, and task factors. The rudimentary movement abilities of the infant rep- © Jones & Bartlett Learning,resent LLC the basic forms of maturationally© Jones & influencedBartlett Learning, LLC CONCEPT 3.4NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONvoluntary movement requiredNOT for FOR survival. SALE They OR DISTRIBUTION involve stability movements such as gaining control of Reflexes are the first forms of human movement; they the head, neck, and trunk muscles; the manipulative are “involuntary” and are not learned “skills.” tasks of reaching, grasping, and releasing; and the loco- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC motor movements© Jones of creeping, & Bartlett crawling, Learning, and walking. LLC The rudimentary movement phase ofdeve lopment NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Information Encoding Stage may be subdivided into two stages that represent pro- The information encoding (gathering) stage of the gressively higher orders of motor control. reflexive movement phase is characterized by observable involuntary movement activity during the fetal © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones CONCEPT & Bartlett Learning, 3.5 LLC period until about the fourth month of infancy. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION During this stage, lower brain centers are more highly The sequence of movement skill acquisition during developed than the motor cortex and are essentially the rudimentary movement phase is generally in command of fetal and neonatal movement. These consistent, but the rate of acquisition is variable. brain centers are capable of causing involuntary reactions to a variety of stimuli© Jones of varying & Bartlett intensity Learning, and LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC duration. Reflexes nowNOT serve FORas the SALEprimary ORmeans DISTRIBUTION by Reflex Inhibition StageNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION which the infant is able to gather information, seek nourishment, and find protection through movement. The reflex inhibition stage of the rudimentary movement phase may be thought of as beginning at birth. At birth, reflexes dominate the infant’s movement Information© Jones Decoding & Bartlett Stage Learning, LLC repertoire. From© Jones then on, & however, Bartlett the Learning, infant’s move LLC- The informationNOT FOR decodingSALE OR (processing) DISTRIBUTION stage of the ments are increasinglyNOT FOR influenced SALE OR by DISTRIBUTIONthe developing reflex phase begins around the fourth month. During cortex. Development of the cortex, and lessening of this time, there is a gradual inhibition of many reflexes certain environmental constraints, causes several as higher brain centers continue to develop. Lower reflexes to be inhibited and gradually disappear. Prim- brain centers gradually relinquish control over skeletal itive and postural reflexes are replaced by voluntary © Jonesmovements & Bartlett and Learning, are replaced LLC by voluntary movement © Jonesmovement & Bartlettbehaviors. Learning, At the reflex LLC inhibition level, NOT FORactivity SALE mediated OR DISTRIBUTION by the motor area of the cerebral NOTvoluntary FOR SALEmovement OR is DISTRIBUTION poorly differentiated and inte- cortex. The decoding stage replaces sensorimotor grated because the neuromotor apparatus of the infant activity with perceptual-motor ability. That is, the is still at a rudimentary stage of development. Move- infant’s development of voluntary control of skeletal ments, though purposeful, appear uncontrolled and movements involves processing© Jones sensory & Bartlett stimuli Learning, with unrefined. LLC If the infant wishes© toJones make &contact Bartlett with Learning, LLC stored information, not NOTmerely FOR reacting SALE to stimuli. OR DISTRIBUTIONan object, there will be globalNOT activity FOR of SALEthe entire OR DISTRIBUTION Chapter 7 focuses on the primitive and postural hand, wrist, arm, shoulder, and even trunk. The pro- reflexes of infancy as they relate to the information cess of moving the hand into contact with the object, encoding and decoding stages. Special attention is although voluntary, lacks control. given to the relationship between the reflexive phase of development© Jones and & voluntaryBartlett movement.Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION PrecontrolNOT Stage FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Around 1 year of age, children begin to bring greater Rudimentary Movement Phase precision and control to their movements. The pro- The first forms of voluntary movement are rudimen- cess of differentiating between sensory and motor tary movements. They are seen in the infant beginning systems and integrating perceptual and motor infor- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC at birth to about age 2. Rudimentary movements are mation into a more meaningful and congruent whole NOT FORlargely SALE maturationally OR DISTRIBUTION influenced and are character- NOTtakes FOR place. SALE The ORrapid DISTRIBUTION development of higher cogni- ized by a highly predictable sequence of appearance. tive processes and motor processes encourages rapid

© Jones & Bartlettgains in rudimentaryLearning, LLCmovement abilities during ©this Jones learning & Bartlett how Learning,to respond withLLC motor control and stage. During the precontrol stage, children learn to movement competence to a variety of stimuli. They are NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALEgain andOR maintainDISTRIBUTION their equilibrium, to manipulate gaining increased control in the performance of dis- objects, and to locomote throughout the environment crete, serial, and continuous movements as evidenced with an amazing degree of proficiency and control, by their ability to accept changes in the task require- considering the short time they have had to develop ments. Fundamental movement patterns are basic, these abilities. Although© Jones maturational & Bartlett processes Learning, may LLCobservable patterns of behavior.© Jones Locomotor & Bartlett activities Learning, LLC partially explain NOTthe rapidity FOR SALEand extent OR of DISTRIBUTION develop- such as running and jumping,NOT FOR manipulative SALE ORactivities DISTRIBUTION ment of movement control during this phase, chil- such as throwing and catching, and stability activi- dren’s movement experiences and environments also ties such as the beam walk and one-foot bal ance are have a role to play. examples of fundamental movements that should be © JonesChapter &8 Bartlettprovides a Learning, detailed explanation LLC of the developed© Jones during the& Bartlettearly childhood Learning, years. LLC development of rudimentary movement abilities. A major misconception about the developmental NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Particular attention is paid to the interrelationship concept of the fundamental movement phase is the between the stages within this phase and the stages notion that these skills are maturationally determined within the reflexive phase of development. Attention is and are little influenced by task demands and environ- also focused on the critical function that the rudimen- mental factors. Some child development experts (not © Jones & Bartletttary movement Learning, phase LLCserves in preparing the child© for Jones in &the Bartlett motor development Learning, area) LLC have written repeat- NOT FOR SALEthe development OR DISTRIBUTION of fundamental movement skills.NOT FORedly SALE about the OR “natural” DISTRIBUTION unfolding of the child’s movement and play skills and the idea that children develop these abilities merely by growing older (maturation). Fundamental Movement Phase Although maturation does play a role in the develop- fundamental movement skills The © Jones & Bartlett of Learning,early child- LLCment of fundamental movement© Jones patterns,& Bartlett it should Learning, LLC hood are an outgrowth of the rudimentary movement not be viewed as the primary influence. The condi- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION phase of infancy. This phase of motor development tions of the environment—namely, opportunities for represents a time in which young children are actively practice, encouragement, instruction, and the ecol- involved in exploring and experimenting with the ogy (context) of the environment—play important movement potential of their bodies. It is a time for dis- roles in the degree to which fundamental movement covering© Jones how & toBartlett perform Learning,a variety of stabilizing, LLC loco- skills develop.© Jones We &have Bartlett increasing Learning, evidence LLCfrom the motor,NOT FORand manipulative SALE OR movements, DISTRIBUTION first in isolation motor skillNOT intervention FOR SALE literature OR DISTRIBUTION that children do not and then in combination with one another. Children “naturally” develop these skills. Even when children developing fundamental patterns of movement are participate in regular well-equipped free play their

The Royal Academy of Dance The Royal Academy of Dance, located in London, has produced superb Pre-Primary in Dance and Primary in Dance syllabi and instructional© Jones videos. & They Bartlett deftly achieveLearning, the goals LLC of helping young children become© Jones more & skillful Bartlett movers, Learning, LLC knowledgeable movers,NOT FORand expressive SALE moversOR DISTRIBUTION in a teaching and learning environment thatNOT is age-appropriate, FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION developmentally appropriate, and fun. Each of the themed lessons is well presented and pedagogically sound. A diverse group of children depict the joy of moving with skill, efficiency, and purpose. The focus is on a wide variety of the fundamental locomotor, manipulative, and stability skills of early childhood. These skills are important because they form the basis for the more complex and specialized movement, sport, and dance skills of later childhood and beyond. ©In Jones each of the& Bartlettmany lessons, Learning, children are LLC encouraged to experiment with© anJones endless & variety Bartlett of movement Learning, variations LLC NOTand to FOR self-discover SALE ways OR of DISTRIBUTION moving that increase their movement vocabularyNOT FORas well SALE as skillfulness. OR DISTRIBUTIONThe children are delightful to observe and interaction with the on-camera instructor is joyful. The instructor is a master teacher who, lesson after lesson, demonstrates how to make curricular material personally meaningful and developmentally appropriate for young learners. In a world often more interested in specializing in movement skill development at an early age, the Royal Academy © Jones & Bartlettof Dance Learning, has taken a boldLLC step in a different direction:© aJones direction & that Bartlett is focused Learning, on the developmental LLC needs, interests, NOT FOR SALEand ORunique DISTRIBUTION abilities of children as they begin the lifelongNOT quest FOR of being SALE skillful, OR knowledgeable, DISTRIBUTION and expressive movers. Check out the Royal Academy of Dance website (www.radusa.org) for more information.

© Jonesfundamental & Bartlett movement Learning, skills, LLC especially manipula- © JonesTypically, & theBartlett locomotor, Learning, manipulative, LLC and stability tive skills, do not improve (Goodway & Branta, 2003; movements of the 2- to 3-year-old child are at the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORRobinson SALE & OR Goodway, DISTRIBUTION 2009). Developmentally appro- initial level. Some children may be beyond this level in priate instruction is necessary for the young child to the performance of some patterns of movement, but develop fundamental movement competence during most are at the initial stage. the early years (Goodway & Branta, 2003; Robinson & © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Goodway, 2009). Unfortunately, many of our child- Emerging Stages care centers and preschoolsNOT have FOR no SALEexperts ORin motor DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION development or physical education professionals, and The emerging stages, of which there may be several, children are left to master these skills alone. Signifi- involve gaining greater motor control and rhythmic cant policy changes need to occur in our childcare coordination of fundamental movement skills. The synchronization of the temporal and spatial elements centers© and Jones preschools, & Bartlett and we Learning,need to prioritize LLC the © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC learning of these important motor skills in develop- of movement is improved, but patterns of move- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION mentally appropriate instructional environments. ment during these stages are still generally restricted Fundamental movement skills have utility or exaggerated, although better coordinated. Many throughout life and are important components of daily children of normal intelligence and physical func- living for adults as well as children. The daily tasks of tioning tend to advance to the emerging stages with © Joneswalking & Bartlett to the store,Learning, climbing LLC stairs, and balancing in © Jonesmaturation & Bartlett and environmental Learning, experiences LLC driving NOT FORstatic SALE and dynamic OR DISTRIBUTION positions are important basic skills NOTacquisition FOR SALE of these OR skills. DISTRIBUTION Observation of the typically across the life span. Moreover, there are links between developing 3- to 5-year-old child reveals a variety of fundamental movement skills in elementary school fundamental movement skills that are emerging in a and later physical activity (Logan et al., 2015). Thus, series of sometimes distinct and sometimes overlapping stages. Many individuals, adults as well as chil- acquiring competence ©in Jones fundamental & Bartlett movement Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC skills during the early childhood years is a key task of dren, fail to get beyond these emerging stages in one NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION this timeframe. or more fundamental movement skills.

CONCEPT 3.6 Proficient Stage © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC The proficient© Jones stage within& Bartlett the fundamental Learning, moveLLC- ConstraintsNOT containedFOR SALE within OR the requirementsDISTRIBUTION of the ment phase isNOT characterized FOR SALE by mechanically OR DISTRIBUTION efficient, movement task, the individual, and the conditions of coordinated, and controlled performances. Proficient the learning environment have profound effects on fundamental movement skills are superior in these the acquisition of movement skills at each phase of three process aspects. With continued opportunities development. for practice, encouragement, and instruction, how- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesever, they & willBartlett continue Learning, to improve LLC in terms of the NOT FOR SALESeveral ORresearchers DISTRIBUTION and assessment instrument NOTproduct FOR components SALE OR of DISTRIBUTION how far, how fast, how many, developers have subdivided fundamental move- and how accurately. ments into a series of identifiable sequential stages. The majority of available data on the acquisition From a pragmatic standpoint, we often view the of fundamental movement skills suggests that children can and should be at the proficient stage by age entire fundamental movement© Jones phase & Bartlett as having Learning, sep- LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 5 or 6 in most fundamental skills. Manipulative skills arate but often overlappingNOT FORstages: SALE the initial OR stage,DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the emerging stages, and the proficient stage. These that require visually tracking and intercepting moving stages are described briefly here and in greater detail objects (catching, striking, volleying) tend to develop in Chapters 11 and 12. somewhat later because of the sophisticated visual- motor requirements of these tasks. Even a casual glance © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC at the movements© Jones of children & Bartlett and adults Learning, reveals that LLC InitialNOT Stage FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION a great manyNOT have FORnot developed SALE OR their DISTRIBUTION fundamental The initial stage of a fundamental movement phase movement skills to a proficient level. Although some represents the child’s first goal-oriented attempts at children may reach this stage primarily through mat- performing a fundamental skill. Movement is char- uration and some environmental influences, the vast acterized by missing or improperly sequenced parts, majority require significant opportunities for practice, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC markedly restricted or exaggerated use of the body, encouragement, and instruction in an environment NOT FORand SALE poor rhythmic OR DISTRIBUTION flow and coordination. The spa- NOTthat FOR fosters SALE learning. OR Failure DISTRIBUTION to offer such opportuni- tial and temporal integration of movement is poor. ties makes it exceedingly difficult for an individual to

© Jones & Bartlettachieve proficiency Learning, in LLC fundamental movement skills© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC and will inhibit further application and develop- CONCEPT 3.7 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALEment ORin the DISTRIBUTION specialized movement phase that follows (O’Keeffe, 2001; Stodden et al., 2008). Seefeldt (1980) Progress through the specialized movement skill was the first to appropriately refer to this as a “profi- phase depends on competence in fundamental movement skills. ciency barrier” between fundamental movement skills and their companion© Jones specialized & Bartlett sport skills.Learning, More LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC recently, Clark andNOT Metcalfe FOR SALE(2002) ORsuggested DISTRIBUTION that NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION fundamental motor skills provide the “base camp” to Transitional Stage the mountain of motor development leading to motor Somewhere around their seventh or eighth year, chil- skillfulness. dren commonly enter a transitional movement skill © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC stage (Haubenstricker© Jones & Bartlett & Seefeldt, Learning, 1986). During LLC the SpecializedNOT FOR SALE Movement OR DISTRIBUTION Phase transitionalNOT period, FOR theSALE individual OR DISTRIBUTION begins to combine and apply fundamental movement skills to the perfor- Specialized movement skills are an outgrowth of mance of specialized skills in sport and recreational the fundamental movement phase. During the spe- settings. Walking on a rope bridge, jumping rope, tee cialized phase, movement becomes a tool applied ball, and playing kickball are examples of common to a variety of complex movement activities for © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonestransitional & Bartlett skills. Learning, Transitional LLC movement skills con- daily living, recreation, and sport pursuits. This is a NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORtain SALE the same OR elements DISTRIBUTION as fundamental movements period when fundamental stability, locomotor, and with greater form, accuracy, and control. Fundamen- manipulative skills are progressively refined, com- tal movement skills developed and refined during the bined, and elaborated upon for use in increasingly previous stage are applied to play, game, and daily liv- demanding situations. The fundamental movements ing situations. Transitional skills are applications of of hopping and ©jumping, Jones &for Bartlett example, Learning, may now LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC fundamental movement patterns in somewhat more be applied to rope-jumpingNOT FOR SALEactivities, OR performing DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION complex and specific forms. folk dances, and performing the triple jump (hop- The transitional stage is an exciting time for the step-jump) in track and field. O’Keeffe studied the parent and the teacher as well as for the child. Chil- relationship between fundamental movement skills dren are actively involved in discovering and combin- and sport-specific skills in a test of theTriangulated © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ing numerous© Jones movement & Bartlett patterns Learning, and are often LLC elated Hourglass Model of motor development. The NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION by theirNOT rapidly FOR expanding SALE ORmovement DISTRIBUTION abilities. The results of his investigation led him to conclude that goal of concerned parents, teachers, and youth sport “this study provides empirical evidence in support coaches during this stage should be to help children of Gallahue’s theoretical model with respect to the increase their motor control and movement compe- relationship between fundamental skill and sport- tence in a wide variety of activities and in an increas- © Jones & Bartlettspecific Learning,skill phases LLCand also for dynamical systems© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ingly complex movement environment. Care must be theory to explain the learning process” (O’Keeffe, NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORtaken SALE not to OR cause DISTRIBUTION the child to specialize or restrict his 2001, abstract). Logan and colleagues’ (2015) system- or her activity involvement. A narrow focus on skills atic review found there was a relationship between during this stage is likely to have undesirable effects fundamental movement skills and physical activity. on the last two stages of the specialized movement In other words, the patterns of movement contained © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCphase (Goodway & Robinson,© Jones 2015). & Bartlett Learning, LLC within a fundamental movement skill are the same movement patternsNOT upon FOR which SALE sport-specific OR DISTRIBUTION skills NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION and many other physical activities are based. There- Application Stage fore, it can be concluded that mastering fundamental From about age 11 to age 13 (the middle school years), skills leads to easier learning of specific skills (Logan interesting changes take place in the skill develop- et© al.,Jones 2015). & Bartlett Learning, LLC ment of© the Jones individual. & Bartlett During Learning,the previous stage,LLC the NOTThe FOR onset SALE and extent OR DISTRIBUTIONof skill development within child’s NOTlimited FOR cognitive SALE abilities, OR DISTRIBUTION affective abilities, the specialized movement phase depends on a variety and experiences, combined with a natural eagerness of task, individual, and environmental factors. Reac- to be active, caused the normal focus (without adult tion time and movement speed, coordination, body interference) on movement to be broad and general- type, height and weight, customs, culture, peer pres- ized to “all” activity. In the application stage, increased © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC sure, and emotional makeup are but a few of these cognitive sophistication and a broadened experience NOT FOR SALEconstraining OR DISTRIBUTION factors. The specialized movement phaseNOT FORbase SALE enable ORthe individual DISTRIBUTION to make numerous learning has three stages. and participation decisions based on a variety of task,

© Jonesindividual, & Bartlett and Learning, environmental LLC factors. For example, © Jonesand appreciation & Bartlett for Learning,many other LLCareas (Goodway & the 5-foot, 10-inch (179 cm) 12-year-old who likes Robinson, 2015; Landers, Carson, & Tjeerdsma- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORteam SALE activities OR and DISTRIBUTION applying strategy to games, who Blankenship, 2010). has reasonably good coordination and agility, and who lives in Indiana, may choose to specialize in the development of his or her basketball playing abilities. CONCEPT 3.8 A similarly built child who© Jones does not & really Bartlett enjoy Learning, team LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC efforts may choose to NOTspecialize FOR in SALEa variety OR of DISTRIBUTIONtrack The primary goal of a person’s NOTmotor developmentFOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION and field activities. The individual begins to make con- and movement education is to accept the challenge scious decisions for or against participation in certain of change in the continuous process of gaining activities. These decisions are based, in large measure, and maintaining motor control and movement competence throughout a lifetime. on how© he Jones or she perceives & Bartlett the extentLearning, to which LLC factors © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC within the task, himself or herself, and the environ- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ment either enhance or inhibit chances for enjoyment and success. This self-examination of strengths and ▸▸ The Triangulated Hourglass: weaknesses, opportunities and restrictions, narrows the choices. A Life Span Model © Jones & DuringBartlett the Learning, application stage,LLC individuals begin to © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORseek SALE out or toOR avoid DISTRIBUTION participation in specific activities. NOTThe FOR age rangesSALE for OR each DISTRIBUTION phase of motor development Increased emphasis is placed on form, skill, accuracy, should be viewed as general guidelines, illustrative only and the quantitative aspects of movement perfor- of the broad concept of age-appropriateness. Individ- mance. This is a time for more complex skills to be uals often function at different phases depending on their experiential backgrounds and genetic makeups. refined and used in advanced© Jones games, & Bartlett lead-up Learning,activi- LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ties, and selected sports. For example, it is entirely possible for a 10-year-old NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONto function in the specialized NOTmovement FOR phase SALE at theOR DISTRIBUTION lifelong utilization stage in stability activities involv- Lifelong Utilization Stage ing gymnastic movements, but only at the elementary The lifelong utilization stage of the specialized phase stage of the fundamental movement phase in manipu- of motor© developmentJones & Bartlett begins around Learning, age 14 LLCand con- lative and locomotor© Jones skills & suchBartlett as throwing, Learning, catching, LLC tinues NOTthrough FOR adulthood. SALE ORThe DISTRIBUTION lifelong utilization or running. AlthoughNOT FOR we SALEshould encourageOR DISTRIBUTION this pre- stage represents the pinnacle of the process of motor cocious behavior in gymnastics, we should also help development and is characterized by the use of one’s the child catch up to his or her age-mates in the other acquired movement repertoire throughout life. The areas and develop acceptable levels of proficiency in interests, competencies, and choices made during the them as well. © Jonesprevious & Bartlett stage Learning,are carried over,LLC further refined, and © JonesIt is &important Bartlett to Learning, gather facts LLC about the process NOT FORapplied SALE to aOR lifetime DISTRIBUTION of daily living, recreational, and NOTof developingFOR SALE motor OR skills. DISTRIBUTION Throughout this text we sports-related activities. Factors such as available time discuss study after study, but if we fail to provide you and money, equipment and facilities, motivation to be with a theoretical framework and a conceptual grasp active, and physical and mental limitations affect this of the process of motor development, we will have stage. Among other things, one’s level of activity partic- presented isolated facts that tell you little about their © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ipation will depend on talent, opportunities, physical implications for successful developmental teaching, condition, and personalNOT motivation. FOR SALE An individual’s OR DISTRIBUTION coaching, therapy, and parenting.NOT Therefore, FOR SALE we would OR DISTRIBUTION lifetime performance level may range anywhere from like to propose a theoretical model for the process of professional status and the Olympics to intercollegiate motor development and work through this model and interscholastic competition to participation in with you. This model as presented is not a compre- organized© Jones or unorganized, & Bartlett competitive Learning, or cooperative, LLC hensive theory© ofJones motor development.& Bartlett Learning, It is a heuristic LLC recreationalNOT sports FOR and SALE simple OR daily DISTRIBUTION living skills. device—that NOTis, a conceptual FOR SALE metaphor, OR DISTRIBUTION or model, of In essence, the lifelong utilization stage represents motor development, that provides us with general a culmination of all preceding stages and phases. It guidelines for describing and explaining motor behav- should, however, be viewed as a continuation of a life- ior. Heuristics differ from algorithms in one import- time process. Specialized skill development can and ant way: Whereas an algorithm is a procedure or set © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC should play a role in our lives, but it is unfair to require of rules guaranteed, if followed, to lead to solution of NOT FORchildren SALE to ORspecialize DISTRIBUTION in one or two skill areas at the NOTa given FOR kind SALE of problem, OR DISTRIBUTION heuristics are rules of thumb expense of developing their movement repertoire in giving one clues for how to search for answers to given

© Jones & Bartlettproblems. Learning, In the study LLC of development, many theories© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC use heuristic devices that researchers hope will even- CONCEPT 3.9 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALEtually ORlead DISTRIBUTIONto algorithms. The intent of all heuristic devices (which may be The Triangulated Hourglass Model is a helpful heuristic likened to metaphors) is to be helpful in the characteri- device for conceptualizing, describing, and explaining the process of motor development. zation of particular phenomena. As such, they can only be viewed as more© or Jones less helpful, & Bartlett not as being Learning, right or LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC wrong. Heuristic NOTdevices FOR provide SALE a broad OR frameworkDISTRIBUTION To understand thisNOT model, FOR picture SALE yourself OR DISTRIBUTION as for better understanding a particular phenomenon. an hourglass (FIGURE 3.2). Into your hourglass, we Our hope, therefore, is that the Triangulated Hourglass need to place the stuff of life: “sand.” Sand gets into heuristic will be of genuine help to you in better under- your hourglass from two different containers. One standing© Jones the &phenomena Bartlett ofLearning, motor development. LLC is your© hereditaryJones & containerBartlett Learning,and the other LLC your NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Gallahue’s TRIANGULATED HOURGLASS: A life span Process/Product Model of Motor Development © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Motor control and movement competence

Environment Heredity

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Constraining Constraining factors Specialized factors in the Movement Phase within the environment individual Fundamental © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ©Movement Jones Phase& Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Rudimentary Movement Phase

Reflexive © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Movement LLC Phase © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Constraining factors within the task © Jones & BartlettFIGURE 3.2 Learning, Filling an individual’s LLC hourglass with “sand” (i.e.,© Jonesthe stuff &of life).TheBartlett hourglass Learning, represents LLC a descriptive (product) view of development. The inverted triangle represents an explanatory (process) view of development. Both are helpful in NOT FOR SALEunderstanding OR DISTRIBUTION motor development as one continually NOTadapts FORto change SALE in the OR lifelong DISTRIBUTION quest for gaining and maintaining motor control and movement competence.

© Jonesenvironmental & Bartlett Learning,container. The LLC hereditary container © Jonessufficient & Bartlett handholds Learning, (an environmental LLC constraint) has a lid. At conception, our genetic makeup is deter- in her environment to enable her to pull herself up to NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORmined SALE and ORthe amountDISTRIBUTION of sand in the container is a stand, she will have to wait until sufficient balance fixed. However, the environmental container has no (a biomechanical constraint) and strength in the legs lid. Sand may be added to the container and to your (a physical constraint) have developed, before she is hourglass. We could reach down into the “sand pile” able to bring herself to a standing position unaided. (i.e., the environment) ©and Jones get more & Bartlettsand to put Learning, into “Contemporary LLC theory explains© Jones motor development& Bartlett Learning, LLC your hourglass. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONas a dynamic process in whichNOT a FORmotor SALE behavior OR DISTRIBUTION The two buckets of sand signify that both the envi- emerges from the many constraints that surround ronment and heredity influence the process of devel- that behavior” (Clark, 1994, p. 247). opment. The relative contributions of each have been In the fundamental movement phase, boys and a volatile© topicJones of debate & Bartlett for years. Learning, Arguing the LLC impor- girls are beginning© Jones to develop & Bartlett a whole Learning, host of basic LLC tance of each is a meaningless exercise because sand movement skills—running, hopping, jumping, throw- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION is funneled from both containers into your hourglass. ing, catching, kicking, and trapping. Unfortunately, In the final analysis, it does not really matter if your many still have the notion that children somehow hourglass is filled with hereditary sand or environ- “automatically” learn how to perform these fundamental sand. What is important is that somehow sand mental movements. Many naïvely think that children © Jonesgets & intoBartlett your hourglass Learning, and LLCthat this stuff of life is the © Jonesat this phase & Bartlett of development Learning, will, throughLLC the process NOT FORproduct SALE of bothOR heredityDISTRIBUTION and the environment. NOTof maturation, FOR SALE develop OR DISTRIBUTION proficient fundamental move- Now, what do we know about motor development skills. This is not true for the vast majority of ment during the early phases of life? When we look at children. Most children must have some combination the reflexive and rudimentary phases of motor devel- of opportunities for practice, encouragement, and opment, we know that ©sand Jones pours &into Bartlett the hour Learning,glass instruction LLC in an ecologically© Jonessound environment. & Bartlett Learning, LLC primarily, but not exclusively, from the hereditary These conditions are crucial to helping them through NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION container. The sequential progression of motor each of the stages within the fundamental movement development during the first few years of life is more phase. Furthermore, as the task requirements of a rigid and resistant to change. Therefore, we know in fundamental movement skill change, so too will the the first two phases of motor development that the process and the product. For example, the perceptual developmental© Jones sequence & Bartlett is highly Learning, predictable. LLC For requirements© of Joneshitting a & pitched Bartlett ball areLearning, considerably LLC example,NOT children FOR allSALE over ORthe DISTRIBUTIONworld learn how to more sophisticatedNOT FORthan SALEthose required OR DISTRIBUTION to strike a sit before they stand, how to stand before they walk, stationary ball or to perform a striking pattern with- and how to walk before they run. However, we do see out making contact with another object. Teachers of considerable variability in the rates at which the very individuals at the fundamental movement phase must young acquire their rudimentary movement abilities. learn to recognize and analyze the task requirements © JonesThis & Bartlett is something Learning, in which LLC researchers and program © Jonesof movement & Bartlett skills Learning,to maximize LLC learner success. NOT FORdevelopers SALE ORhave DISTRIBUTION become increasingly interested. NOTTeachers FOR whoSALE overlook OR DISTRIBUTION these duties erect proficiency We have seen a rapid rise in the number of infant barriers at the specialized movement skill phase. stimulation programs and infant-toddler movement At the specialized movement skill phase, suc- programs. Some make elaborate claims about the cessful performance of the mechanics of movement worth of these programs© Jonesand their & ultimateBartlett impor Learning,- depends LLC on proficient fundamental© Jones movements. & Bartlett After Learning, LLC tance to the child. Unfortunately,NOT FOR we SALE have little OR hardDISTRIBUTION the transitional stage, we progressNOT to FORthe final SALE stages OR in DISTRIBUTION evidence at this juncture to either support or refute which specialized movement skills are applied to daily these claims. The rate of movement skill acquisition living, recreational, and sport experiences. is variable from infancy throughout life. If an infant, At some point, the hourglass turns over child, adolescent, or adult receives additional oppor- (FIGURE 3.3). The timing of this occurrence is variable tunities© for Jones practice, & Bartlettencouragement, Learning, and instruction LLC and often depends© Jones more & on Bartlett social and Learning, cultural factors LLC in an NOTenvironment FOR SALE conducive OR DISTRIBUTIONto learning, move- than on physicalNOT and FOR mechanical SALE OR factors. DISTRIBUTION For most ment skill acquisition will be promoted. The absence individuals, the hourglass turns over and the “sand” of these environmental affordances (i.e., enabling begins to pour out during the late teens and early 20s. factors) will constrain movement skill acquisition. This is a time in which many individuals enter the © JonesFurthermore, & Bartlett theLearning, acquisition LLC rate will vary depend- © Jonesadult world & Bartlett of work, carLearning, payments, LLC mortgages, family NOT FORing SALEon the mechanicalOR DISTRIBUTION and physical requirements of NOTresponsibilities, FOR SALE and OR a DISTRIBUTIONhost of other time-cons uming each task. For example, if an infant does not have tasks. Time restrictions limit the pursuit of new

Lifelong opportunities social and spiritual well-being. The lifestyle filter is © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC for learning © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC environmentally based, and we have a good deal of NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION control over the rate at which sand falls through this filter. Although we can never stop sand from flowing to the bottom of the hourglass, we can slow down the rate at which it falls. A former surgeon general of the © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCUnited States, Dr. C. Everett© Jones Koop, & onceBartlett stated Learning, that LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONalthough we cannot stopNOT the FOR aging SALEprocess, OR we DISTRIBUTIONcan control it by up to 40%. We can directly influence how fast sand falls through our hourglasses. As teachers, coaches, therapists, and parents, we have the won- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC derful opportunity© Jones & to Bartlett shovel “sand” Learning, into many LLC “hourglasses.” We also have the privilege and the obligation NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION to help NOTothers FOR develop SALE “lifestyle OR filters”DISTRIBUTION that will slow the rates at which sand falls in their hourglasses. Sand “Final filters”: can still be added even when hourglasses are over- Heredity turned and the sand is falling to the bottom. Each of © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Lifestyles © Jonesus & has Bartlett lifelong Learning,opportunities LLC for learning. By taking NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORadvantage SALE of OR the DISTRIBUTIONnumerous opportunities for contin- 80+ Oldest ued development and physical activity, we can add Old more sand. We cannot add sand faster than it is fall- 70–80 Middle Old ing and claim immortality. We can, however, extend and improve the quality of life. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC The hourglass heuristic device as described to 60–70 Young Old NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONthis point gives the impressionNOT FOR that SALE development OR DISTRIBUTION is an orderly and continuous process. Note, however, 40–60 Middle Age that the sand at the bottom of the hourglass in both Figures 3.2 and 3.3 is distributed in a bell-shaped © Jones18–40 & BartlettYoung Learning, Adult LLC curve. The© Jones shape &of Bartlettthis curve Learning, implies that LLCthere is a NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION distributionNOT of FOR movement SALE skills OR amongDISTRIBUTION the cat egories of movement (locomotion, manipulation, and stability), and within the various movement tasks. For example, FIGURE 3.3 Emptying the overturned hourglass of life. one may be at the elementary stages in some skills, the Development as seen here is a continuous discontinuous proficient stage in others, and at a sport skill level in © Jones & Bartlettprocess throughout Learning, the LLClife span. © Jonesstill & others. Bartlett Additionally, Learning, one LLC may be at different stages NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORof development SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONwithin the same skill. For example, movement skills and the maintenance of skills mas- when children and adults perform the overhand tered during childhood and adolescence. throw, they are often at the initial stage in their trunk There are several interesting features in the over- action, an emerging stage in their arm action, and a turned hourglass ©that Jones we need & Bartlettto consider. Learning, The sand LLCproficient stage in their ©leg Jones action. &Motor Bartlett development Learning, LLC falls through two NOTdifferent FOR filters. SALE One OR is the DISTRIBUTION hereditary in the hourglass model,NOT therefore, FOR is SALE a discontinuous OR DISTRIBUTION filterwith which we can do very little. For example, an process, that is, a process that, although phase-like individual may have inherited a predisposition toward and stage-like in a general sense, is highly variable in longevity or coronary heart disease. The hereditary fil- a specific sense. Motor development when viewed as ter is going to be either dense, causing the sand to filter discontinuous is in effect a dynamic (i.e., nonlinear) through© Jones slowly, & Bartlett or easy to Learning, penetrate, allowing LLC the sand process© occurringJones & within Bartlett a self-organizing Learning, LLC system toNOT flow FOR through SALE more OR rapidly. DISTRIBUTION Sand that has fallen (i.e., theNOT “hourglass”). FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION through the hereditary filter cannot be recovered, but it must pass through a second, or final, filter called the CONCEPT 3.10 lifestyle filter. © Jones & BartlettThe Learning, density of theLLC lifestyle filter is determined© Jones Motor& Bartlett development Learning, is a discontinuous LLC process NOT FOR SALEby such OR things DISTRIBUTION as physical fitness, nutritionalNOT sta- FORoccurring SALE withinOR DISTRIBUTION a self-organizing system. tus, diet, exercise, the ability to handle stress, and

Figures 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3, the Triangulated Hourglass Developmental time NOT FOR SALE CoORmpensation DISTRIBUTION NOT FORModel SALE should OR not DISTRIBUTION be viewed as such. “Real” hourglasses occur in both time and space. They are mul- Skillful tidimensional and as such contain, along with the Context-specific motor domain, both cognitive and affective domains Fundamental as well. As a result, real© Jones hourglasses & Bartlett have height, Learning, motorLLC patterns © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC width, and depth and mustNOT be FOR supported SALE if OR they DISTRIBUTION are Preadapted NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION to remain upright. Visualize, if you will, an individu- Reflexive al’s hourglass as being supported by a cognitive pillar, FIGURE 3.4 The Mountain of Motor Development. an affective pillar, and a motor pillar. The hourglass Source: Clark, J. E., & Metcalfe, J. S. (2002). The mountain of motor development: A metaphor. In J. E. Clark & J. Humphrey (Eds.). Motor Development: Research and Reviews (pp.163–190). Reston VA: NASPE Publications. is multidimensional;© Jones & Bartlettthus, there Learning, is a triple interaction LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC among the cognitive, affective, and motor domains. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION In other words, the Triangulated Hourglass Model of Motor Development and our Hourglass Model. The is more than a motor model. It is a model of motor Mountain of Motor Development is a dynamic model development that influences, and is influenced by, a that highlights the importance of both biology and wide variety of cognitive and affective factors operat- environment in driving change across six phases of © Jonesing & within Bartlett both Learning, the individual LLC and the environment. © Jonesdevelopment: & Bartlett (1) reflexive, Learning, (2) preadapted, LLC (3) funda- NOT FOR SALEYou may OR find DISTRIBUTION it helpful to visualize the hourglass NOTmental FOR motor SALE patterns, OR DISTRIBUTION (4) context specific, (5) skill- heuristic device as you proceed through the follow- fulness, and (6) compensation. ing sections dealing with motor development during At the base of the mountain are reflexive behav- infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. iors: infant responses and “primitive” reflexes (e.g., stepping, search, and sucking) necessary for survival Remember, however, that© Jonesit is not important& Bartlett that Learning, you LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC accept this model as proposed. Theoretical models and adaptation to a new environment. As infants age NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION are just that—models. As such they are incomplete, and become more cognitively developed, they shift to inexact, and subject to verification and further refine- the preadapted period where their movement behav- ment. What is important is that you visualize how the iors are no longer reflexive. During this period, infants process of motor development occurs. Remember, attain self-feeding and basic movement skills (e.g., understanding© Jones motor & Bartlett development Learning, helps to LLC explain crawling, rolling,© Jones and walking) & Bartlett that allowLearning, the infant LLC how learningNOT FORoccurs. SALE Both areOR crucial DISTRIBUTION to the creation to develop independence,NOT FOR withSALE this OR phase DISTRIBUTION ending with of effective, developmentally appropriate instruction. the onset of self-feeding and independent walking. Another heuristic of motor development identi- Both the reflexive and preadapted phases appear to be fied under the developmental dilemma is Clark and more maturationally driven. Metcalfe’s Mountain of Motor Development. This As young children make their way up the Mountain © Jonesmodel & Bartlett is well known Learning, in the fieldLLC and another perspec- © Jonesof Motor & Development, Bartlett Learning, they reach LLC a critical phase of NOT FORtive SALE on how OR to view DISTRIBUTION motor development. NOTdevelopment, FOR SALE the ORfundamental DISTRIBUTION motor patterns period (between ages 1–7 years). During the fundamental motor patterns period, children begin to acquire the CONCEPT 3.11 building blocks for later context specific sports and physical activities. This phase consists of acquiring © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Understanding the process of motor development locomotor patterns such as running and skipping, helps explain how movementNOT skillFOR learning SALE occurs, OR DISTRIBUTIONalong with object projection skillsNOT such FOR as throwing SALE and OR DISTRIBUTION which is crucial to developmentally appropriate kicking, and object interception skills such as catch- instruction. ing (object reception) and striking (object deflection). In addition, the child must acquire fine motor manip- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ulative patterns© Jonessuch as grasping& Bartlett a pencil Learning, and cutting LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION with scissors. NOTAlthough FOR it is SALE a common OR beliefDISTRIBUTION that these ▸▸ The Mountain of Motor skills “naturally emerge,” there is strong evidence that Development these skills require significant practice and instruction for skill development to occur (Goodway & Branta, Clark and Metcalfe (2002) have used the metaphor of 2003; Logan et al., 2015). This phase of development is © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC a mountain to describe changes in motor development considered key to children’s progression further up the NOT FORacross SALE the lifespan OR DISTRIBUTION (FIGURE 3.4). There are many simi- NOTmountain FOR SALEand is often OR DISTRIBUTIONreferred to as the “base camp” of larities between Clark and Metcalfe’s (2002) Mountain the Mountain of Motor Development.

© Jones & BartlettBy around Learning, age 7,LLC many children shift to© the Jones period & Bartlett for a while. Learning, But with rehabilitation,LLC they will be context-specific period for some motor skills. During able to return to the peak of skillfulness. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALEthis stage, OR theDISTRIBUTION child learns how to refine and combine One of the interesting parts to this model is the basic motor skills, such as locomotor and object con- notion of a “mountain range” where children are trol skills (manipulative), in increasingly more complex likely to be skillful in a few context-specific skills, but environments ultimately applying these skills to a vari- not all. Each peak on the mountain range represents ety of sports, games,© Jonesand lifetime & Bartlett activities. ForLearning, example, LLCa context-specific skill© like Jones soccer & Bartlettwith high Learning,peaks LLC running and kickingNOT can FOR evolve SALE into soccer, OR or DISTRIBUTION throwing representing a child whoNOT is skilled FOR inSALE that sportOR DISTRIBUTIONand and catching can be used in cricket or softball. With the lower peaks a child who is less skilled in that sport. right kind of support some children are able to reach the However, a core premise of the model is that com- summit of the Mountain of Motor Development where petency in fundamental movement skills is criti- they© Jones demonstrate & Bartlett skillfulness. Learning, Becoming LLCskillful requires cal to being© Jones able to & moveBartlett up the Learning, different LLCmountain significant hours of practice, and a range of individual peaks and apply their skills to a variety of sports. This NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION (e.g., motivation, physical growth, strength, flexibility) model also recognizes a child might be highly skilled and external (e.g., coaching, socioeconomic status, facil- in one sport such as gymnastics but at a lower devel- ities to practice, equipment) factors that could affect opmental level in throwing and catching, resulting in whether a child becomes skillful or not. poorer performance in sports like baseball or softball. © Jones & BartlettThe Learning,final destination LLC on the Mountain of ©Motor Jones Another & Bartlett interesting Learning, premise LLC to this model is the idea NOT FOR SALEDevelopment OR DISTRIBUTION is compensation. Compensation refersNOT FORthat SALE as people OR age, DISTRIBUTION the mountain range changes its to adjustments in motor performance that may need geography. That is, as a teenager an individual might to occur as a result of a variety of factors, such as play elite soccer, but as he/she heads into their 20s injury or loss of strength. For example, a young elite and 30s, they may become a jogger. But as they age gymnast who has© an Jones Achilles & injury Bartlett might Learning, find them- LLCinto their 60s and 70s, this© Jones same individual & Bartlett may Learning, bike LLC selves “down the Mountain” at the context-specific or walk for exercise. Essentially, our trajectory across NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

DEVELOPMENTAL DILEMMA © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC A Baby’s Sedentary Climb onto the Mountain NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Clark and Metcalfe (2002) use the metaphor of the Mountain of Motor Development to exemplify how our motor skills go through different phases across our lifespan. As we think about these phases of development, we become concerned for future generations of children as their climb onto the mountain is often so sedentary. Imagine a typical day for some infants. Once awake, changed and fed, the mother brings the infant downstairs to the kitchen and straps © Jones & Bartletther in a Learning,baby chair while LLC she feeds her school-aged children.© Jones Off to& schoolBartlett they Learning,go, and her infant LLC is taken out of the NOT FOR SALEbaby OR chair DISTRIBUTION and strapped into an infant car seat as sheNOT drops theFOR children SALE off ORat school. DISTRIBUTION She decides to go the mall and shop and the infant car seat is popped into a stroller. Later, the mother has coffee with friends; she hands her child toys to play with in her car seat-stroller. Home for an afternoon nap, and then it is time to pick up the children from school, so back in the car seat the infant goes. The school-aged children have music lessons, so the infant remains in the car seat for much of the evening. An entire day has almost passed and our infant has not supported her head, worked on her balance, had tummy© Jones or back time& Bartlett to work on Learning, core and shoulder LLC strength, or worked on pushing© Jones her body & Bartlett up against Learning, LLC the forces of gravity.NOT She FOR has been SALE constrained OR DISTRIBUTION in various baby devices all day long that supportNOT everyFOR part SALE of her OR body. DISTRIBUTION It is no wonder sedentary babies like this can grow up with developmental delays in their motor skills. Many infants in this world spend their days in child-care settings, and finding good child care is an overwhelming task for many parents. I have often helped friends find good child cares for their baby, but they typically don’t look like my friends think they should. In a visit to an infant room in a child-care center, my friend was excited to see how “high ©tech” Jones and tidy & Bartlettthis center was.Learning, There were LLC rows of baby swings, vibrating© chairs, Jones swivel & chairs,Bartlett and aLearning, nice big rug withLLC NOTnothing FOR on it. SALE While she OR saw DISTRIBUTION “high tech,” I saw a baby wasteland where childrenNOT FOR were inSALE devices OR all day DISTRIBUTION long and not being given the opportunity to explore their bodies and their world. Later in the day, we walked into an “untidy” room with toys strewn all over a rug, caretakers sitting on the rug playing with children, infants on their tummies and backs with lots of stimulation around them, and caretakers holding infants and talking back to the babies’ babbles. I knew then we had found the right place for her baby. Our modern society has so many conveniences for the typical mother © Jones & Bartlettthat we Learning,often forget that, LLC like all children, our infants need© Jones opportunities & Bartlett to move Learning, throughout theLLC day and should be NOT FOR SALEplaced OR in DISTRIBUTIONa wide variety of different environments andNOT positions. FOR WhatSALE do you OR think DISTRIBUTION of all the devices that keep babies sedentary? And what impact do you think this will have on future generations of children?

© Jonesthe &Mountain Bartlett of Learning, Motor Development LLC is dynamic, and © JonesModel in& Bartlettthis book Learning, and the Mountain LLC of Motor the peaks that we choose to go up will vary across Development model are complimentary, dynamic NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORdevelopmental SALE OR time DISTRIBUTION and are impacted by both indi- models that provide a framework for a way to view vidual and environmental factors. The Hourglass motor development.

▸▸ Summary © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION The acquisition of competency in movement is an to form the specialized movement skills so highly val- extensive process beginning with the early reflexive ued for recreational, competitive, and daily living tasks. movements of the newborn and continuing through- The specialized movement skill phase of develop- out life. The process by which an individual progresses ment is in essence an elaboration of the fundamental © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC from the reflexive movement phase, through the rudi- phase. Specialized skills are more precise than funda- mentaryNOT and FOR fundamental SALE ORmovement DISTRIBUTION phases, and mental skills. NOTThey FORoften SALEinvolve aOR combination DISTRIBUTION of fun- finally to the specialized movements skill phase of damental movement skills and require a greater degree development is influenced by factors within tasks, the of precision. Specialized skills involve three related individual, and the environment. stages. The transitional stage is typically the level of the © Jones & ReflexesBartlett andLearning, rudimentary LLC movement abilities © Joneschild in &grades Bartlett three Learning,through five. LLC At this level, chil- NOT FORare SALElargely basedOR DISTRIBUTION on maturational influences. Reflexes NOTdren FOR should SALE be applying OR DISTRIBUTION their fundamental motor skills appear and disappear in a fairly rigid sequence. Rudi- in increasingly more complex environments leading mentary movements form the important base upon to sport. If the fundamental skills used in a particular which fundamental movement skills are developed. sport activity are not at the proficient level, the child Fundamental movement skills are basic movement will resort to less proficient or elementary patterns of © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC patterns that begin developing around the same time movement. Involving children in sport skill refinement that a child is able to walkNOT independently FOR SALE and OR move DISTRIBUTION before they reach proficient levelsNOT ofFOR ability SALE in prereq OR- DISTRIBUTION freely through his or her environment. These basic uisite fundamentals is unwise. When this happens, the locomotor, manipulative, and stability skills go through less proficient movements found in the basic patterns a definite, observable process from immaturity to pro- are carried over to the related sport skills. The child will ficiency.© JonesStages within& Bartlett this phase Learning, include theLLC initial, regress to his ©or Jonesher characteristic & Bartlett pattern. Learning, It is import LLC- emerging,NOT and FOR proficient SALE stages. OR DISTRIBUTIONAttainment of the pro- ant that sensitiveNOT teaching FOR SALE and coaching OR DISTRIBUTION be incorpo- ficient stage is influenced greatly by opportunities for rated at this point. practice, encouragement, and instruction in an envi- When we look at the process of motor develop- ronment that fosters learning. ment, we need to look at it first from a theoretical Under the proper circumstances, children are perspective. Each of us needs to have a theoretical © Jonescapable & Bartlett of performing Learning, at the LLCproficient stage in the vast © Jonesframework & Bartlettto use as theLearning, basis for our LLC actions. It is not NOT FORmajority SALE of ORfundamental DISTRIBUTION movement patterns by age 6 NOTimportant FOR SALE that you OR agree DISTRIBUTION with the theoretical frame- to 10 years, depending on the skill. The fundamental work presented here. The Triangulated Hourglass movement skills of children entering school are too Model is our way of viewing the process of motor often incompletely developed. Therefore, the primary development and its implications for life. What is your grades offer an excellent© opportunity Jones & toBartlett develop fundaLearning,- theoretical LLC framework? How ©does Jones it influence & Bartlett your Learning, LLC mental movement skills NOTto their FOR proficient SALE levels. OR DISTRIBUTIONThese teaching, coaching, therapy, NOTor parenting, FOR SALE and how OR DISTRIBUTION same fundamental skills will be enhanced and refined does it influence you personally?

▸▸ Questions© Jones & Bartlett for Reflection Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 1. TheNOT Triangulated FOR SALE Hourglass OR DISTRIBUTION Model bor rows to helpNOT yourself FOR and SALE others OR visualize DISTRIBUTION the pro- from two differing but complementary views cesses and products of motor development? of human development. What are they and 3. If motor development can be viewed as a Trian- in which ways are they both similar and gulated Hourglass or as a mountain metaphor, © Jones & Bartlettdifferent? Learning, How might LLC they be viewed as © Jonescan & it Bartlett also be viewed, Learning, perhaps, LLC as a tree, a train, NOT FOR SALEcomplementary? OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORor even SALE a river OR or DISTRIBUTION ocean? Select one of the above 2. Using a heuristic different from the Triangu- or choose another metaphor and build your lated Hourglass Model, can you use a metaphor own theoretical model.

4. The Tom Hanks character Forrest Gump in the 6. The fundamental movement skill phase of the © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC movie of the same name said, “Life is like a box model can be viewed as a particularly important NOT FOR SALE ORof chocolates.” DISTRIBUTION What did he mean? How couldNOT FOR SALEphase OR of development DISTRIBUTION for children. Why do you a box of chocolates be used as a metaphor for think this might be? What impact would low better understanding human development? fundamental movement skill competence have 5. Why are theory building and theory testing on lifespan motor development? important?© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ▸▸ Critical Readings Bigge, M. L., & Shermis, S. S. (2004). Learning Theories for Teachers. sport. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 81, © Needham,Jones MA:& Bartlett Allyn & Bacon. Learning, LLC 14–15©. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Brady, F. (2004). Children’s organized sports: A developmental Lerner, R. M. (2006). Developmental science, developmental NOTperspective. FOR SALEJournal of OR Physical DISTRIBUTION Education, Recreation and systems,NOT and contemporaryFOR SALE theories OR of DISTRIBUTION human development. In Dance, 75, 35–41, 53. R. M. Lerner, (Ed.), Theoretical Models of Human Development. Clark, J. E., & Metcalfe, J. S. (2002). The mountain of motor Volume 1 of the Handbook of Child Psychology (6th ed., development: a metaphor. In J. E. Clark & J. Humphrey (Eds.), pp. 1–17). Editors-in-chief: W. Damon & R. M. Lerner. Motor Development: Research and Reviews, Vol. 2 (pp. 163– Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. © Jones & Bartlett190). Reston, Learning, VA: NASPE. LLC © JonesO’Keeffe, & Bartlett S. I. (2001). Learning,The Relationship LLC Between Fundamental Motor NOT FOR SALEGarcia, OR C., & DISTRIBUTION Garcia, L. (2006). A motor development and motorNOT FOR SkillsSALE and ORSport-Specific DISTRIBUTION Skills: Testing Gallahue’s Theoretical learning perspective. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation Model of Motor Development. Unpublished doctoral thesis. and Dance, 77(8), 31–33. University of Limerick, Ireland. Goodway, J. D., & Robinson, L. E. (2015). Developmental Seefeldt, V., & Haubenstricker, J. (1982). Patterns, phases, or stages: trajectories in early sport specialization: a case for early An analytic model for the study of developmental movement. sampling from a© physical Jones growth & Bartlett and motor Learning, development LLC In J. A. S. Kelso & J. E.© Clark Jones (Eds.), & The Bartlett Development Learning, of LLC perspective. Kinesiology Review, 4(3), 267–278. Movement Control and Coordination (pp. 309–318). New York: Kamm, K., Thelen, NOTE., & Jensen, FOR J. SALE(1990). AOR dynamical DISTRIBUTION systems Wiley. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION approach to motor development. Physical Therapy, 70, 763–775. Williams, K. (2004). What’s motor development got to do with Landers, R. Q., Carson, R. L., & Tjeerdsma-Blankenship, B. (2010). physical education? Journal of Physical Education, Recreation The promises and pitfalls of sport specialization in youth and Dance, 75, 35–39. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ▸NOT▸ References FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Beller, S., & Bender, A. (2017). Theory, the final frontier? A corpus- Haubenstricker, J., & Seefeldt, V. (1986). Acquisition of motor based analysis of the role of theory in psychological articles. skills during childhood. In V. Seefeldt (Ed.), Physical Activity Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 951. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00951. and Well-Being. Reston, VA: AAHPERD. © Jones & BartletteCollection Learning, 2017. LLC © JonesHaynes, & Bartlett J. E. S. (2009). Learning, Qualitative LLC Analyses of a Fundamental Bigge, M. L., & Shermis, S. S. (2004). Learning Theories for Teachers. Motor Skill across the Lifespan: Linking Practice and Theory. NOT FOR SALENeedham, OR DISTRIBUTION MA: Allyn & Bacon. NOT FOR UnpublishedSALE OR doctoral DISTRIBUTION thesis. University of New England, Brady, F. (2004). Children’s organized sports: A developmental NSW, Australia. perspective. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Kamm, K., Thelen, E., & Jensen, J. (1990). A dynamical systems Dance, 75, 35–41, 53. approach to motor development. Physical Therapy, 70, 763–775. Clark, J. E. (1994). Motor development. In V. S. Ramachandran Landers, R. Q., Carson, R. L., & Tjeerdsma-Blankenship, B. (Eds.). (Ed.), Encyclopedia© of Jones Human Behavior& Bartlett (Vol. 3, Learning, pp. 245–255). LLC (2010). The promises and© Jonespitfalls of &sport Bartlett specialization Learning, in LLC New York: AcademicNOT Press. FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONyouth sport. Journal of NOTPhysical FOR Education, SALE Recreation OR DISTRIBUTIONand Clark, J. E., & Metcalfe, J. S. (2002). The mountain of motor Dance, 81, 14–15. development: A metaphor. In J. E. Clark & J. Humphrey (Eds.). Lerner, R. M. (2006). Developmental science, developmental Motor Development: Research and Reviews (pp.163–190). systems, and contemporary theories of human development. In Reston VA: NASPE Publications. R. M. Lerner, (Ed.), Theoretical Models of Human Development. Garcia,© Jones C., & Garcia,& Bartlett L. (2006). Learning, A motor development LLC and motor Volume© Jones1 of the Handbook & Bartlett of Child Psychology Learning, (6th ed., LLC pp. 1–17). learning perspective. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation Editors-in-chief: W. Damon & R. M. Lerner. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. NOTand Dance,FOR 77 SALE(8), 31–33. OR DISTRIBUTION Logan, S.NOT W., Kipling FOR Webster, SALE E., OR Getchell, DISTRIBUTION N., Pfeiffer, K. A., & Goodway, J. D., & Branta, C. F. (2003). Influence of a motor skill Robinson, L. E. (2015). Relationship Between Fundamental intervention on fundamental motor skill development of Motor Skill Competence and Physical Activity During disadvantaged preschool children. Research Quarterly for Childhood and Adolescence: A Systematic Review. Kinesiology Exercise and Sport, 74(1), 36–46. Review, 4(4), 416–426. © Jones & BartlettGoodway, Learning,J. D., & Robinson, LLC L. E. (2015). Developmental© Jones O’Keeffe, & Bartlett S. I. (2001). Learning, The Relationship LLC between Fundamental Motor NOT FOR SALEtrajectories OR DISTRIBUTION in early sport specialization: a case for earlyNOT FOR SkillsSALE and ORSport DISTRIBUTIONSpecific Skills: Testing Gallahue’s Theoretical sampling from a physical growth and motor development Model of Motor Development. Unpublished doctoral thesis. perspective. Kinesiology Review, 4(3), 267–278. University of Limerick, Ireland.

Robinson, L. E., & Goodway, J. D. (2009). Instructional climates movement. In J. A. S. Kelso & J. E. Clark (Eds.), The © Jones &in Bartlettpreschool children Learning, who are LLCat- risk. Part I: Object-control © JonesDevelopment & Bartlett of Movement Learning, Control LLC and Coordination. NOT FOR skillSALE development. OR DISTRIBUTION Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, NOT New York:FOR SALE Wiley. OR DISTRIBUTION 80(3), 533–542. Stodden D., Goodway, J. D., Langendorfer, S. J., Roberton, M. A., Seefeldt, V. (1980). Developmental motor patterns: implications Rudisill, M. E., Garcia, C., & Garcia, L. E. (2008). A developmental for elementary school physical education. In, Nadeau, perspective on the role of motor skill competence in physical C.H. et al., Psychology of motor behavior and sport - 1979, activity: An emergent relationship. Quest, 60, 290–306. Champaign, Ill., Human© Kinetics Jones Publishers & Bartlett, 1980, 314–323. Learning, Williams, LLC K. (2004). What’s motor ©development Jones &got Bartlett to do with Learning, LLC Seefeldt, V., & Haubenstricker,NOT J. (1982).FOR SALEPatterns, ORphases, DISTRIBUTION or physical education? Journal of PhysicalNOT Education,FOR SALE Recreation OR DISTRIBUTION stages: An analytic model for the study of developmental and Dance, 75, 35–39.