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The following bibliographical guide is intended for the convenience of students, teachers, and general readers. Although professional students of history may also fi nd it useful, no attempt has been made to provide comprehensive coverage of special areas or topics or to include specialized monographs. Although many older volumes have been included, the aim throughout has been to call attention to recent historical works to which the reader may turn for additional bibliographical guidance. Classifi cation follows the plan of chapters in the present book. For reasons of space, untranslated works in foreign languages have been excluded, as have been general textbooks, articles in periodicals, and (with a few excep- tions) primary source materials. When a second date of publication for a book is given without further specifi cation, it is generally the date of the most recent reprinting or reissue. We have also included up-to-date information on useful Web sites that may be consulted for additional information or sources on the themes of each chapter. Such sites often change and evolve, but the Web addresses were all “active” when this book went to press. Several Web sites contain broad collections of European History. Readers should look closely at online sources in the fi rst few chapters for sites such as the Fordham History Sourcebook, BBC sites, and academic institutions’ multi-era collections; these sites offer resources that span all of European history, but they are not listed in all the chapters for which they may be relevant. Many of the book titles are available in paperback; up-to-date listings may be found in Books in Print and in the Paperback Book Guide for Colleges. Maximilian Owre served as the research associate for updating the following information on historical publications and Web sites. Dr. Owre, who is a historian of modern Europe and the associate director of the Program in the Humanities and Human Values at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, has made essential, well-informed, and extensive contributions to these suggestions for further reading. His contributions are grate- fully acknowledged here—with appreciation for his insights and knowledge.

INTRODUCTION introduction to historical method, histori- Guides, Reference Works, and Special ography, philosophy of history, demogra- Topics phy, the many varieties of history, and other An invaluable bibliographical tool for his- important subjects. To keep up with the torical works published prior to 1992 is the outpouring of historical books, however, it American Historical Association’s Guide to is important to read the book reviews and Historical Literature (3rd ed., 2 vols., 1995). listings of new books in publications such Much expanded since its second edition as the American Historical Review, the in 1961, the Guide consists of 48 sections Journal of Modern History, the Journal of organized into regional, national, chronolog- World History, the (London) Times Literary ical, and topical categories, with coverage Supplement, the New York Review of Books, from prehistory to the present. It provides and other periodicals, and the book reviews annotated entries for thousands of books in the daily and weekend press. A valuable and articles as well as an introductory essay source of information on relevant articles is for each section, all carefully indexed. The Historical Abstracts, which is also available Guide ’s fi rst section, “Theory and Practice in an electronic database. Many historical in Historical Study,” provides a convenient resources are now accessible on the Internet,

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2 Suggestions for Further Reading

though readers must use such materials and the Penguin Historical Atlas series. Of with careful assessments of their reliabil- many geographical atlases, one of the best ity. For a helpful guide to history on the is the National Geographic Atlas of the Internet, organized by thematic catego- World (9th ed., 2010). ries, readers may consult D. A. Trinkle and Of multivolume historical series, the S. A. Merriman (eds.), The History High- New Cambridge Modern History (14 vols., way: A 21st-Century Guide to Internet 1957–1979) remains useful, though it is no Resources (rev. 2006). longer “new.” Theses volumes, which will Brief descriptions of major events be noted in the sections below, contain out- and historical fi gures as well as a chronol- standing contributions by specialists from ogy of world history may be found in the all over the world. There are other series, to Oxford Encyclopedia of World History (1998); which reference will be made below, under there are also useful chronologies in J. Pax- the auspices of various publishers. ton and E. W. Knappman (eds.), The Wilson Geographical infl uences on European Calendar of World History (1999), and in P. history are discussed in R. A. Butlin and N. Stearns (ed.), Encyclopedia of World His- R. A. Dodgshon (eds.), An Historical Geog- tory: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern (2001). raphy of Europe (1999). The case for new A recent accessible chronological reference conceptualizations in geography is made in is Cassell’s Chronology of World History: M. W. Lewis and K. E. Wigen, The Myth of Dates, Events and Ideas That Made History Continents: A Critique of Metageography (2005). Of the many multivolume encyclope- (1997). I. G. Simmons, Global Environ- dias, the Encyclopedia Britannica (rev. 2010, mental History (2008), traces the human with CD-ROM) remains the most valuable. impact on the planet over the centuries. For Although it has ceased print publication, arti- the interaction between climate and human cles may also be found electronically at www. society, see W. Behringer’s A Cultural His- britannica.com . A convenient one-volume tory of Climate (2010). reference tool is the Columbia Encyclo- For the impact of famine, disease, and pedia (6th ed., 2000), which is now up- the movement of peoples, one may read dated regularly in an electronic edition. W. H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (1976) Several encyclopedias provide excellent and The Global Condition: Conquerors, Ca- up-to-date articles on themes and events tastrophes, and Community (1992); R. S. Bray, in both world history and European his- Armies of Pestilence: The Impact of Disease tory. See, for example, W. H. McNeill on History (2004); and K. F. Kiple (ed.), The et al. (eds.), Berkshire Encyclopedia Cambridge World History of Human Disease of World History (5 vols., 2005), and (1993), a valuable reference work. On cul- J. Dewald (ed.), Europe, 1450–1789: En- tural advantages and disadvantages in the encyclopedia of the Early Modern World counters between peoples, J. Diamond, Guns, (6 vols., 2004). Germs, and Steel: The Fate of Human Socie- Among historical atlases that place ties (rev. 2005), is rewarding; the same author European history in its world setting, examines various cultural responses to chang- R. Overy (ed.), The Times Complete History ing environmental conditions in Collapse: of the World (formerly The Times Atlas of How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed World History) (rev. 2010), and N. Grove (rev. 2011). (ed.), National Geographic Society Atlas Of the many books on military his- of World History (1997), are impressive. tory treating war as a social and human Also useful, and periodically updated, are phenomenon, outstanding studies ranging the Rand McNally Atlas of World History, from earliest times to the present are avail- Hammond’s Historical Atlas of the World, able in R. L. O’Connell, Of Arms and Men:

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A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression turn to T. K. Rabb and R. I. Rotberg (eds.), (1990), and J. Keegan, A History of Warfare The New History: The 1980s and Beyond (1994); and for understanding Western mil- (1982); P. Burke (ed.), New Perspectives on itary preeminence, see J. France, Perilous Historical Writing (rev. 2001); J. Appleby, Glory: The Rise of Western Military Power L. Hunt, and M. Jacob, Telling the Truth (2011). For perspectives on the impact of about History (1994); L. Kramer and culture on warfare, see W. Lee (ed.), War- S. Maza, (eds.) A Companion to Western fare and Culture in World History (2011). Historical Thought (2002); M. T. Gilderhus, The importance of technology is stressed History and Historians: A Historiographi- in M. van Creveld, Technology and War: cal Introduction (rev. 2003); and two chal- From 2000 B.C. to the Present (rev. 1991); lenging books by B. Southgate, History: and the study of this theme is updated in What and Why? Ancient, Modern, and Post- M. Boot, War Made New: Technology, War- modern Perspectives (rev. 2001) and What fare, and the Course of History, 1500 to Is History For? (2005). There is much prac- Today (2006). tical information on historical research and A few books of special interest deserve writing in J. Barzun and H. F. Graff, The mention here: W. H. McNeill, The Rise of Modern Researcher (rev. 2004). the West: A History of the Human Commu- One of the major contemporary in- nity (rev. 1991), a notable effort to recount terests of historians has been social his- the human experience in a global setting, tory. Stimulated by the Annales school of which has been continued in J. R. McNeill historical writing in France (the name de- and W. H. McNeill, The Human Web: A rived from the French periodical Annales: Bird’s-Eye View of Human History (2003); Économies, sociétés, civilisations, which E. R. Wolf, Europe and the People without in 1994 was renamed Annales: Histoire, History (2nd ed. 2011), by an anthropolo- sciences sociales ), and by newer kinds of gist, which portrays Western history as seen working-class history in England, in which by non-Western societies in Asia, Africa, E. P. Thompson, The Making of the Eng- and the Americas; P. Kennedy, The Rise and lish Working Class (1963), was a pioneer, Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change historians have concerned themselves and Military Confl ict from 1500 to 2000 with a social history distinct from tradi- (1987), which examines the political and tional interests in social classes and labor economic fortunes of the European nations and laboring conditions. They have been that successively played the leading role in examining such subjects as the history of world affairs in the modern centuries; and the family, women, sexuality, marriage, the J. Barzun, From Dawn to Decadence: 500 everyday lives and outlook (or mentalité ) Years of Cultural Life, 1500 to the Present of the urban and rural poor, and popular (2000), a provocative study of Western culture—all studied as history “from the thought since the sixteenth century. A wide- bottom up.” Many such works are listed ranging effort at a synthesis of European below in the appropriate chapters. A use- history is J. M. Roberts, A History of Europe ful collection of recent contributions to (1996), though some readers might appre- the newer social history is available in ciate the shorter and idiosyncratic J. Hirst, R. M. Goldin (ed.), The Social Dimension The Shortest History of Europe (2009). of Western Civilization (4th ed., 1999). A wide selection of topics in European social Changing Directions in Historical history and popular culture is provided in Writings P. Stearns (ed.), Encyclopedia of European For a sampling of insights into contempo- Social History from 1350 to 2000 (2001). rary trends in historical writing, one may For new approaches to social classes, see

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4 Suggestions for Further Reading

L. Berlanstein (ed.), Rethinking Labor His- B. G. Smith (ed.), Women’s History in Global tory: Essays on Discourse and Class Analysis Perspective (2004). Important theoretical (1993); and M. A. Cabrera, Postsocial His- perspectives on the role of gender in histori- tory: An Introduction (trans. 2004). For an in- cal understanding can be found in Women, teresting recent attempt to rethink class in light History and Theory: The Essays of Joan of the “cultural turn” (see below) in history, Kelly (1984); J. W. Scott, Gender and the see G. Eley and K. Nield, The Future of Class Politics of History (rev. 1999); B. G. Smith, in History: What’s Left of the Social? (2007). The Gender of History: Men, Women, and Although the Annales historians have Historical Practice (1998); and S. O. Rose, contributed a good deal to the newer social What Is Gender History? (2010). A critical history, they have also been important for assessment of feminist historiography of their emphasis, often quantitative and inter- the past 30 years, by a pioneer in the fi eld, disciplinary, on long-term factors that infl u- appears in J. W. Scott, The Fantasy of Femi- ence the course of historical change, such nist History (2012). Numerous collections of as geography, environment, resources, cli- primary source documents on women’s his- mate, population, diet, and disease, which tory in specifi c historical contexts are avail- in their view often merit closer attention able. For wider perspectives on women’s than “events.” Here F. Braudel, The Medi- history through documents, see J. O’Faolain terranean and the Mediterranean World in and L. Martines (eds.), Not in God’s Image: the Age of Philip II (2 vols., 1949; trans. Women in History from the Greeks to the 1974; rev. and abridged 1-vol. ed., 1992), Victorians (1973); and J. G. Bryant and L. B. was a pioneering work; his other books are Elder (eds.), Creating Women: An Interdisci- described in the sections below. plinary Anthology of Readings on Women in There has been much attention in recent Western Culture (2005). decades to the history of women. Many of the For an introduction to the quantitative writings call for reassessments of various his- analysis of historical data, one may turn to torical eras from the viewpoint of women’s K. H. Jarausch and K. A. Hardy, Quanti- status in the era and for the fuller integration tative Methods for Historians: A Guide to of the history of women into general his- Research, Data, and Statistics (1991). Two tory. Contributions to the history of women useful introductions to a crucial compo- in Europe and the West may be sampled in nent of contemporary historical work are R. Bridenthal, S. Stuard, and M. Wiesner J. L. Reiff, Structuring the Past: The Use (eds.), Becoming Visible: Women in Europe- of Computers in History (1991), and D. I. an History (rev. 1998), with essays covering Greenstein, A Historian’s Guide to Comput- ancient times to the twentieth century; M. J. ing (1994). The new fi eld of digital humani- Boxer and J. H. Quataert (eds.), Connecting ties has merged quantitative and archival Spheres: European Women in a Globalizing methods of historical research with new World, 1500 to the Present (rev. 2000), case media for communicating and interacting studies with informative overview chap- with historical data. For an overview and ters; and B. S. Anderson and J. P. Zinsser, examples, see M. Greengrass and L. Hughes A History of Their Own: Women in Europe (eds.), The Virtual Representation of the from Prehistory to the Present (2 vols.; rev. Past (2008). For methodological advice on 2000), thematically organized. G. Duby and creating online digital history projects, see M. Perrot (gen. eds.), A History of Women D. J. Cohen and R. Rosenzweig, Digital in the West (trans. 1992–1994), is a multi- History: A Guide to Gathering, Preserving, volume history from ancient times to the and Presenting the Past on the Web (2006). present. The role of gender in both ancient Psychological approaches to the writ- and modern global history is examined in ing of history are explored in S. Friedländer,

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Suggestions for Further Reading 5

History and Psychoanalysis (trans. 1978); the Linguistic Turn (2004); S. Gunn, His- P. Loewenberg, Decoding the Past: The tory and Cultural Theory (2006); and K. L. Psychohistorical Approach (1982); P. Gay, Klein, From History to Theory (2011). Freud for Historians (1985); and the more Some books critical of the trends in theoretical work of D. LaCapra, History in historical writing that have emerged since Transit: Experience, Identity, Critical The- the 1970s include J. Barzun, Clio and ory (2004). the Doctors: Psychohistory, Quantohis- The tapping of neglected sources tory, and History (1974); T. S. Hamerow, through the methods of oral history is Refl ections on History and Historians examined in P. Thompson, The Voice of the (1987); G. R. Elton, Return to Essentials: Past: Oral History (rev. 2000); D. K. Duna- Some Refl ections on the Present State of way and W. K. Baum (eds.), Oral History: Historical Study (1993); G. Himmelfarb, An Interdisciplinary Anthology (1984); and The New History and the Old (1987) and On K. Howarth, Oral History (1999). Numer- Looking into the Abyss: Untimely Thoughts ous guides to the theory and methodology on Culture and Society (1994); and E. Fox- of oral history are available, including D. Genovese and E. Lasch-Quinn (eds.), Re- A. Ritchie (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of constructing History: The Emergence of a Oral History (2011). Contemporary media New Historical Society (1999). Two prob- are explored in J. E. O’Connor (ed.), Image ing accounts of the historical profession as Artifact: The Historical Analysis of Film and the increasing marginalization of the and Television (1990); R. Rosenstone (ed.), humanities in the United States in general, Revisioning History: Film and the Con- with insights into past and present histo- struction of a New Past (1995) and Visions riographical debates, are P. Novick, That of the Past: The Challenge of Film to Our Noble Dream: The “Objectivity Question” Idea of History (1995); and A. Freund and and the American Historical Profession A. Thomson (eds.), Oral History and Pho- (1988); and the more alarmist T. Miller, tography (2011). Blow Up the Humanities (2012). Changing assessments of cultural and On the relationship of history to intellectual history, borrowing from philos- other disciplines and its own distinctive ophy, linguistics, anthropology, and literary role, one may turn to such varied classic criticism—often referred to as the “cultural explorations as E. H. Carr, What Is His tory? turn” in history and social sciences—which (1962); P. Gay, Style in History (1974); may remain elusive for many readers, may L. Gottschalk, Understanding History (rev. be sampled in L. Hunt (ed.), The New Cul- 1969); A. Marwick, The Nature of History tural History (1989); V. E. Bonnell and (rev. 1989); L. Gossman, Between History L. Hunt (eds.), Beyond the Cultural Turn: and Literature (1990); and D. LaCapra, New Directions in the Study of Society and History and Criticism (1985). For the grow- Culture (1999); D. LaCapra, Rethinking ing infl uence of the historical perspective in Intellectual History: Texts, Contexts, Lan- other disciplines, see T. J. McDonald (ed.), guage (1983); C. Ginzburg, Clues, Myths, The Historic Turn in the Human Sciences and the Historical Method (trans. 1992); (1996). More recent treatises on the meth- D. R. Kelley, The Descent of Ideas: The His- ods, meaning, and purpose of history can be tory of Intellectual History (2002); and two found in J. Gaddis, The Landscape of His- helpful books by P. Burke, Varieties of Cul- tory: How Historians Map the Past (2002); tural History (1997) and What Is Cultural P. Beck, Presenting History: Past and History? (2004). For other recent accounts Present (2012); M. Roth, Memory, Trauma, of the cultural turn in history, see Elizabeth and History: Essays on Living with the Past Clark, History, Theory, Text: Historians and (2012); and F. Ankersmit, Meaning, Truth,

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6 Suggestions for Further Reading

and Reference in Historical Representation html . An accessible, general introduction (2012). An insightful account of the broader to historical timelines, maps, and images is development of historical writing is availa- also available through the site of the His- ble in the wide-ranging survey by D. Woolf, tory Channel at www.historychannel.com . A Global History of History (2011). Readers might also visit the site of the Among thoughtful refl ections by his- American Historical Association, www. torians who have themselves made notable historians.org, for reports on developments contributions to the writing of history, the in contemporary historical scholarship and following may be suggested: W. H. McNeill, teaching. For the history of women in all Mythistory and Other Essays (1986); C. Vann parts of the world, the best place to begin Woodward, Thinking Back: The Perils of is H-Women Internet Links, at www.h-net. Writing History (1986) and The Future of org/women/links. For all eras, teachers the Past (1989); L. Stone, The Past and the should consult www.besthistorysites.net/ , a Present Revisited (1987); D. Cannadine, compendium of professionally vetted sites. The Pleasures of the Past (1989); W. J. Bou- Important primary sources on a wide range wsma, A Usable Past (1990); M. Beloff, An of subjects can be found at the Fordham Historian in the Twentieth Century (1992); University Sourcebook at www.fordham. G. Lerner, Why History Matters: Life and edu/Halsall/index.asp, some pages of which Thought (1997); C. E. Schorske, Thinking will be cited in subsequent sections. with History (1998); and E. J. Hobsbawm, Interesting Times: A Twentieth-Century Life 1. THE RISE OF EUROPE (2002). For an interesting autobiographical Prehistoric and Ancient Times perspective on the changing landscape of For prehistory, the reader may wish to historical methods and theory, see G. Eley, consult B. Fagan, People of the Earth: An A Crooked Line: From Cultural History to Introduction to World Prehistory (rev. 2004); the History of Society (2006). An insightful T. Champion et al., Prehistoric Europe (rev. study of how historians write about them- 2009); and B. Cunliffe (ed.), The Oxford selves can be found in J. D. Popkin, History, Illustrated Prehistory of Europe (1994). Historians, and Autobiography (2005). Other For the continuity between prehistoric and interesting historical refl ections appear in historic Europe, see B. Cunliffe, Europe two collections of interviews with historians: between Two Oceans: Themes and Vari- H. Abelove (ed.), Visions of History (1984), and ations, 9000 B.C. to A.D. 1000 (2008). Of R. Adelson (ed.), Speaking of History: Con- special interest for women’s history are versations with Historians (1997); and in the M. R. Ehrenberg, Women in Prehistory autobiographical essays in J. M. Banner and (1989), and W. W. Barber, Women’s Work: J. R. Gillis (eds.), Becoming Historians (2009). The First 20,000 Years—Women, Cloth, and Society in Early Times (1994). Useful Web Sites and Online Resources Informative accounts for the ancient For interactive historical maps, readers world include T. B. Jones, From the Tigris might consult Mapping History at http:// to the Tiber (rev. 1989); C. G. Starr, A His- mappinghistory.uoregon.edu/index.html , tory of the Ancient World (rev. 1991); and a well-designed site that includes maps H. Howe and R. T. Howe, The Ancient World and images of Europe, the Americas, and (1987). For Mesopotamia and Egypt, one global history. Useful chronological infor- may consult T. Brice, The Routledge Hand- mation can be found at the WebChron Pro- book of the Peoples and Places of Ancient ject, www.thenagain.info/webchron , and Western Asia: From the Early Bronze Age at World History: Hyper History, www. to the Fall of the Persian Empire (2009); hyperhistory.com/online_n2/History_n2/a. P. Kriwaczek, Babylon: Mesopotamia and

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Suggestions for Further Reading 7

the Birth of Civilization (2012); M. A. Murray, Scullard, A History of the Roman World, The Splendor That Was Egypt (rev. 2004); C. 753–146 B.C. (rev. 2002); and for all Freeman, A History of Ancient Egypt (2011) aspects of Roman society, see W. Dunstan, and Egypt, Greece, and Rome: Civilizations Ancient Rome (2011); T. Martin, Ancient of the Ancient Mediterranean (1999). Rome: From Romulus to Justinian (2012); Excellent summaries of Greek and and M. T. Boatwright, D. J. Gargola, and Roman antiquity, from the eighth century R. J. A. Talbert, The Romans: From Village B.C.E. through the second century C.E., to Empire (rev. 2011). Earlier Roman his- are found in J. Boardman, J. Griffi n, and tory is examined in P. Southern, Ancient O. Murray (eds.), The Oxford History of Rome: The Republic, 753 B.C.–30 B.C. the Classical World (1986). Other valuable (2011); and K. Bringmann, A History of the accounts of the ancient world include L. de Roman Republic (trans. 2007). Books on Blois and R. J. van der Spek, An Introduction the Empire include C. M. Wells, The Roman to the Ancient World (1997); and M. Grant, Empire (rev. 1992); and M. Goodman, The The Founders of the Western World: A His- Roman World, 44 B.C.–A.D. 180 (2012). tory of Greece and Rome (1991). There are There is also an important account of rewarding insights in M. I. Finley’s many Rome’s relations with other ancient cultures writings on Greece and Rome, especially in P. Wells, The Barbarians Speak: How the The Legacy of Greece: A New Appraisal Conquered Peoples Shaped Roman Europe (1981). For a broad appraisal of the Greek (1999); and Rome’s contribution to the long impact on European politics and culture, see global history of empires is a starting point C. Meier, A Culture of Freedom: Ancient for the important work of J. Burbank and Greece and the Origins of Europe (trans. F. Cooper, Empires in World History: Power 2012). An outstanding study of women in and the Politics of Difference (2010). Greece and Rome is S. B. Pomeroy, God- For the coming of Christianity, compre- desses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in hensive introductions may be found in G. Classical Antiquity (rev. 1995); one may also Vermes, Christian Beginnings: From Naza- read S. Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece reth to Nicaea (AD 30–325) (2012), and in (1995); and M. Lefkowitz and M. Fant (eds.), R. A. Fletcher, The Barbarian Conversion: Women’s Life in Greece and Rome: A Source From Paganism to Christianity (1998). Early Book in Translation (2005). Christianity’s interaction with both the poli- In addition to numerous surveys of tics and philosophy of the ancient world is classical Greece, readers will profi t from examined in C. Freeman, The Closing of the S. B. Pomeroy et al., Ancient Greece: A Western Mind: The Rise of Faith and the Political, Social, and Cultural History Fall of Reason (2002). The many efforts to (rev. 2008). For Alexander the Great, one reconstruct the historical Jesus include J. D. should read P. Green, Alexander of Mac- Crossan, Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography edon, 356–323 B.C. (1974, 1991). On the (1994), and B. Ehrman, Did Jesus Exist? rise and fall of the Hellenistic civilization The Historical Argument for Jesus of Naza- that Alexander helped create, one may read reth (2012) . On St. Augustine and his times, E. S. Gruen, The Hellenistic World and the see J. Schott, Christianity, Empire, and the Coming of Rome (2 vols., 1984); P. Green’s Making of Religion in Late Antiquity (2008); critical Alexander to Actium: The Historical P. Brown, Augustine of Hippo (rev. 2000); Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (1991); and and a lively appraisal by G. Wills, Saint R. M. Errington, A History of the Hellenis- Augustine (1999). For all aspects of early tic World 323–30 BC (2008). Christian theology, there is the magisterial Among many surveys of Rome and work of J. Pelikan, The Christian Tradition Roman civilization, one may suggest H. H. (5 vols., 1971–1989).

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8 Suggestions for Further Reading

The Middle Ages: The Formation of The Byzantine Empire and the Islamic Europe World Among many surveys of the medieval era There are many books on the two civili- as a whole, B. Tierney and S. Painter, West- zations in the Middle East that fl ourished ern Europe in the Middle Ages, 300–1475 while Europe in the early medieval cen- (rev. 1999), and J. M. Bennett, Medieval turies was in the so-called Dark Ages. For Europe: A Short History (rev. 2010) are the Byzantine, or Eastern Roman, Empire, excellent. A successful effort emphasizing one may read the comprehensive, schol- social history is E. Peters, Europe and the arly account by W. Treadgold, A History Middle Ages (rev. 1997). G. Holmes (ed.), of the Byzantine State and Society (1998), The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval and a shorter work by the same author, A Europe (1988), available also in abridged Concise History of Byzantium (2001); T. E. form (1992), is a collaborative work of Gregory, A History of Byzantium (2005); distinction; and J. Le Goff, The Birth of T. Mathews, Byzantium: From Antiquity to Europe (trans. 2005), is a remarkable syn- the Renaissance (2010); and J. J. Norwich, thesis by a leading French historian of A Short History of Byzantium (1997). The the Annales school. Historians who have essence of Byzantine culture is captured in reshaped our understanding of the medieval H. C. Evans (ed.), The Glory of Byzantine era are examined in N. Cantor, Inventing the Art and Culture of the Byzantine Medieval Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas Era, A.D. 893–1261 (1997). The end of of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth the empire is graphically described in an Century (1992). earlier work by S. Runciman, The Fall of Fundamental to the reassessment of Constantinople, 1453 (1965). Valuable for Europe’s emergence in the early medieval all aspects of Byzantine civilization is A. centuries is R. W. Southern, The Making P. Kazhdan (ed.), The Oxford Dictionary of of the Middle Ages (1953, 1993). Another Byzantium (3 vols., 1991). important work of synthesis is P. Brown, The Good starting points for the study of Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Islam include B. Lewis, Islam in History: Diversity, A.D. 200–1000 (rev. 2003), build- Ideas, People and Events in the Middle East ing on the author’s numerous other works on (rev. 1993), Islam and the West (1993), and late antiquity. Also available are L. Olson, his many other writings; W. M. Watt, The The Early Middle Ages: The Birth of Majesty That Was Islam: The Islamic World, Europe (2007); R. Collins, Early Medi- 661–1100 (rev. 1990); and D. L. Lewis, eval Europe, 300–1000 (2008); P. Wells, God’s Crucible: Islam and the Making of Barbarians to Angels: The Dark Ages Europe, 570 to 1215 (2008). Reconsidered (2008); and the broader per- Accounts of the founder of Islam spective in S. W. Bauer, The History of the and his teachings include K. Armstrong, Medieval World: From the Conversion of Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet Constantine to the First Crusade (2010). (1993), and J. Brown, Muhammad: A Very For the era of Charlemagne, one may read Short Introduction (2011). The historical R. Collins, Charlemagne (1998); M. Becher, legacy of early Islam is examined in R. Charlemagne (trans. 2003); and M. Cos- Asian, No God but God: The Evolution tambeys, M. Innes, and S. MacLean, The of Islam (2005). The best introduction to Carolingian World (2011). For the tran- Arab history is A. Hourani, A History of the sition out of the medieval period, see Arab Peoples (rev. 2002); other informative C. Briggs, The Body Broken: Medieval accounts include B. Lewis, The Arabs in Europe, 1300–1520 (2011). History (rev. 1993); E. Rogan, The Arabs:

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Suggestions for Further Reading 9

A History (2009); H. Halm, The Arabs: A but highly specialized accounts. The second Short History (trans. 2007); B. Lewis, The volume, M. M. Postan and E. Miller (eds.), Arabs in History (rev. 2002); and J. Retsö, Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages The Arabs in Antiquity: Their History from (1952, 1987), was thoroughly revised for its the Assyrians to the Umayyads (2003). For new edition. For mastery of the sea and its the interaction between civilizations, see D. role in trade, see S. Rose, The Medieval Sea J. Geanakoplos, Medieval Western Civiliza- (2007). The legacy of Europe’s medieval tion and the Byzantine and Islamic Worlds: economy is covered in A. Greif, Institutions Interaction of Three Cultures (1979); D. L. and the Path to the Modern Economy: Les- Lewis, God’s Crucible: Islam and the Mak- sons from Medieval Trade (2006). ing of Europe, 570 to 1215 (2008); and J. Works on medieval urbanization and Tolan, G. Veinstein, and H. Laurens, Europe urban life include D. Nichols, The Growth and the Islamic World: A History (2012). A of the Medieval City (1997); K. D. Lilley, valuable comparative survey of the three Urban Life in the Middle Ages, 1000–1450 cultures is found in M. L. Colish, Medieval (2002) and City and Cosmos: The Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tra- World in Urban Form (2009); N. Pounds, dition, 400–1400 (1998). Readers can fi nd The Medieval City (2005); and D. Nicholas, contrasting accounts of European views of Urban Europe, 1100–1700 (2003). For feu- Islamic societies in E. Said, Orientalism dalism and manorialism, useful introductions (rev. 1995), and M. Rodinson, Europe and are available in F. L. Ganshof, Feudalism the Mystique of Islam (trans. 1987). For the (rev. 1964), and J. S. Critchley, F eudalism medieval European perspective see J. Tolan, (1978). M. Bloch’s classic contributions in- Sons of Ishmael: Muslims through Euro- clude Feudal Society (1938–1940; trans. pean Eyes in the Middle Ages (2008) 1961) and Slavery and Serfdom in the Middle Ages (trans. 1975). The Middle Ages: Economy, Politics, Studies of the emergent monarchical Society states include B. Guenée, States and Rulers For economic development, the pioneering in Later Medieval Europe (trans. 1985), and books by H. Pirenne on the origins of the S. Reynolds, Kingdoms and Communities cities, revival of trade, and other social and in Western Europe, 900–1300 (rev. 1997), economic developments still merit read- which stresses cultural bonds. ing, but they have been superseded by more An important collaborative work is recent research. Among useful histories are C. Tilley (ed.), The Formation of National J. Day, Medieval Market Economy (1987); States in Western Europe (1975). Of the N. J. G. Pounds, An Economic History of many books available for the national for- Medieval Europe (1994); and S. Epstein, mations, the following are a sampling. For An Economic and Social History of Later Germany: G. Barraclough, Origins of Mod- Medieval Europe, 1000–1500 (2009). Also ern Germany (rev. 1984); and T. Reuter, informative are E. Hunt and J. Murray, A Germany in the Early Middle Ages, c. 800– History of Business in Medieval Europe, 1056 (1991). For England: M. T. Clanchy, 1200–1550 (1999), and the more period- England and Its Rulers, 1066–1272 (rev. specifi c A. Verhulst, The Carolingian Econ- 1998); and T. Rowley, The High Middle omy (2002). For ideas about economics in Ages, 1200–1540 (1986) in the Making of the medieval period, see D. Wood, Medieval Britain series. For Spain: A. MacKay, Spain Economic Thought (2002). The volumes in in the Middle Ages: From Frontier to Empire, the collaborative Cambridge Economic His- 1000–1500 (1989); and there is valuable tory of Europe (1941–) provide authoritative information in L. P. Harvey, Islamic Spain,

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10 Suggestions for Further Reading

1250 to 1500 (1990). For France: J. Dunba- already cited but are also examined with bin, France in the Making, 843–1180 (rev. insight in R. C. Dales, The Intellectual Life 2000); J. Bradbury, The Capetians: Kings of of Western Europe (rev. 1992); B. B. Price, France, 987–1328 (2007); and E. James, The Medieval Thought: An Introduction (1992); Origins of France: From Clovis to the Cape- M. L. Colish, Medieval Foundations of the tians, 500–1000 (1980). For the Italian city- Western Intellectual Tradition, 400–1400 states: D. Waley, The Italian City Republics (1997); and S. Brown and J. C. Flores, His- (rev. 1988), and P. J. Jones, The Italian City- torical Dictionary of Medieval Philosophy State: From Commune to Signoria (1997). and Theology (2007). For political thought For a recent overview of the creation of early and philosophy, one may also turn to European states, see, J. Watts, The Making of J. B. Morrall, P olitical Thought in Medieval Polities: Europe, 1300–1500 (2009). Times (rev. 1980); and J. Coleman, A His- tory of Political Thought: From the Middle Social History Ages to the Renaissance (2000). Medieval The fi rst two volumes of A History of Pri- Technology and Social Change (1962) and vate Life, P. Veyne (ed.), From Pagan Rome Medieval Religion and Technology (1978), to Byzantium (1987), and G. Duby (ed.), both by L. White Jr., illustrate the schol- Revelations of the Medieval World (1988), arship that has dispelled the image of the explore aspects of social history, as do early medieval years as technologically H. W. Goetz, Life in the Middle Ages: From stagnant—a position updated in J. Wigels- the Seventh to the Thirteenth Century (1993), worth, Science and Technology in Medieval and R. Fossier, The Axe and the Oath: Ordi- European Life (2006). nary Life in the Middle Ages (trans. 2010). For the universities, one may read the For women in the Middle Ages, their classic work of C. H. Haskins, The Rise of constraints and opportunities, one may read the Universities (1923, 1979); H. Rashdall’s E. Ennen, The Medieval Woman (1990), monumental The Universities of Europe in and the excellent studies found in H. Jew- the Middle Ages (3 vols., 1895; revised and ell, Women in Dark Age and Early Medieval reissued 1936, 1987); and H. Janin, The Europe, c. 500–1200 (2007) and Women in University in Medieval Life, 1179–1499 Late Medieval and Reformation Europe, (2008). For ancient and medieval scientifi c 1200–1550 (2007); and S. Bardsley, Women’s activities as background to the emergence Roles in the Middle Ages (2007). A concise of modern science, an excellent synthesis is and useful summary of the rich fi eld of me- D. C. Lindberg, The Beginnings of Western dieval women’s studies appears in J. M. Ben- Science: The European Scientifi c Tradition nett, Medieval Women in Modern Perspective in Philosophical, Religious, and Institu tional (2000). The transformation of the house- Context, 600 B.C. to A.D. 1450 (1992). hold is masterfully explored in D. Herlihy, Valuable introductions to the church as Medieval Households (1985), which may an institution include The Medieval Church: be supplemented by B. Hanawalt, Of Good A Brief History (1992); I. W. Frank, A His- and Ill Repute: Gender and Social Control in tory of the Medieval Church (trans. 1995); Medieval England (1998), and L. Mitchell, J. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, vol. 1, Family Life in the Middle Ages (2007). Other The Early Church to the Reformation social issues are explored in C. Brooke, The (2010); and F. D. Logan, A History of the Medieval Idea of Marriage (1989), and in Church in the Middle Ages (2013). For the N. Orme, Medieval Children (2001). popes from the earliest times on, a wealth The Middle Ages: Intellect and Piety of information is available in J. N. D. Kelly Intellectual developments and scholasti- (ed.), The Oxford Dictionary of Popes cism are discussed in many of the books (1986); and in E. Duffy, Saints and Sinners:

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Suggestions for Further Reading 11

A History of the Popes (rev. 2002); and synthesis. The Crusades may be approached for all aspects of church history, one may through J. R. Smith, The Crusades: A Short turn to J. McManners, The Oxford Illus- History (1987); T. F. Madden, The New trated History of Christianity (1990). The Concise History of the Crusades (rev. 2005); powerful role of monasteries is covered in T. Asbridge, The First Crusade: A New C. Brooke, The Monastic World, 1000– History—The Roots of Confl ict between 1300 (1974), and C. H. Laurence, Medieval Christianity and Islam (2005); the detailed, Monasticism (1989). Other insights into re- colorful S. Runciman, A History of the Cru- ligious life emerge in J. Clark, The Benedic- sades (3 vols., 1951–1954, 1987); H. E. tines in the Middle Ages (2011). Mayer, The Crusades (rev. and trans. 1988); For the treatment of heresy in medieval the collaborative multivolume K. M. Set- society, one may read E. Le Roy Ladurie, ton (ed.), History of the Crusades (6 vols., Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error 1955–1990); J. Phillips, Holy Warriors: A (trans. 1978); E. Peters, Inquisition (1988); Modern History of the Crusades (2009); A. Roach, The Devil’s World: Heresy and C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New His- and Society, 1100–1300 (2005); M. Fras- tory of the Crusades (2006). Women’s roles setto, Heretic Lives: Medieval Heresy from in the Crusades are discussed in M. Bom, Bogomil and the Cathars to Wyclif and Hus Women in the Military Orders of the Cru- (2007); and R. I. Moore, The War on Heresy sades (2012). The assault on Jewish com- (2012). A sweeping indictment of medieval munities in the Rhineland as a consequence intolerance toward “outside” groups is pre- of the First Crusade is carefully examined sented in R. I. Moore, The Formation of a in R. Chazan, European Jewry and the First Persecuting Society: Power and Deviance Crusade (1987), while the twelfth-century in Western Europe, 950–1250 (rev. 2007), Muslim foe of the Crusaders is studied in A. while scholarly explorations of specifi c Eddé, Saladin (2011). medieval attitudes toward homosexuality can be found in J. Boswell, Christianity, Useful Web Sites and Online Resources Sexual Tolerance, and Homosexuality: Gay A vast range of documents and modern People in Western Europe from the Begin- scholarly works on the ancient and medieval ning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth world can be found at numerous university- Century (1980). On medieval Jewry, one may sponsored Web sites; see, for example, the turn to L. B. Glick, Abraham’s Heirs: Jews Ancient World Mapping Center at the Uni- and Christians in Medieval Europe (1999); versity of North Carolina, http://awmc.unc. R. Chazan, Fashioning Jewish Identity in edu/wordpress/ ; the Perseus Digital Library Medieval Western Christendom (2004); and at Tufts University, www.perseus.tufts.edu/ I. Resnick, Marks of Distinction: Christian hopper/collections ; and the Ancient History Perceptions of Jews in the High Middle Sourcebook at Fordham University’s col- Ages (2012). The roots of anti-Semitism are lection of documents, www.fordham.edu/ explored in R. S. Wistrich, AntiSemitism: Halsall/index.asp , where readers will also The Longest Hatred (1992). fi nd an excellent Internet Medieval Source- book. Other comprehensive sites focusing The Crusades on the medieval era include The Labyrinth The expansion and conquests of medieval at Georgetown University, http://labyrinth. Europeans are described in J. R. S. Phillips, georgetown.edu, which provides helpful The Medieval Expansion of Europe (rev. information on Islam and Byzantium as 1998), and in R. Bartlett, The Making of well as every aspect of medieval Europe. Europe: Conquest, Colonization, and Cul- Additional sources include www.bbc.co.uk/ tural Change, 950–1350 (1993), an important history/ancient/ .

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12 Suggestions for Further Reading

2. THE UPHEAVAL IN WESTERN France (1975), illuminates the religious CHRISTENDOM, 1300–1560 and other beliefs of nonliterate peasants, Two books by J. R. Hale, The Civiliza- and Davis’s The Return of Martin Guerre tion of Europe in the Renaissance (1993) (1983) recounts a fascinating episode in vil- and Renaissance Europe, 1480–1520 (rev. lage life. R. Chartier (ed.), Passions of the 2000), are outstanding. Other helpful over- Renaissance (1988), the third volume of views for these years encompassing the the History of Private Life series, opens the later Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the door to aspects of life among all classes in Reformation include H. F. Koenigsberger, this era. G. Huppert, After the Black Death: Early Modern Europe, 1500–1789 (1987); A Social History of Early Modern Europe E. F. Rice Jr. and A. Grafton, The Founda- (rev. 1998), is a valuable study. Other tions of Early Modern Europe (rev. 1993); aspects of social history are examined in D. Nicholas, The Transformation of Europe, E. M. Wood, Liberty and Property: A So- 1300–1600 (1999); and M. Wiesner-Hanks, cial History of Western Political Thought Early Modern Europe, 1450–1789 (2004). from Renaissance to Enlightenment (2012), There are informative chapters in G. R. Pot- and in R. Jütte, Poverty and Deviance in ter (ed.), The Renaissance, 1493–1520 (rev. Early Modern Europe (1994), a volume in 1991), and G. R. Elton (ed.), The Reforma- the New Approaches to European History tion, 1520–1599 (rev. 1990), vols. 1 and series. The ambivalent position of women in 2 of the New Cambridge Modern History. the Renaissance is ably conveyed in M. L. T. K. Rabb, Renaissance Lives: Portraits of King, Women of the Renaissance (1991), an an Age (rev. 2001), provides vivid accounts outstanding study; I. Maclean, The Renais- of notable fi gures. War and diplomacy are sance Notion of Women (1980); O. Hufton, explored in the classic G. Mattingly, Renais- The Prospect before Her: A History of sance Diplomacy (1971); M. S. Anderson, Women in Western Europe, 1500–1800 The Rise of Modern Diplomacy, 1450– (1995); and M. E. Wiesner, Women and 1919 (1993); and J. R. Hale, War and So- Gender in Early Modern Europe (rev. ciety in Renaissance Europe, 1450–1620 2000), also a volume in the New Approaches (1985, 1998). Diplomacy’s impact on cul- to European History series. More detailed ture is discussed in T. Hampton, Fictions studies are to be found in J. Lynn, Women, of Embassy: Literature and Diplomacy in Armies, and Warfare in Early Modern Early Modern Europe (2009), while E. L. Europe (2008), and N. Z. Davis, Women on Eisenstein explores the printing press as a the Margins: Three Seventeenth-Century direct and indirect agent of cultural change Lives (1997); and the growing presence and in The Printing Revolution in Early Modern role of Africans in early modern European Europe (1984). societies is examined in the excellent volume Much newer social history has cen- by T. F. Earle and K J. P. Lowe (eds.), Black tered on the early modern centuries. Here Africans in Renaissance Europe (2005). P. Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (rev. 1994), ranging in time from Disasters of the Fourteenth Century 1500 to 1800, is a fundamental analysis, Two classic surveys of the era are and H. Kamen, Early Modern European M. McKisack, The Fourteenth Century, Society (rev. 2000) is also helpful. C. Ginz- 1307–1399 (1959, 1991), and B. W. Tuch- burg, The Cheese and the Worms: The man, A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller Fourteenth Century (1978), a vivid account (trans. 1980), reconstructs the mentality of of war, disease, and religious schism written an obscure Italian miller of the age. N. Z. for the general reader. G. Leff, The Disso- Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern lution of the Medieval Outlook: An Essay

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Suggestions for Further Reading 13

on Intellectual Change in the Fourteenth Years’ War: England and France at War, c. Century (1976), despite the title, stresses 1300–c. 1450 (1988), explore the war’s im- the continuity of medieval thought. J. Kaye, pact on both countries. For the perspective Economy and Nature in the Fourteenth of soldiers, see A. Bell, War and the Soldier Century: Money, Market Exchange, and the in the Fourteenth Century (2004). Of the Emergence of Scientifi c Thought (1998), large literature on the “Maid of Orléans,” explores the infl uence of economic life on recent accounts with fresh interpretations early scientifi c thought. The growing rest- are M. Gordon, Joan of Arc (2000), in the lessness within the church before the Ref- Penguin Lives series, and D. Fraioli, Joan ormation is described in F. Oakley, The of Arc and the Hundred Years War (2005). Western Church in the Later Middle Ages For the jacqueries and other popular re- (1979), and R. N. Swanson, Church and volts, one may read M. Mollat and P. Wolff, Society in Late Medieval England (1989). The Popular Revolutions of the Late Mid- Heresies of the period may be examined in dle Ages (trans. 1972), and G. Fourquin, R. Rex, The Lollards (2002); M. Lambert, The Anatomy of Popular Rebellion in the Medieval Heresy: Popular Movements from Middle Ages (trans. 1978). For sociopoliti- the Gregorian Reform to the Reformation cal analysis of popular revolts, see also (rev. 2002); and M. Van Dussen . From Eng- R. I. Moore, The Formation of a Persecuting land to Bohemia: Heresy and Communica- Society: Authority and Deviance in Western tion in the Later Middle Ages (2012). Europe, 950–1250 (rev. 2007), cited earlier. The devastating fourteenth-century The phenomenon of witchcraft in the plague that swept Europe and other parts early modern centuries between 1450 and of the globe from 1347 to 1351 is exam- 1750 has understandably attracted a good ined in W. H. McNeill, Plagues and Peo- deal of attention. During those years more ples (1976), cited earlier; N. F. Cantor, In than 100,000 people, mainly but not exclu- the Wake of the Plague (2001); J. Kelley, sively women, were prosecuted in secular The Great Mortality: An Intimate History and ecclesiastical courts, and many were of the Black Death (2005); W. Naphy and put to death. To understand the phenom- A. Spicer, The Black Death: A History of enon, K. Thomas, Religion and the Decline Plagues 1345–1730 (2000); J. Byrne, Daily of Magic (1971), is of fundamental impor- Life during the Black Death (2006); O. Ben- tance, but one may also turn to J. Klaits, edictow, The Black Death, 1346–1353: The Servants of Satan: The Age of the Witch Complete History (2006); and S. K. Cohn, Hunts (1985); C. Ginzburg, Ecstasies: The Black Death Transformed: Disease Deciphering the Witches’ Sabbath (1991); and Culture in Early Renaissance Europe B. P. Levack, The Witch-Hunt in Early Mod- (2002), which challenges the usual physi- ern Europe (rev. 2006); and J. Russell and ological explanations for the plague. A use- B. Alexander, A History of Witchcraft: Sor- ful work, which includes documents from cerers, Heretics and Pagans (2007). Availa- the era, is J. Alberth, The Black Death: The ble also are M. D. Bailey, Battling Demons: Great Mortality of 1348–1350: A Brief His- Witchcraft, Heresy, and Reform in the Later tory with Documents (2005). The long war Middle Ages (2003); G. K. Waite, Heresy, between France and England over the years Magic, and Witchcraft in Early Modern 1337 to 1453 may be studied in A. Curry, Europe (2003); W. Behringer, Witches and The Hundred Years War (rev. 2003), and J. Witch-Hunts: A Global History (2004); Wagner, Encyclopedia of the Hundred Years R. Briggs, Witches and Neighbors: The War (2006). D. Seward, The Hundred Years Social and Cultural Context of European War: The English in France, 1337–1453 Witchcraft (1997); and S. Clark, Thinking (rev. 1999), and C. Allmand, The Hundred with Demons: The Idea of Witchcraft in

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14 Suggestions for Further Reading

Early Modern Europe (1999), which ana- culture are offered in L. Jardine, Worldly lyzes the intellectual underpinnings of the Goods: A New History of the Renaissance phenomenon. For the waning practice of (1997). The fusion of politics and human- witch hunts, see T. Robisheaux, The Last ism (or “civic humanism”) is traced in a Witch of Langenburg: Murder in a German pioneering work by H. Baron, The Crisis Village (2009). of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Hu- manism and Republican Liberty in an Age The Renaissance in Italy of Classicism and Tyranny (1955, 1966). J. R. Hale (ed.), A Concise Encyclopedia of The relationship of politics and cultural life the Italian Renaissance (1981), is a conveni- is also graphically portrayed in L. Martines, ent reference tool. In addition to the general Power and Imagination: City-States in accounts already cited, one may turn for Renaissance Italy (1979); and the interac- all aspects of the Renaissance to the now- tion between commercial and intellectual classic study by M. P. Gilmore, The World of life is explored in T. Parks, Medici Money: Humanism, 1453–1517 (1952, 1983). The Banking, Metaphysics, and Art in Fifteenth- concept of the “Renaissance” itself, which is Century Florence (2005). still debated, was skillfully explored in clas- Among the many works on Machi- sic works by J. Burckhardt, The Civilization avelli, there is a brief, insightful study by of the Renaissance in Italy (1860, 1990), J. R. Hale, Machiavelli and Renaissance and W. K. Ferguson, The Renaissance in Italy (1960), and a more recent study by the Historical Thought: Five Centuries of In- intellectual historian Q. Skinner, M achi- terpretation (1948). Readers will also fi nd avelli: A Very Short Introduction (2000); important interpretations of Renaissance S. de Grazia, Machiavelli in Hell (1989), culture and its enduring infl uence in W. J. is an intriguing intellectual biography. Bouwsma, The Waning of the Renaissance Other works on this key fi gure include A. (2000), and R. Witt, The Two Latin Cultures J. Parel, The Machiavellian Cosmos (1992); and the Foundation of Renaissance Human- M. Viroli, Machiavelli (1998); M. White, ism in Medieval Italy (2012). For the quick- Machiavelli: A Man Misunderstood (2004); ening of activities in the Italian city-states, and M. Unger, Machiavelli: A Biography one turns to F. Braudel, Out of Italy, 1450– (2011). A provocative analysis of political 1650 (trans. 1992); P. Burke, The Italian Re- thought and discourse from the fi fteenth naissance: Culture and Society in Italy (rev. to the eighteenth century is developed in 1999); E. Welch, Art and Society in Italy, J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Mo- 1350–1500 (1997); J. Najemy (ed.), Italy ment: Florentine Political Thought and the in the Renaissance, 1300–1550 (2004); and Atlantic Republican Tradition (rev. 2003). I. Rowland, From Heaven to Arcadia: The The reception and impact of Machiavelli’s Sacred and the Profane in the Renaissance thought is explored in J. Soll, Publishing (2004). The revived interest in the classics The Prince: History, Reading, and the Birth is examined in R. Weiss, The Renaissance of Political Criticism (2005). Discovery of Classical Antiquity (1969, The city-state provided a rich environ- 1988). The philosophical debates of the ment for the Renaissance. For a general time are examined in B. P. Copenhaver and study of these polities in this period, see C. B. Schmitt, Renaissance Philosophy T. Scott, The City-State in Europe, 1000– (1992); A. Levi, Renaissance and Reforma- 1600: Hinterland, Territory, Region (2012). tion: The Intellectual Genesis (2002); and Numerous studies focusing on each of the J. Hankins (ed.), The Cambridge Com- Italian city-states, of which only a few titles panion to Renaissance Philosophy (2007). can be cited here, have helped illuminate Some additional insights into Renaissance the world of humanism. Much of the focus

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Suggestions for Further Reading 15

has been on Florence, for which G. Brucker, 1988); E. Rummel, Erasmus (2004); and Renaissance Florence (rev. 1983), and G. the interpretations of P. G. Bietenholz, En- Holmes, The Florentine Enlightenment, counters with a Radical Erasmus: Erasmus’ 1400–50 (1992), are the most helpful. Other Work as a Source of Radical Thought in informative studies include J. R. Hale, Flor- Early Modern Europe (2009). For Christian ence and the Medici: The Pattern of Control humanism in general and its contribution to (1978), an especially insightful account; the religious changes of the age, one turns A. Brown, Medicean and Savonarolan to J. H. Overfi eld, Humanism and Scholas- Florence: The Interplay of Politics, Human- ticism in Late Medieval Germany (1984). ism, and Religion (2011); J. Najemy, A His- For the interaction between humanists, see tory of Florence, 1200–1575 (2006); and P. Bénéton, The Kingdom Suffereth Violence: P. Strathern, Death in Florence: The The Machiavelli/Erasmus/More Correspon- Medici, Savonarola and the Battle for the dence and Other Unpublished Documents Soul of the Renaissance City (2011). (trans. 2012) Outstanding studies of Venice with The New Monarchies varying perspectives include F. C. Lane, Good transnational overviews are pro vided Venice: A Maritime Republic (1973); in R. Bonney, The European Dynastic W. H. McNeill, Venice, The Hinge of Europe, States, 1494–1660 (1991), and G. Richard- 1081–1797 (1974); J. Law, Venice and the son, Renaissance Monarchy: The Reigns of Veneto in the Early Renaissance (2000); and A. Henry VIII, Francis I and Charles V (2002). Zorsi, Venice, 697–1797: A City, a Republic, For England, J. Youings, Sixteenth-Century an Empire (2001). Valuable studies in social England (1984), examines all aspects of the and cultural history include G. Ruggiero, age. J. R. Lander, Government and Com- The Boundaries of Eros: Sex Crime, and munity: England, 1450–1509 (1980), de- Sexuality in Renaissance Venice (1985); scribes in detail the curbing of feudal power S. Chojnacki, Women and Men in Renais- and the evolution of the modern state. Also sance Venice (2000); and P. F. Brown, helpful for England are E. F. Jacob, The Private Lives in Renaissance Venice: Art, Fifteenth Century (1961, 1993), and A. Architecture, and the Family (2004). For Goodman, The New Monarchy: England, Rome one may read L. Partridge, The 1471–1534 (1988). For France, several Renaissance in Rome, 1400–1600 (2013), books are illuminating: G. Small, Late Me- and C. L. Stinger, The Renaissance in Rome dieval France (2009); L. Febvre, Life in Re- (reissued 1998). naissance France (trans. 1977); and H. A. Lloyd, The State, France, and the Sixteenth The Renaissance outside Italy Century (1983). Two good biographies of One of the best introductions to the northern “new monarchs” are J. M. Tyrell, Louis Renaissance can still be found in the clas- XI (1980), and R. J. Knecht, Renaissance sic work by J. Huizinga, The Autumn of the Warrior and Patron: The Reign of Francis Middle Ages (1924; new trans., 1996); one I (1982, rev. 1994), the latter a biography should also read the same author’s Erasmus of distinction. The contest between France and the Age of Reformation (1924,1984). and England is covered in D. Potter, Henry Newer works on the cultural history of VIII and Francis I: The Final Confl ict, this region include J. C. Smith, The North- 1540–1547 (2011). ern Renaissance (2004), and K. Heard and L. Whitaker, The Northern Renaissance: General Works on the Reformation Dürer to Holbein (2011). For the Dutch Syntheses of the sixteenth-century upheaval humanist Erasmus, one may also read R. M. in church and society may be found in M. Bainton, Erasmus of Christendom (1969, Gray, The Protestant Reformation: Belief,

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16 Suggestions for Further Reading

Practice, and Tradition (2003); J. Tracy, M. Baylor, The German Reformation and Europe’s Reformations, 1450–1650: Doc- the Peasants’ War: A Brief History with trine, Politics, and Community (2006); Documents (2012). C. Lindberg, The European Reformations An admirable biography of Calvin, cap- (rev. 2010); L. P. Wandel, The Reforma- turing the spirit of the man and his times, is tion: Towards a New History (2011); and W. J. Bouwsma, John Calvin: A Sixteenth- K. Appold, The Reformation: A Brief His- Century Portrait (1987). Also helpful is tory (2011). Other informative accounts D. Steinmetz, Calvin in Context (2010). are available in E. Cameron, The European Studies of the reformer’s thought and infl u- Reformation (1991); D. MacCulloch, The ence include F. Wendel, Calvin: The Origins Reformation: A History (2004); and P. Col- and Development of His Religious Thought linson, The Reformation: A History (2004). (trans. 1963, reissued 1987), and P. Helm, For political and social background one John Calvin’s Ideas (2004). The wider devel- may turn to G. R. Evans, Roots of the Ref- opment of the Calvinist movement is exam- ormation: Tradition, Emergence, and Rup- ined in P. Benedict, Christ’s Churches Purely ture (2012); H. Holborn, A History of Mod- Reformed: A Social History of Calvinism ern Germany: The Reformation (1959), the (2002), and in O. P. Grell, Brethren in Christ: fi rst volume of his three-volume history of A Calvinist Network in Reformation Europe Germany; R. P. Hsia (ed.), The German (2011). For Calvin and Luther in compari- People and the Reformation (1988); R. W. son, see C. Methuen, Luther and Calvin: Scribner, Popular Culture and Popu- Religious Revolutionaries (2011). On another lar Movements in Reformation Germany reformer, see G. R. Potter, Zwingli (1977), an (1987); and T. Brady, German Histories in outstanding biography, and W. P. Stephens, the Age of Reformations, 1400–1650 (2009). Zwingli: An Introduction to His Thought Recent accounts of the leading ruler of the (1992). R. H. Bainton, Hunted Heretic: age are available in W. S. Maltby, The Reign The Life and Death of Michael Servetus of Charles V (2002), and H. Kleinschmidt, (1960), may be compared with J. Friedman, Charles V: The World Emperor (2004). Michael Servetus: A Case Study in Total Biographical accounts of Luther in- Heresy (1978). Studies of another impor- clude R. H. Bainton, Here I Stand: A Life of tant religious reformer can be found in R. K. Martin Luther (1950, 1994); H. Oberman, Marshall, John Knox (2000), and R. Kyle and Luther: Man between God and the Devil D. Johnson, John Knox: An Introduction to (trans. 1990); M. Brecht, Martin Luther His Life and Work (2009). (2 vols., trans. 1985, 1990); and M. Marty, The cities in which the major events of Martin Luther (2004), an interesting analy- the Reformation occurred are examined in sis by a noted American historian of reli- S. E. Ozment, The Reformation in the Cities: gion. E. H. Erikson offers psychoanalytic The Appeal of Protestantism to Sixteenth- insights into the religious leader’s iden- Century Germany and Switzerland (1975), tity crisis in Young Man Luther: A Study and R. Kingdon, Reforming Geneva: in Psychoanalysis and History (1962). See Discipline, Faith and Anger in Calvin’s also G. Brendler, Martin Luther: Theol- Geneva (2012). S. E. Ozment, When Fathers ogy and Revolution (1989). The appeal Ruled: Family Life in Reformation Europe of Lutheran ideas is skillfully analyzed in (1983), describes the patriarchal house- R. W. Scribner, For the Sake of Simple Folk: hold as less tyrannical than traditionally Popular Propaganda in the German Refor- portrayed. R. H. Bainton, Women of the mation (1981); in P. Blickle, The Revolution Reformation (3 vols., 1971–1977), studies of 1525: The German Peasants’ War from the contributions of women to the religious a New Perspective (trans. 1981); and in changes of the era, and K. Stjerna, Women

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and the Reformation (2009), offers more re- research; C. Hill, Reformation to Industrial cent scholarship on the subject. Revolution: The Making of Modern English Society (1967), also emphasizing class in- The Reformation in England terests; and H. R. Trevor-Roper, Religion, The course of the Reformation in England the Reformation, and Social Change (rev. may be approached through a number of 1984), which expresses more skepticism helpful syntheses: A. G. Dickens, The Eng- about the connections between religion and lish Reformation (rev. 1989); J. J. Scaris- class. brick, The Reformation and the English Peo- A distinguished biography focusing on ple (1986); and R. Rex, Henry VIII and the the king as well as the events of his reign is English Reformation (1993). For more on J. J. Scarisbrick, Henry VIII (1968, 1986); the context of the English Reformation, see also thoughtful is L. B. Smith, Henry VIII: J. P. Coby, Thomas Cromwell: Machiavellian The Mask of Royalty (1971), which may be Statecraft and the English Reformation supplemented by the more recent work of (2009), and C. Fletcher, The Divorce of M. A. R. Graves, Henry VIII: A Study in Henry VIII: The Untold Story from Inside Kingship (2000); A. Weir, Henry VIII: The the Vatican (2012). Recent scholarship King and His Court (2001); and L. Wood- is also communicated in P. Marshall and ing, Henry VIII (2009). On the history of A. Ryrie (eds.), The Beginnings of English Henry’s wives, in addition to several indi- Protestantism (2002); in W. I. P. Hazleett, vidual biographies for each, one may read The Reformation in Britain and Ireland: An A. Fraser, The Wives of Henry VIII (1992); Introduction (2003); and in S. Doran and A. Weir, Six Wives of Henry VIII (1992); C. Durston, Princes, Pastors, and Peo- and D. Starkey, Six Wives: The Queens of ple: The Church and Religion in England, Henry VIII (2003). Henry VIII’s two im- 1529–1689 (rev. 2003). mediate successors and their brief reigns The infl uential English scholar, states- are described in S. Alford, Kingship and man, and martyr is studied in R. Marius, Politics in the Reign of Edward VI (2002); Thomas More: A Biography (1985), a some- D. M. Loades, Mary Tudor (1989); and what critical and unsympathetic account; C. Erickson, Bloody Mary: The Life of while P. Ackroyd, The Life of Thomas Mary Tudor (1993). Books on Elizabeth More (1998), and J. A. Guy, Thomas More will be described in the next section, but (2000), develop a more balanced appraisal for studies of religion in all or part of her of a complex personality. Essays and source reign one may turn to A. Morey, The Cath- materials can be found in G. Logan (ed.), olic Subjects of Elizabeth I (1978), and The Cambridge Companion to Thomas P. Collinson’s The Elizabethan Puritan More (2011). The confl icts between English Movement (1967, 1990) and The Religion of Catholics and Protestants are examined in Protestants: The Church in English Society, E. Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars (rev. 1559–1625 (1983). 2005), and in A. F. Marotti, Religious Ide- ology and Cultural Fantasy: Catholic and Other Reformation Themes Anti-Catholic Discourses in Early Modern The various forms of Protestantism are England (2005). placed in doctrinal perspective in B. M. G. Three older but still provocative books Reardon , Religious Thought in the Refor- dealing with the social and economic im- mation (rev. 1995), and A. McGrath, Refor- plications of the Reformation for the fu- mation Thought (1988). The radical move- ture course of England are R. H. Tawney, ments of the era may be studied in G. H. Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926, Williams, The Radical Reformation (rev. 1962), insightful even if modifi ed by later 1992); N. Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millen-

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18 Suggestions for Further Reading

nium: Revolutionary Messianism in Medi- J. P. Donnelly, Ignatius of Loyola: Founder eval and Reformation Europe (rev. 1970); of the Jesuits (2004). A masterful review and M. A. Mullett, Radical Religious Move- of the early Jesuits is J. O’Malley, The ments in Early Modern Europe (1980). An First Jesuits (1999). There are also biogra- important subject is explored in H. Kamen, phies of Loyola by P. Caramon (1990) and The Rise of Toleration (1967). An interest- W. Meissner (1992), the latter a psychoana- ing perspective on the reception of Refor- lytical study. mation doctrine is found in S. Karant-Nunn, The Reformation of Feeling: Shaping the Useful Web Sites and Online Resources Religious Emotions in Early Modern Ger- Several Web sites provide access to infor- many (2010). mation on the crisis of the later Middle On the relation between economic Ages; see, for example, information about change and Protestant religious doctrine, the plague in Britain at the useful site of the especially Calvinism, a debate that was British radio network BBC-History, www. opened by Max Weber in The Protestant bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/ Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904, black_01.shtml , although this is only one 1985) and further developed by R. H. Taw- of the many topics readers can explore on ney in the 1920s, one may read G. Marshall, the BBC-History site; the excellent Internet In Search of the Spirit of Capitalism: An Es- Medieval Sourcebook at Fordham Univer- say on Max Weber’s Protestant Ethic Thesis sity, cited earlier, includes materials on the (1982), a balanced review; and the essays disasters of the fourteenth century at www. in H. Lehmann and G. Roth (eds.), Weber’s fordham.edu/Halsall/sbook.asp . For sources Protestant Ethic (1993), and in W. H. Swa- on the history of witchcraft, one may visit tos Jr. and L. Kaelber (eds.), The Protestant The Witch Hunts at http://history.hanover. Ethic Turns 100: Essays on the Centenary edu/early/wh.html , but this site is now some- of the Weber Thesis (2005), which add what dated and readers may wish to search many new insights. Readers may also be the whole Hanover collection at http:// interested in the themes of J. Fudge, Com- history.hanover.edu/project.php . More links merce and Print in the Early Reformation to the history of all European countries in (2007). the Renaissance era can be found at Me- The Catholic response to the Ref- dieval and Renaissance Europe: Primary ormation is studied in M. D. W. Jones, Historical Documents, http://eudocs.lib The Counter Reformation: Religion and .byu.edu/index.php/Main_Page, where read- Society in Early Modern Europe (1995); ers can also locate helpful material on all R. P. Hsia, The World of Catholic Renewal, aspects of European history. The evolution 1540–1770 (2005); and G. Bedouelle, The of the French state is examined with useful Reform of Catholicism, 1480–1620 (trans. documents and images at a Library of Con- 2008). Important for the Catholic response gress site called Creating French Culture, and other matters is J. Pelikan, Reformation which is available at www.loc.gov/exhibits/ of Church and Dogma, 1300–1700 (1983), bnf/bnf0001.html. The Reformation can be vol. 4 of his The Christian Tradition. H. explored through Fordham University’s His- Jedin, The Council of Trent (2 vols., 1957– tory Sourcebook; and see also the excellent 1961), presents a comprehensive account of links at the Web site of the Centre for Ref- the important council and its reforms. In- ormation and Renaissance Studies, affi li- troductions to the literature on the Society ated with the University of Toronto, at http:// of Jesus are provided in J. Wright, God’s crrs.ca/resources/ . Readers may also consult Soldiers: Adventure, Politics, Intrigue, and http://history-world.org/renaissance.htm for Power: A History of the Jesuits (2004), and further sources and analysis.

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3. THE ATLANTIC WORLD, COM- and Political Change: The Origins of De- MERCE, AND WARS OF RELIGION, mocracy and Autocracy in Early Modern 1560–1648 Europe (1992) is intended to revise and Among the general treatments for these supplement B. Moore, The Social Origins years, covering institutional and interna- of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and tional developments, the best guides are Peasant in the Making of the Modern World G. Parker, Europe in Crisis, 1598–1648 (rev. (1966, reissued 1993). For detailed studies 2001); H. Kamen, Early Modern European of the modernization of warfare and of war- Society (2000), which describes the evolving fare in context, see D. Parrott, The Business social history of the era; V. G. Kiernan, State of War: Military Enterprise and Military and Society in Europe, 1550–1650 (1987); Revolution in Early Modern Europe (2012); and J. H. Elliott, Europe Divided, 1559–1598 M. Mallett and C. Shaw, The Italian Wars, (rev. 2000). F. Braudel’s magisterial work 1494–1559: War, State and Society in Early stressing broad geographic, demographic, Modern Europe (2012); J. Glete, War and and economic developments, The Mediter- the State in Early Modern Europe: Spain, ranean and the Mediterranean World in the the Dutch Republic and Sweden as Fiscal- Age of Philip II (rev. and abr. ed., 1992), has Military States, 1500–1660 (2002); and M. been cited in the introductory section. More Pollak, Cities at War in Early Modern Eu- recent histories of the age include H. Schil- rope (2010). The new professional soldiers’ ling, Early Modern European Civilization social life is discussed in D. Showalter and and Its Political and Cultural Dynamism W. J. Astore, Soldiers’ Lives through His- (2008); and G. Parker, Success Is Never tory: The Early Modern World (2007). Final: Empire, War, and Faith in Early Mod- ern Europe (2002). The Opening of the Atlantic Analytical treatments focusing on the Good introductions to European explora- concept of crisis in the seventeenth cen- tion and settlement, beginning in the pre- tury (and useful also for chapter 4) include Columbian age, are D. Buisseret (ed.), The T. Aston (ed.), Crisis in Europe, 1560– Oxford Companion to World Exploration 1660: Essays from Past and Present (1966); (2007); F. Fernández-Armesto, Before Co- G. Parker and L. M. Smith, The General Cri- lumbus: Exploration and Colonization from sis of the Seventeenth Century (1978); and the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, 1229– T. Munck, Seventeenth-Century Europe: 1492 (1987) and Pathfi nders: A Global His- State, Confl ict, and the Social Order in tory of Exploration (2006); and R. Love, Europe, 1598–1700 (rev. 2005). Agrarian and Maritime Exploration in the Age of Dis- urban unrest is studied in P. Zagorin, Rebels covery, 1415–1800 (2006). An analytical and Rulers, 1500–1660 (2 vols., 1982); J. A. overview of European imperial expansion is Goldstone’s sociological study, Revolution available in D. B. Abernethy, The Dynam- and Rebellion in the Early Modern World ics of Global Dominance: European Over- (1991); and C. Tilly, European Revolutions, seas Empires, 1415–1980 (2000); and there 1492–1992 (1992). Readers will fi nd a is a helpful survey of European expansion well-informed review of popular culture in throughout the world in D. R. Ringrose, Ex- P. Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern pansion and Global Interaction (2001). The Europe (2009). importance of technology for the European The impact of military change on soci- explorations is discussed in C. M. Cip- ety is examined in G. Parker, The Military olla, Guns, Sails, and Empires: 1400–1700 Revolution: Military Innovation and the (1965, reissued 1985), and L. Paine, Ships Rise of the West, 1500–1800 (rev. 1996). of Discovery and Exploration (2000); while B. M. Downing, The Military Revolution R. Unger, Ships on Maps: Pictures of Power

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20 Suggestions for Further Reading

in Renaissance Europe (2012) explores people from all over the globe in this age, the impact of cartography and representa- including the New World. In two thought- tion of the new world order. A. W. Crosby ful books A. W. Crosby demonstrates that tackles these subjects in a far-ranging study, European plants, animals, and diseases had The Measure of Reality: Quantifi cation and as much to do with the success of European Western Society, 1250–1600 (1997). expansion and the consequent devasta- The 500th anniversary of Columbus’s tion of the indigenous peoples as military fi rst voyage stimulated the appearance of conquest did: The Columbian Exchange: numerous books, many vehemently critical Biological and Cultural Consequences of the European impact on the New World of 1492 (1972; rev. 2003) and Ecological and seeing the voyages less as discovery Imperialism: The Biological Expansion than intrusion or conquest, or at best as of Europe, 900–1900 (1986), a broader an encounter between very different peo- study. C. C. Mann describes the diversity of ples and cultures. Three examples of this Native American societies before the arrival critical literature are K. Sale, Christopher of Europeans in 1491: New Revelations of Columbus and the Conquest of Paradise the Americas before Columbus (2005). An- (rev. 2006); T. Todorov, The Conquest of other interesting account of pre-Columbian America: The Question of the Other (trans. North America is T. Horwitz, A Voyage 1984, reissued 1999); and D. E. Stannard, Long and Strange: Rediscovering the New American Holocaust: Columbus and the World (2008). For the impact of the dis- Conquest of the New World (1993). Two coveries on European thought, one may balanced accounts placing Columbus in turn to W. Brandon, New Worlds for Old: the context of his time without overlook- Reports from the New World and Their ing the consequences of the European Effect on the Development of Social Thought arrival are W. D. Phillips Jr. and C. R. Phil- in Europe, 1500–1800 (1986); J. H. Elliott, lips, The Worlds of Christopher Columbus The Old World and the New, 1492–1650 (1991), and C. Mann, 1493: Uncovering (1970, 1992); and A. Pagden’s two books, the New World Columbus Created (2011). European Encounters with the New World: Other scholarly efforts to examine much From Renaissance to Romanticism (1992) that remains obscure about the explorer and Lords of All the World: Ideologies are V. Flint, The Imaginative Landscape of Empire in Spain, Britain, and France, of Christopher Columbus (1992); C. Dela- c. 1500–c. 1850 (1995). The latter may be ney, Columbus and the Quest for Jerusa- compared with the two works of P. Seed, lem (2011); and N. W. Gómez, The Trop- Ceremonies of Possession in Europe’s Con- ics of Empire: Why Columbus Sailed South quest of the New World, 1492–1640 (1995) to the Indies (2008). Recent literature on and American Pentimento: The Invention of Columbus and his time include L. Bergreen, Indians and the Pursuit of Riches (2001). Columbus: The Four Voyages (2011), and One will also fi nd additional perspectives D. Hunter, The Race to the New World: on the cross-cultural encounter in the work Christopher Columbus, John Cabot, and of the demographic historian M. Livi Bacci, a Lost History of Discovery (2011). P. K. Conquest: The Destruction of the American Liss, Isabel the Queen (1992), is a thought- Indios (trans. 2008). On European interac- ful biography of his patron. tions with native peoples in the years after A splendidly illustrated catalog pre- the initial explorations, see the important pared for an exhibition to commemorate the books of J. Axtell, Beyond 1492: Encoun- quincentenary, J. A. Levenson (ed.), Circa ters in Colonial North America (1993) and 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration (1991), Natives and Newcomers: The Cultural Ori- presents the impressive art and artifacts of gins of North America (2001).

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Portugal and Spain in Europe Other appraisals of the subject appear in B. and Overseas Netanyahu, The Origins of the Inquisition A good introduction to the overseas exploits in Fifteenth-Century Spain (rev. 2001); J. of both countries is available in L. N. McAl- Perez, The Spanish Inquisition: A History ister, Spain and Portugal in the New World, (trans. 2005); and H. Rawlings, The Spanish 1492–1700 (1983). Portuguese maritime Inquisition (2006). and colonial enterprises are recounted in Although G. Mattingly, The Armada C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Em- (1959, 1989), remains the classic study of pire: 1415–1825 (rev. 1991); F. Bethencourt this dramatic episode in its diplomatic and and D. R. Curto (eds.), Portuguese Oceanic ideological setting, readers may also turn to Expansion, 1400–1800 (2007); and M. Ne- C. Martin and G. Parker, The Spanish Ar- witt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Ex- mada (rev. 1999); F. Fernández-Armesto, pansion, 1400–1668 (2005). On Portugal, The Spanish Armada: The Experience of there are sound histories by J. M. Anderson, War in 1588 (1989); and the more recent The History of Portugal (2000), and D. Bir- J. McDermott, England and the Spanish mingham, A Concise History of Portugal Armada: The Necessary Quarrel (2005); (rev. 2003); and on the Iberian peninsula as N. Hanson, The Confi dent Hope of A Mira- a whole, S. G. Payne, A History of Spain cle: The True History of the Spanish Arma- and Portugal (2 vols., 1973). da (2005); and R. Matthews, The Spanish The best accounts for Spain in the early Armada: A Campaign in Context (2009). modern centuries are J. H. Elliott, Imperial Books examining Spain after the age of Spain, 1469–1714 (1964, reissued, 2002), Philip II include R. A. Stradling, Philip IV which may be supplemented by his Spain and the Government of Spain, 1621–1665 and Its World, 1500–1700 (1986); J. Lynch, (1988), and two outstanding studies by J. H. Spain under the Habsburgs, 1516–1700 Elliott: The Revolt of the Catalans: A Study (2 vols.; rev. 1992); and H. Kamen, Empire: in the Decline of Spain, 1598–1640 (1963, How Spain Became a World Power, 1492– 1984) and The Count-Duke of Olivares: The 1763 (2003). The origins of the Spanish Statesman in an Age of Decline (1986), on Empire are explored in the intriguing work Philip IV’s principal adviser from 1621 to by S. Bown, 1494: How a Family Feud in 1643. Medieval Spain Divided the World in Half For the Spanish Empire in the new (2012). Social trends in Spanish society are world, one may read C. Gibson, Spain in discussed in J. Casey, Early Modern Spain: America (1966, 1990); S. J. Stein and B. A Social History (1999). For the Spanish H. Stein, Silver, Trade, and War: Spain and monarch, one may read G. Parker, Philip America in the Making of Early Modern II (rev. 1995) and The Grand Strategy of Europe (2000); D. J. Weber, The Spanish Philip II (1998). H. Kamen, Philip of Spain Frontier in North America (1995); and (1997), is more sympathetic than other bio- C. M. MacLachlan, Spain’s Empire in the graphical accounts. More recent accounts New World: The Role of Ideas in Institu- of Philip’s important reign are found in tional and Social Change (1988). A pioneer D. de Lario (ed.), Re-shaping the World: inquiry into the impact of the discovery of Philip II of Spain and His Time (2008). silver upon economic changes in Europe On the Spanish arm of the Counter- was E. J. Hamilton, American Treasure and Reformation, see H. Kamen, The Spanish the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501–1650 Inquisition: A Historical Revision (1997), (1934, 1965), although some of its conclu- which attempts to redress the balance in sions have been modifi ed. The subject is favor of a less harsh judgment, to which also examined in J. N. Ball, Merchants and even his own earlier writings contributed. Merchandise: The Expansion of Trade in

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22 Suggestions for Further Reading

Europe, 1500–1630 (1977); H. Erlichman, which the emerging Atlantic economy was Conquest, Tribute, and Trade: The Quest for supported by African slavery. The grim Precious Metals and the Birth of Globaliza- story of the slave trade is also recounted tion (2010); and P. Koch, Imaginary Cities in many other notable books, among them of Gold: The Spanish Quest for Treasure in J. Pope-Hennessy, Sins of the Fathers: A North America (2009). Study of the Atlantic Slave Traders, 1441– For the Spanish conquest, readers may 1807 (1968); P. D. Curtin, The Atlantic turn to M. Wood, Conquistadors (2000), and Slave Trade (1969); and H. S. Klein, The M. Restall and F. Fernández-Armesto, The Middle Passage (1978). H. Thomas, The Conquistadors: A Very Short Introduc- Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic tion (2012). Other historical scholarship is Slave Trade, 1440–1870 (1997), graphi- refl ected in R. L. Marks, Cortés: The Great cally conveys its multinational character. Adventurer and the Fate of Aztec Mexico The role of Africans in the slave trade is (1993), and in H. Thomas, Conquest: Mon- found in the renowned J. Thornton, Africa tezuma, Cortés, and the Fall of Old Mexico and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic (1994). On attempts by the church and oth- World, 1400–1800 (1998), and debated in ers to mitigate the evils of the conquest, one E. Konde, European Invention of African still turns to L. Hanke, The Spanish Strug- Slavery: Origins of the Atlantic Slave Trade gle for Justice in the Conquest of America in West Africa and the African Diaspora in (1949, reissued 2002), now updated with the Americas (2006). A recent update to ma- two recent books on the Spanish regime’s terial covered in the classic texts mentioned most famous critic: L. Clayton, Bartolomé above is found in H. S. Klein, The Atlantic de las Casas: A Biography (2012) and Bar- Slave Trade (2010). Two valuable syntheses tolomé de las Casas and the Conquest of the of historical writings on slavery in its North Americas (2011). Some of the best scholarly American setting are P. Kolchin, American accounts of the enforced labor and demo- Slavery, 1619–1877 (1993), and I. Berlin, graphic consequences of the conquest may Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Cen- still be found in the chapters contributed to turies of Slavery in North America (1998). L. Bethell (ed.), The Cambridge History of Latin America, vols. 1 and 2, Colonial Latin Changing Social Structures, Early America (1988). Capitalism, Mercantilism The Atlantic slave trade and slavery, A key study of early modern economic his- which launched the massive, forced migra- tory is J. De Vries, The Economy of Europe tions of people that historians now call the in an Age of Crisis, 1600–1750 (1976). The African Diaspora, can be studied in numer- context of exploration-era, precapitalist ous important historical works. Among the commerce is covered in M. Howell, Com- most informative are H. S. Klein, African merce before Capitalism in Europe, 1300– Slavery in Latin America and the Carib- 1600 (2010). One may also consult C. M. bean (1987); V. B. Thompson, The Making Cipolla, Before the Industrial Revolution: of the African Diaspora in the Americas, European Society and Economy, 1000–1700 1441–1900 (1988); R. Blackburn, The Mak- (rev. 1994); P. Kriedte, Peasants, Landlords, ing of New World Slavery (1997); D. Eltis, and Merchant Capitalists: Europe and the The Rise of African Slavery in the Ameri- World Economy, 1500–1800 (1983); A. K. cas (2000); and W. Klooster and A. Padula Smith, Creating a World Economy: Mer- (eds.), The Atlantic World: Essays on Slav- chant Capital, Colonialism, and World ery, Migration, and Imagination (2005). Trade, 1400–1825 (1991); and A. Maddi- E. Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (1944, son, Growth and Interaction in the World reissued 1994), emphasized the ways in Economy: The Roots of Modernity (2005).

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The rapid economic change in Western Europe, 1000–1994 (rev. 1995); J. De Vries, Europe is placed in a wider geographical European Urbanization, 1500–1800 (1984); context in E. L. Jones, The European Mira- and the longue durée perspective of P. Clark, cle: Environments, Economics, and Geo- European Cities and Towns: 400–2000 politics in the History of Europe and Asia (2009). There are valuable chapters in C. M. (rev. 2003), and in J. Baechler et al. (eds.), Cipolla (ed.), The Fontana Economic His tory Europe and the Rise of Capitalism (1988). of Europe: The Sixteenth and Seventeenth A remarkable though often impres- Centuries (1974), and in E. E. Rich and sionistic account of social and economic C. H. Wilson (eds.), Cambridge Economic change in the early modern centuries is the History of Europe, vol. 4 (1976) and vol. 5 three-volume work of F. Braudel, Civiliza- (1977). tion and Capitalism, 15th–18th Century (trans. 1981–1984; reissued 1992): vol. 1, Revolt of the Netherlands The Structures of Everyday Life; vol. 2, The G. Parker, The Dutch Revolt (1977), an Wheels of Commerce; and vol. 3, The Per- admirable comprehensive study, may be spective of the World. The broad themes of compared with P. Geyl’s masterful, classi- the work are summarized in Afterthoughts cal accounts, The Revolt of the Netherlands, on Material Civilization and Capitalism 1555–1609 (1932; trans. 1958) and The (trans. 1977). Another large-scale study, Netherlands in the Seventeenth Century, refl ecting the infl uence of Braudel and 1609–1715 (2 vols.; trans. 1961–1964). focusing on the shifting of economic power, More recent contributions include J. D. is I. Wallerstein, The Modern World-System Tracy, The Founding of the Dutch Repub- (4 vols., 1974, reissued 2011), analyzing the lic: War, Finance, and Politics in Holland, origins of the world economy, mercantilism, 1572–1588 (2009), and J. Pollman, Catholic and the expansion of the global economy Identity and the Revolt of the Netherlands, from 1730 to the 1840s. The development 1520–1635 (2011). Dutch political culture of a capitalist economy is also traced in is examined in H. H. Rowen, The Princes W. N. Parker, Europe, America, and the of Orange: The Stadholders in the Dutch Wider World: Essays on the Economic His- Republic (1988), and K. W. Swart, William tory of Western Capitalism (2 vols., 1984, of Orange and the Revolt of the Netherlands, 1991); and important intercultural dimen- 1572–84 (2003). The Spanish military sions are added in P. D. Curtin, Cross-Cultural effort to quell the 80-year revolt of the Neth- Trade in World History (1984). Much of the erlands is covered admirably in G. Parker, debate on the early modern centuries focus- The Army of Flanders and the Spanish es on the continuity of European economic Road, 1567–1659: The Logistics of Spanish history since the Middle Ages and on early Victory and Defeat in the Low Countries’ industrialization. The debate on “protoin- Wars (2004). dustrialization” is examined in P. Kriedte (ed.), Industrialization before Industriali- The Tudor Age: Elizabethan England zation: Rural Industry and the Genesis of The best older syntheses for the Tudor mon- Capitalism (1981), and in M. P. Gutmann, archs are G. R. Elton, England under the Toward the Modern Economy: Early Indus- Tudors (rev. 1991); and J. Guy, Tudor Eng- try in Europe, 1500– 1800 (1988). land (1988); a useful collection of articles For demography one may turn to M. is available in J. Guy (ed.), The Tudor Mon- W. Flynn, The European Demographic Sys- archy (1997). Informative for the Tudors tem, 1500–1820 (1981); and for the growth and their successors are D. M. Loades, of cities one may consult P. M. Hohen- Politics and Nation: England, 1450–1660 berg and L. H. Lees, The Making of Urban (rev. 1999), and J. Guy and J. Morrill, The

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24 Suggestions for Further Reading

Tudors and Stuarts (1993), a volume in the Social and economic changes of this age Oxford History of Britain. and the following period are masterfully For the Elizabethan era, one may read explored in L. Stone, The Crisis of the Aris- W. T. MacCaffrey’s trilogy of distinction— tocracy, 1558–1641 (1965; abr. ed., 1967); The Shaping of the Elizabethan Regime and in L. Stone and J. C. Stone, An Open (1968), Queen Elizabeth and the Making of Elite? England, 1540–1880 (1984; abr. ed., Policy, 1572–1588 (1981), and Elizabeth I: 1986), which questions upward social mo- War and Politics, 1588–1603 (1992). For the bility in England. Other important studies religious question in these years, one may are G. E. Mingay, The Gentry: The Rise and turn to D. MacCulloch, The Later Reforma- Fall of a Ruling Class (1976); I. W. Archer, tion in England, 1547–1603 (rev. 2001). The Pursuit of Stability: Social Relations in For the militant faith of Elizabeth and the Elizabethan London (1991); and the recent Tudors, see S. Ronald, Heretic Queen: Queen challenging text by P. Withington, Society Elizabeth I and the Wars of Religion (2012); in Early Modern England: The Vernacular L. Álvarez-Recio, Fighting the Antichrist: Origins of Some Powerful Ideas (2010). A Cultural History of Anti-Catholicism in Historical research to reconstruct the Tudor England (trans. 2011); and D. Eppley, history of the family is brilliantly exempli- Defending Royal Supremacy and Discerning fi ed in L. Stone’s several works: The Family, God’s Will in Tudor England (2007). On the Sex, and Marriage in England, 1500–1800 naval and imperial side, one may also read (1977; abr. ed., 1979), Road to Divorce: D. B. Quinn and A. N. Ryan, England’s England, 1530–1987 (1990), and a volume Sea Empire, 1550–1642 (1983), and K. R. of revealing case studies, Uncertain Un- Andrews, Trade, Plunder, and Settlement: ions and Broken Lives: Marriage and Di- Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the vorce in England, 1660–1857 (1995). Other British Empire, 1480–1630 (1985). recommended studies are A. Macfarlane, Of the numerous biographies of Eliza- Marriage and Love in England: Modes beth, one may read A. Somerset, Elizabeth I of Reproduction, 1300–1840 (1987), and (1992, 2003), a lively volume; S. Bassnett, B. J. Harris, English Aristocratic Women Elizabeth I: A Feminist Perspective (1988); 1450–1550: Marriage and Family, Property D. M. Loades, Elizabeth I (2003); and and Careers (2002). the concise account in S. Doran, Queen Two important books are P. Laslett, The Elizabeth I (2003). There are other com- World We Have Lost: England before the In- mendable studies by L. B. Smith (1976), dustrial Age (1965, rev. 2004), a pioneering E. Erickson (1983), A. Weir (1998), C. Haigh work that presents a somewhat overly sta- (rev. 2001), and J. Richards (2012). A. Fraser, ble picture of these years, and E. A. Wrigley among her many notable volumes, has writ- and R. S. Schofi eld, The Population History ten Mary Queen of Scots (1969, 1993). On of England, 1541–1871 (1981), a model of Elizabeth’s devoted courtier, H. Kelsey, Sir demographic research. Francis Drake: The Queen’s Pirate (1998), is a scholarly account. For women’s agency Disintegration and Reconstruction of in the period, see R. Warnicke, Wicked France Women of Tudor England: Queens, Aristo- Informative introductions to the religious crats, Commoners (2012). and dynastic turmoil in sixteenth-century An overview of society and economy is France include R. Briggs, Early Modern helpfully presented in D. M. Palliser, The Age France, 1560–1715 (rev. 1998); H. A. Lloyd, of Elizabeth: England under the Later Tu- The State, France, and the Sixteenth Century dors, 1547–1603 (rev. 1992), and J. Forgeng, (1983); and R. J. Knecht, French Renais- Daily Life in Elizabethan England (2010). sance Monarchy: Francis I and Henry II

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(rev. 1996) and The French Renaissance Age (2009); and the comprehensive work of Court, 1483–1589 (2008). J. H. M. Salmon’s N. M. Sutherland, Henry IV of France and two books are of special value: Society in the Politics of Religion: 1572–1596 (2 vols., Crisis: France in the Sixteenth Century (rev. 2002). A broader look at the Bourbon dy- 1979) and Renaissance and Revolt: Essays nasty is found in J. H. Shennan, The Bour- in the Intellectual and Social History of bons: The History of a Dynasty (2007). Early France (1987). Major French works Constitutional developments are com- available in translation are R. Mandrou, In- prehensively explored in J. R. Major, Rep- troduction to Modern France, 1500–1640: resentative Government in Early Modern An Essay in Historical Psychology (trans. France (1980), stressing the vitality of the 1976); E. Le Roy Ladurie’s two studies early representative bodies. For the devel- The French Peasantry, 1450–1660 (rev. opment of absolutism, see H. H. Rowen, and trans. 1986) and Early Modern France, The King’s State: Proprietary Dynasticism 1460–1610 (trans. 1993); and R. Mousnier, in Early Modern France (1980); E. Le Roy The Institutions of France under the Abso- Ladurie, The Royal French State, 1460– lute Monarchy, 1598–1789 (2 vols., trans. 1610 (trans. 1994); J. B. Collins, The State 1979–1984), an exhaustive study of society in Early Modern France (2009); and and the state. Readers may also fi nd interest- A. James, The Origins of French Absolut- ing perspectives in M. Randall, The Gargan- ism, 1598–1661 (2006). The cultural values tuan Polity: On the Individual and the Com- of the early modern nobility are examined in munity in the French Renaissance (2008). E. Schalk, From Valor to Pedigree: Ideas of The religious wars are explored in Nobility in France in the Sixteenth and Seven- N. M. Sutherland’s The Huguenot Struggle teenth Centuries (1986), and K. B. Neuschel, for Recognition (1980); B. B. Diefendorf, Word of Honor: Interpreting Noble Culture in Beneath the Cross: Catholics and Hugue- Sixteenth-Century France (1989). nots in Sixteenth-Century Paris (1991); For the era of Louis XIII and the minis- H. Heller, Iron and Blood: Civil Wars in Six- ter who overshadowed him, one fi nds helpful teenth-Century France (1991); M. P. Holt, information in V. L. Tapié, France in the Age The French Wars of Religion, 1562–1629 of Louis XIII and Richelieu (trans. 1974; (rev. 2005); and R. J. Knecht, The French reissued 1984). The scholarship on Rich- Wars of Religion, 1559–1598 (2010). The elieu includes J. Bergin, The Rise of Rich- 1572 atrocities in Paris are summarized with elieu (1991); R. J. Knecht, Richelieu helpful source materials in B. Diefendorf, (1991); D. Parrott, Richelieu’s Army: War, The Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre: A Government, and Society in France, Brief History with Documents (2009). The 1624–1642 (2001); and A. Levi, Cardinal family most known for their war against Richelieu and the Making of France (2000). the Huguenots is discussed in S. Carroll, The strengthening of royal power under Martyrs and Murderers: The Guise Fam- Richelieu and his successor is examined in ily and the Making of Europe (2009). The R. Bonney, Society and Government in intellectual dimension is examined in D. R. France under Richelieu and Mazarin, 1624– Kelley, The Beginning of Ideology: Con- 1661 (1988); J. B. Collins, The State in Early sciousness and Society in the French Ref- Modern France (1995); A. Tziampiris, Faith ormation (1981). An illuminating biogra- and Reason of State: Lessons from Early phy of the fi rst Bourbon king, D. Buisseret, Modern Europe and Cardinal Richelieu Henri IV (1984), may be supplemented by (2009); and J.-V. Blanchard, Éminence: R. S. Love, Blood and Religion: The Con- Cardinal Richelieu and the Rise of France science of Henry IV, 1553–1593 (2001); (2011). The king himself is studied in V. Pitts, Henri IV of France: His Reign and A. Lloyd Moote, Louis XIII: The Just (1989).

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26 Suggestions for Further Reading

The Thirty Years’ War, 1618–1648 4. THE GROWING POWER OF A valuable, authoritative account is G. Parker WESTERN EUROPE, 1640–1715 (ed.), The Thirty Years’ War (rev. 1997), which General accounts of the seventeenth century includes chapters on all phases of the war. overlap with many of the books described Other accounts include the classic work by for chapter 3. Informative general works in- C. V. Wedgwood (1938, reissued 2005), and clude D. H. Pennington, Europe in the Sev- P. Wilson, The Thirty Years War: Europe’s enteenth Century (rev. 1989); J. Bergin (ed.) Tragedy (2009). Biographical accounts of The Seventeenth Century: Europe, 1598– key leaders can be found in G. Mortimer, 1715 (2001); and D. J. Sturdy, Fractured Wallenstein: The Enigma of the Thirty Years Europe, 1600–1721 (2002). Two commend- War (2010), and M. Roberts, Gustavus Adol- able general histories that begin with these phus (1992). A detailed treatment of all as- years are W. Doyle, The Old European Or- pects of Swedish history is to be found in der, 1660–1800 (rev. 1992), and G. R. R. the books of M. Roberts: The Early Vasas: Treasure, The Making of Modern Europe, A History of Sweden, 1523–1611 (1968, 1648–1780 (1985). For interesting perspec- 1986); Gustavus Adolphus and the Rise of tives on the impact of confl ict on society Sweden (1973); The Swedish Imperial Expe- and individuals, see F. Benigno, Mirrors rience, 1560–1718 (1979); and The Age of of Revolution: Confl ict and Political Iden- Liberty: Sweden, 1719–1772 (1986). tity in Early Modern Europe (2010). For international affairs, diplomacy, and war, Useful Web Sites and Online Resources two thoughtful accounts are D. McKay and Print and artistic resources on European ex- H. M. Scott, The Rise of the Great Powers, ploration in the Atlantic world are available 1648–1815 (1983), and J. Black, The Rise at an excellent Web site, American Journeys, of the European Powers, 1679–1793 (1990). www.americanjourneys.org , at the Wiscon- The diplomatic practices and institutions of sin Historical Society. There are additional the age are described in O. Asbach and P. sources on the age of explorations at Euro- Schröder (eds.), War, the State, and Interna- pean Voyages of Exploration, which may be tional Law in Seventeenth-Century Europe found at www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/ (2010), while the nature of warfare is ex- tutor/eurvoya/. There is much helpful infor- amined in M. S. Anderson, War and Society mation on the Atlantic Slave trade at the Web in Europe of the Old Regime, 1618–1789 site Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade (rev. 1998), and in J. Black, European War- Database www.slavevoyages.org/tast/index. fare in a Global Context, 1660–1815 (2007). faces , which was developed by researchers at Emory University. For a well-organized The Dutch Republic site on all aspects of Tudor England, readers For the Netherlands in the seventeenth may visit Tudor History at http://tudorhistory. century, one may read M. Prak, The Dutch org/ ; and there is a useful Web site for cur- Republic in the Seventeenth Century: The rent research on this era in French history at Golden Age (trans. 2005), an excellent in- Historians of Early Modern France, w w w . troduction, and S. Schama, The Embarrass- history.emory.edu/BEIK/index.htm, and for ment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch the Wars of Religion, http://faculty.ucc.edu/ Culture in the Golden Age (1988), an ex- egh-damerow/french_wars_of_religion.htm . emplary synthesis of art history and social Helpful material on an important confl ict history. Of special interest are three books may be found at The Thirty Years War, w w w . by J. I. Israel: The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, pipeline.com/ cwa/TYWHome.htm. Readers Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 (1995), will also fi nd numerous other sites on early The Dutch Republic and the Hispanic modern European history by visiting Best World, 1606–1661 (1982), and Dutch Pri- History Web Sites cited earlier. macy in World Trade, 1585–1740 (1989).

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A nuanced look at the political structures Books on the gentry and aristocracy have and culture of the Dutch state is found in been cited for chapter 3; to them should G. Janssen, Princely Power in the Dutch be added J. V. Beckett, The Aristocracy in Republic: Patronage and William Frederick England, 1660–1914 (1988). of Nassau, 1613–64 (trans. 2008). Colo- Few subjects have been as debated nial expansion is described in C. R. Boxer, as the political and religious confl icts in The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600–1800 seventeenth-century England. Some histo- (1965); the Dutch economy is examined in rians stress class and ideological confl ict J. A. van Houtte, An Economic History of and interpret the events as the fi rst modern the Low Countries, 800–1800 (1977), and European revolution. Others downplay what its effects on Dutch Culture are explored they see as anachronistic ideological inter- in J. L. Price, Dutch Culture in the Golden pretations, emphasize local rivalries, and Age (2011); J. B. Hochstrasser, Still Life insist on the importance of day-to-day con- and Trade in the Dutch Golden Age (2007); tingencies. As an introduction to divergent and the expansive H. Cook, Matters of interpretations, one may compare L. Stone, Exchange: Commerce, Medicine, and Sci- The Causes of the English Revolution, ence in the Dutch Golden Age (2007). 1629–1642 (rev. 2002), and three books with For William of Orange, an excellent much the same title by C. Russell (1990), A. study is S. B. Baxter, William III and the Hughes (rev. 1998), and N. Carlin (1999). For Defense of European Liberty, 1650–1702 the religious controversies of the period, see (1966). A comprehensive biography of a P. C. H. Lim, Mystery Unveiled: The Crisis of leading Dutch statesman is H. H. Rowen, the Trinity in Early Modern England (2012), Jan de Witt: Statesman of “True Freedom” and K. Fincham and N. Tyacke, Altars (1978; abr. 1986). Restored: The Changing Face of English Religious Worship, 1547–c. 1700 (2007). Seventeenth-Century England The diversity and infl uences of specifi c sects Three judicious accounts of the seventeenth- and religious movements are examined in century political and religious confl icts are P. Mack, Visionary Women: Ecstatic Proph- D. Hirst, Authority and Confl ict: England, ecy in Seventeenth-Century England (1992); 1603–1658 (1986); D. Hirst, England in D. Wallace, Shapers of English Calvinism, Confl ict, 1603–1660: Kingdom, Community, 1660–1714: Variety, Persistence, and Trans- Commonwealth (1999); and G. E. Aylmer, formation (2011); P. Ha, English Presbyte- Rebellion or Revolution? England, 1640– rianism, 1590–1640 (2011); C. Haigh, The 1660 (1986). Other recommended general Plain Man’s Pathways to Heaven: Kinds of works include A. Stroud, Stuart England Christianity in Post-Reformation England, (1999); R. Lockyer, The Early Stuarts: A 1570–1640 (2007); and C. Baker, Religion Political History of England, 1603–1642 in the Age of Shakespeare (2007). (rev. 1999) and Tudor and Stuart Britain, For the general reader, the narrative 1485–1714 (rev. 2005); B. Coward, The excitement of the events is captured in Stuart Age: England 1603–1714 (rev. 2003); C. V. Wedgwood’s classic trilogy The King’s and R. Bucholz and N. Key, Early Modern Peace, 1637–1641 (1955, reissued 1983), England, 1485–1714 (2004). For social and The King’s War, 1641–1647 (1959), and economic developments, illuminating studies A Coffi n for King Charles: The Trial and include C. Wilson, England’s Apprentice- Execution of Charles I (1964), in which she ship, 1603–1763 (rev. 1984); K. Wright- demonstrates that the “why” (the analysis) son, English Society, 1580–1680 (1982); must fl ow from the “how” (the narrative). and J. A. Sharpe, Early Modern England: A A dramatic account, with considerable at- Social History, 1550–1760 (rev. 1997). tention to military aspects, is C. Hibbert,

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28 Suggestions for Further Reading

Cavaliers and Roundheads: The English C. Hibbert, Charles I: A Life of Religion, Civil War, 1642–1649 (1993). For the open- War and Treason (2007). On the prelate ing episodes of these years, see J. Adam- who reinforced the king’s persecution of the son, The Noble Revolt: The Overthrow of Puritans, H. R. Trevor-Roper’s impressive Charles I (2007), and K. Sharpe, The Per- Archbishop Laud, 1573–1645 (rev. 1988) sonal Rule of Charles I (1992). These may remains valuable, but it should be read be compared with the more contextual ac- along with C. Carlton, Archbishop William counts in L. J. Reeve, Charles I and the Laud (1988). Road to Personal Rule (1989); R. Bren- For Cromwell, some maintain that the ner, Merchants and Revolution (1992); and classic work of C. Firth, Oliver Cromwell G. Yerby, People and Parliament: Repre- and the Rule of the Puritans in England sentative Rights and the English Revolution (1900; reissued many times) remains the (2008). Of special interest also is C. Carl- best biographical account, but more recent ton, Going to the Wars: The Experience of studies include B. Coward, Oliver Crom- the British Civil Wars, 1638–1651 (1992). well (1991); D. L. Smith, Oliver Cromwell: Studies that downplay broader ideo- Politics and Religion in the English Revo- logical interpretations but provide detailed lution, 1640–1658 (1991); and I. Gentles, narrative and analysis include C. Russell’s Oliver Cromwell: God’s Warrior and the books The Crisis of Parliaments (1971), English Revolution (2011). Cromwell’s Parliaments and English Politics, 1621– military leadership is examined in A. Mar- 1629 (1979), and The Fall of the British shall, Oliver Cromwell: Soldier: The Mili- Monarchies, 1637–1742 (1991), which may tary Life of a Revolutionary at War (2004), be read along with J. Morrill, The Revolt of while impressive studies of Cromwell’s the Provinces: Conservatism and Revolu- army include I. Gentles, The New Model tion in the English Civil War, 1630–1650 Army in England, Ireland, and Scotland, (1980) and The Nature of the English Rev- 1645–1653 (1992), and K. Roberts, Crom- olution (1993), a collection of essays. A well’s War Machine: The New Model Army broad perspective on the Revolution is also 1645–1660 (2005). Good introductions to available in I. Gentles, The English Revolu- the Cromwellian era and the interregnum tion and the Wars in the Three Kingdoms, include R. Hutton, The British Republic, 1638–1652 (2007). 1649–1660 (1990), and P. Little and D. L. General studies on the Stuart dynasty Smith, Parliaments and Politics during the can be found in B. Coward, The Stuart Age: Cromwellian Protectorate (2007); a more England, 1603–1714 (2012), while the Stu- detailed study is A. Woodrych, Common- art impact on English political culture is wealth to Protectorate (1982). covered in C. Kyle, Theater of State: Parlia- Christopher Hill has done much to ment and Political Culture in Early Stuart infl uence class and ideological interpreta- England (2012). Studies of the fi rst Stuart tions of seventeenth-century events. His king in England include R. Lockyer, James several Marxist-inspired but not dogmatic VI and I (1998); W. B. Patterson, King books emphasize that the ideas of the age James VI and I and the Reunion of Chris- refl ected economic class interests and that tendom (1997); and D. Newton, The Mak- many contemporary political and social is- ing of the Jacobean Regime: James VI and sues fi rst emerged in the radicalism of the I and the Government of England, 1603– period. Among Hill’s notable works are 1605 (2005). Assessments of his ill-fated Puritanism and Revolution (1958), The successor appear in C. Carlton, Charles I: Century of Revolution, 1603–1714 (1961, The Personal Monarch (rev. 1995); R. Cust, 1980), Intellectual Origins of the English Charles I: A Political Biography (2005); and Revolution (rev. 1997), The World Turned

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Upside Down: Radical Ideas during the and Ireland, 1450–1660 (2007), which cov- English Revolution (1972), Change and ers the Tudor and Cromwellian conquests, Continuity in Seventeenth-Century England and G. Southcombe and G. Tapsell, Restora- (rev. 1991), and England’s Turning Point: tion Politics, Religion, and Culture: Britain Essays on 17th-Century English History and Ireland, 1660–1714 (2010), on the post- (1998). Additional accounts of the radical- Cromwellian integration. A longer historical ism of the age appear in G. E. Aylmer, The perspective on Ireland’s history is developed Levelers in the English Revolution (1975); in S. J. Connolly, Divided Kingdom: Ireland, B. Manning, The English People and the 1630–1800 (2008). English Revolution, 1640–1649 (1976); and G. Kennedy, Diggers, Levellers, and Agrar- The Restoration: Charles II; James II; ian Capitalism: Radical Political Thought The Revolution of 1688 in Seventeenth Century England (2008). An Two of the best accounts of this and the age important assessment is J. O. Appleby, Eco- that followed are J. R. Jones, Country and nomic Thought and Ideology in Seventeenth- Court: England, 1658–1714 (1978), and Century England (1978, reissued 2004), G. Holmes, The Making of a Great Power: while an intriguing study in social history Late Stuart and Early Georgian Britain, relating popular culture to the political fer- 1660–1722 (1993). For the end of the Pro- ment of the age is D. Underdown, Revel, tectorate and the restoration of the monar- Riot, and Rebellion: Popular Politics and chy, one also turns to P. Seaward, The Res- Culture in England, 1603–1660 (1985). The toration, 1660–1688 (1991), and R. Hutton, same author has also written Pride’s Purge: The Restoration: A Political and Religious Politics and the Puritan Revolution (1971, History of England and Wales, 1658–1667 1985), Fire from Heaven: Life in an English (1985, 1993). The king’s abilities are as- Town in the Seventeenth Century (1992), and sessed in A. Fraser, Royal Charles: Charles A Freeborn People: Politics and the Nation II and the Restoration (1971), perhaps the in Seventeenth-Century England (1996). best of her many biographies; and in G. S. Class and ideological interpreta- De Krey, Restoration and Revolution in Brit- tions may also be sampled in R. Cust and ain: A Political History of the Era of Charles A. Hughes (eds.), Confl ict in Early Stuart II and the Glorious Revolution (2007); England: Studies in Religion and Poli- J. Uglow, A Gambling Man: Charles II’s tics, 1603–1642 (1991); T. Cogswell, The Restoration Game (2009); M. Jenkinson, Blessed Revolution: English Politics and Culture and Politics at the Court of Charles the Coming of War, 1621–1624 (1989); and II, 1660–1685 (2010); and G. Tapsell, J. Walter, Crowds and Popular Politics in The Personal Rule of Charles II, 1681–85 Early Modern England (2006). (2007). The political machinations following For Ireland, good introductions be- the Restoration may be explored in A. Pat- ginning with this age are provided in R. F. terson, The Long Parliament of Charles II Foster, Modern Ireland, 1600–1972 (1988), (2008), and J. Rose, Godly Kingship in Res- and R. Gillespie, Seventeenth-Century toration England: The Politics of the Royal Ireland: Making Ireland Modern (2006). Supremacy, 1660–1688 (2011). For Charles For the Cromwellian years in Ireland, there II’s successor, M. Ashley’s James II (1977) are several important studies: J. S. Wheeler, is fair and factual, as is J. Miller’s James Cromwell in Ireland (1999); and P. Lenihan, II: A Study of Kingship (1977, 1989). Re- Consolidating Conquest: Ireland 1603–1727 cent scholarship on James II’s rule includes (2008). The integration of Ireland into the J. Callow, James II: The Triumph and the English state is covered in S. Ellis, The Mak- Tragedy (2005); W. Gibson, James II and ing of the British Isles: The State of Britain the Trial of the Seven Bishops (2009); and

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30 Suggestions for Further Reading

P. Walker, James II and the Three Ques- For a transnational biography of Wil- tions: Religious Toleration and the Landed liam of Orange, see W. Troost, William III, Classes, 1687–1688 (2010). The Stadholder-King: A Political Biography For the background to the Revolution of (trans. 2005). For the role he played in in- 1688 and subsequent events, one may read, ternational affairs after he took the English among other accounts, D. Ogg, England in throne in 1689, one may read D. W. Jones, the Reign of James II and William III (1955, War and Economy in the Age of William III 1984); J. Childs, The Army, James II, and and Marlborough (1988), while his con- the Glorious Revolution (1980); P. Dillon, solidation of rule in Ireland is covered in The Last Revolution: 1688 and the Creation J. Childs, The Williamite Wars in Ireland, of the Modern World (2006); and T. Harris, 1688–91 (2007). The popular but now dated Revolution: The Great Crisis of the British work by G. M. Trevelyan, England under monarchy, 1685–1720 (2006). Brief sur- Queen Anne (3 vols., 1930–1934), vividly veys are available in J. Miller, The Glorious portrays the succeeding age; and on the sov- Revolution (rev. 1997), and in M. Mullett, ereign herself, A. Somerset, Queen Anne: James II and English Politics, 1678–1688 The Politics of Passion: A Biography (2012), (1994). A special subject is admirably stud- is excellent. The background to the Act of ied in L. G. Schwoerer, The Declaration Union of 1707, joining England and Scotland, of Rights, 1689 (1981). G. M. Trevelyan, is explored in B. P. Levack, The Formation of The English Revolution 1688–1989 (1939, the British State: England, Scotland, and the 1965), a classic defense of the revolution, Union, 1603–1707 (1987), and A. Macinnes, argues that the revolution strengthened Union and Empire: The Making of the United conservatism for the eighteenth century Kingdom in 1707 (2007). but that the long-run consequences made For women in seventeenth-century it a turning point in history. The Whig his- England, one may turn to A. Fraser, The torian is himself studied in D. Cannadine, Weaker Vessel: Woman’s Lot in Seventeenth G. M. Trevelyan: A Life in History (1993). Century England (1985), a series of por- Another assessment of the revolution, W. traits, mostly of upper-class women. A pio- A. Speck, Reluctant Revolutionaries: Eng- neering work in social history of continuing lishmen and the Revolution of 1688 (1988), value is A. Clark, Working Life of Women in sees the events as a decisive though not the Seventeenth Century (1919, 1993); and inevitable step toward parliamentary gov- R. Thompson, Women in Stuart England ernment. A more recent work by E. Cruick- and America (1974), is a successful com- shanks, The Glorious Revolution (2000), parative study. challenges the Whig interpretation and por- More recent works, with an emphasis trays James II as an enlightened advocate on social history, include S. D. Amussen, of religious toleration. Evolving historical An Ordered Society: Gender and Class in interpretations are discussed in J. I. Israel Early Modern England (1988); A. Hughes, (ed.), The Anglo-Dutch Movement: Essays Gender and the English Revolution (2012); on the Glorious Revolution and Its World and A. Lawrence, Women in England, 1500– Impact (1991); in L. G. Schwoerer (ed.), 1760 (1994). L. G. Schwoerer illuminates The Revolution of 1688–1689: Changing the independent life of a seventeenth-century Perspectives (1992); and in S. C. A. Pin- woman in Lady Rachel Russell: “One of the cus (ed.), England’s Glorious Revolution: Best of Women” (1987), while S. Rowbotham A Brief History with Documents (2005); ranges across a much wider historical era in and there are additional insights in H. R. Hidden from History: Rediscovering Women Trevor-Roper’s essays, From Counter Ref- in History, from the 17th Century to the ormation to Glorious Revolution (1992). Present (1974, 1989).

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The France of Louis XIV prehensive study of the midcentury chal- Many of the general accounts cited at the be- lenge to royal authority is O. Ranum, The ginning of this chapter focus on the French Fronde: A French Revolution, 1648–1652 predominance in this age. In addition, the (1993), while later tensions between the following books explore various aspects of monarchy and the aristocracy are covered Louis XIV and his reign: F. Bluche, Louis in G. McCollim, Louis XIV’s Assault on XIV (1990); I. Dunlap, Louis XIV (2000); Privilege: Nicolas Desmaretz and the Tax A. Levi, Louis XIV (2004); and R. Wilkin- on Wealth (2012). son, Louis XIV (2007). Readers may also Three books focusing on provincial turn to A. Lossky, Louis XIV and the French institutions and other limitations of royal Monarchy (1994); G. Cowart, The Triumph authority, and providing added insights into of Pleasure: Louis XIV & the Politics of the methods by which Louis XIV ruled, are Spectacle (2008); and E. McClure, Sunspots W. Beik, Absolutism and Society in Seven- and the Sun King: Sovereignty and Media- teenth-Century France: State Power and tion in Seventeenth-Century France (2006), Provincial Aristocracy in Languedoc (1985); for more nuanced appraisals of his reign. R. Mettam, Power and Faction in Louis Available also are the essays in P. Sonnino XIV’s France (1988); and S. Kettering, et al. (eds.), The Reign of Louis XIV (1991), Patrons, Brokers, and Clients in Seventeenth- while P. Burke, The Fabrication of Louis Century France (1986). J. M. Smith, The XIV (1992), examines the molding of the Culture of Merit: Nobility, Royal Service, king’s image over his long reign. A broader and the Making of Absolute Monarchy in study of the whole era can be found in France, 1600–1789 (1996), describes the W. Doyle (ed.), Old Regime France, 1648– king’s response to noble aspirations for rec- 1789 (2001). ognition and glory. Two older books that Other interpretive volumes include examine constraints on royal authority are V. L. Tapié, The Age of Grandeur (rev. 1966), A. L. Moote, The Revolt of the Judges: The and O. Ranum, Paris in the Age of Absolut- Parlement of Paris and the Fronde, 1643– ism (rev. 2002). For the impact of Versailles 1652 (1971), and L. Rothkrug, Opposition to on political culture, see N. Mitford, The Louis XIV: The Political and Social Origins Sun King: Louis XIV at Versailles (1967, of the Enlightenment (1965). reissued 2012), and R. W. Berger and T. F. A biography of the French fi nance Hedin, Diplomatic Tours in the Gardens of minister is available in A. Trout, Jean-Bap- Versailles under Louis XIV (2008). Three tiste Colbert (1978), while his state secu- studies by P. Goubert—Louis XIV and rity machinery receives excellent treatment Twenty Million Frenchmen (trans. 1970), in J. Soll, The Information Master: Jean- his more detailed The Ancien Regime: Baptiste Colbert’s Secret State Intelligence French Society, 1600–1750 (trans. and abr. System (2009). Financial matters are exam- 1974), and The French Peasantry in the ined on a broad scale in J. Dent, Crisis in Seventeenth Century (trans. 1986)—remain France: Crown, Financiers, and Society in valuable studies of French society and the Seventeenth-Century France (1973), and people of the time. C. Tilly, The Conten- in R. Bonney, The King’s Debts: Finance tious French: Four Centuries of Popular and Politics in France, 1589–1661 (1981). Struggle (1986), an incisive study of popu- The global expansion of French trade is lar restlessness and collective action, be- discussed in C. J. Ames, Colbert, Mer- gins with these years; and W. Beik, Urban cantilism, and the French Quest for Asian Protest in Seventeenth-Century France: Trade (1996). The Culture of Retribution (1997), exam- Religious matters are explored in ines popular resistance to authority. A com- W. Doyle, Jansenism: Catholic Resistance

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32 Suggestions for Further Reading

to Authority from the Reformation to the H. Kamen, Spain in the Later Seventeenth French Revolution (2000); A. Wright, The Century, 1665–1700 (1980), in which he Divisions of French Catholicism, 1629– sees revival rather than decline on the eve 1645: “The Parting of the Ways” (2011); of the French attack, and R. A. Stradling, K. Luria, Sacred Boundaries: Religious Europe and the Decline of Spain, 1580– Coexistence and Confl ict in Early-Modern 1720 (1981). For Spain in the century after France (2005); and C. S. Wilson, Beyond the Habsburgs, an outstanding account is J. Belief: Surviving the Revocation of the Lynch, Bourbon Spain, 1700–1808 (1989). Edict of Nantes in France (2011). On the colonial empire, one may read W. J. Eccles, Useful Web Sites and Online Resources The French in North America, 1500–1783 For an introduction to the Dutch republic, (rev. 1998), and R. White, The Middle one may visit The Williamite Universe, Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in www.let.uu.nl/ogc/William/ , a site that pro- the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (1991). vides information on William III and other C. C. Lougee, Le Paradis des Femmes: aspects of Dutch history. Readers will fi nd Women, Salons, and Social Stratifi cation useful information on Cromwell and the in Seventeenth-Century France (1976), ex- wider history of the English Civil Wars by amines the evolving cultural infl uence of visiting BBC-History, cited previously. The French women, a theme also explored in Offi cial Web Site of the British Monarchy E. C. Goldsmith (ed.), Going Public: Women provides information about the history of and Publishing in Early Modern France every British king, including those who (1995); and a more general work is W. faced opposition in the seventeenth century, Gibson, Women in Seventeenth-Century at www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonar- France (1989). Books that focus on the pol- chy/HistoryoftheMonarchy.aspx . Valuable itics of early salon culture include A. Dug- materials on France and wider European gan, Salonnières, Furies, and Fairies: The developments can be located through The Politics of Gender and Cultural Change Society for Seventeenth-Century French in Absolutist France (2005), and N. Ham- Studies in Britain, at www.c17.org.uk/ . mond, Gossip, Sexuality and Scandal in Interesting images and information about France (1610–1715) (2011). An outstanding Louis XIV’s great palace are available in woman of letters is studied in J. A. Ojala and English; see the Chateau de Versailles, http:// W. T. Ojala, Madame de Sévigné: A Seven- en.chateauversailles.cdv-lamp.msp.fr.clara. teenth-Century Life (1990). An important net/history-; and there are helpful links to Web cultural theme is treated in J. De-Jean, An- sites on the history of early modern European cients against Moderns: Culture Wars and women at Early Modern Resources, http:// the Making of a Fin de Siècle (1997). earlymodernweb.org/?cat=28&submit=View, On Louis XIV’s military policies, one although readers may wish to consult all the re- may read an excellent survey, J. A. Lynn, sources on that site at http://earlymodernweb The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714 (1999), .org/ . or turn to the accessible J.-D. Lepage, Vauban and the French Military under Louis 5. THE TRANSFORMATION OF XIV: An Illustrated History of Fortifi cations EASTERN EUROPE, 1648–1740 and Strategies (2010). Other works on the J. H. Shennan, Liberty and Order in Early subject include P. Sonnino, Louis XIV and Modern Europe: The Subject and the State, the Origins of the Dutch War (1988), and 1650–1800 (1986), focusing on France and H. Kamen, The War of Succession in Spain, Russia, highlights differences in the develop- 1700–1715 (1969). Two books about the ment of western and eastern Europe. Inform- fi nal stages of Habsburg rule in Spain are ative books that explain the complexities of

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central and eastern Europe, carrying their The Ottoman Empire: A Short History (trans. accounts toward the present, are P. Wandycz, 2009). For the social and cultural world of The Price of Freedom: A History of East the Ottomans, see C. Woodhead (ed.), The Central Europe from the Middle Ages to Ottoman World (2012), and M. Kia, Daily the Present (rev. 2001); R. Bideleux and Life in the Ottoman Empire (2011). The I. Jeffries, A History of Eastern Europe: social foundations of Ottoman power are Crisis and Change (1998); E. Niederhauser, described in H. Inalcik and D. Quataert A History of Eastern Europe since the (eds.), An Economic and Social History of Middle Ages (trans. 2003); and I. Armour, the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 (1994), A History of Eastern Europe 1740–1918 while L. P. Peirce, The Imperial Harem: (2006). P. R. Magocsi, Historical Atlas of Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman East Central Europe (1993), vol. 1 of the Empire (1993), describes the political role and series A History of Central Europe, is an infl uence of women. Ottoman political rela- impressive work of reference, as is the more tions and cultural exchanges with people in recent D. Hupchick and H. Cox, The Pal- various European societies are explored grave Concise Historical Atlas of Eastern in K. M. Setton, Venice, Austria, and the Europe (2001). J. W. Sedlar, East Central Turks in the Seventeenth Century (1991); N. Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500 Bisaha, Creating East and West: Renais- (1994), synthesizes the medieval period, sance Humanists and the Ottoman Turks while A. Maczak et al., East Central Europe (2004); D. Goffman, The Ottoman Empire in Transition (1985), focuses on the four- and Early Modern Europe (2002); and N. teenth to the seventeenth centuries. Readers Atasoy and L. Uluç, Impressions of Ottoman may also wish to consult O. Halecki, Bor- Culture in Europe, 1453–1699 (2012). C. derlands of Western Civilization: A History E. Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties: of East Central Europe (2001). For the Bal- A Chronological and Genealogical Manual kans, valuable studies are L. S. Stavrianos, (1996) is a useful reference tool. The Balkans since 1453 (1958, 2000); P. F. Sugar, Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Austria and the Habsburgs: To 1740 Rule, 1354–1804 (1977), in the series on Basic for these years are R. A. Kann, A Central Europe cited above; and the concise History of the Habsburg Empire, 1526– survey by A. B. Wachtel, The Balkans in 1918 (1974); R. J. Evans, The Making of World History (2008). the Habsburg Empire, 1550–1770 (1979); C. Ingrao, The Habsburg Monarchy, 1618– The Ottoman Empire 1815 (rev. 2000); J. Bérenger, The History Readers will fi nd informative accounts of of the Habsburg Empire, 1273–1700 (trans. the early Ottoman Empire and its diverse 1994); and P. S. Fichtner, The Habsburg interactions with European societies in a Monarchy, 1490–1848: Attributes of Em- number of recent works, including C. Im- pire (2003). The rise of Habsburg Austria is ber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The covered in M. Hochedlinger, Austria’s Wars Structure of Power (2002); S. Turnbull, of Emergence: War, State and Society in the The Ottoman Empire, 1326–1699 (2003); Habsburg Monarchy, 1683–1797 (2003). M. Kia, The Ottoman Empire (2008); D. A number of important essays on social Nicolle, Cross and Crescent in the Balkans: and political history have been collected in The Ottoman conquest of South-Eastern C. Ingrao (ed.), State and Society in Early Europe (14th–15th Centuries) (2010); P. Modern Austria (1994). J. P. Spielman’s Wittek, The Rise of the Ottoman Empire: Leopold I of Austria (1977) is a balanced Studies in the History of Turkey, Thirteenth– treatment of the seventeenth-century emper- Fifteenth Centuries (2012); and S. Faroqhi, or; and for Eugene of Savoy, an outstanding

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34 Suggestions for Further Reading

biography is D. McKay, Prince Eugene of Bureaucracy, Aristocracy, and Autocracy: Savoy (1977). A vivid account of the Turk- The Prussian Experience, 1660–1815 ish siege of 1683 is available in J. Stoye, (1958), which may be supplemented by the The Siege of Vienna (rev. 2000). essays in P. G. Dwyer, The Rise of Prussia, 1700–1830 (2002). On the early Hohen- The Holy Roman Empire: The German zollerns, one may read F. Schevill, The Great States Elector (1974), and R. Ergang, The Pots- A good introductory survey of German his- dam Führer: Frederick William I, Father of tory is M. Fulbrook, A Concise History of Prussian Militarism (1941, 1972). Books on Germany (rev. 2004). H. Holborn, in his Frederick the Great are cited in the section History of Modern Germany, vol. 2, 1648– for chapter 8. 1840 (1975), covers the fl uid situation in the Holy Roman Empire after the Thirty Russia: To 1725 Years’ War, as does J. Whaley, Germany There are many excellent narrative accounts and the Holy Roman Empire (2012). A use- of Russian history with good coverage of ful, brief survey is P. H. Wilson, The Holy the early years; for example, R. Bartlett, A Roman Empire, 1495–1806 (1999), which History of Russia (2005); C. Ziegler, The summarizes recent historical challenges to History of Russia (2009); and N. V. Riasa- older assumptions about the empire’s fl aws novsky and M. Steinberg, A History of Rus- and failures, a theme that is also discussed sia (rev. 2011). For the early years and the in J. P. Coy, B. Marschke, and D. W. Sabean expansion and transformation of Muscovy, (eds.), The Holy Roman Empire, Recon- one may turn to R. O. Crummey, The For- sidered (2010). One may also wish to read mation of Muscovy, 1304–1613 (1987), and E. Sagorra, A Social History of Germany, M. Romaniello, The Elusive Empire: Kazan 1648–1914 (1977), with many fascinating and the Creation of Russia, 1552–1671 insights, and R. Vierhaus, Germany in the (2012). For the crises that triggered the Ro- Age of Absolutism (1988), which studies the manov rise to power, see I. Gruber, Ortho- years 1618–1763. G. Benecke, Society and dox Russia in Crisis: Church and Nation in Politics in Germany, 1500–1750 (1974), the Time of Troubles (2012). P. Dukes, The presents the case for the empire as a viable Making of Russian Absolutism, 1613–1801 constitutional entity, while an important (rev. 1990), traces the tsardom from the contribution to understanding the formation beginning of the Romanov dynasty over of German political traditions can be found the next two centuries, while L. Hughes, in M. Walker, German Home Towns: Com- The Romanovs: Ruling Russia, 1613–1917 munity, State, and General Estate, 1648– (2008), covers the entire history of the dy- 1871 (1971). nasty. The military side to Russian society For Prussia, convenient introductions and the “service state” are ably examined are H. W. Koch, A History of Prussia (1978); in J. L. H. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and K. Friedrich, Brandenburg-Prussia, and Society in Russia, 1462–1874 (1985). 1466–1806: The Rise of a Composite State P. Avrich examines social upheavals in Rus- (2012). A thoughtful evocation of the state sian Rebels, 1600–1800 (1972), while R. (dissolved after the Second World War) is Mousnier treats agrarian unrest compara- T. von Thadden, Prussia: The History of a tively in Peasant Uprisings in Seventeenth- Lost State (1986). An invaluable study go- Century France, Russia, and China (trans. ing well beyond the scope of this chapter 1970). is G. A. Craig, The Politics of the Prussian The early rulers are studied in A. Pav- Army, 1640–1945 (1956, 1964). Important lov and M. Perrie, Ivan the Terrible (2003); also is the older book by H. Rosenberg, K. Waliszewski, Ivan the Terrible (trans.

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2006); I. de Madariaga, Ivan the Terrible: ture (1988). Accounts of Peter’s campaigns First Tsar of Russia (2005); and A. Filjush- in the Baltic and northern Europe can be kin, Ivan the Terrible: A Military History found in J. R. Moulton, Peter the Great (2008). W. B. Lincoln, Autocrats of All the and the Russian Military Campaigns dur- Russias (1981), is a remarkable large-scale ing the Final Years of the Great Northern study of the Romanovs, the 15 tsars and 4 War, 1719–1721 (2005), and P. Englund, tsarinas who ruled Russia between 1613 and The Battle That Shook Europe: Poltava and 1917. A more recent study of the changes in the Birth of the Russian Empire (2003). For the early modern period can be found in S. Sweden, and for Peter’s great Swedish rival, Dixon, The Modernisation of Russia, 1676– an outstanding biography is R. N. Hatton, 1825 (1999); and Russia’s early imperial ex- Charles XII of Sweden (1969). A number of pansion is examined in the important work important studies by M. Roberts and others by J. P. LeDonne, The Grand Strategy of the have been cited in the section for chapter Russian Empire, 1650–1831 (2004), and in 3; for these years M. Roberts, The Swedish B. Boeck, Imperial Boundaries: Cossack Imperial Experience, 1560–1718 (1979), Communities and Empire-Building in the deserves mention. The Baltic shore is ex- Age of Peter the Great (2009). A provoca- plored in S. P. Oakley, War and Peace in the tive reassessment of Russia’s relationship to Baltic, 1560–1790 (1992). European intellectual and cultural history is M. Malia, Russia under Western Eyes: From Useful Web Sites and Online Resources the Bronze Horseman to the Lenin Mauso- Resources on Ottoman and Islamic history leum (1999). are available in the Fordham University On Peter and the reforms of his reign, sourcebook cited earlier, where one can an older outstanding biography, M. Kly- fi nd an Internet Islamic History Sourcebook, uchevsky, Peter the Great (trans. 1958), www.fordham.edu/Halsall/islam/islams- may be compared with the briefer, more re- book.asp. There is concise, well-organized cent accounts in L. Hughes, Peter the Great: information on early modern Prussia, Po- A Biography (2002); D. Wilson, Peter the land, Russia, and other European states at Great (2009); and R. K. Massie, Peter the the wide-ranging British Web site, History Great: His Life and World (rev. 2012). For World, www.historyworld.net , where read- a comparison of the cultural legacies of the ers will fi nd valuable timelines as well as two great czars of early modern Russia, see other interactive materials. There are also K. M. F. Platt, Terror & Greatness: Ivan excellent links to a wide range of resources & Peter as Russian Myths (2011). Peter’s on the early history of Russia at Bucknell interest in western Europe is discussed in University’s Russian Studies Program, L. Hughes (ed.), Peter the Great and the www.bucknell.edu/x983.xml . West: New Perspectives (2001). An excellent account of Russian society, culture, and 6. THE SCIENTIFIC VIEW OF THE government in this era appears in the com- WORLD prehensive, insightful study by L. Hughes, Histories of Science Russia in the Age of Peter the Great (1998), An outstanding, broad-ranging study is B. in which she neglects no aspect of Peter’s L. Silver, The Ascent of Science (1998). A rule. N. V. Riasanovsky, The Image of Peter valuable new series on the history of mod- the Great in Russian History and Thought ern science is available in D. C. Lindberg (1985), examines the ruler’s long-range and R. Numbers (eds.), The Cambridge cultural impact, while one aspect of his cul- History of Science (2003–2006), a collabo- tural revolution is examined in J. Cracraft, rative project that will eventually include The Petrine Revolution in Russian Architec- eight volumes. Other excellent historical

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36 Suggestions for Further Reading

accounts include R. Olson, Science Deifi ed Origins of Modern Science (rev. 1965); A. and Science Defi ed: The Historical Sig- Koyré, From the Closed World to the Infi nite nifi cance of Science in Western Culture (2 Universe (1968); and A. R. Hall, The Revo- vols., 1982–1991), a far-reaching study lution in Science, 1500–1750: The Forma- ranging from prehistory to 1820; and P. tion of the Modern Scientifi c Attitude (rev. Fara, Science: A Four Thousand Year His- 1983). Recent works addressing the birth of tory (2009). modern scientifi c thought are S. Greenblatt, Ancient and medieval science is also The Swerve: How the World Became Mod- explored in D. C. Lindberg, The Beginnings ern (2011), and S. Gaukroger, The Collapse of Western Science (1992), cited for chap- of Mechanism and the Rise of Sensibil- ter 2. For the transmission of knowledge ity: Science and the Shaping of Modernity, from the Islamic world, see J. Freely, Light 1680–1760 (2010). These works may be from the East: How the Science of Medieval supplemented by K. Park and L. Daston, Islam Helped to Shape the Western World Early Modern Science (2006), which is the (2011). Other important perspectives on the third volume in The Cambridge History long history of science appear in M. Serres of Science. Other informative accounts in- (ed.), A History of Scientifi c Thought: Ele- clude H. F. Cohen, How Modern Science ments of a History of Thought (trans. 1995), Came into the World: Four Civilizations, and in the comprehensive analysis of the One 17th-Century Breakthrough (2010); historical study of science by H. F. Cohen, and W. Applebaum, The Scientifi c Revolu- The Scientifi c Revolution: A Historiograph- tion and the Foundations of Modern Science ical Inquiry (1994). Readers may also wish (2005). Of special interest are I. B. Cohen’s to consult S. Shapin, Never Pure: Histori- The Newtonian Revolution (1980) and cal Studies of Science as if It Was Produced Revolution in Science (1985), an encyclo- by People with Bodies, Situated in Time, pedic study of the transformation of scien- Space, Culture, and Society, and Strug- tifi c ideas. Useful shorter surveys of this era gling for Credibility and Authority (2010), may be found in J. R. Jacob, The Scientifi c for discussion of how historians of science Revolution: Aspirations and Achievements, now stress the importance of the contexts 1500–1700 (1998); J. Henry, The Scientifi c in which scientifi c knowledge develops. Revolution and the Origins of Modern Sci- For science’s impact on society, see A. Ede ence (rev. 2002); S. Shapin, The Scientifi c and L. B. Cormack, A History of Science Revolution (1996); and L. Principe, The Sci- in Society: From Philosophy to Utility entifi c Revolution: A Very Short Introduc- (2012). Readers will fi nd an interesting action (2011). On the nature of revolutionary count of the importance of visualization in breakthroughs in science, a highly infl uen- scientifi c inquiry in J. D. Barrow, Cosmic tial work has been T. S. Kuhn, The Structure Imagery: Key Images in the History of Sci- of Scientifi c Revolution (1962, 2012), which ence (2008). For individual scientists, one challenges the belief in progressive, cumu- may consult the Dictionary of Scientifi c Bi- lative scientifi c advance and emphasizes the ography (8 vols., 1970–1980) and, for new role of shifting cultural assumptions in the works in the history of science, the annual development of scientifi c knowledge. Kuhn bibliographies published in Isis. has also written The Copernican Revolution (1957, 1985). Some historians of science The Scientifi c Revolution have questioned traditional views of the sci- For the fundamental reorientation of think- entifi c revolution, arguing that the changes ing about nature and the universe in early in thought proceeded slowly and that most modern times, three older but still interest- early modern scientists retained decidedly ing introductions are H. Butterfi eld, The unmodern views of human knowledge. For

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discussion of these issues, readers may turn Empire, 1687–1851 (2004). Connections to M. J. Osler (ed.), Rethinking the Scien- between early scientifi c writing and early tifi c Revolution (2000). modern literature are analyzed in E. Spiller, For all aspects of technology and the Science, Reading, and Renaissance Litera- practical application of science, one may ture: The Art of Making Knowledge, 1580– consult C. Singer et al., A History of Tech- 1670 (2004). nology (8 vols., 1954–1984). Three related books are S. Shapin and S. Schaffer, Levia- Biographically Oriented Accounts than and the Air Pump (1985); L. Jardine, The contributions of the pioneer astrono- Ingenious Pursuits: Building the Scien- mers are described in many of the books al- tifi c Revolution (2000); and J. McClellan ready cited and in J. Repcheck, Copernicus’ and H. Dorn, Science and Technology in Secret: How the Scientifi c Revolution Began World History: An Introduction (2006). (2007); J. M. Caspar, Kepler (reissued 1993); Technology as a social force is explored in and K. Ferguson, Tycho and Kepler: The L. Mumford’s classic study Technics and Unlikely Partnership That Forever Changed Civilization (1934, reissued 1963); O. Mayr, Our Understanding of the Heavens (2002), Authority, Liberty, and Automatic Machin- an accessible double biography of two ma- ery in Early Modern Europe (1986); and jor scientists and their times. For Galileo M. Hård and A. Jamison, Hubris and one may read A. Koyré, Galileo Studies Hybrids: A Cultural History of Technology (1978); a study of his scientifi c activities is and Science (2005). A brief, informative available in S. Drake, Galileo at Work: His survey on this topic appears in E. D. Brose, Scientifi c Biography (1978), in which the Technology and Science in the Industrial- author has reconstructed the scientist’s in- izing Nations, 1500–1914 (1998). Read- struments and examined his notebooks; the ers interested in the connection between same author has written a concise biograph- European expansion and advances in science ical study, Galileo (2001). Among several may consult L. Ferreiro, Ships and Science: recent biographies, J. L. Heilbron’s Galileo The Birth of Naval Architecture in the Scien- (2010) stands out. Works that focus on his tifi c Revolution, 1600–1800 (2007). scientifi c methods and applications include A number of provocative studies relate M. Valleriani, Galileo Engineer (2010), the scientifi c revolution to the political and and E. Reeves, Galileo’s Glassworks: The social ferment and economic developments Telescope and the Mirror (2008). The con- in seventeenth-century England and stress demnation that Galileo received from the the practical implications for a commer- Church and other authorities is described cial society. Here two pioneer studies were in J. J. Langford, Galileo, Science, and the R. K. Merton, Science, Technology, and Church (rev. 1992), and revisited in A. Fan- Society in Seventeenth Century England toli, The Case of Galileo: A Closed Ques- (1970), and C. Webster, The Great Instau- tion? (trans. 2012). M. White, Galileo Anti- ration: Science, Medicine, and Reform, christ: A Biography (2007), places Galileo’s 1626–1660 (1975). An admirable synthesis controversial scientifi c claims in the context is M. C. Jacob, The Cultural Meaning of the of the Catholic Church’s response. Galileo’s Scientifi c Revolution (1988), a work that links to the culture of patronage are has been revised and expanded in Scientifi c examined in M. Biagioli, Galileo, Courtier Culture and the Making of the Industrial (1993); and helpful accounts of the wider West (1997). The applications of Newtonian culture in which he worked can be found in science are examined in M. C. Jacob and J. Renn (ed.), Galileo in Context (2001). For L. C. Stewart, Practical Matter: Newton’s Newton, R. S. Westfall, Never at Rest: A Bi- Science in the Service of Industry and ography of Isaac Newton (1982, 1993), is a

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biography of distinction; D. Berlinski, New- A. C. Grayling, Descartes: The Life of ton’s Gift: How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked René Descartes and Its Place in His Times the System of the World (2000), is illuminat- (2005) and Descartes: The Life and Times ing on the man and his accomplishments; of a Genius (2006). The complexities of and there are also notable biographies by G. Cartesian thought are examined from new E. Christianson (1984), A. R. Hall (1992), perspectives in S. Bordo (ed.), Feminist In- and J. Gleick (2003). W. Harper, Isaac terpretations of René Descartes (1999). Newton’s Scientifi c Method: Turning Data The role played by women in the sci- into Evidence about Gravity and Cosmol- entifi c revolution is skillfully explored in ogy (2011), discusses his methods, while L. Schiebinger, The Mind Has No Sex? Wom- E. Dolnick, The Clockwork Universe: Isaac en in the Origins of Modern Science (1989), Newton, The Royal Society, and the Birth the title derived from Descartes. It may be of the Modern World (2011), considers the read along with the same author’s Nature’s social settings for his discoveries. Newton’s Body: Gender in the Making of Modern fascination with other forms of thought is Science (1993, reissued 2004), focusing on described in the infl uential revisionist work eighteenth-century studies of plants and ani- of B. J. T. Dobbs, The Janus Face of Ge- mals. For a broad perspective on women and nius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton’s science, see R. Watts, Women in Science: A Thought (1991), and in A. Janiak, Newton Social and Cultural History (2007). Studies as Philosopher (2008). on new scientifi c understandings of gender and science’s role in reinforcing gender cate- Science and Thought gories can be found in K. P. Long (ed.), Gen- Three informative studies of a key fi gure der and Scientifi c Discourse in Early Modern in the new science are P. Zagorin, Francis Culture (2010). Readers may also be inter- Bacon (1998), which is especially strong ested in P. Fara, Pandora’s Breeches: Wom- on Bacon’s intellectual contributions; en, Science and Power in the Enlightenment L. Jardine and A. Stewart, Hostage to For- (2004). An important book by E. Harth, Car- tune: The Troubled Life of Francis Bacon tesian Women: Versions and Subversions of (1998), which describes in detail all aspects Rational Discourse in the Old Regime (1992), of his complex career; and D. Desroches, compares the role of women intellectuals in Francis Bacon and the Limits of Scientifi c the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Knowledge (2006). A. J. Funari, Francis For Pascal, one may read H. M. David- Bacon and the Seventeenth-Century Intel- son, Blaise Pascal (1983); J. R. Cole, Pas- lectual Discourse (2011), places Bacon in cal: The Man and His Two Loves (1995), historical context, as does B. H. G. Wor- which offers debatable psychological in- mald, Francis Bacon: History, Politics, terpretations of the writer’s life and work; and Science, 1561–1626 (1993), which and J. Connor, Pascal’s Wager: The Man remains a major appraisal. Descartes Who Played Dice with God (2006). There and his infl uence are described in P. A. is a perceptive, brief study of Pierre Bayle Schouls, Descartes and the Enlightenment by E. Labrousse, Bayle (trans. 1983), while (1989), while the broader world of ration- T. Ryan, Pierre Bayle’s Cartesian Meta- alist thought in the seventeenth century physics: Rediscovering Early Modern Phi- is described in C. Braider, The Matter of losophy (2009), explores his contributions to Mind: Reason and Experience in the Age the era’s philosophical legacy. Skepticism is of Descartes (2012). For general biogra- further explored in R. H. Popkin, The History phies, readers may turn to H. M. Bracken, of Skepticism from Savonarola to Spin- Descartes (2002); D. Clarke, Descartes: oza (rev. 2003). Montaigne, its sixteenth- A Biography (2006); and two works by century exemplar, is studied in excellent

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biographies by D. M. Frame (1965) and (2008); P. Anstey, John Locke and Natu- H. Friedrich (trans. 1991), which may be ral Philosophy (2011); and L. Ward, John compared with G. Hoffmann, Montaigne’s Locke and Modern Life (2010). Hobbes is Career (1998). More detailed explorations studied in two notable books by A. Mar- of his political thought and notions of free tinich, Hobbes: A Biography (1999) and will are found in B. Fontana, Montaigne’s Hobbes (2005); and in R. Tuck, Hobbes Politics: Authority and Governance in (1989), a brief appraisal. New approach- the Essais (2008); R. Scholar, Montaigne es to Hobbes are found in P. Zagorin, and the Art of Free-Thinking (2010); and Hobbes and the Law of Nature (2009); F. Green, Montaigne and the Life of Free- B. Gert, Hobbes: Prince of Peace (2010); dom (2012). Judicious, balanced biogra- and Gordon Hull, Hobbes and the Making phies of the seventeenth-century Dutch of Modern Political Thought (2009). Use- philosopher are S. Nadler, Spinoza: A Life ful for French thinkers in these years is N. (1999), and M. D. Rocca, Spinoza (2008). O. Koehane, Philosophy and the State in A recent resurgence of interest in Spinoza France: The Renaissance to the Enlighten- has spawned several outstanding studies, ment (1980). Two important studies of mod- including R. Goldstein, Betraying Spinoza: ern conceptions of individual identity also The Renegade Jew Who Gave Us Moder- discuss the intellectual history of this era: nity (2006); B. Adkins, True Freedom: C. Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making Spinoza’s Practical Philosophy (2009); of the Modern Identity (1989), and J. Sei- M. Kisner, Spinoza on Human Freedom: gel, The Idea of the Self: Thought and Reason, Autonomy and the Good Life Experience in Western Europe since the (2011); S. Nadler, A Book Forged in Hell: Seventeenth Century (2005). A more recent Spinoza’s Scandalous Treatise and the Birth contribution to this literature is U. Stein- of the Secular Age (2011); and S. James, vorth, Rethinking the Western Understand- Spinoza on Philosophy, Religion, and ing of the Self (2009). Politics: The Theologico-Political Treatise (2012). The cultural infl uence of Spinoza Useful Web Sites and Online Resources and other skeptical thinkers is analyzed in Resources on European science in the six- the wide-ranging work of J. I. Israel, The teenth and seventeenth centuries can be Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the found at Rice University’s Galileo Project Making of Modernity, 1650–1750 (2002). A at http://galileo.rice.edu/index.html , an ex- provocative book exploring the relationship cellent site that focuses on Galileo but in- of rationalism to Western thought from the cludes many other valuable materials and seventeenth century into the modern era is links. Additional information on early as- E. Gellner, Reason and Culture: The Historic tronomy and other sciences is available at Role of Rationality and Rationalism (1992). Cornell University’s public astronomy site, For the political thought of the period, http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/history.php . an overview is provided in F. L. Baumer, There are useful materials and helpful links Modern European Thought: Continuity and on seventeenth-century science at the Web Change in Ideas, 1600–1950 (1977). On site of the Newton Project, at Imperial Col- Locke, one may read J. Dunn, Locke: A Very lege, London, www.newtonproject.sussex. Short Introduction (rev. 2003); J. Lowe, ac.uk . The history of early modern philoso- Locke (2005); and R. Woolhouse, Locke: A phy, including bibliographic materials and Biography (2007). There are also useful ac- links to sites on Bacon, Descartes, Spinoza, counts of Locke’s work and impact in K. L. Bayle, and others, can be explored through Cope, John Locke Revisited (1999); P. Vogt, the excellent Stanford Encyclopedia of Phi- John Locke and the Rhetoric of Modernity losophy at http://plato.stanford.edu/ .

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40 Suggestions for Further Reading

7. THE GLOBAL STRUGGLE FOR World (reissued in 1991), offer remarkable WEALTH AND EMPIRE accounts of the global economy. For a briefer For the years covered in this chapter, help- account, see W. Bernstein, A Splendid ful syntheses include T. C. W. Blanning Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World (ed.), The Eighteenth Century (2000), and (2008). A far-ranging study relevant for the Blanning’s more recent book, The Culture years after 1650 is S. W. Mintz, Sweetness of Power and the Power of Culture: Old Re- and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern gime Europe, 1660–1789 (2002); I. Woloch, History (1985). International trade confl ict Eighteenth-Century Europe: Tradition and is covered in I. Hont, Jealousy of Trade: Progress, 1715–1798 (1982); M. S. An- International Competition and the Nation- derson, Europe in the Eighteenth Century, State in Historical Perspective (2005). The 1713–1783 (rev. 2000); J. Black, Eighteenth- celebrated speculative ventures of the age Century Europe (rev. 1999); and W. Doyle, are graphically described in J. Carswell, The Old European Order, 1660–1800 (rev. The South Sea Bubble (1960); in J. K. Gal- 1992). Europe’s colonial empires and the braith, A Short History of Financial Eupho- new global trading system are examined ria: A Hymn of Caution (1993); in R. Dale, in J. Black, Europe and the World, 1650– The First Crash: Lessons from the South 1830 (2002). A useful reference work is J. Sea Bubble (2004); and A. Murphy, The Black and R. Porter (eds.), A Dictionary of Origins of English Financial Markets: In- Eighteenth-Century World History (1993). vestment and Speculation before the South Sea Bubble (2009). Popular Culture and Everyday Life Several books on European overseas The differences between elite and popular expansion listed for chapters 3 and 4 also culture emerge from two books mentioned discuss the eighteenth century. To these earlier: P. Burke, Popular Culture in Early must be added H. Furber’s excellent syn- Modern Europe (rev. 1994); and F. Braudel, thesis, Rival Empires of Trade in the Ori- The Structures of Everyday Life (trans. 1981, ent, 1600–1800 (1976); J. H. Parry, Trade 1991), the fi rst volume of his three-volume and Dominion: The European Overseas study. They may be supplemented by the es- Empires in the Eighteenth Century (1971); says in A. Mitchell and I. Deák (eds.), Every- G. Williams, The Expansion of Europe in man in Europe: Essays in Social History (2 the Eighteenth Century: Overseas Rivalry, vols., rev. 1997). There are also studies of Discovery, and Exploitation (1966) and The English social mores in K. Olsen, Daily Life Great South Sea: English Voyages and En- in 18th-Century England (1999), and in P. counters, 1570–1750 (1997); P. K. Liss, At- Langford, Englishness Identifi ed: Manners lantic Empires: The Network of Trade and and Character, 1650–1850 (2000). The role Revolution, 1713–1826 (1983); P. D. Cur- of language in shaping social identities is tin, Cross-Cultural Trade in World History examined in an insightful work by P. Burke, (1984), cited earlier; and A. K. Smith, Cre- Languages and Communities in Early Mod- ating a World Economy: Merchant Capital, ern Europe (2004). For women’s history Colonialism, and World Trade, 1400–1825 in the eighteenth century, readers may turn (1991). One may also read the relevant to M. Hunt, Women in Eighteenth-Century chapters of D. K. Fieldhouse, The Colonial Europe (2010). Empires: A Comparative Survey from the The Global Economy and the Colonial Eighteenth Century (rev. 1982). A valuable, Empires collaborative work under the general editor- The fi nal two volumes of Braudel’s work, ship of W. R. Louis, The Oxford History of The Wheels of Commerce (trans. 1983, reis- the British Empire (5 vols., 1998–1999), sued in 1991) and The Perspectives of the offers insightful research by specialists and

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Suggestions for Further Reading 41

includes two volumes on the early era of Britain (2006). A study of the controversial global expansion: N. Canny (ed.), British British governor general is available in J. Overseas Enterprise to the Close of the Sev- Bernstein, Dawning of the Raj: The Life and enteenth Century, and P. J. Marshall (ed.), Trials of Warren Hastings (2000). The Eighteenth Century. The Caribbean For the French in North America, one connections with early modern Britain are may read W. J. Eccles, The French in North examined in S. D. Amussen, Caribbean America, 1500–1783 (rev. 1998), cited Exchanges: Slavery and the Transformation earlier, and P. Marchand, Ghost Empire: of English Society, 1640–1700 (2007). How the French Almost Conquered North The impact of Asia on Europe in the America (2005). For more detailed stud- early modern centuries from the sixteenth ies, readers should turn to D. H. Usner Jr., century on is studied in great detail in Indians, Settlers, & Slaves in a Frontier D. F. Lach, Asia in the Making of Europe Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi (3 vols., 1965–1993), of which E. J. Van Kley Valley before 1783 (1992), and C. A. Skinner, is coauthor of volume 3. A useful collabora- The Upper Country: French Enterprise in tive work is A. T. Embree and C. Gluck (eds.), the Colonial Great Lakes (2008). For the Asia in Western and World History: A Guide French explorer and French aims in North for Teaching (1997). America, see D. H. Fischer, Champlain’s P. Lawson, The East India Company: Dream (2008); D. Royot, Divided Loyal- A History (1993) describes the Company’s ties in a Doomed Empire: The French in activities from its beginnings in 1603 to its the West—From New France to the Lewis demise in 1857; a wide-ranging collection and Clark Expedition (2007), considers of early and recent historical writings on the the broad contexts of French colonialism. same subject has been brought together in The importance of the West Indies for the P. Tuck, The East India Company, 1600– Atlantic economy emerges from R. S. Dunn, 1858 (6 vols., 1998). For a briefer history, Sugar and Slaves (1972, reissued 2000); and see T. Roy, The East India Company: The S. W. Mintz’s Sweetness and Power (1985), World’s Most Powerful Corporation (2012). cited above. The company’s role in ruling India is covered in I. St. John, The Making of the Raj: India British Politics and Society in the under the East India Company (2012). The Eighteenth Century eighteenth-century British impact on India The literature on eighteenth-century Brit- is further explored in P. Woodruff [Mason], ish politics and society after the settle- The Men Who Ruled India (2 vols., 1954– ment of 1688–1689 was long infl uenced by 1957), and in P. J. Marshall, The Making L. B. Namier, who wrote with precision and Unmaking of Empires: Britain, India, and depth but insisted on narrow political and America, c. 1750–1783 (2005), which and parliamentary history. His most im- examines how Britain expanded its impe- portant books were The Structure of Poli- rial role in India while it was losing imperial tics at the Accession of George III (2 vols., control of its American colonies. Read- 1920; 1957) and England in the Age of the ers may also consult the valuable works of American Revolution (rev. 1961). He also P. J. Stern, The Company State: Corporate launched a large-scale collaborative project Sovereignty and the Early Modern Founda- in prosopography, or collective biography, tion of the British Empire in India (2011); seeking to reconstruct in minute detail the R. Travers, Ideology and Empire in Eigh- composition of the modern British parlia- teenth Century India: The British in Bengal ments. His approach, adopted by other (2007); and N. B. Dirks, The Scandal of historians, downplayed the importance Empire: India and the Creation of Imperial of ideology in the seventeenth-century

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42 Suggestions for Further Reading

revolutions and even the triumph of Parlia- A Short History of the British Industrial ment over crown in 1688. His continuing Revolution (2010). Readers will fi nd other infl uence is demonstrated in J. P. Kenyon, informative accounts in N. McKendrick, Revolution Principles: The Politics of J. Brewer, and J. H. Plumb, The Birth of a Party, 1689–1720 (1977, 1990), as well as Consumer Society: The Commercialization in J. C. D. Clark’s two books: English Soci- of Eighteenth-Century England (1982); P. ety, 1688–1832 (1985) and Revolution and Langford, A Polite and Commercial People: Rebellion (1986). For a more recent account England, 1727–1783 (1989); and R. Porter, of how Britain was both distinctive and English Society in the Eighteenth Century connected with other parts of Europe, see (rev. 1990) for more information on the era. S. Conway, Britain, Ireland, and Continen- Other useful works include C. P. Hill, British tal Europe in the Eighteenth Century: Simi- Economic and Social History, 1700–1982 larities, Connections, Identities (2011). (rev. 1985); P. Langford and C. Harvie, The J. Brewer has widened the political Eighteenth Century and the Age of Industry arena in two innovative works, Party Ideol- (1992), in the Oxford History of Britain; ogy and Popular Politics at the Accession of and K. Morgan, The Birth of Industrial George III (1976) and The Sinews of Power: Britain: Social Change, 1750–1850 (2011). War, Money, and the English State, 1688– F. M. L. Thompson, The Cambridge Social 1783 (1989). Similar themes are examined History of Britain, 1750–1950 (rev. 1993), in R. Morriss, The Foundations of British begins with these years. The implications of Maritime Ascendancy: Resources, Logis- British industry are placed in a wider con- tics and the State, 1755–1815 (2011). E. P. text in R. C. Allen, The British Industrial Thompson’s interest in social history has Revolution in Global Perspective (2009). long infl uenced eighteenth-century studies. For an excellent, wide-ranging study of Thompson’s own work on this era includes the era’s cultural history, one may turn to Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black J. Brewer, The Pleasures of the Imagination: Act (1976). For other books affording broad English Culture in the Eighteenth Century insights into eighteenth-century British (1997). For the intellectual background of politics and society, one may turn to G. S. Britain’s transformation, see J. Mokyr, The Holmes, British Politics in the Age of Anne Enlightened Economy: An Economic His- (1967, 1987) and The Age of Oligarchy: tory of Britain, 1700–1850 (2009). Pre-Industrial Britain, 1722–1783 (1993); Readers interested in the House of N. Rogers, Whigs and Cities: Popular Poli- Hanover should consult J. Black, The tics in the Age of Walpole and Pitt (1989); Hanoverians: The History of a Dynasty W. A. Speck, The Birth of Britain: A New (2004); N. Harding, Hanover and the Brit- Nation, 1700–1710 (1994) and Stability ish Empire, 1700–1837 (2007); and for the and Strife: England, 1714–1760 (1977); political ramifi cations, H. Smith, Georgian and J. Black, Eighteenth-Century Britain, Monarchy: Politics and Culture, 1714– 1688–1783 (2001). Recent narratives of 1760 (2006). Biographical accounts of the diverse developments in this era are also Hanoverians include R. N. Hatton, George available in N. Yates, Eighteenth-Century I, Elector and King (1979); A. C. Thomp- Britain: Religion and Politics, 1715–1815 son, George II: King and Elector (2011); (2008), and D. Lemmings, Law and and J. Cannon, George III (2007). For the Government in England during the Long world of parliamentary politics, one may Eighteenth Century: From Consent to turn to H. T. Dickinson, Walpole and the Command (2011). Whig Supremacy (1973); J. Black, Robert For a primer on Britain’s economy and Walpole and the Nature of Politics in Early evolving society, one may read E. Griffi n, Eighteenth-Century England (1990); and

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E. Pearce, The Great Man: Scoundrel, Ge- covers its second phase. There is an excel- nius and Britain’s First Prime Minister lent comprehensive account of the latter’s (2007). There are biographies of the el- European theater in F. A. J. Szabo, The der Pitt by S. Ayling (1976), P. D. Brown Seven Years War in Europe, 1756–1763 (1978), and J. Black (rev. 1999). A collec- (2008). M. Schumann and K. Schweizer, tive account of British prime ministers is The Seven Years War: A Transatlantic Histo- found in D. Leonard, Eighteenth-Century ry (2008), focuses on the confl ict as the rstfi British Premiers: Walpole to the Younger true world war, a topic also covered in D. Pitt (2011). The Jacobite uprisings are dis- Baugh, The Global Seven Years War, 1754– cussed in books by B. Lenman (1995), J. L. 1763: Britain and France in a Great Power Roberts (2002), and C. Duffy (2003). There Contest (2011). For the colonial ramifi ca- are more recent accounts in D. Szechi, 1715: tions of the war, see F. Anderson, Crucible The Great Jacobite Rebellion (2006), and of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate G. Plank, Rebellion and Savagery: The Jac- of Empire in British North America, 1754– obite Rising of 1745 and the British Empire 1766 (2000); a briefer account is available in (2006). J. D. Oates, Jacobite Campaigns: F. Anderson, The War That Made America: The British State at War (2011), considers A Short History of the French and Indian the effects of the uprisings on Britain’s gov- War (2005). The same subject is also dis- ernment. F. McLynn has written a biogra- cussed in J. Keegan in Fields of Battle: The phy of the Young Pretender, Bonnie Prince Wars for North America (1996). Charlie: Charles Edward Stuart (1991), J. Brewer, The Sinews of Power: War, as well as Crime and Punishment in Eigh- Money, and the English State, 1688–1783 teenth-Century England (1989), which trac- (1989), noted earlier, persuasively dem- es the prevailing insecurity to the Jacobite onstrates that it was the fi scal strength threat. The latter may be supplemented by and war-making capacities of the British P. Linebaugh, The London Hanged: Crime parliamentary government after 1688 that and Punishment in the Eighteenth Century made possible Britain’s ascent as a global (1992), an impressive study. power. For the crisis created by the midcen- Especially insightful on the formation tury wars, in addition to the biographical of the British national identity in these years accounts of Pitt already cited, one may read is L. Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, M. Peters, Pitt and Popularity: The Patriot 1707–1837 (rev. 2009). W. A. Speck’s in- Minister and London Opinion during the formative survey, A Concise History of Brit- Seven Years’ War (1980), and R. Middleton, ain, 1707–1975 (1993), begins with these The Pitt-Newcastle Ministry and the Con- years. Accounts that give more attention to duct of the Seven Years’ War, 1757–1762 women and gender are L. F. Cody, Birthing (1985). An argument for Britain’s ascend- the Nation: Sex, Science, and the Concep- ancy as a result of the war can be found in tion of Eighteenth-Century Britons (2005), F. McLynn, 1759: The Year Britain Became and E. Major, Madam Britannia: Women, Master of the World (2004). Church, and Nation, 1712–1812 (2012). C. Duffy, The Army of Maria The- resa: The Armed Forces of Imperial Aus- The Great War of the Mid-Eighteenth tria, 1740–1780 (1977), ably explores the Century, 1740–1763 nature of the Habsburg army, and the same R. Browning, The War of the Austrian author examines Frederick’s skill in state- Succession (1993), is an outstanding craft and military prowess in Frederick the wide-ranging study of the fi rst phase of Great: A Military Life (1985). Other aspects the mid-eighteenth-century confl ict, while of Frederick’s military and foreign policies D. Marston, T he Seven Years’ War (2001) are discussed with perceptive insights in

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T. Schieder, Frederick the Great (trans. Enlightenment Thought 2000). Additional works on Frederick are A wide-ranging survey of the thought of listed for chapter 8. the era is available in P. Gay, The Enlight- enment: An Interpretation (2 vols., 1966– Useful Web Sites and Online Resources 1969), a comprehensive though somewhat There are useful materials and links on the dated work that praises the rationalist early British Empire at BBC-History, cited themes of many eighteenth-century writ- earlier. The history of France’s role in early ers; the same author also explores some of America can be explored through the links at his theses in The Party of Humanity: Essays the Canadian Museum of Civilization, www. on the French Enlightenment (1964). Other civilization.ca/virtual-museum-of-new- infl uential, older interpretations are to be france . The Web site of the Royal Historical found in A. Cobban, In Search of Humanity: Society, at www.royalhistoricalsociety.org/ The Role of the Enlightenment in Modern rhslibrary.php, offers links to numerous re- History (1960); and N. Hampson, A Cul- sources on eighteenth-century history and tural History of the Enlightenment (1969). culture, and for all other eras of British An informative concise introduction is history. The themes of both early modern M. Cranston, Philosophers and Pamphlet- and modern global history are addressed eers: Political Theorists of the Enlighten- regularly at World History Connected, ment (1986), while two useful, brief surveys http://worldhistoryconnected.press.uiuc. entitled The Enlightenment are available edu/ , the site of an excellent “e-journal” by R. Porter (rev. 2001) and D. Outram that offers updated information and analy- (1995). G. Himmelfarb, The Roads to Mo- sis of the transnational exchanges in world dernity: The British, French, and American history. Enlightenments (2004), is a provocative, 8. THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT controversial account that elevates British For background, the accounts of the eigh- and American contributions above those of teenth century that were listed at the begin- the French. J. I. Israel has written two im- ning of the section for chapter 7 should be portant, comprehensive treatments, Enlight- consulted. Readers may also turn to the ear- enment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, lier work in A. Goodwin (ed.), The Ameri- and the Emancipation of Man, 1670–1752 can and French Revolutions, 1763–1793 (2006) and Democratic Enlightenment: (1965), vol. 8 of The New Cambridge Mod- Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights ern History, and to the helpful essays in D. 1750–1790 (2011), both of which argue for E. D. Beales, Enlightenment and Reform in the importance of the Enlightenment as the Eighteenth-Century Europe (2005). There starting point for modern cultures and so- is also a valuable overview in O. Hufton, cieties. For an appreciation of the political Europe: Privilege and Protest: 1730–1789 ramifi cations of the Enlightenment, see (rev. 2000), and an intriguing, comprehen- D. W. Bates, States of War: Enlightenment sive account of the later eighteenth century Origins of the Political (2012). Other texts in F. Venturi, The End of the Old Regime in arguing for the continuing importance of Europe, 1776–1789 (2 vols., trans. 1991). Enlightenment thought are R. Louden, The Recent contributions, placing the Enlight- World We Want: How and Why the Ideals enment in broad contexts, are D. Outram, of the Enlightenment Still Elude Us (2007), Panorama of the Enlightenment (2006); C. and T. Todorov, In Defence of the Enlight- W. J. Withers, Placing the Enlightenment: enment (trans. 2009). For other concise in- Thinking Geographically about the Age troductions to the era, readers may turn to of Reason (2008); and D. Edelstein, The M. C. Jacob (ed.), The Enlightenment: A Enlightenment: A Genealogy (2010). Brief History with Documents (2001), and

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K. O’Hara, The Enlightenment: A Begin- Enlightenment Portraits (1997), brings to life ner’s Guide (2010) many of the people of the age; while D. M. Many recent works on the Enlighten- McMahon examines the critics of Enlight- ment stress the role of social and cultural enment thought in Enemies of the Enlight- institutions that promoted the circulation enment: The French Counter-Enlightenment of ideas and new forms of intellectual and the Making of Modernity (2001). Z. debate. This approach to the Enlighten- Sternhell, The Anti-Enlightenment Tradi- ment has been infl uenced by the challeng- tion (trans. 2010) traces negative responses ing work of J. Habermas, The Structural to the movement through history. Transformation of the Public Sphere (trans. On the theme of progress, readers may 1989). Among the many recent studies that consult the classic work by J. B. Bury, The examine institutions of the Enlightenment Idea of Progress: An Inquiry into Its Origin “public sphere,” readers will fi nd valuable and Growth (1920, 1955), and R. Nisbet, insights in D. Goodman, The Republic of History of the Idea of Progress (rev. 1994), Letters: A Cultural History of the French which treats the concept on a broad time Enlightenment (1994), which discusses the scale. The idea has also been examined in A. role of women in French salons; D. Gor- M. Melzer, J. Weinberger, and M. R. Zinman don, Citizens without Sovereignty: Equal- (eds.), History and the Idea of Progress ity and Sociability in French Thought, (1995). On economic thought and the ad- 1670–1789 (1994); A. Goldgar, Impolite vocates of free trade, there is E. Fox-Geno- Learning: Conduct and Community in the vese, The Origins of Physiocracy: Economic Republic of Letters (1995); and T. Munck, Revolution and Social Order in Eighteenth- The Enlightenment: A Comparative Social Century France (1976), and the important History, 1721–1794 (2000), which argues work of P. Groenwegen, Eigh teenth-Century that the new ideas spread widely beyond Economics: Turgot, Beccaria and Smith and the elite centers of intellectual life. E. G. Their Contemporaries (2002); to which one Andrew, Patrons of Enlightenment (2006), might add L. Vardi, The Physiocrats and the explores the role of the aristocratic support World of the Enlightenment (2012). Enlight- of philosophes and other thinkers. Other enment contributions to modern ideas about important books include U. Im Hof, The human rights are discussed in the infl uential Enlightenment (trans. 1994), and D. Roche, work of L. Hunt, Inventing Human Rights: A France in the Enlightenment (1993, trans. History (2007), whereas the differences be- 1998), a balanced, informative, and enter- tween Enlightenment and modern views of taining work by a leading French historian. such rights appear as a key theme in S. Moyn, Interesting work on more specifi c topics The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History may be found in M. C. Jacob, Living the (2010). Finally, the limits of the Enlighten- Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Poli- ment-era commitments to progress and labor tics in Eighteenth-Century Europe (1991); are discussed in the recent work of P. Saint- O. P. Grell and R. Porter (eds.), Toleration Amand, The Pursuit of Laziness: An Idle In- in Enlightenment Europe (2000); and also terpretation of the Enlightenment (2011). in M. L. Frazer, The Enlightenment of Sym- pathy: Justice and the Moral Sentiments in The Philosophes the Eighteenth Century and Today (2010). For a general introduction to Voltaire, readers E. Friedell, A Cultural History of the Mod- should consult N. Cronk (ed.), The Cam- ern Age Baroque, Rococo and Enlighten- bridge Companion to Voltaire (2009). ment (2009), places the Enlightenment in There are numerous books on the leading the broad context of artistic and cultural thinkers of the Enlightenment. On Voltaire, movements of the age. M. Vovelle (ed.), P. Gay, Voltaire’s Politics: The Poet as Realist

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(rev. 1988), emphasizes Voltaire’s pragmat- describes Rousseau’s critical analysis of ic reactions to the events of his day; J. Gray, his own era’s intellectual culture. Rous- Voltaire (1999), offers a brief introduction; seau’s life and thought are also examined and A. J. Ayer, Voltaire (1986), portrays Vol- in L. Damrosch, Jean-Jacques Rousseau: taire as a crusader. More recent studies in- Restless Genius (2005), an excellent biogra- clude R. Pearson, Voltaire Almighty: A Life phy. The broader implications of Rousseau’s in Pursuit of Freedom (2005), and I. David- thought are also explored in R. Wokler, son, Voltaire in Exile (2005), which focuses Rousseau, the Age of Enlightenment, and on the philosophe’s later life and career. Their Legacies (2012). I. Davidson covers the famous philosophe’s On Condorcet, K. M. Baker has written whole career in Voltaire: A Life (2010). A the exhaustive Condorcet: From Natural speculative psychohistorical approach can Philosophy to Social Mathematics (1975), be found in A. J. Nemeth, Voltaire’s Tor- while D. Williams, Condorcet and Moder- mented Soul: A Psychobiographic Inquiry nity (2005), discusses both the ideas and po- (2008). For Montesquieu one may read an litical vision of a philosophe who actually outstanding older study by R. Shackleton, participated in the French Revolution. On Montesquieu: A Critical Biography (1961). the leading biologist or “natural historian” A comprehensive account of Montesquieu’s of the age, one may read J. Roger, Buffon thought is found in the subtly titled book (trans. 1998). On a lesser-known philosophe by P. A. Rahe, Montesquieu and the Logic sympathetic to the poorer classes, an excel- of Liberty: War, Religion, Commerce, Cli- lent account is D. G. Levy, The Ideas and mate, Terrain, Technology, Uneasiness of Careers of Simon-Nicholas-Henri Linguet Mind, the Spirit of Political Vigilance, and (1980). H. G. Payne, The Philosophes and the Foundations of the Modern Republic the People (1971), traces the divergent (2009), while the religious overtones of his views of the famous writers toward the oeuvre are examined in T. L. Pangle, The lower classes, as does H. Chisick, The Limits Theological Basis of Liberal Modernity in of Reform in the Enlightenment (1981). Montesquieu’s Spirit of the Laws (2010). On D. Brewer, The Enlightenment Past: Diderot, A. M. Wilson’s biography (2 vols., Reconstructing Eighteenth-Century French 1957, 1972) is admirable, while J. Fowler Thought (2008), offers a good introduc- (ed.), New Essays on Diderot (2011), and A. tion to the French prerevolutionary intel- H. Clark, Diderot’s Part (2008), draw on the lectual landscape, while the intellectual more recent scholarship. movement’s corrosive effect on eighteenth- For the elusive Rousseau, E. Cassirer, century civil society is covered in S. A. The Question of Jean-Jacques Rousseau Stanley, The French Enlightenment and the (trans. 1963), remains an important analysis. Emergence of Modern Cynicism (2012). Among many other modern studies, readers For the direct connection between the ideas may turn to J. H. Huizinga, Rousseau: The of the Enlightenment and the Revolution, Self-Made Man (1975); and M. Cranston’s one can still learn from the classic work of important reassessment, Jean-Jacques: D. Mornet, Intellectual Origins of the French The Early Life and Works of Jean-Jacques Revolution (trans. 1933), which saw a more Rousseau, 1712–1754 (1982), with a se- direct link than some contemporary schol- quel, The Noble Savage: Jean-Jacques ars would concede. The major reassess- Rousseau, 1754–1762 (1991). A challeng- ments of Mornet’s pioneering work include ing book is J. Miller, Rousseau: Dreamer F. Furet, Interpreting the French Revolution of Democracy (1984). The work of M. Hul- (trans. 1981); K. M. Baker, Inventing the liung, The Autocritique of Enlightenment: French Revolution: Essays in the Political Rousseau and the Philosophes (1994), Culture of the Eighteenth Century (1990);

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and R. Chartier, The Cultural Origins of the 1983); and the history of reading is exam- French Revolution (trans. 1991). Two books ined in R. Chartier, The Cultural Uses of on the use and abuse of the ideas of the phi- Print in Early Modern France (trans. 1987). losophes by the later revolutionaries are N. W. Roberts, Morality and Social Class: Hampson, Will and Circumstance: Montes- Eighteenth-Century French Literature and quieu, Rousseau, and the French Revolu- Painting (1974), links the creative arts to tion (1984), and C. Blum, Rousseau and the political and social life, as does M. Craske, Republic of Virtue: The Language of Art in Europe, 1700–1830 (1997). Politics in the French Revolution (1986). Intellectual ties between France and The Enlightenment: Scotland, England, America are discussed in L. Gottschalk and Italy, Germany D. F. Lach, Toward the French Revolution: An informative introduction to Scotland in Europe and America in the Eighteenth- this age is D. Allan, Scotland in the Eigh- Century World (1973), and in S. Schiff, A teenth Century (2001), and valuable assess- Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and ments of the important Scottish thinkers the Birth of America (2005). On Franklin are available in A. C. Chitnis, The Scottish one may also read C. A. Lopez, Mon Cher Enlightenment: A Social History (1976), Papa: Franklin and the Ladies of Paris (rev. and in G. Davie, The Scotch Metaphysics: 1990), and two excellent biographies by E. A Century of Enlightenment in Scotland S. Morgan (2002) and W. Isaacson (2005). (2001), which also describes the infl uence C. Vann Woodward, The Old World’s New of Scottish philosophy in the nineteenth World (1991), covers changing European century. Other helpful books are D. Forbes, perceptions of America; while M. Valsania, Hume’s Philosophical Politics (1984); The Limits of Optimism: Thomas Jeffer- R. L. Emerson, Essays on David Hume, son’s Dualistic Enlightenment (2011), dis- Medical Men and the Scottish Enlighten- cusses another great American enthusiast ment: Industry, Knowledge and Humanity of enlightened thought. An infl uential study (2009); and D. B. Wilson, Seeking Nature’s of the most important collaborative work Logic: Natural Philosophy in the Scot- of the French Enlightenment is R. Darnton, tish Enlightenment (2009). A. Fitzgibbons, The Business of Enlightenment: A Publish- Adam Smith’s System of Liberty, Wealth, and ing History of the Encyclopédie, 1775–1800 Virtue: The Moral and Political Founda- (1979). The same author’s other books, tions of the Wealth of Nations (1995), and among them Mesmerism and the End of J. Dwyer, The Age of the Passions: An In- the Enlightenment in France (1968), The terpretation of Adam Smith and Scottish Literary Underground of the Old Regime Enlightenment Culture (1998), cover the (1985), and The Great Cat Massacre and important economic works of the Scottish Other Episodes in French Cultural History Enlightenment. On the same theme, the es- (1984), help explain popular culture and rad- says in the collaborative volume of I. Hont ical political thought among ordinary men and M. Ignatieff (eds.), Wealth and Virtue and women of the age. An engaging study in the Shaping of the Political Economy of the philosophes’ cultural and political in the Scottish Enlightenment (1984), are ambitions is available in P. Blom, Enlight- rewarding. For more detailed accounts of ening the World: Encyclopédie, the Book an infl uential economist’s life and thought, That Changed the Course of History (2005). see N. Phillipson, Adam Smith: An Enlight- The growth of literacy is explored, especial- ened Life (2010); I. S. Ross, The Life of ly for the years after 1680, in F. Furet and Adam Smith (2010); and G. Kennedy, Adam J. Ozouf, Reading and Writing: Literacy in Smith: A Moral Philosopher and His Politi- France from Calvin to Jules Ferry (trans. cal Economy (2008).

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For the Enlightenment in its British M. Lilla, G. B. Vico: The Making of an Anti- setting, one may read J. Redwood, Reason, Modern (1993); G. Mazzotta, The New Map Ridicule, and Religion: The Age of Enlight- of the World: The Poetic Philosophy of Gi- enment in England, 1660–1750 (1976), ambattista Vico (1999); R. C. Miner, Vico, and R. Porter, The Creation of the Mod- Genealogist of Modernity (2002); and B. A. ern World: The Untold Story of the British Naddeo, Vico and Naples: The Urban Ori- Enlightenment (2000), a wide-ranging work gins of Modern Social Theory (2011). that stresses Britain’s distinctive contributions to Enlightenment culture. The role Other Enlightenment Themes of women in the English Enlightenment is Religion and related themes are examined discussed in K. O’Brien, Women and En- in R. R. Palmer, Catholics and Unbelievers lightenment in Eighteenth-Century Britain in Eighteenth-Century France (1939); (2009). R. Hattersley, A Brand from the J. M. Byrne, Religion and the Enlighten- Burning: The Life of John Wesley (2002), ment: From Descartes to Kant (1997); and M. Pasquarello, John Wesley: A Preaching the wide-ranging survey by W. R. Ward, Life (2010), and T. Oden, John Wesley’s Christianity under the Ancien Régime, Teachings (2012), explore the relation be- 1648–1789 (1999). Several works on tween religion and democratic thought in Enlightenment-era religion have been pub- the Methodist movement. J. G. A. Pocock lished in recent years. Foremost among them subtly reexamines a number of British are B. Kaplan, Divided by Faith: Religious thinkers, including Hume, Gibbon, and Confl ict and the Practice of Toleration in Burke, in Virtue, Commerce, and History: Early Modern Europe (2007); D. Sorkin, Essays in Political Thought and History The Religious Enlightenment: Protestants, (1985). For Gibbon, J. W. Burrow’s brief Jews, and Catholics from London to Vienna Gibbon (1985) and P. B. Craddock’s admi- (2008); A. Thomson, Bodies of Thought: rable two-volume biography (1982–1988) Science, Religion, and the Soul in the Early are available, but readers should also turn Enlightenment (2008); B. Ward, Redeem- to the monumental work of J. G. A. Pocock, ing the Enlightenment: Christianity and the Barbarism and Religion (4 vols., 1999– Liberal Virtues (2010), and G. Stroumsa, 2005), which examines Gibbon’s work and A New Science: The Discovery of Religion places it in a wider context of Enlighten- in the Age of Reason (2010). An important ment historical writing. For the German episode is studied in a valuable work by poet-philosopher Goethe, one may turn to D. D. Bien, The Calas Affair: Persecution, N. Boyle, Goethe: The Poet and the Age Toleration, and Heresy in Eighteenth Cen- (2 vols., 1991, 2000). tury Toulouse (1960), while M. C. Jacob, H. Maestro has written a comprehensive The Radical Enlightenment: Pantheists, biography of the Italian jurist and reformer Freemasons, and Republicans (1981), ex- who served the Austrian state, Cesare Bec- plores radical ideas that fl ourished in Dutch caria and the Origins of Penal Reform literary circles. The radical implications (1973). For the Italian city-states in this age, of the Enlightenment are also discussed in there are helpful works by D. Carpanetto J. Israel, A Revolution of the Mind: Radical and G. Ricuperati, Italy in the Age of Enlightenment and the Intellectual Origins Reason, 1685–1789 (1987), and F. Venturi, of Modern Democracy (2010), to be paired Italy and the Enlightenment: Studies in a with the author’s two other works on this Cosmopolitan Century (1972). The leading same era, cited above, and in P. Blom, A Italian philosopher of the Enlightenment, Wicked Company: The Forgotten Radical- little known in his own time but increasingly ism of the European Enlightenment (2010). infl uential in recent decades, is studied in J. Riskin, Science in the Age of Sensibility:

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The Sentimental Empiricists of the French noted Jewish contributor to the era’s intel- Enlightenment (2002), challenges older lectual life is discussed in M. Gottlieb, assumptions about the era’s pervasive ra- Faith and Freedom: Moses Mendelssohn’s tionalism; and there is an intriguing study Theological-Political Thought (2011). The of the philosophes’ conception of truth views of eighteenth-century intellectuals and falsehood in D. W. Bates, Enlighten- are examined in two excellent recent books: ment Aberrations: Error and Revolution in A. Sutcliffe, Judaism and the Enlighten- France (2002). ment (2003), and J. M. Hess, Germans, For general introductions to women in Jews, and the Claims of Modernity (2002). the Enlightenment, their accomplishments The previously cited work by D. Sorkin, and the constraints upon them, one may The Religious Enlightenment: Protestants, turn to K. Rogers, Feminism in Eighteenth- Jews, and Catholics from London to Vienna Century England (1976); the essays in (2008), places Jewish thinkers in the broader S. I. Spencer (ed.), French Women and the context of the era’s religious thought. Age of Enlightenment (1985); the impor- H. Sachar, A History of the Jews in the tant work on the salons by D. Goodman Modern World (2005), provides a scholarly, (1994), cited earlier; H. Bostic, The Fic- highly readable account focusing on the tion of Enlightenment: Women of Reason years from the Enlightenment to the present. in the French Eighteenth Century (2010); F. Dabhoiwala, The Origins of Sex: A France in the Old Regime History of the First Sexual Revolution (2011); Several books on modern France exam- and S. C. Maza, Private Lives and Public ine developments in the eighteenth cen- Affairs: The Causes Célèbres of Prerevolu- tury; among them are C. Jones, The Great tionary France (1993), which discusses the Nation: France from Louis XV to Napoleon, images of women in late eighteenth-century 1715–99 (2002), and R. Price, An Economic legal disputes. The life of the marquise who History of Modern France 1730–1914 headed the best known of the many salons in (1981). Price has also written A Concise France is recounted in B. Craveri, Madame History of France (rev. 2005). du Deffand and Her World (trans. 1994). Books that study the era for its own The position of eighteenth-century sake and not merely as a prologue to the Jewish communities and intellectuals is Revolution include P. R. Campbell, The examined in numerous important works, Ancien Regime in France (1988); E. Le Roy including A. Hertzberg, The French Enlight- Ladurie, The Ancien Regime: A History enment and the Jews (1968), which con- of France, 1610–1774 (trans. 1996); and tends that by downgrading all religions the W. Beik, A Social and Cultural History of philosophes (and especially Voltaire) con- Early Modern France (2009). The fi nancial tributed to anti-Semitism; also critical of the crisis is explored in depth in J. F. Bosher, Enlightenment is J. Katz, Out of the Ghetto: French Finances, 1770–1795: From Busi- The Social Background of Jewish Eman- ness to Bureaucracy (1970). cipation, 1770–1870 (1973). But Jewish The changing role of the nobility may integration into European society in these be studied in older works by F. L. Ford, years is explored in R. Mahler, A History of Robe and Sword: The Regrouping of the Modern Jewry, 1780–1815 (1971); J. Israel, French Aristocracy after Louis XIV (1953), European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, and R. Forster, The Nobility of Toulouse in 1550–1750 (rev. 1998); and F. Malino and the Eighteenth Century (1960), as well as D. Sorkin (eds.), From East to West: Jews in Forster’s other books. G. Chaussinand- in a Changing Europe (1990), which fo- Noguret, The French Nobility in the cuses on the years 1750 to 1870. The most Eighteenth Century (1985), portrays the

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prerevolutionary nobility as socially pro- is a brief survey, while J. J. Sheehan, ductive; and J. M. Smith examines the nobil- Germany, 1770–1866 (1989), is an out- ity’s contribution to conceptions of French standing larger history that begins with this nationhood in Nobility Reimagined: The Pa- period. For Prussia and Frederick the Great, triotic Nation in Eighteenth-Century France one may turn to D. B. Horn, Frederick the (2005). The growing criticism of noble privi- Great and the Rise of Prussia (1969), and leges during this era is discussed in W. Doyle, R. B. Asprey, Frederick the Great: The Aristocracy and Its Enemies in the Age of Great Enigma (1986), as well as to the Revolution (2009). Responses to problems more recent biographies by G. MacDonogh, of poverty and hunger in eighteenth-century Frederick the Great: A Life in Deed and France may be examined in O. Hufton, Letters (1999), and D. Fraser, Frederick the The Poor of Eighteenth-Century France, Great (2000). 1750–1789 (1974); in S. L. Kaplan’s A concise introduction to eighteenth- detailed and impressive Bread, Politics, and century Austria is E. Wangermann, The Aus- Political Economy in the Reign of Louis XV trian Achievement, 1700–1800 (1973). D. F. (2 vols., 1976) and his two later volumes on Good, The Economic Rise of the Habsburg related themes (1994, 1996); and in S. M. Empire, 1750–1914 (1984), begins with Adams, Bureaucrats and Beggars: French these years, while P. G. M. Dickson, Social Policy in the Age of Enlightenment Finance and Government under Maria (1990). Parisian life at the time is graph- Theresa, 1740–1780 (2 vols., 1988), is an ically reconstructed in D. Roche, The People in-depth economic study. The Habsburg of Paris (trans. 1987). The status of domes- empress may be studied in E. Crankshaw, tic servants as a key to broader social rela- Maria Theresa (1969), and her son is the tions is examined in S. C. Maza, Servants subject of P. P. Bernard, Joseph II (1968), and Masters in Eighteenth-Century France: a brief, balanced account. Other interpre- The Uses of Loyalty (1983), and in C. Fair- tations can be found in T. C. W. Blanning, childs, Domestic Enemies: Servants and Joseph II (1994); and in D. Beales, Joseph Their Masters in Old Regime France (1984). II, vol. 1: In the Shadow of Maria Theresa, Maza also discusses French conceptions of 1741–1780 (1987), which shows in detail social class in The Myth of the French Bour- how Joseph attempted to shape policy even geoise: An Essay on the Social Imaginary, before his own reign began in 1780. 1750–1850 (2003), which argues that the Enlightened despotism in Russia is ex- bourgeoisie did not exist as the coherent amined in a judicious large-scale study by I. social group that its critics imagined. de Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Cathe- rine the Great (1981), available in abridged Enlightened Despotism in Europe form as Catherine the Great: A Short His- A thoughtful brief introduction is J. G. tory (1990), and in her Politics and Culture Gagliardo, Enlightened Despotism (1967), in Eighteenth-Century Russia: Collected while L. Krieger, An Essay on the Theory of Essays (1998). There are also biographies Enlightenment and Despotism (1975), is a of Catherine by S. Dixon (rev. 2009) and diffi cult but rewarding analysis. M. Streeter (2007); and the magisterial German political fragmentation and R. Massie, Catherine the Great: Portrait cultural stirrings are examined in J. G. of a Woman (2011). Other valuable stud- Gagliardo’s Reich and Nation: The Holy ies of eighteenth-century Russia include Roman Empire as Idea and Reality, 1763– two works by M. Raeff, Origins of the Rus- 1806 (1980) and Germany under the Old sian Intelligentsia: The Eighteenth-Century Regime, 1600–1790 (1991). R. Vierhaus, Nobility (1966) and Political Ideas and Insti- Germany in the Age of Absolutism (1988), tutions in Imperial Russia (1994). Additional

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insights are provided in J. Burbank and in the section for the next chapter. H. F. May, D. L. Ransel (eds.), Imperial Russia: New The Enlightenment in America (1976), and Histories for the Empire (1998); and in the H. S. Commager, The Empire of Reason: previously cited work by J. Burbank and F. How Europe Imagined and America Real- Cooper, Empires in World History (2010). ized the Enlightenment (1977), are both Economic developments are traced in challenging books. For background to A. Kahan, The Plow, the Hammer, and the the revolution, one should read J. R. Carr, Knout: An Economic History of Eighteenth- Seeds of Discontent: The Deep Roots of the Century Russia (1985), and revolts and so- American Revolution, 1650–1750 (2008); cial stirrings may be studied in P. Avrich, and J. Black, Crisis of Empire: Britain Russian Rebels, 1600–1800 (1972), cited and America in the Eighteenth Century earlier, and in two books by J. T. Alexander (2008). The link with events and ideas in on the Pugachev uprising: Autocratic Poli- seventeenth-century England is stressed in tics in a National Crisis (1969) and Emperor E. S. Morgan, Inventing the People: The of the Cossacks (1973). Rise of Popular Sovereignty in England and America (1988), and O. Stanwood, The Poland: The Partitions Empire Reformed: English America in the For Poland in these years, one may turn Age of the Glorious Revolution (2011); and to N. Davies, A History of Poland: God’s the infl uence of Enlightenment ideas on Playground (2 vols., rev. 2005), vol. 1: American leaders is discussed in D. Staloff, The Origins to 1795, and Heart of Europe: Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of A Short History of Poland (1984), as Enlightenment and the American Founding well as the accounts in J. Lukowski and (2005), and J. Drake, The Nation’s Nature: H. Zawadzki, A Concise History of Poland How Continental Presumptions Gave Rise (2001), and A. J. Prazmowska, A History of to the United States of America (2011). Poland (2004). On the eighteenth-century For a sampling of interpretive studies, partitions, J. Lukowski, The Partitions of one may turn to B. Bailyn, Faces of Revolu- Poland, 1772, 1793, 1795 (1999), updates tion: Personalities and Themes in the Strug- and expands upon older studies. R. But- gle for American Independence (1990); terwick, The Polish Revolution and the J. P. Greene, Understanding the American Catholic Church, 1788–1792: A Political Revolution: Issues and Actors (1995); and History (2012) discusses the role of the two books by G. S. Wood, The Radicalism Church in these tumultuous years. For the of the American Revolution (1991) and The years that followed the partitions, one turns American Revolution: A History (2002). Im- to P. Wandycz, The Lands of Partitioned portant examples of the expanding research Poland, 1795–1918 (1974), vol. 7 of A His- on the history of women in this era may tory of East Central Europe. A special sub- be found M. B. Norton, Liberty’s Daugh- ject is treated in C. Abramsky et al. (eds.), ters: The Revolutionary Experience of The Jews in Poland (1986). K. Friedrich, American Women (1980, 1996); C. Berkin, The Other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland, Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the and Liberty, 1569–1772 (2000), examines Struggle for America’s Independence the history of Polish-Prussian relations. (2005); C. Roberts, Ladies of Liberty: The Women Who Shaped Our Nation (2008); The American Revolution and Britain and J. Gundersen, To Be Useful to the World: Major works by R. R. Palmer, J. Godechot, Women in Revolutionary America, 1740– and others exploring the American and 1790 (2006). British responses to the revo- French Revolutions in a broader eighteenth- lutionary events in America are discussed in century revolutionary setting are described K. Perry, British Politics and the American

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Revolution (1990); in H. T. Dickinson (ed.), Turner, British Politics in an Age of Reform Britain and the American Revolution (1998); (1999); and E. H. Gould, The Persistence of and in S. Conway, The British Isles and the Empire: British Political Culture in the Age War of American Independence (2000). of the American Revolution (2000). Two For the military aspects of the war, one books by I. R. Christie, Wars and Revolu- may turn to J. Shy, A People Numerous and tions: Britain, 1760–1815 (1982) and Stress Armed: Refl ections on the Military Struggle and Stability in Late Eighteenth-Century for American Independence (rev. 1990), and Britain: Refl ections on the British Avoid- S. Conway, The War of American Indepen- ance of Revolution (1984), are rewarding. dence (1995). M. Spring, With Zeal and with Bayonets Only: The British Army on Cam- Useful Web Sites and Online Resources paign in North America, 1775–1783 (2008), The International Centre for Eighteenth- covers the British military effort. For the as- Century Studies maintains a comprehensive cension of the British navy in the period, see Web site at www.c18.org , where readers R. Morriss, The Foundations of British Mar- will fi nd links to diverse materials on all itime Ascendancy: Resources, Logistics and aspects of eighteenth-century history and the State, 1755–1815 (2011), which covers culture; although the site is in French, the the infrastructure of naval dominance. The links on it are easy enough to translate, and French contribution is examined in J. Dull, they lead also to English-language works. The French Navy and American Independ- There are more useful links at the Inter- ence (1975); in L. Kennett, The French national Society for Eighteenth-Century Forces in America, 1780–1783 (1978); and Studies, www.isecs.org . The Voltaire Foun- in S. F. Scott, From Yorktown to Valmy: The dation, www.voltaire.ox.ac.uk , is another Transformation of the French Army in an good starting point for further research Age of Revolution (1998). on the Enlightenment as well as the life For diplomacy and international affairs, and work of France’s best-known philos- there are F. W. Brecher, Securing American ophe. The collection of electronic sources Independence: John Jay and the French at Fordham University, Internet History Alliance (2003), and H. M. Scott, British Sourcebook, www.fordham.edu/Halsall/in- Foreign Policy in the Age of the American dex.asp , cited previously, includes links to Revolution (1991); and there is an excellent many valuable eighteenth-century materi- account of French-American relations in als; and for documents on American-British S. Schiff, A Great Improvisation: Franklin, confl icts in this era, readers may consult the France, and the Birth of America (2005). excellent collection at the Yale Law On the peace negotiations, R. B. Morris, School’s Avalon Project, http://avalon.law. The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and yale.edu/subject_menus/amerre American Independence (1965), is an outstanding study. 9. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION For Britain in the eighteenth century, Still useful works on the revolutionary era one should also consult the books described include A. Goodwin (ed.), The American for chapter 7. In addition, the movements and French Revolutions, 1763–1793 (1965), for parliamentary reform are discussed in vol. 8 of the New Cambridge Modern His- studies by P. D. G. Thomas, John Wilkes: tory, and its sequel volume, C. W. Crawley A Friend to Liberty (1996); J. Sainsbury, (ed.), War and Peace in an Age of Upheaval, John Wilkes: The Lives of a Libertine (2006); 1793–1830 (1965). Books encompassing and A. Cash, John Wilkes: The Scandalous the revolutionary era as a whole include Father of Civil Liberty (2006). And there E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: are broader studies of English radicals in M. Europe, 1789–1848 (1962, reissued 1996);

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N. Hampson, The First European Revolu- C. Lucas (ed.), Rewriting the French Rev- tion, 1776–1850 (1969); and C. Breunig olution (1991); and in E. J. Hobsbawm, and M. Levinger, The Revolutionary Era, Echoes from the Marseillaise: Two Cen- 1789–1850 (rev. 2002); of special value is turies Look Back on the French Revolu- G. Best, War and Society in Revolutionary tion (1990), an insightful examination of Europe, 1770–1870 (1982). Readers may liberal, Marxist, and revisionist interpre- also wish to consult D. Andress, 1789: The tations. P. Hanson, Contesting the French Threshold of the Modern Age (2009), and Revolution (2009), provides an update to G. Fremont-Barnes (ed.), Encyclopedia of such works. the Age of Political Revolutions and New Among the many narrative histories, S. Ideologies, 1760–1815 (2007). Schama, Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution (1989), carrying the events to The French Revolution 1794, effectively captures their color and As the bicentennial in 1989 of the French drama. Comprehensive political narratives Revolution demonstrated, the French them- are available in W. Doyle, The Oxford His- selves are less divided than formerly over tory of the French Revolution (rev. 2002); the legacy of 1789, but wide differences in J. F. Bosher, The French Revolution (1988); scholarly interpretation, emphasis, and con- D. G. M. Sutherland, France, 1789–1815: ceptualization persist. The reader may fi nd Revolution and Counterrevolution (1986) introductions to the modern scholarship in and The French Revolution and Empire, the F. Furet and M. Ozouf (eds.), A Critical Quest for a Civic Order (2003); and A. For- Dictionary of the French Revolution (trans. rest, The French Revolution (1995). Other 1989), which consists of 99 encyclopedia- useful, concise surveys include J. Popkin, type articles covering events, institutions, A Short History of the French Revolution persons, and ideas, as well as historians of the (rev. 2010); P. McPhee, The French Revolu- Revolution. R. Ballard, A New Dictionary tion, 1789–1799 (2002); D. Andress, French of the French Revolution (2012), is a re- Society in Revolution, 1789–1799 (1999); cent, more concise and traditional resource. and W. Doyle, The French Revolution: Another informative compendium is S. F. A Very Short Introduction (2001). The Scott and B. Rothaus, Historical Dictionary wider meaning of the Revolution is discussed of the French Revolution, 1787–1799 in the infl uential work of F. Furet,Revolu- (2 vols., 1985). Four impressive volumes tionary France, 1770–1880 (trans. 1992). incorporating the contributions of many Accessible general histories of the French international scholars have been published Revolution can be found in P. Hanson, The as The French Revolution and the Creation A to Z of the French Revolution (2007); of Modern Political Culture: vol. 1, K. M. S. Neely, A Concise History of the French Baker (ed.), The Political Culture of the Old Revolution (2008); and P. Davies, The French Regime (1987); vol. 2, C. Lucas (ed.), The Revolution: A Beginner’s Guide (2009). Political Culture of the French Revolution For special aspects the reader may (1989); vol. 3, F. Furet (ed.), The Infl uence turn to E. Kennedy, A Cultural History of of the French Revolution on Nineteenth- the French Revolution (1989), which ably Century Europe (1989); and vol. 4, K. M. communicates the cultural effervescence of Baker (ed.), The Terror (1994). The Revolu- the age; F. Aftalion, The French Revolution: tion is viewed in thoughtful perspective for An Economic Interpretation (trans. 1990); the general reader by eight scholars in G. and R. Cobb, The French and Their Revolu- Best (ed.), The Permanent Revolution: The tion (1998), a collection of writings by an French Revolution and Its Legacy, 1789– English historian interested in the history 1989 (1989); in depth by specialists in of the lower classes. The popular response

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to revolutionary events is examined in D. balance, is G. Lefebvre, The French Revo- Andress, The French Revolution and the lution (1951; 2 vols. in trans. 1962–1964). People (2004); and D. Bell discusses the A more extreme example, stressing class emergence of French nationalism before struggle, is A. Soboul, The French Revolu- and during the Revolution in The Cult of the tion, 1789–1799: From the Storming of the Nation in France: Inventing Nationalism, Bastille to Napoleon (trans. 1977). The class 1680–1800 (2001). The art of the era comes struggle is also highlighted in G. Rudé, The alive in R. Paulson, Representations of French Revolution (1988). Two books by Revolution, 1750–1800 (1987), cited in the A. Cobban, The Myth of the French Revo- section for the previous chapter; T. Crow, lution (1953) and The Social Interpretation Emulation: David, Drouais, and Girodet in of the French Revolution (1964), vigor- the Art of Revolutionary France (2006); and ously rejected the notion of a “bourgeois R. Reichardt and H. Kohle, Visualizing the revolution.” For an understanding of the Revolution: Politics and the Pictorial Arts everyday experience of the Revolution, see in Late Eighteenth-Century France (2008). P. McPhee, Living the French Revolution, Architectural design is explored imagina- 1789–99 (2006), and J. Anderson, Daily tively in J. A. Leith, Space and Revolution Life during the French Revolution (2007). (1991). In another area R. R. Palmer, The New ways to study the Revolution Improvement of Humanity: Education and as a cultural phenomenon rather than as a the French Revolution (1985), examines the revolution of social classes are explored in educational institutions that sought to dis- F. Furet, Interpreting the French Revolu- seminate revolutionary ideals. tion (1978; trans. 1981), cited earlier. Cul- There is a helpful introduction to the tural methodologies are exemplifi ed in two wide range of historical interpretations of books by L. Hunt: Politics, Culture, and the French Revolution in M. R. Cox (ed.), Class in the French Revolution (1984) and The Place of the French Revolution in His- The Family Romance of the French Revolu- tory (1998). Debates among historians may tion (1992), which approaches the questions be sampled in T. C. W. Blanning (ed.), The of legitimacy and authority by examining Rise and Fall of the French Revolution the wide use of family metaphors during the (1996), and in G. Kates (ed.), The French Revolution. Cultural aspects of the Revolu- Revolution: Recent Debates and New Con- tion are also explored in J. R. Censor and troversies (1998). A comprehensive summa- L. Hunt, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Ex- ry of French views during the Revolution’s ploring the French Revolution (2001), an bicentennial commemorations is avail- innovative book that includes a CD with able in S. L. Kaplan, Farewell Revolution images and songs from the revolutionary (2 vols., 1995). There are numerous older era. The emphasis on symbolic meanings volumes, now more important to historiogra- appears also in M. Ozouf, Festivals and the phy than to history, by writers of such vastly French Revolution (1988), and in H. J. Lese- differing viewpoints as Jules Michelet, Jean brink, The Bastille: A History of a Symbol of Jaurès, Hippolyte Taine, Thomas Carlyle, Despotism and Freedom (trans. 1997). Louis Madelin, Pierre Gaxotte, Alphonse Aulard, and Albert Mathiez. The Events of the Revolution Many twentieth-century scholars em- For the immediate background of the Revo- phasized the class basis of the Revolution lution, including the fi nancial crisis, one may and saw political differences emerging from read M. Vovelle, The Fall of the French Mon- the economic self-interest of groups and archy, 1787–1792 (trans. 1984); W. Doyle, factions. A classical synthesis of this ap- Origins of the French Revolution (rev. proach, which nonetheless retains a judicious 1999); and the two classic volumes by

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G. Lefebvre: The Coming of the French be studied in M. Bouloiseau, The Jacobin Revolution (trans. 1947) and The Great Republic, 1792–1794 (trans. 1984), and in Fear of 1789: Rural Panic in Revolution- M. J. Sydenham, The First French Repub- ary France (trans. 1982). The fi nal effort lic, 1792–1804 (1974). Other studies of the at fi nancial reconstruction is recounted in Jacobins and their ideas may be found in R. D. Harris, Necker: Reform Statesman of M. Kennedy, The Jacobin Clubs in the the Ancien Regime (1979) and Necker and French Revolution, 1793–1795 (2000), the Revolution of 1789 (1988); and consid- and in P. Higonnet, Goodness beyond Vir- ered from the viewpoint of intellectual his- tue: Jacobins during the French Revolution tory in M. Sonenscher, Before the Deluge: (1998), which offers a more sympathetic Public Debt, Inequality, and the Intellectual view of the Jacobins than most recent works. Origins of the French Revolution (2007). For the year of the Terror, the reader Readers may also wish to consult T. Kaiser may turn to A. Soboul, The Parisian and D. Van Kley (eds.), From Defi cit to Del- Sans-Culottes and the French Revolution, uge: The Origins of the French Revolution 1793–1794 (trans. 1964); R. R. Palmer, (2011). The evolution of the nobility dur- Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Ter- ing this period is covered in V. Gruder, The ror in the French Revolution (1941; reis- Notables and the Nation: The Political sued 2005); C. Lucas, The Structure of the Schooling of the French, 1787–1788 (2007). Terror (1973); and D. Andress, The Terror: J. Hardman’s two books, Louis XVI (1992) The Merciless War for Freedom in Revolu- and Louis XVI: The Silent King (2000), pro- tionary France (2006). A broad account of vide thoughtful accounts of the king and his the Terror is found in H. Gough, The Terror reputation. The famous queen is described in the French Revolution (2010); while in E. Lever, Marie Antoinette: The Last D. Edelstein, The Terror of Natural Right: Queen of France (trans. 2000), and in the Republicanism, the Cult of Nature, and the biographies by A. Fraser, Marie Antoinette: French Revolution (2009), considers the po- The Journey (2002), and J.-L. H. Campan, litical philosophy behind it. A controversial, The Private Life of Marie Antoinette (2008). sympathetic account of the events of 1793– The fate of the royal family is examined in 1794 is developed in S. Wahnich, In De- M. Price, The Road from Versailles: Louis fence of the Terror: Liberty or Death in the XVI, Marie Antoinette, and the Fall of the French Revolution (trans. 2012). H. Brown, French Monarchy (2004); while the king’s Ending the French Revolution: Violence, attempted escape from France is the subject Justice, and Repression from the Terror to of an excellent book by T. Tackett, When the Napoleon (2006), considers the lingering King Took Flight (2003). use of violence through the era. The reform phase of the Revolution Different aspects of the Revolution under the fi rst two legislative bodies is are explored in M. Vovelle, The Revolution studied in N. Hampson, Prelude to Ter- against the Church: From Reason to the ror: The Constituent Assembly and the Supreme Being (trans. 1991); P. Jones, The Failure of Consensus, 1789–1791 (1989); Peasantry in the French Revolution (1988); T. Tackett, Becoming a Revolutionary: The and J. Markoff, The Abolition of Feudalism: Deputies of the French National Assem- Peasants, Lords and Legislators in the bly and the Emergence of a Revolutionary French Revolution (1996). R. Ballard, The Culture (1789–1790) (1996); and B. Shapiro, Unseen Terror: The French Revolution in Traumatic Politics: The Deputies and the Provinces (2010), is a rebuttal to the the King in the Early French Revolution Parisian-centered approach common to (2009). The coming of the war in 1792 and many histories of the French Revolution. the radicalization of the Revolution may A. Forrest, The French Revolution and the

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56 Suggestions for Further Reading

Poor (1981), examines the welfare legisla- Women’s Rights and the French Revolution: tion adopted in the revolutionary decade, as A Biography of Olympe de Gouges (trans. does L. DiCaprio, The Origins of the Wel- 2007). The expansion of women’s writ- fare State: Women, Work, and the French ing during the revolutionary decade is the Revolution (2007). The revolutionaries’ subject of C. Hesse, The Other Enlighten- conception of time is explored in M. Shaw, ment: How French Women Became Modern Time and the French Revolution: The Re- (2001); and the relation between gender and publican Calendar, 1789–Year XIV (2011). the new French nationalism is analyzed in Changes in family life and gender relations J. B. Landes, Visualizing the Nation: are discussed in S. Desan, The Family on Gender, Representation, and Revolution in Trial in Revolutionary France (2004). For Eighteenth-Century France (2001). a summary of how the revolutionaries con- Among R. Cobb’s illuminating books ceived of human rights, one may turn to the about the life and activism of the lower analysis and documents in L. Hunt (ed.), classes are The Police and the People: The French Revolution and Human Rights French Popular Protest, 1789–1820 (1970); (1996); and an important study of social Paris and Its Provinces, 1792–1802 (1975); changes across the entire revolutionary and and The People’s Armies (1961, 1987), an Napoleonic era appears in I. Woloch, The impressive study of the armed groups that New Regime: Transformations of the French scoured the countryside for food and other Civic Order: 1789–1820s (1994). military needs of the revolutionary gov- The role of women in this era is ex- ernment. For the urban underclass, see M. plored in J. B. Landes, Women and the Sonenscher, Sans-Culottes: An Eighteenth- Public Sphere in the Age of the French Century Emblem in the French Revolution Revolution (1988), which argues that the (2008). For the counterrevolution, one turns Revolution reduced the rights of women to the broader narratives cited above and to in France; S. E. Meltzerand and L. W. Ra- J. Godechot, The Counter-Revolution (trans. bine (eds.), Rebel Daughters: Women and 1971); J. Roberts, The Counter-Revolution the French Revolution (1992); J. Heuer, in France, 1787–1830 (1990); C. Tilly, The The Family and the Nation: Gender and Vendée (1964); and M. Hutt, Chouannerie Citizenship in Revolutionary France, 1789– and the Counter-Revolution (1984). 1830 (2005); and L. Beckstrand, Deviant For the reaction after Robespierre’s Women of the French Revolution and the downfall and the regime that followed, one Rise of Feminism (2009). The essays in may turn to D. Woronoff, The Thermido- D. G. Levy and H. B. Applewhite (eds.), rean Regime and the Directory, 1794–1799 Women and Politics in the Age of the Demo- (trans. 1984), and to M. Lyons, France cratic Revolution (1990), study women ac- under the Directory (1975). The crushing tivists in revolutionary Europe and America; of the Babeuf uprising is described in R. B. and the work by M. Yalom, Blood Sisters: Rose, Gracchus Babeuf: The First Revolu- The French Revolution in Women’s Memory tionary Communist (1978); Babeuf’s ideas (1993), examines accounts by women who are also discussed in I. H. Birchall, The participated in the revolutionary events. Spectre of Babeuf (1997). A. Timm and J. Sanborn, Gender, Sex and the Shaping of Modern Europe: A History War and Diplomacy from the French Revolution to the Present On the coming of the war in 1792 and the Day (2007), considers the legacies of the fi rst two coalitions, one may read T. C. W. gendered politics in the French Revolu- Blanning, The Origins of the French Rev- tion. On the leading spokeswomen for olutionary Wars (1989) and The French equal rights and her impact, see S. Mousset, Revolutionary Wars, 1781–1802 (1996);

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there is also a useful, brief account in G. (1978, 1988), though readers may also be Fremont-Barnes, The French Revolution- interested in D. Lawday, Danton: The Gen- ary Wars (2001); while O. Connelly, The tle Giant of Terror (2009). S. Reynolds, Wars of the French Revolution and Napo- Marriage and Revolution: Monsieur and leon, 1792–1815 (2006), reviews the long Madame Roland (2012), sympathetically period of confl ict initiated by the Revolu- portrays some of the prominent Girondins tion. The French army that fought the war who fell victim to the Terror. The Girondins is described in impressive detail in J. P. are also discussed in B. Oliver, Orphans Bertaud, The Army of the French Revolu- on the Earth: Girondin Fugitives from the tion: From Citizen-Soldiers to Instrument Terror, 1793–1794 (2009). A. G. Sepinwall of Power (trans. 1988); it may be supple- examines the ideas and actions of another mented by A. Forrest, Conscripts and De- infl uential leader in The Abbé Grégoire and serters: The Army and French Society dur- the French Revolution: The Making of Mod- ing the Revolution and Empire (1989). A. ern Universalism (2005). Forrest also writes perceptively about the Biographical studies of the most prom- Revolution’s legacy of conscription and inent fi gure on the Committee of Public universal military service in The Legacy of Safety include G. Rudé, Robespierre: Por- the French Revolutionary Wars: The Na- trait of a Revolutionary Democrat (1975), tion-in-Arms in French Republican Memory which makes the best possible case for (2009). Military technologies are discussed the Jacobin leader; N. Hampson, The Life in K. Alder, Engineering the Revolution: and Opinions of Maximilien Robespierre Arms and Enlightenment in France, 1763– (1974, 1988), which asks observers to 1815 (1997). On the emergence of Bona- react to the often contradictory evidence; J. parte, one may turn to M. Crook, Napoleon Hardman, Robespierre (1999); P. McPhee, Comes to Power: Democracy and Dictator- Robespierre: A Revolutionary Life (2012); ship in Revolutionary France, 1795–1804 O. Scott, Robespierre: The Voice of Vir- (1998). Additional books on Napoleon are tue (2011); and R. Scurr, Fatal Purity: listed for chapter 10. Robespierre and the French Revolution (2006). A useful collection of scholarly Biographical Accounts perspectives is available in C. Haydon J. M. Thomson, Leaders of the French and W. Doyle (eds.), Robespierre (1999). Revolution (1929, 1988), sketching 11 out- Robespierre’s associates are studied in standing personalities, is a classic account N. Hampson, Saint-Just (1991), and in that still merits reading. Specifi c biographi- L. Gershoy, Bertrand Barère: A Reluctant cal accounts include B. Luttrell, Mirabeau Terrorist (1962). (1990); M. Forsyth, Reason and Revolution: The Political Thought of the Abbé Sieyès The Revolution outside France (1987); W. H. Sewell, A Rhetoric of Revo- For the view of the French Revolution as lution: The Abbé Sieyès and “What Is the part of a broader European and Atlantic Third Estate?” (1994); L. Gottschalk’s two movement, one may turn to R. R. Palmer, volumes on Lafayette in the French Revolu- The Age of the Democratic Revolution: tion (1969, 1973); and C. D. Connor, Jean A Political History of Europe and Amer- Paul Marat: Scientist and Revolutionary ica, 1760–1800 (2 vols., 1959–1964); the (1997) and Jean Paul Marat: Tribune of the fi rst volume, The Challenge, carries the French Revolution (2012), which are sym- account to 1792, and the second, The Strug- pathetic to Marat’s radicalism. N. Hamp- gle, to 1800; see also by the same author son has written a fair-minded account of The World of the French Revolution (1970). a controversial political leader in Danton Similar transatlantic themes appear in the

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work of the French scholar J. Godechot and For repercussions of the French Revo- are available in summary form as France lution in Haiti and the African-American and the Atlantic Revolution, 1770–1799 world, one may read the classic work of (1975). The study of transnational revolu- C. L. R. James, The Black Jacobins: Tous- tionary developments has been expanded saint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo in W. Klooster, Revolutions in the Atlantic Revolution (1938, 1963), which should be World: A Comparative History (2009), supplemented by D. P. Geggus, Slavery, which analyzes the Haitian and Latin War, and Revolution: The British Occupa- American revolutions, which earlier studies tion of Saint Domingue, 1793–1798 (1982) of the Atlantic revolutions often excluded. and Haitian Revolutionary Studies (2002). P. Higonnet traces the genesis of repub- There are also two valuable books by lican ideas in Sister Republics: The Ori- J. Popkin, A Concise History of the Haitian gins of French and American Republican- Revolution (2012) and You Are All Free: ism (1988), while M. Durey, Transatlantic The Haitian Revolution and the Abolition Radicals and the Early American Republic of Slavery (2010), both of which contribute (1997), looks at British political activists to the rapidly expanding historical work who migrated to America during the era of on the upheavals in Haiti. Additional in- the French Revolution. American reactions formation is available in P. Girard, The to the French Revolution are discussed in Slaves Who Defeated Napoléon: Toussaint R. H. Cleves, The Reign of Terror in Louverture and the Haitian War of Inde- America: Visions of Violence from Anti- pendence, 1801–1804 (2011). L. Dubois, Jacobinism to Antislavery (2009). There is a Avengers of the New World: The Story of useful survey of the Revolution’s enduring the Haitian Revolution (2004) is an excel- international infl uence in J. Klaits and M. H. lent analytical account, which may be sup- Haltzel (eds.), The Global Ramifi cations of plemented by a broader contextual work, the French Revolution (1994). The German N. Nesbitt, Universal Emancipation: states are studied in T. C. W. Blanning, The Haitian Revolution and the Radical The French Revolution in Germany: Occu- Enlightenment (2008). The struggle against pation and Resistance in the Rhineland, slavery in Haiti and elsewhere is also the 1792–1802 (1983). subject of A. Hochschild, Bury the Chains: Events in the Netherlands are exam- Prophets and Rebels in the Fight to Free an ined in S. Schama, Patriots and Liberators: Empire’s Slaves (2005). There are helpful Revolution and Government in the Nether- essays in D. B. Gaspar and D. P. Geggus lands, 1780–1813 (1977), and in northern (eds.), A Turbulent Time: The French Revo- Europe in H. A. Barton, Scandinavia in lution and the Greater Caribbean (1997), the Revolutionary Era, 1760–1815 (1986). and in D. P. Geggus (ed.), The Impact of The Irish rebellion of 1798 is placed in its the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World European setting in M. Elliott, Partners in (2001). Important sources on the Haitian Revolution: The United Irishmen in France Revolution may be found in L. Dubois and (1982), and a key leader is examined in the J. D. Garrigus (eds.), Slave Revolution in same author’s Wolfe Tone (rev. 2012). Irish the Caribbean, 1789–1804: A Brief History themes are further explored in P. Higgins, with Documents (2006). A Nation of Politicians: Gender, Patriotism, An outstanding study of British reac- and Political Culture in Late Eighteenth- tion to the Revolution is A. Goodwin, The Century Ireland (2010), and in the earlier, Friends of Liberty: The English Democratic wide-ranging work of R. B. McDowell, Movement in the Age of the French Revolu- Ireland in the Age of Imperialism and Revo- tion (1979), while an informative account is lution, 1760–1801 (1979). found in C. Emsley, Britain and the French

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Revolution (2000). For Scotland, see B. Har- of Totalitarian Democracy (1952) and his ris, The Scottish People and the French Rev- other books saw the roots of twentieth- olution (2008). Longer discussions of the century dictatorship in the radical phase era’s political debates and confl icts can be of the French Revolution—a controversial found in M. Morris, The British Monarchy theme that has attracted strong criticism as and the French Revolution (1998); J. Mori, well as some new support in recent scholar- Britain in the Age of the French Revolution ship. There is also a stimulating compara- (2000); and G. Claeys, The French Revolu- tive analysis in A. J. Mayer, The Furies: tion Debate in Britain: The Origins of Mod- Violence and Terror in the French and Rus- ern Politics (2007). An informative older sian Revolutions (2000). Other recent com- book that focuses on popular unrest in both parative approaches appear in E. Andrew, France and England is G. Rudé, The Crowd Imperial Republics: Revolution, War, and in History: A Study of Popular Disturbances Territorial Expansion from the English in France and England, 1730–1848 (1964). Civil War to the French Revolution (2011), Britain’s advantageous global position as and in L. Auslander, Cultural Revolutions: a result of the Revolution is described in Everyday Life and Politics in Britain, North B. Collins, War and Empire: The Expansion America, and France (2009). of Britain, 1790–1830 (2010). Useful Web Sites and Online Resources The revolutionary career in England, Readers will fi nd excellent documents, im- America, and France of a leading revolu- ages, and accounts of the French Revolu- tionist of the age is studied in J. Keane, Tom tion by visiting a Web site at George Mason Paine: A Political Life (1995); E. Foner, University, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Tom Paine and Revolutionary America (rev. Exploring the French Revolution, which is at 2005); and M. Philp, Thomas Paine (2007). http://chnm.gmu.edu/liberty-equality- Paine’s political thought receives detailed fraternity-exploring-the-french-revolution/. analysis in A. J. Ayer, Thomas Paine (1989), Readers should also be sure to consult all and in S. Rosenfeld, Common Sense: A the resources offered by George Mason Political History (2011). For the thought University’s Ray Rosenzweig Center for and career of a leading Englishwoman of History and New Media at http://chnm. the age, a pioneer feminist sympathetic gmu.edu/. There are additional sources to to the Revolution, one may read J. Todd, explore in the Internet History Sourcebook, Mary Wollstonecraft: A Revolutionary Life www.fordham.edu/Halsall/index.asp , and in (2000); C. Franklin, Mary Wollstonecraft: Links on the French Revolution at the Uni- A Literary Life (2004); L. Gordon, Vindica- versity of Portsmouth in Britain, http:// tion: A Life of Mary Wollstonecraft (2005); culturalform.wordpress.com/frlinks/ . and L. Gordon, Mary Wollstonecraft: A New Genus (2005). Her political life and 10. NAPOLEONIC EUROPE illustrious family are discussed in J. Carlson, Many of the books on the Revolution cited England’s First Family of Writers: Mary for chapter 9 continue on into the Napole- Wollstonecraft, William Godwin, Mary onic age. Informative surveys of Europe Shelley (2007), and D. O’Neill, The Burke- in the age of Napoleon are available in M. Wollstonecraft Debate: Savagery, Civiliza- Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 1799– tion, and Democracy (2007). 1815 (1996); and The Napoleonic Empire Early efforts to study the phenom- in Italy, 1796–1814: Cultural Imperialism enon of revolution on a comparative basis in a European Context? (2005); R. Harvey, include C. Brinton, The Anatomy of Revolu- The War of Wars: The Great European Con- tion (1935, 1965), and H. Arendt, On Revo- fl ict 1793–1815 (2006); and C. Esdaile, lution (1963). J. Talmon in The Origins Napoleon’s Wars: An International History,

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1803–1815 (2007). Other useful accounts Other accounts—all entitled Napoleon —by include M. Lyons, Napoleon Bonaparte and R. Dufraisse (trans. 1990), G. Ellis (1997), the Legacy of the French Revolution (1994); R. S. Alexander (2001), A. Forrest (2011), O. Bernier, The World in 1800 (2000); and T. W. Smith (2007) may also be rec- A. Grab, Napoleon and the Transformation ommended. P. Dwyer, Napoleon: The Path of Europe (2003); and F. Kagan, The End to Power, 1769–1799 (2007), shows how of the Old Order: Napoleon and Europe, Napoleon rose to power and controlled his 1801–1805 (2006). Two reference works empire, while I. Woloch, Napoleon and His for the age are O. Connelly et al. (eds.), Collaborators: The Making of a Dictator- Historical Dictionary of Napoleonic France ship (2001), is a fi ne study of his methods (1985), and C. Emsley, The Longman Com- of rule. The empire that Napoleon governed panion to Napoleonic Europe (1993). is discussed in O. Connelly, Napoleon’s Napoleon and Napoleonic France Satellite Kingdoms (1965, 1990); G. Ellis, For Napoleonic France, a valuable syn- The Napoleonic Empire (rev. 2003); and thetic study of French society is L. Bergeron, C. Emsley, Napoleonic Europe (1993). Na- France under Napoleon (trans. 1981), while poleon as a military leader is appraised in R. Blaufarb, Napoleon, Symbol for an Age: G. E. Rothenberg, The Napoleonic Wars A Brief History with Documents (2008), (1999); O. Connelly, Blundering to Glory: offers a good overview and useful source Napoleon’s Military Campaigns (rev. materials. Readers may also wish to consult 2006); J. Riley, Napoleon as a General P. Dwyer and A. Forrest (eds.), Napo- (2007); R. Bruce, Fighting Techniques of leon and His Empire: Europe, 1804–1814 the Napoleonic Age, 1792–1815: Equip- (2006). Napoleon is described as both a con- ment, Combat Skills, and Tactics (2008); tinuation of and a rupture with revolution- and A. Horne, How Far from Austerlitz? ary developments in D. Jordan, Napoleon Napoleon, 1805–1815 (1997). An excel- and the Revolution (2012). Another helpful lent study of the legacy of the Napoleonic account may be found in A. Horne, The Age wars in modern warfare is D. Bell, The First of Napoleon (2004). A. Boime continues his Total War: Napoleon’s Europe and the Birth Social History of Modern Art with vol. 2: of Warfare as We Know It (2007). Art in the Age of Bonapartism, 1800–1815 The continental blockade is studied in (1992); and more recent accounts of Napo- G. Ellis, Napoleon’s Continental Blockade leon and the arts appear in T. Porterfi eld and (1991). The Spanish military effort, along S. Siegfried, Staging Empire: Napoleon, In- with popular resistance, is described in gres, and David (2006), and in D. O’Brien, C. Esdaile, Peninsular Eyewitnesses: The After the Revolution: Antoine-Jean Gros, Experience of War in Spain and Portu- Painting and Propaganda under Napoleon gal, 1808–1813 (2008), and in M. Broers, (2006). D. Rowell, Paris: The “New Rome” Napoleon’s Other War: Bandits, Rebels and of Napoleon I (2012) offers an appraisal of Their Pursuers in the Age of Revolutions Napoleon’s imperial pretensions through a (2010). On the campaign in Russia, read- study of his urban planning and architec- ers may consult M. Adams, Napoleon and tural ambitions. Russia (2006), and the provocative S. Talty, Of the many biographies and biograph- The Illustrious Dead: The Terrifying Story ically oriented studies of Napoleon, sev - of How Typhus Killed Napoleon’s Great- eral older studies may be singled out: J. M. est Army (2009). Britain’s role in the later Thompson, Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise Napoleonic wars is examined in R. Muir, and Fall (1952); G. Lefebvre, Napoleon (2 Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon, 1807– vols., 1935; trans. 1969), a work of distinc- 1815 (1996). On the fi nal phase of the tion; and F. M. Markham, Napoleon (1964). emperor’s career, one may read M. Leggiere,

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The Fall of Napoleon (2007), and D. Smith, (2012). British expansion overseas is exam- The Decline and Fall of Napoleon’s Empire: ined in C. A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian: The How the Emperor Self-Destructed (2005); British Empire and the World, 1780–1830 and for an account of his fi nal stand, see (1989); R. Hyam, Understanding the British J. Black, The Battle of Waterloo (2010). Empire (2010); and J. Severn, Architects of The career of Napoleon’s most famous Empire: The Duke of Wellington and His diplomat is examined in P. Dwyer, Talley- Brothers (2007). rand (2002); D. Lawday, Napoleon’s Mas- Important books on the slave trade in ter: A Life of Prince Talleyrand (2006); and this era include D. B. Davis, The Problem R. Harris, Talleyrand: Betrayer and Saviour of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770– of France (2007). Studies of prominent 1823 (1975, reissued 1999); and J. Walvin, women in this era include A. Stuart, The Making the Black Atlantic: Britain and Rose of Martinique: A Life of Napoleon’s Jo- the African Diaspora (2000). There is also sephine (2004); E. Bruce, Napoleon and Jo- much helpful information in D. Eltis and D. sephine: The Improbable Marriage (1995); Richardson, Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave M. Fairweather, Madame de Staël (2005); Trade (2010). S. Dixon, Germaine de Staël, Daughter of Other Countries in Napoleonic Times the Enlightenment: The Writer and Her Tur- For Anglo-American relations in the de- bulent Era (2007); and A. Goodden, Mad- cades from 1795 to 1823, there are useful ame de Staël: The Dangerous Exile (2008). overviews in W. R. Borneman, 1812, The Accounts of Napoleon’s family can be found War That Forged a Nation (2004), and in in F. Markham, The Bonapartes (1975), and T. Bickham, The Weight of Vengeance: The W. H. C. Smith, The Bonapartes: The His- United States, the British Empire, and the tory of a Dynasty (2005). War of 1812 (2012); J. Black, The War of Britain in the Time of Napoleon 1812 in the Age of Napoleon (2012); and The war-era prime minister receives special J. C. A. Stagg, The War of 1812: Confl ict for attention in J. Ehrmann, William Pitt the a Continent (2012). For Franco-American Younger (2 vols., 1969–1984); P. Mackesy, relations, see P. Hill, Napoleon’s Trouble- War without Victory: The Downfall of Pitt, some Americans: Franco-American Rela- 1799–1802 (1984); and W. Hague, William tions, 1804–1815 (2005). Pitt the Younger (2004). There are biogra- For the German states, in addition to phies of Lord Nelson by B. Lavery (2003), books cited for the two previous chapters, V. Carolan (2005), and R. Knight (2005), one may read H. Kohn, Prelude to Nation- the latter providing perhaps the best schol- States: The French and German Experi- arly study to date. For the British navy as a ence, 1789–1815 (1967); H. Brunschwig, whole, see R. Mackay and M. Duffy, Hawke, Enlightenment and Romanticism in Eigh- Nelson and British Naval Leadership, teenth Century Prussia (trans. 1974); and 1747–1805 (2009), and N. Tracy, Nelson’s B. Giesen, Intellectuals and the German Battles: The Triumph of British Seapower Nation: Collective Identity in an Axial Age (2008). For Wellington one may turn to (1998), a sociological account of German R. Holmes, Wellington: The Iron Duke national identity in the Napoleonic era. (2002), and H. Davies, Wellington’s Wars: For the reactions in Prussia, one may read The Making of a Military Genius (2012). W. O. Shanahan, Prussian Military Reforms, The global impact of the war and other 1786–1813 (1966); and on the Prussian mil- economic changes of the age are explored itary theorist, P. Paret has written a compre- in P. J. Marshall, Remaking the British hensive biography, Clausewitz and the State Atlantic: The United States and the Brit- (1976, reissued 1985), and also edited the ish Empire after American Independence famous tract On War written in 1832 (ed.

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62 Suggestions for Further Reading

1989). The infl uence of the wars on Ger- Determined the Rise and Fall of the French man nationalism is covered in S. Mustafa, Empire (2012). Informative studies of the The Long Ride of Major von Schill: A Jour- era’s decisive diplomatic event can be found ney through German History and Memory in T. Chapman, The Congress of Vienna: (2008); and German developments in this Origins, Processes and Results (1998); period are also discussed in M. Broers, A. Zamoyski, Rites of Peace: The Fall P. Hicks, and A. Guimera (eds.), The Napo- of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna leonic Empire and the New European Po- (2007); and D. King, Vienna, 1814: How the litical Culture (2012), which is one of the Conquerors of Napoleon Made Love, War, many useful books in a multivolume series, and Peace at the Congress of Vienna (2008). War, Culture, and Society, 1750–1850. Detailed accounts of Metternich’s role are For Russia in this era, one may read the available in E. E. Kraehe, Metternich’s early sections of D. Saunders, Russia in the German Policy, vol. 1: The Contest with Na- Age of Reaction and Reform, 1801–1881 poleon, 1799–1814 (1963); vol. 2:The Con- (1992); and for Alexander, one may consult gress of Vienna, 1814–1815 (1983); and A. A. Palmer, Alexander I: Tsar of War and Peace Sked, Metternich and Austria: An Evaluation (1975); and J. M. Hartley, Alexander I (1994). (2008). For the British diplomat, see J. Bew, A good account of Spain in the Na- Castlereagh: Enlightenment, War and Tyr- poleonic era is available in G. H. Lovett, anny (2011) and Castlereagh: A Life (2012). Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain The best account, however, of the broader (2 vols., 1965), which may be supplemented picture of European diplomacy in this era is by C. J. Esdaile, Fighting Napoleon: Gue- P. W. Schroeder, The Transformation of Eu- rillas, Bandits and Adventurers in Spain, ropean Politics, 1763–1848 (1994). 1808–1814 (2004). The revolutionary Useful Web Sites and Online Resources events in the Western Hemisphere ignited A wide-ranging commercial site, The by Napoleon’s invasion of Spain are re- Napoleonic Guide, offers a useful collection counted in C. Belaubre, J. Dym, and J. Sav- of sources, helpful links, and many other age (eds.), Napoleon’s Atlantic: The Impact materials on the Napoleonic era at www.na- of Napoleonic Empire in the Atlantic World poleonguide.com/ . Readers will fi nd other (2010); and in J. C. Chasteen, Americanos: valuable information at the site of the Insti- Latin America’s Struggle for Independence tute on Napoleon and the French Revolution, (2008). Interesting accounts of Napoleonic www.fsu.edu/napoleon , which is main- war veterans in the service of Latin American tained at Florida State University, and at the revolutions are found in B. Hughes, Con- site of the Napoleon Series, www.napoleon- quer or Die! Wellington’s Veterans and series.org, which is a comprehensive, well- the Liberation of the New World (2010); maintained resource on all aspects of Napo- E. Ocampo, The Emperor’s Last Campaign: leon’s career and empire. A Napoleonic Empire in America (2009); and M. Brown, Adventuring through Spanish 11. INDUSTRIES, IDEAS, AND Colonies: Simón Bolívar, Foreign Merce- THE STRUGGLE FOR REFORM, naries and the Birth of New Nations (2006). 1815–1848 The resettling of European institutions af- Wartime Diplomacy and the Congress of ter the French Revolution and Napoleon in Vienna many ways marked the opening of a new Napoleon’s failures in diplomacy are dis- historical era. There are thus numerous gen- cussed in W. Nester, Napoleon and the eral, national, and topical histories that take Art of Diplomacy: How War and Hubris their starting point around 1815.

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Nineteenth-Century Europe Secularization of the European Mind in the Helpful guides to all aspects of nineteenth- Nineteenth Century (1976). On women in century history include M. S. Anderson, the nineteenth century, in addition to gen- The Ascendancy of Europe, 1815–1914 (rev. eral works already cited, useful books are 2003); W. Simpson and M. Jones, Europe, L. Abrams, The Making of Modern Woman: 1783–1914 (2000); R. Gildea, Barricades Europe, 1789–1918 (2002); L. Clark, Wom- and Borders: Europe, 1800–1914 (rev. en and Achievement in Nineteenth-Century 2003); and M. Rapport, Nineteenth-Century Europe (2008); R. Fuchs, Gender and Pov- Europe (2005). A useful discussion of Eu- erty in Nineteenth-Century Europe (2005); ropean politics, society, and economic life and R. Fuchs and V. Thompson, Women in is available in T. C. W. Blanning (ed.), Nineteenth-Century Europe (2005). Short Oxford History of Europe: The Nine- Europe, 1815–1848 teenth Century (2000); and the fi rst half of General guides to the reorientation after the century may be surveyed in J. Sperber, 1815 may be found in the older work of W. Revolutionary Europe, 1780–1850 (2000); L. Langer, Political and Social Upheaval, M. Lyons, Post-Revolutionary Europe, 1832–1852 (1969), and in J. Droz, Europe 1815–1856 (2006); and T. Blanning, The between Revolutions, 1815–1848 (trans. Romantic Revolution (2010). A. Mayer, 1980). E. J. Hobsbawm has written one of The Persistence of the Old Regime: Europe his provocative interpretive histories on to the Great War (2010), argues that there this era, The Age of Revolution, 1789–1848 was a lack of change in national leadership (1962, reissued 1996), the fi rst volume of throughout the nineteenth century. a trilogy on what he called the “long nine- For a valuable work on the social history teenth century,” 1789–1914. Changes in art of the nineteenth century, one may read M. and culture are examined in A. Boime, Art Perrot (ed.), From the French Revolution to in an Age of Counterrevolution (2004); P. the Great War (1987), vol. 4 of The History Chu, Nineteenth-Century European Art of Private Life. Numerous other works on (2012); and H. Salmi, Nineteenth-Century social and on women’s history in these years Europe: A Cultural History (2008). For the are cited for chapter 15. For social classes, papacy in the revolutionary ferment of the one may turn to J. Kocka and A. Mitchell age, one may read O. Chadwick, The Popes (eds.), Bourgeois Society in Nineteenth- and European Revolution (1981). Century Europe (1993); P. M. Pilbeam, The Middle Classes in Europe, 1789–1914: Industrial Revolution France, Germany, Italy, and Russia (1990); One of the best introductions to economic G. Crossick and H. G. Haupt, The Petite history during and since the Industrial Bourgeoisie in Europe, 1780–1914: En- Revolution is D. S. Landes, The Unbound terprise, Family and Independence (1995); Prometheus: Technological Change and and, for the upper classes, D. Lieven, The Industrial Development in Western Europe Aristocracy in Europe, 1815–1914 (1992). from 1750 to the Present (1969). For the For rural change in the late eighteenth and long evolution of European industrializa- the nineteenth century, there are J. Blum, tion, see J. L. van Zanden, The Long Road The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe to the Industrial Revolution: The European (1978), and A. Moulin, Peasantry and So- Economy in a Global Perspective, 1000– ciety in France since 1789 (trans. 1991). 1800 (2009). Other informative accounts For religion one may read H. McLeod, Re- are C. Trebilcock, The Industrialization of ligion and the People of Western Europe, the Continental Powers, 1780–1914 (1981); 1789–1970 (1981); and O. Chadwick, The T. Kemp, Industrialization in Nineteenth

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64 Suggestions for Further Reading

Century Europe (rev. 1985); L. Wyatt III, and Women of the English Middle Class, The Industrial Revolution (2009); and P. 1780–1850 (1987); R. S. Fitton, The Ark- Stearns, The Industrial Revolution in World wrights: Spinners of Fortune (1989); and History (2013). There are thoughtful essays J. Loadman and F. James, The Hancocks in P. Mathias and J. A. Davis (eds.), The of Marlborough: Rubber, Art and the In- First Industrial Revolutions (1990); and in dustrial Revolution—A Family of Inventive M. Teich and R. Porter (eds.), The Industrial Genius (2010). Changes in British agricul- Revolution in National Context: Europe ture may be studied in D. B. Grigg, English and the USA (1996); and an intriguing Agriculture (1989); K. D. M. Snell, Annals account is L. Magnusson, Nation, State and of the Labouring Poor: Social Change and the Industrial Revolution: The Visible Hand Agrarian England, 1660–1900 (1985); and (2009). The social and political implications M. Overton, Agricultural Revolution in of an industrial civilization are examined in England: The Transformation of the Agrar- E. A. Wrigley, People, Cities, and Wealth: ian Economy, 1500–1850 (1996). The Transformation of Traditional Society (1987). S. M. Beaudoin (ed.), Industrial Social Consequences of Industrialism Revolution (2003), provides a summary and There is a large and controversial litera- sampling of recent historical studies. ture on the effects of industrial change on In addition to works covering the eigh- the British working classes, beginning with teenth century cited earlier, the complexities the famous early work of F. Engels, The surrounding the emergence of industrialism Condition of the Working Class in Eng- in England are examined in numerous books. land (1844; reissued, D. McLellan [ed.], Brief informative accounts include a classic 1993). The classic accounts of exploitation work by T. S. Ashton, The Industrial Revo- are bolstered by the more nuanced modern lution, 1760–1830 (1948, reissued 1998), appraisals in C. Steedman, Master and and the more recent book by K. Morgan, Servant: Love and Labour in the English The Birth of Industrial Britain: Economic Industrial Age (2007); J. Burnette, Gender, Change 1750–1850 (1999). Morgan has Work and Wages in Industrial Revolution also written a companion volume, The Britain (2008); J. Humphries, Childhood Birth of Industrial Britain: Social Change, and Child Labour in the British Industrial 1750–1850 (2004). Additional interpretive Revolution (2010); and J. Tosh, Manliness accounts include E. A. Wrigley, Continuity, and Masculinities in Nineteenth-Century Chance, and Change: The Character of the Britain: Essays on Gender, Family and Industrial Revolution in England (1988); Empire (2005)—all of which expand the C. MacLeod, Heroes of Invention: Tech- older labor history by bringing gender nology, Liberalism and British Identity, into their interpretations of economic life. 1750–1914 (2007); E. A. Wrigley, Energy Broad analyses of social life are found in and the English Industrial Revolution K. Levitan, A Cultural History of the British (2010); P. Hudson, The Industrial Revolu- Census: Envisioning the Multitude in the tion (1992); and J. Mokyr, The Enlightened Nineteenth Century (2011), and M. Pater- Economy: An Economic History of Britain, son, A Brief History of Life in Victorian Brit- 1700–1850 (2009), which examines the ain: A Social History of Queen Victoria’s role of ideology and culture in fostering the Reign (2008). For additional views one may processes of industrialization. read M. I. Thomas, Responses to Industrial- Insights into the nineteenth-century ization: The British Experience, 1780–1850 manufacturers are provided in F. Crouzet, (1976); and R. Gray, The Factory Question The First Industrialists (1985); L. Davi- and Industrial England, 1830–1860 (1996). doff and C. Hall, Family Fortunes: Men The social experiences of workers are also

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discussed in H. J. Voth, Time and Work in Popular Politics in the Industrial Revolu- England 1750–1830 (2000). E. P. Thomp- tion (1984); R. Brown, Chartism (1998); J. son, The Making of the English Working K. Walton, Chartism (1999); C. Malcolm, Class (1963), is a highly infl uential book Chartism: A New History (2007); R. Hall, that describes a militant working-class cul- Voices of the People: Democracy and Chartist ture emerging to resist industrial society. Political Identity, 1830–1870 (2007); and For a helpful synthesis the reader may turn M. O’Brien, “Perish the Privileged Or- to two books by J. Rule: The Experience ders”: A Socialist History of the Chartist of Labour in Eighteenth-Century English Movement (2009). The development of a Industry (1984) and The Labouring Classes political culture among British workers is in Early Industrial England, 1750–1850 described in J. Epstein, In Practice: Stud- (1986). Agrarian labor is examined in R. ies in the Language and Culture of Popu- Barry, Rural England: Labouring Lives in lar Politics in Modern Britain (2003). The the Nineteenth Century (2004). creation in England and Ireland of a modern Working-class experiences are also police system to suppress popular protest is depicted in I. Pinchbeck, Women Workers analyzed in S. H. Palmer, Police and Protest and the Industrial Revolution, 1750–1850 in England and Ireland, 1780–1850 (1988). (1930, reissued 1981); I. Pinchbeck and A general summary of social policy M. Hewitt, Children in English Society and reform is available in S. G. Checkland, (2 vols., 1969–1973); and G. Holloway, British Public Policy, 1776–1939 (1985). Women and Work in Britain since 1840 For the pressures to repeal the tariffs on (2005). In a very different vein, the books grain, one may read P. A. Pickering and by G. Himmelfarb, The Idea of Poverty: A. Tyrell, The People’s Bread: A History England in the Early Industrial Age (1984) of the Anti-Corn Law League (2000), and and Poverty and Compassion: The Moral C. Schonhardt-Bailey, From the Corn Laws Indignation of the Late Victorians (1991), to Free Trade: Interests, Ideas, and Institu- examine the writings of these years to dem- tions in Historical Perspective (2006). On onstrate the complexities involved in defi n- the Reform Bill of 1832, M. Brock, The ing poverty and social responsibilities. Great Reform Act (1973), is an outstanding For protest movements of the age, older study; and N. D. LoPatin, Political D. G. Wright, Popular Radicalism: The Unions, Popular Politics, and the Great Re- Working Class Experience, 1780–1880 form Act of 1832 (1999), discusses the mass (1988), is helpful as a summary; it may be political mobilizations of this period. supplemented by C. Tilley, Popular Conten- Several books study the antislavery tion in Great Britain, 1758–1834 (1995, re- movement as part of this age of protest. issued 2005). Special studies include M. I. Slavery as an institution is masterfully Thomas, The Luddities: Machine-Breaking explored in several books by D. B. Davis, in Regency England (1970); R. Reid, The including for these years, The Problem of Peterloo Massacre (1989); E. J. Hobsbawm Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823 and G. Rudé, Captain Swing (1969), a study (1975). The fi nal phases of slavery in the of the rural poor and agrarian unrest; and Atlantic world are examined in R. Black- J. Knott, Popular Opposition to the 1834 burn, The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery Poor Law (1986). The Luddites and their (1989); D. Eltis, Economic Growth and the legacy are also examined in S. Jones, Ending of the Transatlantic Slave Trade Against Technology: From the Luddites to (1988); A. Hochschild, Bury the Chains: Neo-Luddism (2006). Prophets and Rebels in the Fight to Free For the Chartists, recommended books an Empire’s Slaves (2005), cited earlier; include D. Thompson, The Chartists: and S. Drescher’s four books: Econocide:

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British Slavery in the Era of Abolition outstanding study Mr. Secretary Peel and Sir (1977), Capitalism and Anti-Slavery: Robert Peel (2 vols.; rev. 1985); E. Evans, British Mobilization in Comparative Per- Sir Robert Peel: Statesmanship, Power spective (1988), From Slavery to Freedom: and Party (2006); D. Hurd, Robert Peel: Comparative Studies in the Rise and Fall A Biography (2007); R. Gaunt, Sir Robert of Atlantic Slavery (1999), and The Mighty Peel: The Life and Legacy (2010); J. Pol- Experiment: Free Labor versus Slavery in lock, Shaftesbury, The Poor Man’s Earl British Emancipation (2002). There are (1985); J. Dyck, William Cobbett and Rural useful source materials on the abolitionist Popular Protest (1992); and N. C. Edsall, movement in the third volume of K. Mor- Richard Cobden: Independent Radical gan (ed.), The British Transatlantic Slave (1986). There is an informative biography Trade (4 vols., 2003). Other useful books on of Robert Owen by I. L. Donnachie, Robert the antislavery movement include D. Turley, Owen: Owen of New Lanark and New Har- The Culture of English Antislavery, 1780– mony (2000); and a useful collection of 1860 (1991); R. Huzzey, Freedom Burn- studies in N. Thompson and C. Williams ing: Anti-Slavery and Empire in Victorian (ed.), Robert Owen and His Legacy (2011). Britain (2012); and C. L. Brown, Moral Radical social criticism is also studied in Capital: Foundations of British Abolition- W. Stafford, Socialism, Radicalism, and ism (2006). For the great abolitionist, see Nostalgia, 1775–1830 (1986). For women W. Hague, William Wilberforce: The Life in the era, one may turn to J. Perkin, Vic- of the Great Anti-Slave Trade Campaigner torian Women (1993); K. Gleadle, British (2007); S. Tomkins, William Wilberforce: A Women in the Nineteenth Century (2001); S. Biography (2007); and K. Belmonte, William Morgan, A Victorian Woman’s Place: Public Wilberforce: A Hero for Humanity (2007). Culture in the Nineteenth Century (2007); For Britain after 1815 and the Victorian and two useful anthologies of writings by age that opened in 1837, readers may turn and about women: J. H. Murray, Strong- to W. A. Hay, The Whig Revival, 1808–1830 minded Women and Other Lost Voices from (2005); B. Wilson, The Making of Victorian Nineteenth-Century England (1982), and Values: Decency and Dissent in Britain, M. Sanders (ed.), Women and Radicalism in 1789–1837 (2007); and the older survey by the Nineteenth Century (4 vols., 2001). N. Gash, Aristocracy and People: Britain, 1815–1865 (1979). A. Briggs, The Age of France, 1815–1848 Improvement, 1783–1867 (rev. 2000), and Among general accounts that begin in this his other books on social history are also era are A. Jardin and A. J. Tudesq, Resto- useful. Of special importance are J. W. ration and Reaction, 1815–1848 (1973; Osborne, The Silent Revolution: The Indus- trans. 1983); J. P. T. Bury, France, 1814– trial Revolution in England as a Source of 1940 (rev. 2003); R. Price, A Social His- Cultural Change (1972); and H. Perkin, The tory of Nineteenth-Century France (1988); Origins of Modern English Society, 1780– W. Fortescue, Revolution and Counter- 1880 (1969, 1985). For more recent inter- Revolution in France, 1815–1852 (1988); pretations of the Victorian ethos, readers R. Tombs, France, 1814–1914 (1996); and may wish to consult B. Wilson, The Making M. Price, The Perilous Crown: France be- of Victorian Values: Decency and Dissent in tween Revolutions, 1814–1848 (2007). A Britain, 1789–1837 (2007). helpful work of reference is E. L. Newman Among the many biographies of the po- (ed.), Historical Dictionary of France from litical leaders and reformers of the age, one the 1815 Revolution to the Second Empire may read J. W. Derry, Charles, Earl Grey: (2 vols., 1987). Of special interest is F. Furet, Aristocratic Reformer (1992); N. Gash’s Revolutionary France, 1770–1880 (trans.

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1992), which describes the struggle in the 1794–1854 (2011). For religion, R. Gibson, nineteenth century to absorb the changes A Social History of French Catholicism, introduced by the Revolution. The diffi - 1789–1914 (1989), may be supplemented culties of postrevolutionary reconciliation by N. Ravitch, The Catholic Church and are discussed in A. Craiutu, A Virtue for the French Nation, 1685–1985 (1990); and Courageous Minds: Moderation in French J. Byrnes, Catholic and French Forever: Political Thought, 1748–1830 (2012). For Religious and National Identity in Modern economic developments, one may turn to France (2005). R. Price, An Economic History of Modern France, 1730–1914 (1981). An insight- The July Monarchy ful monograph illuminating the sexual di- For the revolutionary events of 1830, vision of labor in French rural industry is one may read D. H. Pinkney, The French G. L. Gullickson, The Spinners and Weav- Revolution of 1830 (1972); P. Pilbeam, ers of Auffray (1986). The essays in K. S. The 1830 Revolution in France (1991), Vincent and A. Klairmont-Lingo (eds.), The an insightful analytical study rather than Human Tradition in Modern France (2000), a narrative; and C. H. Church, Europe in covering the years 1789 to the present, seek 1830: Revolution and Political Change to restore the human and personal element (1983), which places the revolution in its in French historical writing for these years. European-wide setting. Other aspects of For the years 1815–1830, G. de Bertier the July Revolution, with attention to de- de Sauvigny, The Bourbon Restoration velopments outside Paris, are examined in (trans. 1966), remains valuable, while J. Popkin, Press, Revolution, and Social S. Mellon, The Uses of History: A Study Identities in France, 1830–1835 (2002). of Historians in the French Restoration For Louis Philippe’s reign, one may read (1958), and A. B. Spitzer, The French Gen- H. A. C. Collingham, The July Monarchy eration of 1820 (1987), add special insights. (1988), a detailed political account, and D. The evolving liberal movements of this era H. Pinkney, Decisive Years in France, 1840– are discussed in L. Kramer, Lafayette in 1847 (1986), which presents the years of the Two Worlds: Public Cultures and Personal July Monarchy as a watershed in French so- Identities in an Age of Revolutions (1996), cial and economic development. Labor and which also describes the links between popular stirrings are examined in R. J. Be- France and America; and the liberal opposi- zucha, The Lyon Uprising of 1834 (1974), tion is further examined in R. S. Alexander, and E. Berenson, Populist Religion and Left- Re-writing the French Revolutionary Tra- Wing Politics in France, 1830–1852 (1984). dition: Liberal Opposition and the Fall of Impressive studies in cultural and so- the Bourbon Monarchy (2003). Conserva- cial history focusing on the importance of tive ideas and activities are analyzed in the Revolution in the political culture and D. Porch, Army and Revolution: France, lives of the people include M. Agulhon, 1815–1848 (1974); and R. Rémond, The The Republic in the Village: The People Right Wing in France: From 1815 to de of the Var from the French Revolution to Gaulle (trans. 1966), useful for this period the Second Republic (1971; trans. 1982), and for the twentieth century. Insightful and D. Hopkin, Voices of the People in studies of an important conservative thinker Nineteenth-Century France (2012). Diverse and his legacy are available in O. Bradley, approaches to social history are found also A Modern Maistre: The Social and Politi- in W. H. Sewell Jr., The Language of Labor cal Thought of Joseph de Maistre (1999), from the Old Regime to 1848 (1980), and and C. Armenteros, The French Idea of W. M. Reddy, The Invisible Code: Honor History: Joseph de Maistre and His Heirs, and Sentiment in Postrevolutionary France,

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1814–1848 (1997). D. Davidson, France readers may also be interested in the more after Revolution: Urban Life, Gender, recent J. Breuilly, Austria, Prussia and the and the New Social Order (2007), adds to Making of Germany, 1806–1871 (2011). these accounts with an analysis of gender Also informative are D. Blackbourn, His- relations. J. Horn, The Path Not Taken: tory of Germany, 1780–1918: The Long French Industrialization in the Age of Nineteenth Century (rev. 2003); F. B. Tipton, Revolution, 1750–1830 (2006), discusses A History of Modern Germany since 1815 the slow development of French manu- (2003); W. Carr, A History of Germany, facturing. Studies in urban history include 1815–1990 (1991); and H. James, A J. M. Merriman, The Red City: Limoges German Identity, 1770–1990 (1990), per- and the French Nineteenth Century (1985) ceptive on economic and other matters. and The Margins of City Life: Explorations Two important inquiries into the failure of of the French Urban Frontier, 1815–1851 German liberal democracy before 1914 are (1991); W. H. Sewell Jr., Structure and Mo- J. J. Sheehan, German Liberalism in the bility: The Men and Women of Marseille, Nineteenth Century (1978), and J. L. Snell 1820–1870 (1985); and C. Rearick, Paris and H. A. Schmitt, The Democratic Move- Dreams, Paris Memories: The City and Its ment in Germany, 1789–1914 (1976). There Mystique (2011). L. Kramer, Threshold of are thoughtful essays in L. E. Jones and a New World: Intellectuals and the Exile K. H. Jarausch (eds.), In Search of a Liberal Experience in Paris, 1830–1848 (1988), Germany: German Liberalism from 1789 to conveys the cultural vitality of the city as it the Present (1990). appeared to exiles like Marx and others. An older study of importance is L. Chevalier, Austria, Russia, Poland, Greece, Spain, Laboring Classes and Dangerous Classes Italy, and Other Countries in Paris during the First Half of the Nine- On the Habsburg monarchy after 1815, teenth Century (trans. 1973). C. A. Macartney, The Habsburg Empire, Biographical accounts of two histori- 1790–1918 (1969), is a masterful survey ans who became important political leaders with full treatment of the nationalities. Rec- in these years are J. P. T. Bury and R. P. ommended also are R. Okey, The Habsburg Tombs, Thiers, 1797–1877 (1986), and Monarchy, c. 1765–1918: From Enlighten- D. Johnson, Guizot: Aspects of French His- ment to Eclipse (2000); S. Beller, A Con- tory, 1787–1874 (1963, 1975). For the last cise History of Austria (2006); and R. J. W. Bourbon king, one may read V. D. Beach, Evans, Austria, Hungary, and the Habs- Charles X of France (1971); and for Louis burgs: Essays on Central Europe, c. 1683– Philippe, T. Howarth, Citizen-King (1961). 1867 (2008). Foreign affairs are emphasized Readers will fi nd an excellent introduc- in F. R. Bridge, The Habsburg Monarchy tion to the lives of women in this era in J. among the Great Powers, 1815–1918 (1991). B. Margadant (ed.), The New Biography: All aspects of Austrian history, including Performing Femininity in Nineteenth-Cen- developments in the twentieth century, are tury France (2000); in C. Ford, Divided ably treated in B. Jelavich, Modern Austria: Houses: Religion and Gender in Modern Empire and Republic, 1815–1986 (1987). France (2005); and in S. Hiner, Accessories For Europe from the Baltic to the Ae- to Modernity: Fashion and the Feminine in gean, R. Okey, Eastern Europe, 1740–1985 Nineteenth-Century France (2010). (rev. 1986) covers these years; and other well-informed, comparative studies of the Germany, 1815–1848 region may be found in T. I. Behrend, His- J. J. Sheehan, German History, 1770–1866 tory Derailed: Central and Eastern Europe (1990), is invaluable for these years, though in the Long Nineteenth Century (2003); and

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I. Armour, A History of Eastern Europe Imagining the Balkans (2009), which 1740–1918 (2006). Extensive studies of examines the idea of the Balkans in Euro- the thwarted nationalisms in Eastern Eu- pean thought. For Greece, a balanced au- rope are available in S. Bilenky, Romantic thoritative study is R. Clogg, A Concise Nationalism in Eastern Europe: Russian, History of Greece (rev. 2002). New politi- Polish, and Ukrainian Political Imagina- cal stirrings in this period are described in tions (2012); J. Baer, Slavic Thinkers or the D. Brewer, The Greek War of Independence Creation of Polities: Intellectual History (2003); D. Brewer, Greece, the Hidden Cen- and Political Thought in Central Europe turies: Turkish Rule from the Fall of Constan- and the Balkans in the 19th Century (2007); tinople to Greek Independence (2010); and M. Baár, Historians and Nationalism: East- J. Koliopoulos and T. Veremis, Modern Central Europe in the Nineteenth Century Greece: A History since 1821 (2010). For the (2010); and T. Kamusella, The Politics initial phases of the ferment in Italy, good in- of Language and Nationalism in Modern troductions are available in H. Hearder, Italy Central Europe (2009). For Russia, two in the Age of the Risorgimento, 1790–1870 outstanding accounts are H. Seton-Watson, (1983); S. Woolf, A History of Italy, 1700– The Russian Empire, 1801–1917 (1967), 1860 (1986); C. M. Lovett, The Democratic and D. Saunders, Russia in the Age of Movement in Italy, 1830–1876 (1982); Reaction and Reform, 1801–1881 (1993). L. Riall, Risorgimento: The History of Italy On the life of the early nineteenth- from Napoleon to Nation-State (2009); M. century tsar, there is the work of J. M. Hartley, Clark, The Italian Risorgimento (2009); and Alexander I (1994). A major study of Alex- M. Isabella, Risorgimento in Exile: Italian ander’s successor is W. B. Lincoln, Nicholas Émigrés and the Liberal International in the I: Emperor and Autocrat of All the Post-Napoleonic Era (2009). Russias (1978). For these years one may also For Belgium and the Dutch Neth- read M. Zetling, The Decembrists (1985); erlands in these and subsequent years, a M. Raeff, The Decembrist Movement (1966), discerning account by an eminent Dutch a narrative with documents; and P. O’Meara, historian is E. H. Kossman, The Low Coun- The Decembrist Pavel Pestel: Russia’s First tries, 1780–1940 (1978). The emerging im- Republican (2003), which describes the portance of Belgium in international affairs life of a key participant in the movement. is traced in J. E. Helmreich, Belgium and Russian expansion in the era is covered in Europe: A Study of Small-Power Diplomacy A. Bitis, Russia and the Eastern Question: (1976). For Spain, a balanced, comprehen- Army, Government, and Society: 1815–1833 sive account is R. Carr, Spain, 1808–1975 (2006). For Poland, one may turn to the (rev. 1982), which may be supplemented by second volume of N. Davies, A History of the more recent accounts in C. J. Esdaile, Poland: God’s Playground (2 vols.; 1981); Spain in the Liberal Age: From Constitu- his briefer Heart of Europe: A Short History tion to Civil War, 1808–1939 (2000), and of Poland (1986); and P. Wandycz, The Lands C. J. Ross, Spain, 1812–1996 (2000). of Partitioned Poland, 1795–1918 (1974). For the Balkans in these years, inform- Nineteenth-Century Thought ative volumes include B. Jelavich and C. A useful resource for nineteenth-century Jelavich, The Establishment of the Balkan philosophy and intellectual developments is National States, 1804–1920 (1980); and S. D. Moyar (ed.), The Routledge Companion Pavlowitch, A History of the Balkans, 1804– to Nineteenth Century Philosophy (2010). 1945 (1999). Readers may also wish to con- Two overall surveys carrying cultural and sult R. Hall, The Modern Balkans: A History intellectual history forward to the twenti- (2011), and the thoughtful M. Todorova, eth century are G. L. Mosse, The Culture

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of Western Europe: The Nineteenth and Terror (2008); and G. Rudé, Ideology and Twentieth Centuries (rev. 1988), and R. N. Popular Protest (1980). For political align- Stromberg, European Intellectual History ments, see D. Caute, The Left in Europe since 1789 (rev. 1993). A. Vincelette, Re- since 1789 (1966); and H. Rogger and cent Catholic Philosophy: The Nineteenth E. Weber (eds.), The European Right: A Century (2009), explores often-neglected Historical Profi le (1965). religious thought of the century, while The vast literature on nationalism, L. Snyder, Reforming Philosophy: A Victo- including many older studies by C. J. H. rian Debate on Science and Society (2006), Hayes and H. Kohn, may be approached considers philosophy of the age from the through P. Alter, Nationalism (rev. 1994); perspective of scientifi c advancements. E. J. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism A special theme is skillfully explored in since 1780 (rev. 1992); E. Gellner, Nations O. Chadwick, The Secularization of the and Nationalism (1983); several books by European Mind in the Nineteenth Century A. D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (1976). Older general works include W. (1986), National Identity (1991), Chosen H. Coates, H. V. White, and J. S. Schap- Peoples (2003), and Nationalism: Theory, iro, The Emergence of Liberal Humanism: Ideology, History (rev. 2010); and L. Kramer, An Intellectual History of Western Europe Nationalism in Europe and America: Poli- (2 vols.; 1966, 1970), which examines the tics, Cultures, and Identities since 1775 nineteenth century in the second volume, (2011). There is a good analysis of national- and M. Mandelbaum, History, Man, and ist cultures in J. Leerssen, National Thought Reason: A Study in Nineteenth-Century in Europe: A Cultural History (2006); and Thought (1971). a useful collection of essays is available in Among the many books on Hegel and G. Eley and R. G. Suny (eds.), Becoming Hegelian thought, one may turn to Frederick National: A Reader (1996). B. Anderson’s C. Beiser (ed.), The Cambridge Compan- book, Imagined Communities: Refl ections ion to Hegel and Nineteenth-Century Phi- on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism losophy (2008); J. Stewart, Idealism and (rev. 2006), has contributed an infl uential Existentialism: Hegel and Nineteenth- and conceptual framework for much of the re- Twentieth-Century Philosophy (2010); cent scholarship on nationalist movements. L. Dickey, Hegel: Religion, Economics, and For the European contexts of nationalism, the Politics of Spirit, 1770–1807 (1987); see I. P. Karolewski and A. M. Suszycki, T. Pinkard, Hegel: A Biography (2001); The Nation and Nationalism in Europe: An F. C. Beiser, Hegel (2005); and J. E. Toews, Introduction (2011), and R. S. Alexander, Hegelianism: The Path toward Dialectical Europe’s Uncertain Path, 1814–1914: State Humanism, 1805–1841 (1985), a diffi cult Formation and Civil Society (2012). An but rewarding book whose themes are revis- impressive comparative work on national- ited in S. Žižek, Less than Nothing: Hegel ism, studying England, the United States, and the Shadow of Dialectical Materialism France, Germany, and Russia, is L. Green- (2012). feld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (1992); and her more recent critical analysis The “Isms” of nationalist thought is available in Nation- On the nature of ideology, the best introduc- alism: A Critical Introduction (2002). tion is D. McLellan, Ideology (rev. 1995). Excellent introductions to romanticism Also helpful are D. Hawkes, Ideology (rev. are W. Breckman, European Romanticism: 2003); M. Steger, The Rise of the Global A Brief History with Documents (2008); Imaginary: Political Ideologies from the J. Schneider, The Age of Romanticism French Revolution to the Global War on (2007); A. Day, Romanticism (2012); and

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M. Ferber, Romanticism: A Very Short Intro- (2007). Diverse views of Mill’s key themes duction (2010). Political and cultural mean- may be found in J. Skorupski, (ed.), The ings of romanticism are examined from Cambridge Companion to Mill (1998). In an diverse political perspectives in J. Barzun, area where Mill and Harriet Mill pioneered, Classic, Romantic, and Modern (rev. 1961, A. Rossi has edited John Stuart Mill and 1975) and Berlioz and the Romantic Cen- Harriet Taylor Mill, Essays on Sex Equal- tury (1950, 1982); N. Rosenblum, Another ity (1970). Mill and others are studied in Liberalism: Romanticism and the Recon- S. R. Letwin, The Pursuit of Certainty: Da- struction of Liberal Thought (1987); N. V. vid Hume, Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Riasanovsky, The Emergence of Romanti- Mill, Beatrice Webb (1963). Bentham is also cism (1992); and A. Franta, Romanticism studied in brief appraisals by J. Dinwiddy and the Rise of the Mass Public (2007); and (1989) and J. E. Crimmins (2003). For the the early history of Romantic thought is ana- French setting, an admirable study is G. lyzed in G. N. Izenberg, Impossible Individu- A. Kelly, The Humane Comedy: Constant, ality: Romanticism, Revolution, and the Ori- Tocqueville, and French Liberalism (1992), gins of Modern Selfhood, 1787–1802 (1992). which may be supplemented by K. S. Vin- For classical liberalism, a thoughtful cent, Benjamin Constant and the Birth of introduction is J. Gray, Liberalism (rev. French Liberalism (2011); J. Elster, Alexis 1995), which may be read along with J. G. de Tocqueville: The First Social Scientist Merquior, Liberalism, Old and New (1991); (2009); and two contextual biographies, P. Kelly, Liberalism (2005); A. Ryan, The A. Kahan, Alexis de Tocqueville (2010), Making of Modern Liberalism (2012); and and H. Brogan, Alexis de Tocqueville: A J. Rawls, Political Liberalism (rev. 2005), a Biography (2006). searching philosophical inquiry. An insight- For the persistence of conservatism, ful collection of essays by Isaiah Berlin, one may read P. Viereck, Conservatism Re- The Crooked Timber of Humanity (1990, visited: The Revolt against Revolt, 1815– 1998), stresses the liberal suspicion of 1949 (rev. 2005); J. Weiss, Conservatism in utopian schemes to change human beings Europe, 1770–1945 (1977); R. A. Nisbet, in revolutionary ways. The interaction be- Conservatism: Dream and Reality (1986); tween liberal theory and political practice T. Honderich, Conservatism (1991); and is examined in A. S. Kahan, Liberalism in P. Suvanto, Conservatism from the French Nineteenth-Century Europe: The Political Revolution to the 1990s (trans. 1997). An Culture of Limited Suffrage (2003). Readers infl uential analysis of conservative thought will fi nd a useful anthology in D. Sidorsky is also available in A. O. Hirshman, The (ed.), The Liberal Tradition in European Rhetoric of Reaction (1991). Thought (1970). Good starting places for the study of Among books on the leading exemplar the socialist and revolutionary tradition are of classical liberalism, one may read W. F. E. Manuel, The Prophets of Paris: Turgot, Stafford, John Stuart Mill (1998), a concise Condorcet, Saint-Simon, Fourier, Comte introductory account; N. Capaldi, John Stu- (1962), which stresses the link between En- art Mill: A Biography (2004); G. Himmel- lightenment ideas and nineteenth-century farb, On Liberty and Liberalism: The Case social thought; and J. H. Billington, Fire in of John Stuart Mill (1974); J. Fitzpatrick, the Minds of Men: Origins of the Revolu- Starting with Mill (2010); W. Donner and tionary Faith (1980), which focuses on the R. Fumerton, Mill (2009); D. Miller, J. S. more conspiratorial revolutionaries. F. E. Mill: Moral, Social and Political Thought Manuel and F. P. Manuel masterfully trace (2010); and B. Kinzer, J. S. Mill Revisited: an important theme in Utopian Thought in Biographical and Political Explorations the Western World (1979), which may be

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supplemented with two books by K. Kumar, Nineteenth Century: A European Perspec- Utopia and Anti-Utopia in Modern Times tive (2004). Recent biographies on im- (1987) and Utopianism (1991). portant women writers in this era include Books on Marx and Marxism will be S. Grogan, Flora Tristan (1998); B. Jack, cited for chapter 12. A good one-volume George Sand (2000); B. Eisler, Naked in introduction to the origins and evolution of the Marketplace: The Lives of George Sand socialism is A. S. Lindemann, A History of (2006); R. Bolster, Marie d’Agoult: The European Socialism (1983). Informative also Rebel Countess (2001); and P. Stock- Morton, are W. Lerner, A History of Socialism and The Life of Marie d’Agoult, alias Daniel Communism in Modern Times (rev. 1994), Stern (2001). The ideas of writers such as and B. Crick, Socialism (1987). G. Lich- Sand and d’Agoult are also examined in theim’s The Origins of Socialism (1969) and W. Walton, Eve’s Proud Descendants: Four A Short History of Socialism (1970) and his Women Writers and Republican Politics in other writings are especially valuable. Two Nineteenth-Century France (2000). large-scale comprehensive studies are G. D. On the link between socialism and H. Cole, A History of Socialist Thought (4 women activists, one may read M. J. vols.; 1953–1956), covering the years 1789– Boxer and J. H. Quataert (eds.), Socialist 1939; and C. Landauer et al., European So- Women: European Socialist Feminism in cialism (2 vols.; 1960), which covers about the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centu- the same years. Utopian socialists are stud- ries (1978), and other books to be cited for ied in two excellent books by J. F. Beecher: chapter 15. A. Fried and R. Sanders, Social- Charles Fourier: The Visionary and His ist Thought: A Documentary History (rev. World (1987) and Victor Considérant and 1993), is a useful anthology. the Rise and Fall of French Romantic So- cialism (2001). Other early socialists are Economic Thought examined in F. E. Manuel, The New World An innovative and rewarding book is of Henri Saint-Simon (1956); G. G. Iggers, M. Berg, The Machinery Question and the The Cult of Authority: The Political Cult of Making of Political Economy, 1815–1848 the Saint-Simonians (rev. 1970); and R. B. (1980). There are valuable accounts of key Carlisle, The Proffered Crown: Saint Simoni- thinkers in D. P. O’Brien, The Classical anism and the Doctrine of Hope (1987). Economists Revisited (rev. 2004); in J. K. Early feminist thought is discussed in Galbraith, The Age of Uncertainty (1977), J. Rendall, The Origins of Modern Femi- a sprightly series of essays on economic nism: Women in Britain, France and the thinkers from Adam Smith to modern times; United States, 1780–1860 (1985); M. and in R. Heilbroner, The Worldly Philoso- LeGates, In Their Time: A History of Femi- phers (rev. 1999), which is useful on the nism in Western Society (2001); K. Offen, economic liberals. For Adam Smith’s moral European Feminisms, 1700–1950: A Politi- and economic ideas, an especially thought- cal History (2000); G. Bock, Women in Eu- ful overview is J. Z. Muller, Adam Smith ropean History (trans. 2002); S. K. Foley, in His Time and Ours: Designing the De- Women in France since 1789 (2004); and cent Society (1992). Muller has expanded C. G. Moses and L. W. Rabine, Feminism, his history of economic ideas in The Mind Socialism, and French Romanticism (1993), and the Market: Capitalism in Modern a valuable book that includes excerpts from European Thought (2002). Informative also the texts of early feminist authors. A valu- are D. Winch, Adam Smith’s Politics (1978); able resource for women’s activism is S. and P. H. Werhane, Adam Smith and His Paletschek and B. Pietrow-Ennker (eds.), Legacy for Modern Capitalism (1991). For Women’s Emancipation Movements in the Malthus, a useful biographical account is

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P. James, Population Malthus: His Life and nationalismproject.org; Utilitarian Resources Times (1979), while S. Hollander, The Eco- at www.utilitarianism.com , with links to nu- nomics of Thomas Robert Malthus (1996), merous works on this infl uential nineteenth- analyzes his ideas. century intellectual and political movement; and BBC-History, Industrialisation at www. International Affairs after the Congress bbc.co.uk/history/society_culture/industri- of Vienna alisation , which provides interesting material In addition to works cited for chapter 10 on the new industrial economy in Britain. on diplomacy and international affairs, two valuable surveys are F. R. Bridge and 12. REVOLUTIONS AND THE REIM- R. Bullen, The Great Powers and the POSITION OF ORDER, 1848–1870 European States System, 1851–1914 (rev. An older but still useful synthesis for the 2005), and N. Rich, Great Power Diplomacy, revolutions of 1848 is W. L. Langer, Po- 1815–1914 (1980). In addition to studies of litical and Social Upheaval, 1832–1852 the era of Castlereagh cited for chapter 10, (1969). Other informative studies include one may turn to W. Hinde, George Canning P. Jones, The 1848 Revolutions (rev. 1991); (1989); P. R. Ziegler, Palmerston (2003); and J. Sperber, The European Revolutions, G. Barton, Lord Palmerston and the Empire 1848–1851 (rev. 2005); the essays in R. J. of Trade (2012). W. Evans and H. P. Von Strandmann, The The involvement of the European pow- Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849 (2000); ers and U.S. protectionism in Latin America P. Wilson (ed.), 1848: The Year of Revolu- is studied in R. Miller, Britain and Latin tions (2006); and M. Rapport, 1848-Year America in the Nineteenth and Twentieth of Revolution (2008). Of special interest Centuries (1993), and E. R. May, The Mak- is the classic work of L. B. Namier, 1848: ing of the Monroe Doctrine (1975; reissued The Revolution of the Intellectuals (1944, 1992). For all aspects of the colonial revolu- 1992), which sees the events in central and tions and the European response, one may eastern Europe as ushering in an age of na- turn to J. Lynch, The Spanish American tionalism, not of liberalism; and the cultural Revolutions, 1808–1821 (rev. 1986), and legacy of the 1848 revolutions is explored M. P. Costeloe, Response to Revolution: in F. Ewen, A Half-Century of Greatness: Imperial Spain and the Spanish American The Creative Imagination of Europe, 1848– Revolutions, 1810–1840 (1986). 1884 (rev. 2007). E. J. Hobsbawm contin- Useful Web Sites and Online Resources ues his provocative trilogy for the years Readers will fi nd excellent sources for this 1789–1914 with The Age of Capital, 1848– era through the links in Fordham Univer- 1875 (1976). A. J. P. Taylor, The Struggle sity’s Internet Modern History Sourcebook for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918 (1954, at www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/mods- reissued 1971), remains a useful study of book.html; this outstanding resource in- international affairs for these years. cludes materials on the Industrial Revolution; Revolutions in Various Countries “isms” such as socialism, romanticism, fem- France. General histories include R. Price, inism, and nationalism; the history of major The French Second Republic: A Social His- European nations; and the new nineteenth- tory (1972); and W. Fortescue, France century nations in the Americas. There and 1848: The End of Monarchy (2005). are also valuable materials on nineteenth- Informative also are the essays edited by century thought and the “isms” at The Stan- R. Price, Revolution and Reaction: 1848 ford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http:// and the Second French Republic (1976), plato.stanford.edu/; other helpful sites in- while M. Agulhon, The Republican Experi- clude The Nationalism Project at www. ment, 1848–1852 (1983), subtly examines

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republican and revolutionary symbolism. Germany And The Frankfurt Assem- The more recent work of R. Price, People bly. In addition to L. B. Namier, 1848: and Politics in France, 1848–1870 (2004), The Revolution of the Intellectuals (1946, examines the political aftermath of the 1992), cited earlier, which is sharply criti- revolution. cal of the Frankfurt Assembly, informative Studies offering insights into popu- studies include E. Eyck, The Frankfurt lar militancy include P. H. Amann, Revo- Parliament, 1848–1849 (1968), a detailed lutions and Mass Democracy: The Paris account of the assembly itself; W. Sie- Club Movement in 1848 (1976); M. Trau- mann, The German Revolution of 1848–49 gott, The Armies of the Poor (rev. 2002); (trans. 1998); M. Hewitson, Nationalism J. M. Merriman, The Agony of the Republic: in Germany, 1848–1866: Revolutionary The Repression of the Left in Revolution- Nation (2010); the biography by S. Fre- ary France, 1848–1851 (1978); and T. W. itag, Friedrich Hecker: Two Lives for Lib- Margadant, French Peasants in Revolt: The erty (trans. 2006); and J. Sperber, Rhine- Insurrection of 1851 (1979). land Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848–1849 (1991), Habsburg Lands. For Austria, there are which focuses on the more radical ele- several volumes on the Habsburg Empire ments in the revolution. cited for chapter 11; but for more specifi c studies of Francis Joseph and his long England And Ireland. In addition to reign from 1848 to 1916, one may read A. works cited previously, the confronta- Palmer, Twilight of the Habsburgs: The Life tions with both Chartism and Irish nation- and Times of Emperor Francis Joseph (1995), alism are recounted in J. Saville, 1848: and S. Beller, Francis Joseph (1996). For the The British State and the Chartist Move- empire in revolt, one may turn to H. J. Hahns, ment (1987); other books on Chartism The 1848 Revolutions in German-Speaking have been noted for chapter 11. A special Europe (2001), which also discusses events subject is treated in J. S. Donnelly, The in Germany; S. Z. Pech, The Czech Revo- Great Irish Potato Famine (2001); D. Nally, lution of 1848–1849 (1969); and I. Deák, Human Encumbrances: Political Violence The Lawful Revolution: Louis Kossuth and the Great Irish Famine (2011); and in and the Hungarians, 1848–1849 (1979), a a broader context in C. Kinealy, Repeal and vivid account. The end of the revolution is Revolution: 1848 in Ireland (2009). described in A. Sked, The Survival of the Marx and Marxism Habsburg Empire (1979), and I. W. Rob- D. McLellan, Karl Marx: A Biography (rev. erts, Nicholas I and the Russian Interven- 2006), is an outstanding account of Marx’s tion in Hungary (1991). life and thought; other insightful studies in- Italy. Books on the beginnings of the clude J. Seigel, Marx’s Fate: The Shape of Risorgimento have been cited for chapter a Life (1978, 1993); I. Berlin, Karl Marx: 11; others on unifi cation will be described His Life and Environment (rev. 1996); S. K. for chapter 13. Studies relevant to 1848 Padover, Karl Marx: An Intimate Biogra- include G. M. Trevelyan’s classic account, phy (1978); L. Kołakowski, Main Currents Garibaldi’s Defense of the Roman Repub- of Marxism: The Founders, the Golden lic, 1848–1849 (1907, reissued 1988); and Age, the Breakdown (trans. 2005); and W. P. Ginsborg, Daniele Manin and the Vene- Pelz, Karl Marx: A World to Win (2012). A tian Revolution of 1848–1849 (1979). There strident defense of Marxism after the late is also useful information on the people and twentieth-century debasement of Marx’s events of this era in J. A. Davis (ed.), Italy in thought is T. Eagleton, Why Marx Was Right the Nineteenth Century: 1796–1900 (2000). (2011). Helpful for the life and thought of

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Engels are studies by S. Marcus (1974), ited Auguste Comte and Positivism: The Es- D. McLellan (1978), T. Carver (1990), J. D. sential Writings (rev. 1998). Hunley (1990), and S. H. Rigby (1992). On Marxism and the theoretical foun- Napoleon III and Bonapartism dations of socialism, there is an enormous The best overviews are in A. Plessis, and controversial literature, to which the The Rise and Fall of the Second Empire, books cited for chapter 11 for the begin- 1852–1871 (trans. 1985), and in R. Price, nings of socialism and for chapter 15 for the The French Second Empire: An Anatomy of years after 1870 may offer some additional Political Power (2001). Other informative guidance. Recommended studies include J. accounts can be found in G. P. Gooch, The Elster, An Introduction to Karl Marx (1986); Second Empire (1960), a collection of ju- R. N. Hunt, The Political Ideas of Marx and dicious essays; J. P. T. Bury, Napoleon III Engels (2 vols.; 1976–1984); R. Tucker, The and the Second Empire (1964); D. Baguley, Marxian Revolutionary Idea (1969) and Napoleon III and His Regime: An Extrava- Philosophy and Myth in Karl Marx (rev. ganza (2000); and W. H. C. Smith, Second 2001); and S. Avinieri, The Social and Po- Empire and Commune: France, 1848–1871 litical Thought of Karl Marx (1968, 1990). (rev. 1996), which emphasizes the regime’s The intellectual context that shaped Marx’s disastrous foreign policy and collapse. early work is examined in W. Breckman, A useful reference tool is W. E. Echard Marx, the Young Hegelians, and the Origins (ed.), Historical Dictionary of the French of Radical Social Theory (1999). Second Empire (1985). E. Wilson’s classic book To the Finland Biographical treatments include W. H. Station: A Study in the Writing and Acting C. Smith, Napoleon III (1973); J. F. McMil- of History (1940, reissued 1972) is an im- lan, Napoleon III (1991); and F. Bresler, Na- aginative discussion of the use of history poleon III (1999). There are three evocative by socialists and nonsocialists. Insights into explorations of the age by R. L. Williams: the Marxist interpretation of history are pro- The World of Napoleon III (1957), The vided in G. A. Cohen, Karl Marx’s Theory Mortal Napoleon III (1971), and Manners of History: A Defence (rev. 2001), an espe- and Murders in the World of Louis Napo- cially cogent analysis; W. H. Shaw, Marx’s leon (1975). On the reconstruction of Paris Theory of History (1978); and M. Rader, in these years, one may read D. H. Pinkney, Marx’s Interpretation of History (1979). R. Napoleon III and the Rebuilding of Paris Williams, Marxism and Literature (1977), (1958); D. P. Jordan, Transforming Paris: demonstrates one aspect of the wider appli- The Life and Labors of Baron Haussmann cability of Marx’s theories. (1995); and N. Papayanis, Planning Paris For Auguste Comte, there are available before Haussmann (2004), a study of the A. R. Standley, Auguste Comte (1981), a ideas that preceded and infl uenced Hauss- brief, insightful introduction; M. Picker- mann. For Paris before Haussmann, see M. ing, Auguste Comte: An Intellectual Bi- Marrinan, Romantic Paris: Histories of a ography (1992); and M. Gane, Auguste Cultural Landscape, 1800–1850 (2009). Comte (2006). For his philosophy of posi- A sympathetic biography of the empress tivism, see W. M. Simon, European Posi- may be found in D. Seward, Eugénie: The tivism in the Nineteenth Century (1963); Empress and Her Empire (2004). Tenden- D. G. Charlton, Positivist Thought in France cies in later years to praise Napoleon III during the Second Empire (1959); and for presiding over political stability are T. R. Wright, The Religion of Human- explored in S. L. Campbell, The Second ity: The Impact of Comtean Positivism on Empire Revisited: A Study in French His- Victorian Britain (1986). G. Lenzer has ed- toriography (1978).

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Useful Web Sites and Online Resources The First Pacifi c War: Britain and Russia, Readers will fi nd an extensive collection 1854–1856 (2008); A. Lambert, The Crime- of writings—albeit in a diffi cult format for an War: British Grand Strategy against searching—on all aspects of the revolutions Russia, 1853–56 (2011); and P. Duckers, by visiting the Encyclopedia of Revolutions The Crimean War at Sea: The Naval Cam- of 1848 at www.ohio.edu/chastain/contents. paigns against Russia, 1854–6 (2011). htm . There are useful materials on the his- The diplomatic aspects are studied in W. tory of Marxism, beginning with Marx but Baumgart, The Peace of Paris, 1856 (1981); including many other writers and political D. Wetzel, The Crimean War: A Diplomatic activists, at the Marxists Internet Archive, History (1985); and D. M. Goldfrank, The www.marxists.org ; and additional informa- Origins of the Crimean War (1993). An im- tion on the era of 1848 is available at the pressive book rehabilitating Austrian policy previously cited Fordham University Inter- is P. W. Schroeder, Austria, Great Britain, net History Sourcebook at www.fordham. and the Crimean War: The Destruction of edu/Halsall/index.asp . Further information the European Concert (1972), while J. S. on Napoleon III may be found at the previ- Curtiss, Russia’s Crimean War (1979), sees ously cited www.napoleon.org . the Western powers as more responsible than Russia for the outbreak. For Florence 13. THE CONSOLIDATION OF Nightingale’s contributions to modern nurs- LARGE NATION-STATES, 1859–1871 ing, see biographies by H. Small (2000), N. Rich, The Age of Nationalism and B. Dossey (2001), and M. Bostridge (2008). Reform, 1850–1890 (1970), provides a balanced synthesis, while J. Sperber, Europe, Unifi cation of Italy 1850–1914: Progress, Participation and To the books on unifi cation that have already Apprehension (2009), offers an updated been cited should be added F. J. Cappa, The synthesis that discusses European reactions Origins of the Italian Wars of Independence to social and cultural changes. Analytical (1992); M. Clark, The Italian Risorgimento books on nationalism have been cited for (1998); and the previously cited L. Riall, chapter 11, but readers may appreciate the Risorgimento: The History of Italy from detailed studies offered in N. Randeraad, Napoleon to Nation- State (2009). Another States and Statistics in the Nineteenth Cen- recent contribution is A. Lang, Converting a tury: Europe by Numbers (trans. 2010), and Nation: A Modern Inquisition and the Uni- B. Curtis, Music Makes the Nation: Nation- fi cation of Italy (2008). For books on the alist Composers and Nation Building in unifi cation leaders (in addition to those on Nineteenth-Century Europe (2008). Garibaldi cited for chapter 12), see D. Mack The Crimean War Smith, Cavour and Garbaldi in 1860 (1954, For the war itself and its complexities, one 1985), Giuseppe Garibaldi (1956), Cavour may read T. Royle, Crimea: The Great (1985), which is critical of the Piedmon- Crimean War, 1854–1856 (2001); J. Sweet- tese stateman’s opportunism, and Mazzini man, The Crimean War (2001); O. Figes, The (1994); A. Scirocco, Garibaldi: Citizen of Crimean War: A History (2010) and Crimea: the World (trans. 2007); L. Riall, Garibaldi: The Last Crusade (2010); A. Troubetzkoy, Invention of a Hero (2007); and J. Ridley, A Brief History of the Crimean War: The Garbaldi (1975), a detailed, authoritative Causes and Consequences of a Medieval study. An outstanding history of Italy after Confl ict Fought in a Modern Age (2006); unifi cation is D. Mack Smith, Modern Italy and H. Small, The Crimean War: Queen Vic- (rev. 1997). The same author’s Italy and Its toria’s War with the Russian Tsars (2007). Monarchy (1990) is an unfl attering portrait For its global ramifi cations, see J. Grainger, of the House of Savoy.

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Bismarck and the Founding of the account of Bismarck’s Jewish fi nancial Second Reich adviser, illuminating much of German his- G. A. Craig, Germany, 1866–1945 (1978) is tory during these years, is F. Stern, Gold a masterful account covering the years from and Iron: Bismarck, Bleichröder, and the Bismarck to Hitler, with many insights into Building of the German Empire (1977). For German society and culture; a companion the powerful industrialist family that con- volume, The Germans (1982), equally per- tributed to Germany’s military might see ceptive, is a series of thematic essays; and H. James, Krupp: A History of the Legend- the same author’s The Politics of the Prus- ary German Firm (2012). W. J. Mommsen, sian Army, 1640–1945 (1956, 1964) is as Imperial Germany, 1867–1918 (trans. useful for the nineteenth and twentieth cen- 1995) is a collection of essays by an infl u- turies as for the earlier years. For accounts ential German historian. Other helpful stud- of Germany in the period of unifi cation that ies of the German Empire are available in touch on special topics see R. A. Bennette, D. Orlow, A History of Modern Germany: Fighting for the Soul of Germany: The Cath- 1871 to Present (2012); S. Conrad, Globali- olic Struggle for Inclusion after Unifi cation sation and the Nation in Imperial Germany (2012); M. Stoetzler, The State, the Nation, (trans. 2010); A. Goldberg, Honor, Politics & the Jews: Liberalism and the Antisemitism and the Law in Imperial Germany, 1871– Dispute in Bismarck’s Germany (2008); and 1914 (2010); and M. Jefferies, Contesting H. W. Smith, The Continuities of German the German Empire, 1871–1918 (2008). For History: Nation, Religion, and Race across the third and fi nal Emperor of Germany see the Long Nineteenth Century (2008). J. Röhl, Wilhelm II: The Kaiser’s Personal For Bismarck two comprehensive ac- Monarchy, 1888–1900 (2004) and C. Clark, counts are O. Pfl anze, Bismarck and the Kaiser Wilhelm II: A Life in Power (2009). Development of Germany (3 vols.; 1990), For the events of 1870–1871, recom- demonstrating how Bismarck controlled mended studies include W. Carr, The Ori- the dynamic social and economic forces of gins of the Wars of German Unifi cation his day; and L. Gall, Bismarck: The White (1991); M. Howard, The Franco-Prussian Revolutionary (2 vols.; trans. 1986–1987). War: The German Invasion of France, Numerous biographies of Bismarck include 1870–1871 (rev. 2001), a major study of the J. E. Rose, Bismarck (1987); E. Feucht- war and related events; and G. Wawro’s two wanger, Bismarck (2002); L. Abrams, Bis- books for these years, The Austro-Prussian marck and the German Empire, 1871–1918 War: Austria’s War with Prussia and Italy in (rev. 2006); F. Darmstaedter, Bismarck and 1866 (1996), and The Franco-Prussian War: the Creation of the Second Reich (2008); The German Conquest of France in 1870– V. Ullrich, Bismarck: The Iron Chancel- 1871 (2003). Recent additions to these works lor (trans. 2008); D. Williamson, Bismarck include Q. Barry, The Franco-Prussian War, and Germany, 1862–1890 (rev. 2011); and 1870–1871 (2007) and D. Wetzel, A Duel of J. Steinberg, Bismarck: A Life (2011). G. Nations: Germany, France, and the Diploma- O. Kent, Bismarck and His Times (1978) is cy of the War of 1870–1871 (2012); and for a especially useful for the historiographical reappraisal of the military mastermind of the debate on Bismarck. war see T. Zuber, The Moltke Myth: Prussian Social and economic aspects of unifi - War Planning, 1857–1871 (2008). cation are studied in W. O. Henderson, The Rise of German Industrial Power, 1834– Austria-Hungary 1914 (1976) and T. S. Hamerow, The Social For the Compromise of 1867 and the crea- Foundations of German Unifi cation, 1858– tion of the Dual Monarchy, the volumes 1871 (2 vols.; 1969–1972). An interesting by C. A. Macartney and other studies

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cited in Chapter 11 will be helpful as are while V. Leontovitsch, The History of Lib- the treatments in A. Gerö (ed.), The Austro- eralism in Russia (2012) and A. Fedyashin, Hungarian Monarchy Revisited (2009). Liberals under Autocracy: Modernization W. S. Johnston, The Austrian Mind: An In- and Civil Society in Russia, 1866–1904 tellectual and Social History (1976) covers (2012) examine the understudied infl uence broad aspects of Austrian life, while the spe- of liberalism in Russian society. cifi c infl uence of the capital is considered in On the reforms of Alexander II one N. Parsons, Vienna: A Cultural History may turn to D. Lieven, Russia’s Rulers (2009). Jewish contributions to Habsburg under the Old Regime (1989), which culture and society are sympathetically as- describes Alexander’s effi cient bureaucracy, sessed in R. S. Wistrich, The Jews of Vi- and to the more recent account in E. Rad- enna in the Age of Franz Joseph (1989); zinsky, Alexander II: The Last Great Tsar S. Beller, Vienna and the Jews (1989); and (2005), informative for Russian society of W. O. McCagg Jr., A History of Habsburg the era and the man himself. The peasant Jews, 1670–1918 (1993). For the military, emancipation may be studied in J. Blum, there are studies by G. E. Rothenberg, The The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe Army of Francis Joseph (1976) and I. Deák, (1978); T. Emmons, The Russian Landed Beyond Nationalism: A Social and Politi- Gentry and the Peasant Emancipation of cal History of the Habsburg Offi cer Corps, 1861 (1968); and D. Moon, The Abolition 1848–1918 (1990), which illuminates the of Serfdom in Russia, 1762–1907 (2001). Dual Monarchy in other ways. For Hungary, For the activist world of nineteenth- see J. K. Hoensch, A History of Modern century Russia and the world of the Russian Hungary, 1867–1994 (1996); B. K. Kiraly, exiles, there is a helpful synthesis: F. Venturi, Basic History of Modern Hungary: 1867– A History of the Populist and Socialist Move- 1999 (2001); and K. László, Hungary in the ments in Nineteenth-Century Russia (trans. Dual Monarchy, 1867–1914 (trans. 2008). 1983); and many special studies, among them E. H. Carr, Michael Bakunin (1937, The Russia of Alexander II, 1855–1881 reissued 1975); M. A. Miller, The Rus- An authoritative treatment for these years sian Revolutionary Emigrés, 1825–1870 is provided in D. Saunders, Russia in the (1986); A. P. Mendel, Michael Bakunin: Age of Reaction and Reform, 1801–1881 Roots of Apocalypse (1982); M. E. Malia, (1992), cited in Chapter 11; P. Waldron, Alexander Herzen and the Birth of Russian Governing Tsarist Russia (2007); and Socialism (1961); V. Broido, Apostles into E. K. Wirtschafter, Russia’s Age of Serf- Terrorists: Women and the Revolution- dom 1649–1861 (2009). On the reign of the ary Movement in the Russia of Alexander last fi ve rulers from Alexander I to Nicho- II (1977); and I. Berlin, Russian Thinkers las II, S. Harcave has written Years of the (1978), which is especially rewarding. For Golden Cockerel: The Last Romanov Tsars, political violence see C. Verhoeven, The 1814–1917 (1968), a subject covered also Odd Man Karakozov: Imperial Russia, in the latter portions of W. B. Lincoln, The Modernity, and the Birth of Terrorism (2009). Romanovs: Autocrats of All the Russias (1981). The Romanov exercise of power is Centralizing States and Nationhood in described in the wide-ranging work of R. the Atlantic World S. Wortman, Scenarios of Power: Myth and Events covered in this section pertain mostly Ceremony in Russian Monarchy (2 vols. to European interactions or infl uence, or 1995, 2000). The expansion of Russia is direct comparisons with similar European considered in A. Etkind, Internal Coloniza- developments. Readers should consult his- tion: Russia’s Imperial Experience (2011); tories of the North American nations for

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more detailed accounts. For a comparison the wider British imperial system include of American slavery and Russian serfdom, P. Buckner (ed.), Canada and the British both abolished in the same decade, see Empire (2008); P. Buckner and R. D. Fran- P. Kolchin, Unfree Labor: American Slavery cis (eds.), Canada and the British World: and Russian Serfdom (1987); other compar- Culture, Migration and Identity (2006); and isons are developed in P. Kolchin, A Sphinx N. Christie, Transatlantic Subjects: Ideas, on the American Land: The Nineteenth- Institutions and Social Experience in Post- Century South in Comparative Perspective revolutionary North America (2008). (2003). There are also interesting compara- Useful Web Sites and Online Resources tive themes in A. M. Gleche, The Revolu- Interesting visual materials and other tion of 1861: The American Civil War in sources on the Crimean War can be found the Age of Nationalist Confl ict (2012), in the collection of the Library of Congress, which places American events in a trans- Roger Fenton Crimean War Photographs, Atlantic context, and in P. Quigley, Shifting which is at www.loc.gov/pictures/collec- Grounds: Nationalism and the American tion/ftncnw/. More on the war can be found South, 1848–1865 (2012). European views at the Crimean War Research Society Web of the American Civil War are described site, http://cwrs.russianwar.co.uk/cwrsen- in D. A. Campbell, English Public Opin- try.html. Additional resources for examining ion and the American Civil War (2003) and the consolidation of nation-states in Europe, G. M. Blackburn, French Newspaper Opin- and North America are at Fordham Univer- ion on the American Civil War (1997). An sity’s Internet History Sourcebook, w w w . insightful, synthetic study of the American fordham.edu/Halsall/index.asp , which has Civil War, stressing the war’s infl uence been noted in several previous chapters. on conceptions of American nationhood For excellent links to materials pertaining and noting interactions with Europe, is to the era of the American Civil War and available in A. C. Guelzo, Fateful Lighten- Reconstruction, one may visit History Mat- ing: A New History of the Civil War and ters at http://historymatters.gmu.edu/ , a site Reconstruction (2012). maintained in conjunction with the Ameri- The French interventions in Mexico are can Social History Project/Center for Media discussed in N. N. Baker, The French Ex- and Learning at the City University of New perience in Mexico, 1821–1861 (1979), in York and the Center for History and New the work by M. Cunningham, Mexico and Media at George Mason University. the Foreign Policy of Napoleon III (2001), and in the more recent book by K. Ibsen, 14. EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION, Maximilian, Mexico, and the Invention of 1871–1914: ECONOMY AND Empire (2010). POLITICS The growth of Canadian self- Books on cultural and social history are government within an imperial frame- mainly described in Chapter 15, but many work is described in J. M. Ward, Colonial titles overlap. An older volume that helps to Self-Government: The British Experience, provide a still useful synthesis for this era is 1759–1856 (1976); and the emergence of O. J. Hale, The Great Illusion, 1900–1914 the dominion idea, beginning in these years (1971), exploring the many accomplish- and later applicable to Australia, New Zea- ments of the early twentieth-century years land, and South Africa as well as Canada, is and the widespread belief in continuing comprehensively treated in W. D. McIntyre, peace and progress. E. J. Hobsbawm com- The Commonwealth of Nations: Origins pletes his books on the years 1789–1914 and Impact, 1869–1971 (1977). Recent his- with The Age of Empire, 1875–1914 (1988). torical studies of Canada’s interactions with The early chapters of J. Joll, Europe since

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1870 (rev. 1990) are helpful for this period. Short Introduction (2011). K. Pomeranz, Readers will also fi nd helpful information The Great Divergence: Europe, China, and and interpretations in F. Gilbert and D. C. the Making of the Modern World Economy Large, The End of the European Era: 1890 (2000) discusses European colonialism in to the Present (2009); J. Merriman and Jay a comparative study of the evolving world Winter (eds.), Europe 1789 to 1914: Ency- economic system. clopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire International fi nance is examined in (2006); and C. C. Hodge (ed.), Encyclope- C. P. Kindleberger, A Financial History of dia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800–1914 Western Europe (rev. 1992), cited earlier; R. (2008). Also of interest are N. Stone, Europe S. Sayers, The Bank of England, 1891–1944 Transformed, 1878–1919 (rev. 1999), and (2 vols., 1985); R. C. Michie, Capitals of R. W. Winks and R. J. Q. Adams, Europe, Finance: The London and New York Stock 1890–1945: Crisis and Confl ict (2003). Exchanges, 1850–1914 (1987); N. Fer- C. Nicholls (ed.), Power: A Political His- guson, The Ascent of Money: A Financial tory of the Twentieth Century (1990) and S. History of the World (2008); W. R. Mead, Pollard (ed.), An Economic History of the God and Gold: Britain, America, and the Twentieth Century (1990) begin with these Making of the Modern World (2007); and years. T. McCarthy, Race, Empire, and S. Bryan, The Gold Standard at the Turn the Idea of Human Development (2009), of the Twentieth Century: Rising Powers, considers European conceptions of civiliza- Global Money, and the Age of Empire (2010). tion in relation to economic expansion and Demography and Migration hegemony over non-European peoples. Several books on population growth, also The European and World Economy useful here, have been cited earlier. C. M. European economic and social develop- Cipolla, The Economic History of World ments are studied in F. B. Tipton and Populations (rev. 1978) and T. H. Holl- R. Aldrich, An Economic and Social His- ingsworth, Historical Demography (1969) tory of Europe, 1890–1939 (1987), with a are good guides. Recommended studies sequel volume for later years. For indus- include T. McKeown, The Modern Rise trial growth on the Continent, one may also of Population (1977); D. Grigg, Popula- turn to A. S. Milward and S. B. Saul, The tion Growth and Agrarian Change (1980); Development of the Economies of Conti- C. Tilly (ed.), Historical Studies of Chang- nental Europe, 1850–1914 (1977); C. P. ing Fertility (1978); and two books by M. Kindleberger, Economic Growth in France Livi Bacci, The Population of Europe (2000) and Britain, 1851–1950 (1963); and W. O. and A Concise History of World Population Henderson, The Rise of German Industrial (rev. 2012), which carries the story of popu- Power, 1834–1914 (1976), cited earlier. lation growth into the contemporary era. For the global economy during these For the movement of peoples, two years, W. W. Rostow, The World Economy: collections of essays are helpful: W. H. History and Prospect (1978) is an ambi- McNeill and R. S. Adams (eds.), Human tious effort to study industrial growth from Migration; Patterns and Politics (1978) and its origins in eighteenth-century Britain to I. Glazier and L. deRosa (eds.), Migration its global diffusion. Other useful works in- across Time and Nations: Population Mo- clude A. G. Kenwood and A. L. Longheed, bility in Historical Contexts (1986). Addi- The Growth of the International Economy, tional informative works include P. Taylor, 1820–2000 (rev. 2000); G. Arrighi, The The Distant Magnet: European Migration Long Twentieth Century: Money, Power, to the United States (1971); L. P. Moch, and the Origins of Our Times (2010); and Moving Europeans: Migration in Western R. Allen, Global Economic History: A Very Europe since 1650 (rev. 2003); K. J. Bade,

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Migration in European History (2003); and Democracy (2011); and P.-O. Lissagaray, T. J. Hatten and J. G. Williamson, Global History of the Paris Commune of 1871 Migration and the World Economy (2006). (trans. 2012). The historical signifi cance of The role of migration in imperialism is ex- modern Paris is examined in P. Higonnet, plored in M. Harper and S. Constantine, Mi- Paris: Capital of the World (2002) and C. gration and Empire (2010). Rearick, Paris Dreams, Paris Memories: France, 1871–1914 The City and Its Mystique (2011). For France in this era the reader may turn to A valuable guide to major themes in J. M. Mayeur and M. Rebérioux, The Third French history and to writings on France Republic from Its Origins to the Great War, beginning with these years is J. F. McMil- 1871–1914 (trans. 1984) and M. Agulhon, lan, Twentieth-Century France: Politics and The French Republic, 1879–1992 (trans. Society in France, 1898–1991 (1992), while 1993), a challenging interpretive study. two works of reference are P. Hutton (ed.), Concise surveys are available in R. Gildea, Encyclopedia of the French Third Republic France, 1870–1914 (rev. 1996) and R. D. (2 vols.; 1986) and D. Bell and others (eds.), Anderson, France, 1870–1914: Politics and A Biographical Dictionary of French Politi- Society (1977). For a study of the republic’s cal Leaders since 1870 (1990). gender codes see A. Mansker, Sex, Honor Useful biographies include J. P. T. and Citizenship in Early Third Republic Bury’s three-volume study (1936–1981) of France (2011). Readers may be interested in Gambetta; D. R. Watson, Georges Clem- the studies of French republican culture in enceau: France (2008), on the Radical par- M. McAuliffe, Dawn of the Belle Époque: liamentarian and premier; and H. Goldberg, The Paris of Monet, Zola, Bernhardt, Eiffel, The Life of Jean Jaurès (1962), on the Debussy, Clemenceau, and Their Friends infl uential Socialist leader. Informative (2011) and J. Pasler, Composing the Citi- studies of the Dreyfus affair may be found zen: Music as Public Utility in Third Repub- in E. Cahm, The Dreyfus Affair in French lic France (2009). J. Merriman, The Dyna- Society and Politics (1996); M. P. John- mite Club: How a Bombing in Fin-de-Siècle son, The Dreyfus Affair (1999); L. Derfl ur, Paris Ignited the Age of Modern Terror The Dreyfus Affair (2002); and L. Begley, (2009) explores the development of radical Why the Dreyfus Affair Matters (2009). For politics in the era. A provocative Marxist wider cultural and political responses to the analysis is provided in S. Elwitt’s two-vol- Affair see C. E. Forth, The Dreyfus Affair ume study: The Making of the Third Repub- and the Crisis of French Manhood (2004); lic (1975) and The Third Republic Defended R. Harris, Dreyfus: Politics, Emotion, and (1988). Readers will also fi nd a helpful the Scandal of the Century (2010); P. P. analysis of this period in C. Sowerwine, Read, The Dreyfus Affair: The Scandal That France since 1870: Culture, Society, and the Tore France in Two (2012); and the broad Making of the Republic (rev. 2009). Recent study of French nationalism in this era, R. treatments of the revolutionary uprising that L. Fuller, The Origins of the French Nation- ushered in the Third Republic include R. alist Movement, 1886–1914 (2012). Tombs, The Paris Commune, 1871 (1999); Great Britain, 1871–1914 D. Shafer, The Paris Commune: French Cul- Useful surveys of Britain in this period in- ture, Politics, and Society at the Crossroads clude N. McCord, British History, 1815– of the Revolutionary Tradition and Revo- 1906 (1991); D. Read, The Age of Urban lutionary Socialism (2005); P. Starr, Com- Democracy: England, 1868–1914 (rev. memorating Trauma: The Paris Commune 1994); K. Robbins, The British Isles, 1901– and Its Cultural Aftermath (2006); D. Gluck- 1951 (2003); and M. Pugh, State and Soci- stein, The Paris Commune: A Revolution in ety: A Social and Political History of Britain

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since 1870 (2012). The economy is studied books: Victoria (rev. 1996), a reappraisal in S. Pollard, British Economy, 1870–1914 with interesting insights, and Uncrowned (1989); E. J. Hobsbawm, Industry and Em- King: The Life of Prince Albert (1997); a pire (rev. 1999); and B. W. E. Alford, Britain more recent analysis may be found in W. L. in the World Economy since 1880 (1996). Arnstein, Queen Victoria (2003). Special insights are added in A. L. Friedberg, In addition to many older studies of The Weary Titan: Britain and the Experience Gladstone, there are concise biographies of Relative Decline, 1895–1905 (1989) and by E. F. Biagini (2000) and M. Partridge B. Porter, Britain, Europe, and the World, (2003); and I. St. John, Gladstone and the 1850–1986 (rev. 1987). For insights into the Logic of Victorian Politics (2010). For Dis- experience of politics during the age see E. raeli, older biographies have been super- Hadley, Living Liberalism: Practical Citi- seded by R. Blake, Disraeli (1967, 1998), zenship in Mid-Victorian Britain (2010). a biography of distinction; there are other The patterns of urban and rural life and studies by E. J. Feuchtwanger (2000) and the shift to an urban society are examined in A. Kirsch (2008). For the rivalry between two outstanding collaborative histories: H. Gladstone and Disraeli see R. Aldous, The J. Dyos and M. Wolff (eds.), The Victorian Lion and the Unicorn: Gladstone vs. Dis- City (2 vols.; 1973) and G. E. Mingay (ed.), raeli (2006). One may also read R. Shannon, The Victorian Countryside (2 vols.; 1981); The Age of Disraeli, 1868–1881: The Rise the shift to an urban society is examined in of Tory Democracy (1992). In addition to detail in G. E. Mingay, The Transformation older biographies, a useful work on Joseph of Britain, 1830–1939 (1986). The political Chamberlain is T. Crosby, J oseph Cham- implications of land reform in the era are berlain: A Most Radical Imperialist (2011). covered in P. Readman, Land and Nation in There is a comprehensive four-volume England: Patriotism, National Identity, and biography of David Lloyd George by J. the Politics of Land, 1880–1914 (2008); Grigg (1973–2002); briefer accounts are and the changing fortunes of the landed ar- available in studies by C. Wrigley (1992), istocracy are studied in F. M. L. Thompson, I. Packer (1998), H. Purcell (2006); English Landed Society in the Nineteenth A. Sharp (2008); and there is a recent con- Century (1989) and D. Cannadine, The tribution by R. Hattersley, David Lloyd Decline and Fall of the British Aristocracy George: The Great Outsider (2010). For (1990), which focuses with telling detail on Asquith one may read R. Jenkins, Asquith the 1870s to the present. (rev. 1986); and for Balfour, R. F. Mackay, M. Hewitt (ed.), The Victorian World Balfour: Intellectual Statesman (1985). (2012) is a rich collection on life during On the extension of the suffrage in 1867 the era. For more on the cultural landscape one may read M. Cowling, 1867: Disraeli, one may read G. M. Young, Portrait of an Gladstone, and Revolution: The Passing of Age: Victorian England (2 vols.; 1934, the Second Reform Bill (1967) and F. B. 1977); three books by A. Briggs: Victorian Smith, The Making of the Second Reform People (1954), Victorian Cities (1963), and Bill (1966). The transformation of the Lib- Victorian Things (1989); A. N. Wilson, The erals in the early twentieth century is stud- Victorians (2003); and S. Steinbach, Un- ied in G. L. Bernstein, Liberalism and Lib- derstanding the Victorians: Politics, Cul- eral Politics in Edwardian England (1986) ture, and Society in Nineteenth-Century and D. Powell, The Edwardian Crisis: Brit- Britain (2012). Of the many biographies of ain, 1910–1914 (1996). An important ac- Victoria, one may still turn to E. Longford, count of a critical event is B. K. Murray, The Queen Victoria (1965), a sympathetic yet People’s Budget, 1909–1910: Lloyd George balanced account, and S. Weintraub’s two and Liberal Politics (1980). The emergence

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of the “new liberalism” in the early twenti- 1918 (2000); and the important comprehen- eth century is clarifi ed in M. Freeden, The sive study by M. L. Anderson, Practicing New Liberalism: An Ideology of Social Re- Democracy: Elections and Political Culture form (1978); J. Brown, The Welfare State in in Imperial Germany (2000). M. Fitzpat- Britain (1993); and D. Fraser, The Evolution rick, Liberal Imperialism in Germany: Ex- of the British Welfare State: A History of So- pansionism and Nationalism, 1848–1884 cial Policy since the Industrial Revolution (2008) explores the lingering infl uence (2009). J. Gray, Isaiah Berlin (1996), and of liberalism in unifi ed Germany. Further Berlin’s own writings exemplify the later studies of late nineteenth-century Germany evolution of twentieth-century liberalism. include A. Goldberg, Honor, Politics, and The Irish question is discussed in J. C. the Law in Imperial Germany, 1871–1914 Beckett, The Making of Modern Ireland (rev. (2010) and F. L. Müller, Our Fritz: Emperor 1981), cited earlier; K. T. Hoppen, Ireland Frederick III and the Political Culture of since 1800: Confl ict and Conformity (rev. Imperial Germany (2011). 1999); O. Walsh, Ireland’s Independence Other stimulating, interpretive works (2002); and in two books by D. G. Boyce: on imperial Germany and class relation- Ireland, 1828–1923 (1992) and Nationalism ships include D. Blackbourn and G. Eley, in Ireland (rev. 1995). For British policy see The Peculiarities of German History: Bour- E. Biagini, British Democracy and Irish Na- geois Society and Politics in Nineteenth- tionalism 1876–1906 (2007); I. Chambers, Century German History (1984); G. Eley, The Chamberlains, the Churchills and Ire- From Unifi cation to Nazism: Reinterpreting land, 1874–1922 (2006); and F. Campbell, the German Past (1986); D. Blackbourn, The Irish Establishment 1879–1914 (2009). Populists and Patricians: Essays in Mod- G. Dangerfi eld’s The Strange Death of Lib- ern German History (1987); R. J. Evans, eral England (1935, 1997) remains pro- Rethinking German History: Nineteenth- vocative as a searching study of the tensions Century Germany and the Origins of the in English society between 1910 and 1914. Third Reich (1990); and the essays in two For informative essays on Britain’s global useful collections: J. C. Fout (ed.), Politics, infl uence in this era, one may turn to vols. Parties, and the Authoritarian State: Impe- 3 and 4 of The Oxford History of the British rial Germany, 1871–1918 (2 vols.; 1986), Empire: A. Porter (ed.), The Nineteenth and G. Eley (ed.), Society, Culture, and Century (1999) and J. M. Brown and W. R. the State in Germany, 1870–1930 (1996). Louis (eds.), The Twentieth Century (1999). D. Sweeney, Work, Race, and the Emer- gence of Radical Right Corporatism in The German Empire, Italy Imperial Germany (2009) is a provocative To the books on Germany in the nineteenth work on the industrial class in Germany. century already cited may be added: H. U. In addition to works cited previously, Wehler, The German Empire, 1871–1918 for developments in the immediate post- (1973; trans. 1985), refl ecting the think- Bismarckian years one may read J. C. G. ing of an infl uential post-1945 generation Röhl, Germany without Bismarck: The of German historians; V. R. Berghahn, Im- Crisis of Government in the Second Reich, perial Germany, 1871–1918 (rev. 2005) 1890–1900 (1968). Two outstanding bi- and Modern Germany: Society, Economy, ographies of William II are L. Cecil’s two- and Politics in the Twentieth Century (rev. volume work: William II: Prince and Em- 1987); the concise surveys by M. Sturmer, peror, 1859–1900 (1989) and Emperor and The German Empire, 1870–1918 (2000), Exile, 1900–1941 (1996); and C. Clark, and by M.S. Seligmann and R. R. McLean, Kaiser Wilhelm II: A Life in Power (2009). Germany from Reich to Republic, 1871– T. A. Kohut, Wilhelm II and the Germans

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(1991) is an insightful study, as is J. C. G. have been listed for earlier chapters, begin- Röhl, The Kaiser and His Court: Wilhelm ning with chapter 11. II and the Government of Germany (1996). Labor, Social Democracy, Socialism The universities in this era are examined in Overall introductions include H. Mitchell K. H. Jarausch, Students, Society, and Poli- and P. N. Stearns, Workers and Protest: The tics in Imperial Germany: The Rise of Aca- European Labor Movement, the Working demic Liberalism (1982). Of special inter- Classes, and the Origins of Social Democ- est for pre-1914 German society are R. Gay, racy, 1890–1914 (1971); A. Przeworski, The Jews of Germany (1992) and F. Stern, Capitalism and Social Democracy (1985); Einstein’s German World (1999). D. Sassoon, One Hundred Years of Social- The best narrative accounts of Italy ism: The West European Left in the Twenti- since unifi cation are D. Mack Smith, Mod- eth Century (1996), taking its start in 1889; ern Italy (rev. 1997), cited earlier, and and G. Eley, Forging Democracy: The M. Clark, Modern Italy, 1871–1995 (rev. History of the Left in Europe, 1850–2000 2008). For the years after unifi cation, read- (2002). Readers may also wish to consult ers may also turn to S. Saladino, Italy from the information in P. Lamb and J. Docherty, Unifi cation to 1919 (1970); R. A. Webster, Historical Dictionary of Socialism (2006). Industrial Imperialism in Italy, 1908–1915 There are many specifi c studies of (1976); and A. Wong, Race and the Nation Socialist parties in each country. For Ger- in Liberal Italy, 1861–1911: Meridional- many, the latest treatment is H. Potthoff and ism, Empire, and Diaspora (2006). S. Miller, The Social Democratic Party of Useful Web Sites and Online Resources Germany, 1848–2005 (trans. 2006). Other Useful materials on economic history are informative books include P. Gay, The Di- available through the Web site of Bingham- lemma of Democratic Socialism: Eduard ton University’s Fernand Braudel Center for Bernstein’s Challenge to Marx (rev. 1962); the Study of Economies, Historical Systems, M. B. Steger, The Quest for Evolutionary and Civilizations, at http://fbc.binghamton. Socialism: Eduard Bernstein and Social edu/ , where historians stress the develop- Democracy (1997); S. Pierson, Marxist In- ment of global economic exchanges. Read- tellectuals and the Working Class Mental- ers will also fi nd links to helpful resources at ity in Germany, 1887–1912 (1993); W. M. Leiden University’s History of International Maehl, August Bebel: Shadow Emperor of Migration, www.let.leidenuniv.nl/history/ the German Workers (1980); and S. Berger, migration/, a site that includes information Social Democracy and the Working Class in on migration patterns over several centuries. Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Germany There is an excellent collection of French (2000). V. L. Lidtke has written an outstand- images and sources on the Paris commune ing study of the working-class culture that at Northwestern University’s site The Siege developed around the German Socialist and Commune of Paris, http://digital.library. movement: The Alternative Culture: Social- northwestern.edu/siege/ . Accessible histori- ist Labor in Imperial Germany (1985). cal overviews and other materials are availa- For Britain, N. MacKenzie and J. Mac- ble on the previously cited sourcebook sites Kenzie, The Fabians (1977), skillfully com- such as the BBC-History collection and the bines biography and social and intellectual Fordham University collection. history, while two leading Fabians, Sidney Webb and Beatrice Webb, are studied in R. J. 15. EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION, Harrison, The Life and Times of Sidney and 1871–1914: SOCIETY AND CULTURE Beatrice Webb (2000), and P. Beilharz and Many books on the social, cultural, and in- C. Nyland (eds.), The Webbs, Fabianism, tellectual history of the nineteenth century and Feminism (1998). Informative works on

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George Bernard Shaw include biographies in G. Haupt, Socialism and the Great War: by M. Holroyd (1998), which condenses The Collapse of the Second International a comprehensive, multivolume study, and (1972). The most comprehensive introduc- L. Hugo (1999). The development of British tion to anarchism is G. Woodcock, Anar- socialism is probed in M. Bevir, The chism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Making of British Socialism (2011), and Movements (1962), but also useful are J. N. Thompson, Political Economy and the Joll, The Anarchists (rev. 1981); R. D. Sonn, Labour Party: The Economics of Demo- Anarchism (1992); and C. Ward, Anarchism: cratic Socialism, 1884–2005 (2006). The A Very Short Introduction (2004). role of women in early British socialism is examined in J. Hannam and K. Hunt, Socialist Labor History in Cultural Context Women: Britain, 1880s to 1920s (2002). Recent labor history has attempted to con- For France, an overall account of mod- vey the experiences of laboring men and ern labor history, with many interesting women apart from organized labor move- insights, is available in T. Judt, Marxism ments and to integrate labor protest into a and the French Left: Studies in Labour and broader cultural context. E. P. Thompson’s Politics in France, 1830–1981 (rev. 2011); works have been cited earlier as exam- additional information may be found in ples of this scholarship. Another exemplar, R. Magraw, A History of the French Work- E. J. Hobsbawm, has written, among other ing Class (2 vols.; 1992), the fi rst volume books, Primitive Rebels (rev. 1971), La- studying the years 1815–1870, the second, bouring Men (1964), and Workers: Worlds 1871–1939; P. M. Pilbeam, French Social- of Labour (1985). More recent scholarship ists before Marx: Workers, Women and on European working-class life informs the Social Question in France (2000); and L. Jerram, Streetlife: The Untold History of R. Stuart, Marxism and National Identity: Europe’s Twentieth Century (2011). A suc- Socialism, Nationalism, and National So- cessful study of the English experience in cialism during the French Fin de Siècle these years is S. Meacham, A Life Apart: The (2006). N. Andrews, Socialism’s Muse: Gen- English Working Class, 1890–1914 (1977). der in the Intellectual Landscape of French Other interesting works for British labor are Romantic Socialism (2006); and T. Judt, So- J. Benson, The Working Class in Britain, cialism in Provence, 1871–1914: A Study in 1850–1939 (1989); D. M. MacRaild and D. the Origins of the Modern French Left (rev. E. Martin, Labour in British Society, 1830– 2011), explore contextual factors in the de- 1914 (2000); J. Bourke, Working-Class Cul- velopment of French socialism. There are tures in Britain, 1890–1960: Gender, Class, informative biographical studies of Social- and Ethnicity (1994); and A. McIvor, A His- ist leaders; among them H. Goldberg on tory of Work in Britain, 1880–1950 (2001). Jean Jaurès (1962), cited earlier; L. Derfl er For France, examples of labor his- (1977) and M. M. Farrar (1991) on Alexan- tory include J. W. Scott, The Glassmakers dre Millerand; L. Derfl er on Paul Lafargue of Carmaux: French Craftsmen and Po- (2 vols.; 1991, 1998); and K. S. Vincent on litical Action in a Nineteenth-Century Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1985) and Benoît City (1974); L. R. Berlanstein, The Work- Malon (1992). ing People of Paris, 1871–1914 (1984); On the Socialist international organiza- M. P. Hanagan, The Logic of Solidarity: tion, J. Joll, The Second International, 1889– Artisans and Workers in Three French 1914 (rev. 1974), is a concise survey; and J. Towns, 1871–1914 (1980); D. Reid, The Braunthal, History of the Inter national (3 Miners of Decazeville (1986) and Paris vols.; trans. 1961–1980), is a detailed study. Sewers and Sewermen (1991); J. G. Coffi n, The breakup of the International is described The Politics of Women’s Work: The Paris

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Garment Trades, 1750–1915 (1996); and Complicity and Resistance (1992), and in N. L. Green, Ready-to-Wear and Ready-to- C. Hall and S. O. Rose (eds.), At Home Work: A Century of Industry and Immigrants with Empire: Metropolitan Culture and in Paris and New York (1997), an excellent the Imperial World (2006). Women’s lives study of twentieth-century labor that exem- and activities are documented in E. O. plifi es the cross-cultural themes of compar- Hellerstein, L. P. Hume, and K. M. Offen ative social history. A comprehensive study (eds.), Victorian Women: A Documentary is G. Noiriel, Workers in French Society in Account of Women’s Lives in Nineteenth- the 19th and 20th Centuries (trans. 1990); Century England, France, and the United and the strike as a social phenomenon States (1981). S. Rowbotham, A Cen- in these years is studied in M. Perrot, Work- tury of Women: The History of Women in ers on Strike: France, 1871–1890 (trans. Britain and the United States (1997), begins 1987). The importance of syndicalism is with chapters on the era before the First examined in S. Milner, French Syndical- World War. ism and the International Labor Movement, For Britain in this era, a sampling of 1900–1914 (1990). the many studies that examine the role of For Germany, books providing broad women includes E. Longworth, Eminent insights into politics, society, and class in- Victorian Women (1981); B. Caine, Victo- clude D. Crew, Town in the Ruhr: A Social rian Feminists (1982); S. Hamilton, Frances History of Bochum, 1860–1914 (1979); Power Cobbe and Victorian Feminism D. Blackbourn, Class, Religion, and Lo- (2006); and C. Midgley, Feminism and Em- cal Politics in Wilhelmine Germany (1980); pire: Women Activists in Imperial Britain, M. Nolan, Social Democracy and Society: 1790–1865 (2007). J. Giles, Women, Iden- Working Class Radicalism in Düsseldorf, tity and Private Life in Britain, 1900–50 1890–1920 (1980); and S. H. F. Hickey, (1995), describes the experiences of wom- Workers in Imperial Germany: The Miners en in the early twentieth century. Working- of the Ruhr (1985). class women are studied in N. C. Solden, Women in British Trade Unions, 1874– Women’s History, Women’s Rights, 1976 (1978); S. O. Rose, Limited Liveli- Feminism hoods: Gender and Class in Nineteenth- Books on recent themes in women’s history Century England (1992); and E. Roberts, A have been cited in the introductory section Woman’s Place: An Oral History of Work- and in earlier chapters. For the background ing Class Women (1985), which carries the to women’s history in modern Europe, one analysis of women into the early twentieth may turn to K. Offen, European Feminisms, century. A key social problem is thought- 1700–1950: A Political History (2000), fully examined in J. R. Walkowitz, Prostitu- cited earlier, and to P. S. Robertson, An Ex- tion and Victorian Society: Women, Class, perience of Women: Patterns and Change in and the State (1980); the same author has Nineteenth-Century Europe (1982). There also written City of Dreadful Delight: Nar- are excellent essays on European gender ratives of Sexual Danger in Late-Victorian identities in I. Bloom, K. Hagemann, and C. London (1992). Hall (eds.), Gendered Nations: Nationalisms The struggle for women’s suffrage and Gender Order in the Long Nineteenth is studied in D. Morgan, Suffragists and Century (2000), which examines concep- Liberals: The Politics of Woman Suffrage tions of manhood and womanhood in this in England (1975); C. Law, Suffrage and era. Issues of gender and nationality are also Power: The Women’s Movement, 1918– explored in N. Chaudhuri and M. Stroebel 1928 (1997); H. Smith, The British Women’s (eds.), Western Women and Imperialism: Suffrage Campaign, 1866–1928 (2007);

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E. Crawford, The Women’s Suffrage Move- the Rights of Man (1996); M. L. Roberts, ment in Britain and Ireland: A Regional Disruptive Acts: The New Woman in Fin-de- Survey (2006); and J. Liddington and J. Siècle France (2002); E. A. Accampo and Norris, One Hand Tied Behind Us: The Rise others, Gender and the Politics of Social of the Women’s Suffrage Movement (rev. Reform in France, 1870–1914 (1995); and 2000). K. Cowman, Women of the Right E. E. Ferguson, Gender and Justice: Vio- Spirit: Paid Organisers of the Women’s So- lence, Intimacy and Community in Fin-de- cial and Political Union (WSPU), 1904–18 Siècle Paris (2010). (2007), discusses the organizational details On the activist role of women in the of the suffragette campaign. Female resis- Socialist movement, one may turn to R. J. tance to the suffragist movement is cov- Evans, Comrades and Sisters: Feminism, ered in J. Bush, Women against the Vote: Socialism, and Pacifi sm in Europe, 1870– Female Anti-Suffragism in Britain (2007). 1945 (1987). For the German Socialists For Pankhurst, see P. W. Romero, E. Sylvia there is J. H. Quataert, Reluctant Feminists Pankhurst: Portrait of a Radical (1987); in German Social Democracy, 1865–1917 and B. Winslow, Sylvia Pankhurst: Sexual (1979); and for French socialist women, Politics and Political Activism (1996). In C. Sowerwine, Sisters or Citizens: Women addition, S. S. Holton, Feminism and De- and Socialism in France since 1876 (1982), mocracy: Women’s Suffrage and Reform and P. Hilden, Working Women and Social- Politics in Britain, 1900–1918 (1986), fo- ist Politics in France: A Regional Study, cuses on less-known provincial suffragists, 1880–1914 (1986). For Rosa Luxemburg and S. K. Kent, Sex and Suffrage in Britain, and her contributions to German and inter- 1860–1914 (1990), sees the suffrage cam- national socialism, J. P. Nettl, Rosa Luxem- paign as part of a broader movement for a burg (2 vols., 1966; abridged, 1 vol., 1969), reformed society. For the wider gender im- is a well-informed biography. Other stud- plications of the movement, see B. Griffi n, ies include books by E. Eltinger (1987), The Politics of Gender in Victorian Brit- R. Abraham (1989), S. E. Bronner (1990), ain: Masculinity, Political Culture, and the D. E. Shepardson (1996), and J. Mathilde Struggle for Women’s Rights (2012). (trans. 2000). The role of women in Ger- The history of women in the Third man society is examined in R. F. B. Joeres French Republic is examined in J. F. and M. J. Maynes (eds.), German Women McMillan, Housewife or Harlot: The Place in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries of Women in French Society, 1870–1940 (1986); J. C. Fout (ed.), German Women in (1981), the title derived from a remark by the Nineteenth Century: A Social History Proudhon, and in the same author’s ex- (1984); and U. Frevert, Women in German cellent France and Women, 1789–1914: History: From Bourgeois Emancipation to Gender, Society, and Politics (2000). S. C. Sexual Liberation (1989). Hause with A. R. Kenney, Women’s Suf- R. J. Evans provides a comparative frage and Social Politics in the French Third study in The Feminists: Women’s Emanci- Republic (1984), explores the failed move- pation Movements in Europe, America, and ment in these years to extend the suffrage to Australia, 1840–1920 (1977). For feminism women. Other works on French women in in Germany in general, see C. Dollard, this age include B. G. Smith, Ladies of the The Surplus Woman: Unmarried in Impe- Leisure Class: The Bourgeoises of Northern rial Germany, 1871–1918 (2009); and for France in the Nineteenth Century (1982); conservative women, D. Guido, The Ger- C. G. Moses, French Feminism in the Nine- man League for the Prevention of Women’s teenth Century (1984); J. W. Scott, Only Emancipation: Antifeminism in Germany, Paradoxes to Offer: French Feminists and 1912–1920 (2010). For women in the

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Austro-Hungarian Empire, see A. Schwartz, In a special category, and a major con- Shifting Voices: Feminist Thought and tribution to social and cultural history of this Women’s Writing in Fin-de-Siècle Austria era, is P. Gay, The Bourgeois Experience: and Hungary (2008). On the transatlantic Victoria to Freud (5 vols.; 1984–1998); the and international campaign in the nine- fi ve volumes illuminate in fascinating detail teenth century, one may turn to B. S. An- how the emotional lives of Victorian men derson, Joyous Greetings: The First Inter- and women were not inhibited by social national Women’s Movement, 1830–1860 restraints. One should also read D. New- (2000). The scene in Russia is studied in come, The Victorian World Picture (1997), R. Stites, The Women’s Liberation Move- on how the world perceived the Victorians ment in Russia: Feminism, Nihilism, and and how they perceived themselves. The Bolshevism, 1860–1930 (rev. 1991); B. E. cultural history of homosexuality in this era Clements, A History of Women in Russia: is examined in a wide-ranging account by From Earliest Times to the Present (2012); G. Robb, Strangers: Homosexual Love in and R. G. Ruthchild, Equality & Revolu- the 19th Century (2004). S. Kern, The Cul- tion: Women’s Rights in the Russian Em- ture of Time and Space, 1880–1918 (1983), pire, 1905–1917 (2010). stresses the cultural responses to changing modern technologies, as does M. Beau- Cultural and Intellectual History mont, The Spectre of Utopia: Utopian and Helpful surveys of cultural and intellec- Science Fictions at the Fin de Siècle (2012). tual history are available in G. L. Mosse, For France, an unconventional social The Culture of Western Europe: The Nine- history with absorbing details and insights teenth and Twentieth Centuries (rev. 1988), is T. Zeldin, France, 1848–1945 (2 vols.; and R. N. Stromberg, European Intellec- 1973–1977, 1992): vol. 1, Ambition, Love tual History since 1789 (rev. 1994), both and Politics, and vol. 2, Intellect, Taste and cited earlier; and the more recent work by Anxiety. Other aspects of French social and J. Winders, European Culture since 1848 cultural history are studied in E. Weber, (2001). G. Marshall (ed.), The Cambridge France, Fin de Siècle (1986), which offers Companion to the Fin de Siècle (2007), is a vignettes and anecdotal insights into French valuable resource. A few special books on society and life; in Peasants into French- this period also deserve mention: R. Wohl, men: The Modernization of Rural France, The Generation of 1914 (1979), relates the 1870–1914 (1976), the same author dem- restlessness of the postwar generation to onstrates that French national unity was the prewar ferment, and E. R. Tannenbaum, accomplished only belatedly by such agen- 1900: The Generation before the Great cies as the schools and army. The arts and War (1976), offers a potpourri of insights cultural life are examined in T. J. Clark, into the social history of the times. Chang- The Painting of Modern Life: Paris in the ing conceptions of European selfhood and Art of Monet and His Followers (1984, individual experience are explored in three 1999); J. Seigel, Bohemian Paris: Culture, notable works of European intellectual his- Politics, and the Boundaries of Bourgeois tory: J. Seigel, The Idea of the Self: Thought Life, 1830–1930 (1986); R. Ziegler, Satan- and Experience in Western Europe since the ism, Magic and Mysticism in Fin-de-Siècle Seventeenth Century (2005); J. E. Gold- France (2012); and V. Datta, Heroes and stein, The Post-Revolutionary Self: Politics Legends of Fin-de-Siècle France: Gender, and Psyche in France, 1750–1850 (2005); Politics, and National Identity (2011). J. H. and M. Jay, Songs of Experience: Modern Rubin, Impressionism (1999), offers a useful American and European Variations on a introduction to this infl uential group of art- Universal Theme (2005). ists, who are also discussed in P. Hook, The

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Ultimate Trophy: How the Impressionist Siècle Vienna (2010); and A. Rose, Jew- Painting Conquered the World (2009); R. ish Women in Fin de Siècle Vienna (2008). King, The Judgment of Paris: The Revolu- Readers may also wish to consult the evoca- tionary Decade That Gave the World Impres- tive portrait of life and creativity in the sec- sionism (2006); and J. Rubin, Impressionism ond city of the empire in J. Lukacs, Buda- and the Modern Landscape: Productivity, pest 1900 (1989). Technology, and Urbanization from Manet to Van Gogh (2008). Three introductions to New Movements in Science the origins of modern art in France and sub- A general introduction to science in the sequent developments are H. H. Arnason, nineteenth and the early twentieth century History of Modern Art (rev. 2004); S. Pen- is available in D. Knight, The Age of Sci- dergast and T. Pendergast (eds.), Contempo- ence (1986). On biology, evolution, and rary Artists (rev. 2002); and R. R. Brettell, Darwinism there is a considerable litera- Modern Art, 1851–1929: Capitalism and ture, much of it published in recent years. Representation (1999), which relates the ma- One may turn to A. Desmond, The Poli- jor avant-garde innovations to the rapid so- tics of Evolution (1989); A. Desmond and cial, economic, and political changes of the J. Moore, Darwin (1991); D. I. Hull, Darwin age. H. L. Levy, Paris Portraits: Stories of and His Critics (1993); and a two-volume Picasso, Matisse, Gertrude Stein, and Their study by J. Browne, Charles Darwin: Voy- Circle (2011), and M. McCully, Picasso aging (1995) and Charles Darwin: The in Paris, 1900–1907 (2011), cover the rich Power of Place (2002). Desmond has also milieu of Parisian artistic and intellectual written an extraordinary biography of Dar- life in the era before 1914. The politicization win’s forceful champion, Huxley: From of art is covered in A. Boime, Revelation of Devil’s Disciple to Evolution’s High Priest Modernism: Responses to Cultural Crises (1997). The ongoing debate about Darwin’s in Fin-de-Siècle Painting (2008). Women theories may be sampled in N. Eldridge, writers are discussed in R. Mesch, The Reinventing Darwin (1995) and The Tri- Hysteric’s Revenge: French Women Writers umph of Evolution and the Failures of at the Fin de Siècle (2006). Creationism (2000); and D. J. Depew and C. E. Schorske, Fin-de-Siècle Vienna: B. H. Weber, Darwinism Evolving (1995). Politics and Culture (1979), is a remarkable S. Jones, Darwin’s Ghost: “The Origins of study of political, artistic, and intellectual the Species” Updated (2000) is a remarka- responses to the failures of late-nineteenth- ble rewriting of Darwin in light of the evolu- century liberalism in central Europe. R. tionary biology that has developed since his W. Whalen, Sacred Spring: God and the day. Recent contributions to Darwin schol- Birth of Modernism in Fin de Siècle Vienna arship include: S. Herbert, Charles Dar- (2007), and W. Maderthaner and L. Musner, win and the Question of Evolution: A Brief Unruly Masses: The Other Side of Fin-de- History with Documents (2011); P. John- Siècle Vienna (2008), offer rich histories son, Darwin: Portrait of a Genius (2012); of the city. The cultural infl uence of Jews R. Stott, Darwin’s Ghosts: The Secret His- in Vienna, including the famed composer tory of Evolution (2012), which examines Mahler, is analyzed in A. Gillman, Viennese Darwin’s intellectual predecessors; T. Berra, Jewish Modernism: Freud, Hofmannsthal, Charles Darwin: The Concise Story of an Beer-Hofmann, and Schnitzler (2009); C. Extraordinary Man (2009); and D. Sewell, Niekerk, Reading Mahler: German Culture The Political Gene: How Darwin’s Ideas and Jewish Identity in Fin-de-Siècle Vienna Changed Politics (2009). (2010); K. Knittel, Seeing Mahler: Music Brief biographical accounts of two and the Language of Antisemitism in Fin-de- other key biologists of this era are L. J.

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Jordanova, Lamarck (1985), and S. Mawer, to the new physics are K. Krull, Marie Gregor Mendel: Planting the Seeds of Ge- Curie (2007); C. K. McClafferty, Some- netics (2006). The breakthrough in geology thing out of Nothing: Marie Curie and Ra- and its cultural impact may be studied in C. dium (2006); and R. L. Sime, Lise Meitner: C. Gillispie, Genesis and Geology (1951); A Life in Physics (1997). For Freud, there R. Porter, The Making of Geology (1977); are many studies, including the thought- D. R. Dean, James Hutton and the History ful work by P. Gay, Freud: A Life for Our of Geology (1992); and S. J. Gould, Time’s Time (1988); P. Kramer, Freud: Inventor of Arrow, Time’s Cycle: Myth and Metaphor the Modern Mind (2006); A. Tauber, Freud, in the Discovery of Geological Time (1987). the Reluctant Philosopher (2010); and other For the impact of these scientifi c de- biographies by A. Storr, Freud (1989), and velopments on religion, informative studies J. Lear, Freud (2005), which examines his include D. C. Lindberg and R. L. Numbers contributions to modern thought. To sam- (eds.), Historical Essays on the Encounter ple the large literature critical of Freud, one between Christianity and Science (1986); may read A. Esterson, Seductive Mirage: H. J. Brooke, Science and Religion: Some An Exploration of the Work of Sigmund Historical Perspectives (1991); G. Verschu- Freud (1993), and the essays in M. S. Roth uren, Darwin’s Philosophical Legacy: The (ed.), Freud: Confl ict and Culture (1998). Good and the Not-So-Good (2012); and For broader studies of psychoanalysis, see A. McGrath, Darwinism and the Divine: M. Borch-Jacobsen and S. Shamdasani, The Evolutionary Thought and Natural Theology Freud Files: An Inquiry into the History of (2011). Debates on the nature of scientifi c Psychoanalysis (2012), and G. Makari, discovery still refer often to the previously Revolution in Mind: The Creation of Psy- cited work of T. S. Kuhn, The Structure of choanalysis (2008). Scientifi c Revolutions (1962, 1989). For the late nineteenth century, see R. Olson, Science Social Thought and Scientism in Nineteenth-Century Europe Outstanding older works include H. S. (2008). On the emergence of modern phys- Hughes, Consciousness and Society: The ics and the transformation of Newtonian Reorientation of European Social Thought, concepts, one may turn to V. F. Weisskopf, 1890–1930 (1958); G. Masur, Prophets Physics in the Twentieth Century (1972), of Yesterday: Studies in European Cul- and B. L. Cline, Men Who Made a New ture, 1890–1914 (1961); M. Biddis, Age of Physics (1965, 1987). Einstein may be ap- the Masses: Ideas and Society since 1870 proached through J. Neffe, Einstein: A Bi- (1977); W. R. Everdell, The First Moderns: ography (trans. 2007); D. Topper, How Ein- Profi les in the Origins of Twentieth-Century stein Created Relativity out of Physics and Thought (1997); and J. W. Burrow, The Cri- Astronomy (2013); S. Gimbel, Einstein’s sis of Reason: European Thought, 1848– Jewish Science: Physics at the Intersection 1914 (2000). For analysis of a key cultural of Politics and Religion (2012); and J. Ei- theme of the era, one may read R. Nisbet, senstaedt, The Curious History of Relativ- History of the Idea of Progress (1980, reis- ity: How Einstein’s Theory of Gravity Was sued 1994). Readers may also fi nd more de- Lost and Found Again (trans. 2006)—all of tailed accounts of infl uential thinkers of the which describe the diverse aspects of Ein- early twentieth century in H. Jensen, Weber stein’s science, personal life, and legacy. and Durkheim: A Methodological Compari- Other informative accounts appear in works son (2012), and T. Maley, Democracy and by M. White and J. Gribbon (1994), D. Brian the Political in Max Weber’s Thought (2011). (1996), and P. D. Smith (2003). Recom- The best studies of Nietzsche are mended biographies of two other contributors W. A. Kaufmann, Nietzsche: Philosopher,

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Psychologist, Antichrist (rev. 1974); R. J. see S. Brown, Providence and Empire: Hollingdale, Nietzsche: The Man and His Religion, Politics and Society in the United Philosophy (rev. 1999); T. B. Strong, Frie- Kingdom, 1815–1914 (2008), and S. J. D. drich Nietzsche and the Politics of Trans- Green, The Passing of Protestant England: fi guration (rev. 2000); J. Young, Friedrich Secularisation and Social Change, c. 1920– Nietzsche: A Philosophical Biography 1960 (2011). (2010); C. Emden, Friedrich Nietzsche and For Judaism, H. M. Sachar, The Course the Politics of History (2008); and W. H. F. of Modern Jewish History (rev. 1990) and Altman, Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche: The A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zi- Philosopher of the Second Reich (2013). onism to Our Time (rev. 1996), relate the Useful anthologies for these years include nineteenth-century background; the same R. N. Stromberg (ed.), Realism, Naturalism, author has written the comprehensive sur- and Symbolism: Modes of Thought and Ex- vey, A History of Jews in the Modern World pression in Europe, 1848–1914 (1968); E. (2005), cited earlier. A detailed account of Weber (ed.), Movements, Currents, Trends: Zionism’s emergence as an ideology is avail- Aspects of European Thought in the Nine- able in the impressive three-volume study teenth and Twentieth Centuries (1991); and by D. Vital: The Origins of Zionism (1975); A. Fried and R. Sanders, Socialist Thought: Zionism: The Formative Years (1982); and A Documentary History (rev. 1993). Zionism: The Crucial Phase (1987), which carries the story to 1919. More concise Religion after 1871 accounts may be found in M. Brenner, The relationship between secularized Euro- Zionism: A Brief History (trans. 2003, pean civilization and its Christian origins is rev. 2011); D. Engel, Zionism (2009); and ably treated in O. Chadwick, The Seculari- D. Cohn-Sherbok, Introduction to Zionism zation of the European Mind in the Nine- and Israel: From Ideology to History (2012). teenth Century (1976), cited for chapter 11, and H. McLeod, Religion and the People The Assault on Liberalism: Racism, of Western Europe, 1789–1989 (rev. 1997). the Cult of Violence A general account of the phenomenon is Many of the books cited for this chapter offered in D. Martin, On Secularization: under “Social Thought” examine the under- Towards a Revised General Theory (2005). mining of liberal values in the late nineteenth For religious thought, J. Pelikan, Christian century, with implications for the years that Doctrine and Modern Culture: Since 1700 followed. Two classic studies are H. Arendt, (1990), the fi nal volume of his comprehen- The Origins of Totalitarianism (rev. 1973), sive The Christian Tradition, may be read an infl uential, far-reaching work; and along with C. Welch, Protestant Thought J. Barzun, Darwin, Marx, Wagner: Critique in the Nineteenth Century (2 vols.; 1985), of a Heritage (rev. 1981), which stresses the second volume studying the years similarities, as the author sees them, in the 1870–1914. For the Roman Catholic reac- way each of these fi gures undermined clas- tions to the changes in science and religious sical liberalism. These books may be sup- scholarship, one may read T. M. Loome, plemented by J. W. Burrow, The Crisis of Liberal Catholicism, Reform Catholicism, Reason: European Thought, 1848–1914 and Modernism (1979); L. R. Kurtz, The (2000), cited earlier. Politics of Heresy: The Modernist Crisis in For racism and anti-Semitism in these Roman Catholicism (1986); and E. Perreau- years, one may read P. Pulzer, The Rise of Saussine, Catholicism and Democracy: An Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Essay in the History of Political Thought Austria (rev. 1988); L. Poliakov, The Aryan (2012). For studies of British secularization, Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist

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92 Suggestions for Further Reading

Ideas in Europe (trans. 1974); G. L. Mosse, studied in Z. Sternhell, Neither Right nor Toward the Final Solution: A History of Left: Fascist Ideology in France (1986) European Racism (1978); two books by P. and, in collaboration with others, The Birth L. Rose, Revolutionary Anti-Semitism in of Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebel- Germany from Kant to Wagner (1991) and lion to Political Revolution (trans. 1994); Wagner: Race and Revolution (1992); A. these two much-debated, controversial Falk, Anti-Semitism: A History and Psycho- books fi nd the roots of fascist thought in the analysis of Contemporary Hatred (2008); ideas and ideology of the Left. A precursor S. Baum, Antisemitism Explained (2012); of fascism in France is studied in C. S. and P. Bernstein, The Social Roots of Doty, From Cultural Rebellion to Counter- Discrimination (rev. 2009). Anti-Semitism revolution: The Politics of Maurice Bar- is placed in a broad historical perspective rès (1976); R. Soucy, Fascism in France: in R. S. Wistrich, Antisemitism: The Long- The Case of Maurice Barrès (1972); and est Hatred (1992), a remarkable account G. Goodliffe, The Resurgence of the Radi- ranging from pre-Christian times through cal Right in France: From Boulangisme to the twentieth century; and two works by A. the Front National (2012). For Britain, see S. Lindemann, Esau’s Tears: Modern Anti- A. Sykes, The Radical Right in Britain: So- Semitism and the Rise of the Jews (1997) and cial Imperialism to the BNP (2005). Anti-Semitism before the Holocaust (2000). L. Fischer, The Socialist Response to Anti- Useful Web Sites and Online Resources semitism in Imperial Germany (2007), dis- There are links to all aspects of the mod- cusses anti-Semitism in political discourse. ern history of labor and workers at WWW European racial ideologies during these Virtual Library Labour History, at http:// years are also examined in P. Brantlinger, socialhistory.org/en, which is maintained at Dark Vanishings: Discourses on the Extinc- the International Institute of Social History tion of Primitive Races, 1800–1930 (2003). in Amsterdam. Readers will also fi nd links Books on anti-Semitism in France in from this site to materials on the history general include J. Kalman, Rethinking Anti- of socialism, and the same Dutch Institute semitism in Nineteenth-Century France maintains WWW Virtual Library Women’s (2010); while those relating to the Dreyfus History, at www.iisg.nl/w3vlwomenshis- Affair include S. Wilson, Ideology and Ex- tory, an excellent resource in English. Docu- perience: Antisemitism in Modern France ments expressing the ideas of the new labor at the Time of the Dreyfus Affair (1982), and women’s movements as well as the which is especially insightful; books on the themes of new intellectual trends such as affair itself have already been cited. A. S. Darwinism and Freudianism are available Lindemann, The Jew Accused: Three Anti- at Fordham University’s Internet History Semitic Affairs: Dreyfus, Beilis, Frank, Sourcebook, www.fordham.edu/Halsall/ 1894–1915 (1991), skillfully compares the index.asp , which has been cited in earlier French affair with episodes in tsarist Rus- chapters. There are excellent examples of sia and the United States. For comparative Impressionism and other late nineteenth- analysis of racist thought, one may read century art at the site of the French Musée G. Fredrickson, The Comparative Imagi- d’Orsay, www.musee-orsay.fr , which may nation: On the History of Racism, Nation- be searched in English, and at the Art In- alism, and Social Movements (1998). J. J. stitute of Chicago, www.artic.edu . Informa- Roth, The Cult of Violence: Sorel and the tion and valuable links to other materials Sorelians (1980), is illuminating on the in- on Einstein and the science of his era may spiration behind syndicalism. The origins be found at the Albert Einstein Archives, of twentieth-century fascist ideology are www.alberteinstein.info , a site based at the

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Hebrew University of Jerusalem. There are Louis (ed.), Imperialism: The Robinson- links to multiple sites on modern religious Gallagher Controversy (1976). P. J. Cain thought at the Virtual Religion Index, http:// and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: virtualreligion.net/vri , a useful gateway to Innovation and Expansion, 1688–1914 diverse materials on the history of all the (2 vols.; 1993), offers a broad analysis of world’s major religions. that nation, while French imperial ideas and practices are examined in A. L. Conk- 16. EUROPE’S WORLD SUPREMACY, lin, A Mission to Civilize: The Republican 1871–1914 Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, Many of the general accounts for the years 1895–1930 (1997). Motives and justifi ca- 1871–1914 cited for the two previous chap- tions for nineteenth-century imperialism are ters will also be helpful here. Informative also analyzed in T. Smith, The Pattern of introductions, some moving on into the Imperialism (1982); W. J. Mommsen, Theo- twentieth century, include W. D. Smith, ries of Imperialism (trans. 1980); and A. L. European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Conklin and I. C. Fletcher (eds.), European and Twentieth Centuries (1982); J. Burbank Imperialism, 1830–1930: Climax and Con- and F. Cooper, Empires in World History: tradiction (1999). For the earlier phase of Power and the Politics of Difference (2010), European imperialist expansion and cultural cited earlier; H. L. Wesseling, The European interaction in Egypt and India, see the color- Colonial Empires, 1815–1919 (trans. ful account in M. Jasanoff, Edge of Empire: 2004); and B. Schwarz, The White Man’s Lives, Culture, and Conquest in the East, World (2011). The connections between 1750–1850 (2005). Recent broad analy- imperialism and European political cultures ses of imperialism and empires include are discussed in J. Pitts, A Turn to Empire: B. Bowden, The Empire of Civilization: The Rise of Imperial Liberalism in Britain The Evolution of an Imperial Idea (2009); and France (2005), cited previously; and P. Turchin, War and Peace and War: The the role played by Western technology in Life Cycles of Imperial Nations (2006); D. European expansion is examined in D. R. Day, Conquest: How Societies Overwhelm Headrick, The Tools of Empire (1981) and Others (2008); and A. Callinicos, Imperial- The Tentacles of Progress (1988). Similar ism and Global Political Economy (2009). themes are addressed in M. Adas, Machines Provocative discussions of the con- as the Measure of Men: Science, Technol- frontation between Europeans and non- ogy, and Ideologies of Western Dominance Europeans include D. Mannoni, Prospero (1989). The role played by disease is exam- and Caliban: The Psychology of Coloniza- ined in S. Watts, Epidemics and History: tion (1956), which stresses the psychologi- Disease, Power, and Imperialism (2000). A cal impact on both rulers and the governed; long-range view of European imperialism is T. Geiger, The Confl icted Relationship: provided in D. B. Abernathy, The Dynamics The West and the Transformation of Asia, of Global Dominance: European Overseas Africa, and Latin America (1967); G. W. Empires, 1415–1980 (2001). Goug, The Standards of “Civilization” in Imperialism in General International Society (1984); V. G. Kiernan, Debates about the nature of imperial- The Lords of Human Kind: Black Man, ism have in part been stimulated by the Yellow Man, and White Man in the Age of groundbreaking study of R. Robinson and Empire (1987); and P. D. Curtin, The World J. Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians: The and the West: The European Challenge and Offi cial Mind of Imperialism (1961, 1981), the Overseas Response in the Age of Empire comparing political and economic motives; (2000). European views of other cultures the key issues are summarized in W. R. are also examined in M. L. Pratt, Imperial

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Eyes: Travel Writing and Transcultura- British (2011). British colonial policies dur- tion (1992). E. Said, in his infl uential book ing this era are also discussed in the previ- Culture and Imperialism (1994), explains ously noted volumes 4 and 5 of W. R. Louis how imperialism affected European cul- (ed.), The Oxford History of the British ture itself. The issue of gender in European Empire (5 vols., 1998–1999). Accounts empires is examined in the previously of people living within the empire may be cited work by N. Chaudhuri and M. Strobel found in P. D. Morgan and S. Hawkins (eds.), (eds.), Western Women and Imperialism: Black Experience and the Empire (2004). Complicity and Resistance (1992), and in The imperial activities of Germany P. Levine (ed.), Gender and Empire (2004), are described in W. D. Smith, The German which focuses on the British Empire. Colonial Empire (1978); S. Conrad, German Colonialism: A Short History British and Other European (2012); J. Sarkin, Germany’s Genocide of Imperialisms the Herero: Kaiser Wilhelm II, His General, Recommended studies for British im- His Settlers, His Soldiers (2011); S. Bara- perialism include B. Porter, The Lion’s nowski, Nazi Empire: German Colonialism Share: A Short History of British Imperi- and Imperialism from Bismarck to Hitler alism, 1850–2004 (rev. 2004), a lively and (2011); and S. Conrad, Globalisation and informative account; C. A. Bayly, The Impe- the Nation in Imperial Germany (2010). rial Meridian: The British Empire and the For French colonialism, see H. Brunschwig, World, 1780–1830 (1989); P. Levine, The French Colonialism, 1871–1914 (1960; British Empire: Sunrise to Sunset (2007); trans. 1966); J. P. Daughton, An Empire J. Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise Divided: Religion, Republicanism, and the and Fall of the British World-System, 1830– Making of French Colonialism, 1880–1914 1970 (2009) and Unfi nished Empire: The (2006); and for French Algeria, J. Ses- Global Expansion of Britain (2012); and sions, By Sword and Plow: France and the A. Jackson, Mad Dogs and Englishmen: Conquest of Algeria (2011). M. Kuieten- A Grand Tour of the British Empire at Its brouwer, The Netherlands and the Rise of Height: 1850–1945 (2009). Domestic re- Modern Imperialism (trans. 1991), and J. G. sponses to imperialism are examined in Taylor, The Social World of Batavia: Euro- B. Porter, The Absent-Minded Imperial- peans and Eurasians in Colonial Indonesia ists: Empire, Society, and Culture in Britain (2009), cover that nation’s colonial empire. (2004), and D. Bell, The Idea of Greater On both the theory and the practice of im- Britain: Empire and the Future of World perialism, an important comparative study Order, 1860–1900 (2007); and the oppo- is W. Baumgart, Imperialism: The Idea and nents of imperialism are discussed in M. Reality of British and French Colonial Ex- Matikkala, Empire and Imperial Ambition: pansion, 1880–1914 (trans. 1982). Cross- Liberty, Englishness and Anti-Imperialism cultural and interracial interactions are stud- in Late-Victorian Britain (2011). Texts ied in J. Clancy-Smith and F. Gouda (eds.), exploring imperial identity and the legacy Domesticating the Empire: Race, Gender, of British imperialism include K. Tidrick, and Family Life in French and Dutch Colo- Empire and the English Character: The nialism (1998). Illusion of Authority (2009); K. Kwarteng, Ghosts of Empire: Britain’s Legacies in The Ottoman Empire, the Middle East, the Modern World (2011); D. Gorman, Im- and the Balkans perial Citizenship: Empire and the Ques- An informative synthesis for the years tion of Belonging (2006); and J. Paxman, since the founding of Islam is S. N. Fisher Empire: What Ruling the World Did to the and W. Ochsenwald, The Middle East: A

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History (rev. 1997); the region’s nineteenth- Canal may be studied in Z. Karabel, Part- century history is examined in E. Karsh and ing the Desert: The Creation of the Suez I. Karsh, Empires of the Sand: The Strug- Canal (2003); and H. Bonin, History of the gle for Mastery in the Middle East, 1789– Suez Canal Company, 1858–1960: Between 1923 (1999). Excellent studies of late Ot- Controversy and Utility (2010). The French toman history are available in D. Quataert, experience in Lebanon is examined in J. F. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 (2000); Spagnolo, French and Ottoman Lebanon, M. S¸. Haniog˘lu, A Brief History of the 1861–1914 (1977), and S. Kassir, Beirut Late Ottoman Empire (2008); C. Emrence, (2010); and the Italian occupation of Libya Remapping the Ottoman Middle East: Mo- is studied in C. G. Segrè, Fourth Shore: The dernity, Imperial Bureaucracy, and the Is- Italian Colonialization of Libya (1975). For lamic State (2012); and V. Aksan, Ottoman the political world of the Mediterranean, Wars 1700–1870: An Empire Besieged (2007). see I. Khuri-Makdisi, The Eastern Mediter- S. Deringil, The Well-Protected ranean and the Making of Global Radical- Domains: Ideology and the Legitimation of ism, 1860–1914 (2010), and C. V. Findley, Power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909 Turkey, Islam, Nationalism, and Modernity: (2001), describes the positive aspects of the A History, 1789–2007 (2010). often maligned empire, whereas the Otto- For the rivalries in the Balkans and the man Empire’s problems are linked to on- emergent nationalist movements, in addi- going confl icts along the borderlands with tion to books cited for chapter 11, one may Russia in M. Reynolds, Shattering Empires: turn to M. Biondich, The Balkans: Revolu- The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and tion, War, and Political Violence since 1878 Russian Empires, 1908–1918 (2011). (2011); R. Hall, The Modern Balkans: A The attempts at reform are discussed in History (2011); J. Lampe, Balkans into D. Kushner, The Rise of Turkish National- Southeastern Europe: A Century of War ism, 1876–1908 (1977), and M. S. Hani- and Transition (2006); and the provocative oglu, Preparation for a Revolution: The essays on the region in R. Okey, Taming Young Turks, 1902–1908 (2001). For Otto- Balkan Nationalism (2007), and M. To- man infl uence throughout the Middle East, dorova, Imagining the Balkans (rev. 2009). see M. Campos, Ottoman Brothers: Mus- For Russian ambition in the region, see B. lims, Christians, and Jews in Early Twen- Jelavich, Russia’s Balkan Entanglements, tieth-Century Palestine (2011); E. Ceylan, 1806–1914 (1991). The Ottoman Origins of Modern Iraq: Po- litical Reform, Modernization and Develop- Africa ment in the Nineteenth-Century Middle East This section refers to European explora- (2011); and G. Krämer, A History of Pal- tion and expansion in Africa, but there is an estine: From the Ottoman Conquest to the excellent introduction to modern African Founding of the State of Israel (trans. 2008). history in general by R. Oliver and A. For Egypt, there are informative works by Atmore, Africa since 1800 (rev. 2005). L. Mak, The British in Egypt: Community, The years of colonial domination and the Crime and Crises, 1822–1922 (2012), and African response are also studied by Afri- T. Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (1988), a can scholars in J. F. A. Ajayi (ed.), Africa cultural history of European attitudes and in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s policies. Carrying the story toward the pres- (1989), and A. A. Boahen (ed.), Africa ent is P. J. Valikiotis, The History of Mod- under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935 ern Egypt: From Muhammad Ali [Mehemet (1985; abridged ed. 1990). For the rapid Ali ] to Mubarek (rev. 1991). The diplomacy escalation of European expansion in Africa surrounding the construction of the Suez following the Berlin Conference, see

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T. Pakenham, The Scramble for Africa: The A History of South Africa (rev. 2000), is a White Man’s Conquest of the Dark Conti- superb synthesis; also available are R. Ross, nent from 1870 to 1912 (1992); A. A. Bo- A Concise History of South Africa (1999); ahen, African Perspectives on Colonialism and W. K. Storey, Guns, Race, and Power (1989); F. McLynn, Hearts of Darkness: in Colonial South Africa (2008). The South The European Exploration of Africa (1993); African War of 1899–1902 is recounted in and M. E. Chamberlain, The Scramble for B. Farwell, The Great Boer War (1999); T. Africa (rev. 2010). Europeans who explored Pakenham, The Boer War (1979); and M. and exploited the continent are studied in C. Meredith, Diamonds, Gold, and War: The Pettitt, Dr. Livingstone, I Presume? Mission- British, the Boers, and the Making of South aries, Journalists, Explorers and Empire Africa (2007). (2007); and E. Berenson, Heroes of Em- pire: Five Charismatic Men and the Con- Asia quest of Africa (2011), which describes both An informative general survey of the Euro- French and British imperialists. There are pean impact on Asia is the older work by biographical studies of Livingstone by O. K. M. Pannikar, Asia and Western Domi- Ransford (1978) and M. Buxton (2001); and nance: The Vasco da Gama Epoch of Asian a rich contextual study in L. Dritsas, Zam- History, 1498–1945 (rev. 1959). Case stud- besi: David Livingstone and Expeditionary ies of European expansion in Asia are pro- Science in Africa (2010). Other leading fi g- vided in I. Copeland, The Burden of Empire: ures are examined in F. J. McLynn, Stanley Perspectives on Imperialism and Colonial- (2 vols.; 1989, 1991); J. Bierman, Dark Sa- ism (1991). A number of more recent books fari: The Life behind the Legend of Henry have argued that the economic and social Morton Stanley (1990); J. H. Waller, Gordon institutions of Asian societies must be stud- of Khartoum (1988); J. Pollock, Gordon: ied for their own importance and should The Man behind the Legend (1993); M. F. not be viewed simply as a response to the Perham, Lugard (2 vols.; 1956, 1960); and arrival of the Europeans. These arguments I. Pucci, Brazza in Congo (2009). J. Pollock, are developed in R. B. Wong, China Trans- Kitchener: Architect of Victory, Artisan of formed: Historical Change and the Limits of Peace (2001), and P. Warner, Kitchener: The European Experience (1997); A. G. Frank, Man behind the Legend (1986), somewhat Reorient: Global Economy in the Asian Age adulatory, may be compared with T. Royle, (1998); and K. Pomeranz, The Great Diver- The Kitchener Enigma (1986), which is gence: Europe, China, and the Making of more critical. The brief biography of Cecil the Modern World Economy (2000). Rhodes by J. Flint (1976) merits reading, but For India, one may read W. Golant, R. I. Rotberg, The Founder: Cecil Rhodes The Long Afternoon: British India, 1601– and the Pursuit of Power (1988, 1990), is an 1947 (1975); I. St. John, The Making of the outstanding study enriched by psychologi- Raj: India under the East India Company cal insights. For a biography of the African (2012); J. Riddick, The History of British leader who defeated the Italians at Adowa, India: A Chronology (2006); C. A. Bayly, one may read H. G. Marcus, The Life and Indian Society and the Making of the Brit- Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia, 1844–1913 ish Empire (1990); J. M. Brown, Modern (1975). The best study of the Belgian atroci- India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy ties in the Congo is A. Hochschild, King (rev. 1994); L. James, Raj: The Making and Leopold’s Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, Unmaking of British India (1999); and A. and Heroism in Colonial Africa (1998). McGowan, Crafting the Nation in Colonial For the emergence of the Union of India (2009). The revolt of 1857 is studied South Africa and later events, L. Thompson, in C. Hibbert, The Great Mutiny: India,

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1857 (1978); E. Stokes and C. A. Bayly, The and European interpretations of the events Peasant Armed: The Indian Rebellion of at the time and in historical memory. The 1857 (1986); and T. R. Metcalf, The After- confrontation between Russia and Japan is math of Revolt: India, 1857–1870 (1964). studied in I. Nish, The Origins of the Russo- The contest between Britain and Russia Japanese War (1985); and D. Walder, The for infl uence in central Asia is recounted in Short Victorious War: The Russo-Japanese K. E. Meyer and S. B. Brysac, Tournament Confl ict, 1904–1905 (1975). Assessments of Shadows: The Great Game and the Race of the war’s signifi cance can be found in for Empire in Central Asia (2000). R. Kowner (ed.), The Impact of the Russo- J. D. Spence, The Search for Modern Japanese War (2007), and in J. W. Stein- China (rev. 1999), goes back over four cen- berg and others (eds.), The Russo-Japanese turies with perceptive insights into China’s War in Global Perspective: World War Zero relations with the West. The same author’s (2 vols., 2005–2007). The Gate of Heavenly Peace: The Chinese Useful Web Sites and Online Resources and Their Revolution, 1895–1980 (1981) There are helpful sources and links on im- links earlier history to twentieth-century perialism, Africa, South Asia, and East Asia revolutions, the subject also of J. K. Fair- at the Fordham University sourcebook site bank, The Great Chinese Revolution, 1800– cited in previous chapters, www.fordham. 1985 (1986). A detailed authoritative study edu/Halsall/index.asp . For specifi c materi- of the mid-nineteenth-century Taiping up- als on Africa, see the Internet African His- heaval is S. Y. Teng, The Taiping Rebellion tory Sourcebook, at www.fordham.edu/hal- and the Western Powers (rev. 1977). The sall/africa/africasbook.html ; and for Asia, Opium Wars are studied in J. K. Fairbank, readers will fi nd the Internet Indian History Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: Sourcebook, www.fordham.edu/halsall/ The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842–1854 india/indiasbook.html ; and the Internet (2 vols.; 1953); H. G. Gelber, Opium, Sol- East Asian History Sourcebook, www.ford- diers and Evangelicals: Britain’s 1840–42 ham.edu/Halsall/eastasia/eastasiasbook. War with China and Its Aftermath (2004). asp, which includes excellent materials on For more recent discussion of these events China as well as links to helpful sources and the opening of China, see R. Bickers, on European imperialism. Valuable re- The Scramble for China: Foreign Devils sources and links on the Ottoman Empire in the Qing Empire, 1832–1914 (2011); are included in the Internet Islamic History W. Yeh, Shanghai Splendor: Economic Sen- Sourcebook, www.fordham.edu/halsall/ timents and the Making of Modern China, islam/islamsbook.html . Accessible intro- 1843–1949 (2007); and S. Platt, Autumn in ductions to the British Empire may be the Heavenly Kingdom: China, the West, found at BBC-History and Best History and the Epic Story of the Taiping Civil Sites, which have been noted previously. War (2012). The antiforeign upheaval of 1898–1900 is examined in J. W. Esherick, 17. THE FIRST WORLD WAR The Origins of the Boxer Uprising (1987); Accounts of international relations empha- D. Preston, Besieged in Peking: The Story sizing the shift in the twentieth century of the 1900 Boxer Rising (1999); L. Xiang, from a European to a global balance of The Origins of the Boxer War: A Multina- power include: F. R. Bridge and R. Bullen, tional Study (2003); D. Silbey, The Boxer The Great Powers and the European Rebellion and the Great Game in China States System, 1814–1914 (rev. 2005); (2012); and P. A. Cohen, History in Three G. Miller, The Shadow of the Past: Reputa- Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and tion and Military Alliances before the First Myth (1997), which describes both Chinese World War (2012); and H. Affl erbach and

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D. Stevenson (eds.), An Improbable War? First World War: Controversies and Con- The Outbreak of World War I and Euro- sensus (2002); and D. Fromkin, Europe’s pean Political Culture before 1914 (2007), Last Summer: Who Started the Great War which traces prewar international relations in 1914? (2004), which blames Germany from the nineteenth century to the eve of for the outbreak of the war. The German the war. For the long view of global politics, scholar Fritz Fischer, on the basis of new see C. J. Bartlett, The Global Confl ict: The archival materials, argued the case for Ger- International Rivalry of the Great Powers, man culpability in Germany’s Aims in the 1880–1990 (rev. 1994); H. Affl erbach and First World War (1961; trans. 1967) and in D. Stevenson (eds.), An Improbable War? several later books. Other books that exam- The Outbreak of World War I and European ine particular nations’ roles in the events Political Culture before 1914 (2007); and leading to war include M. Aksakal, The Ot- G. Miller, The Shadow of the Past: Reputa- toman Road to War in 1914: The Ottoman tion and Military Alliances before the First Empire and the First World War (2008); World War (2012), which describes the A. Mitrovic`, Serbia’s Great War, 1914– European balance of power before the war. 1918 (2007); and S. McMeekin, The Russian Origins of the First World War (2011). The Diplomatic Background, Origins, Balkan antecedents of the war are examined Responsibilities in R. C. Hall, The Balkan Wars, 1912–1913: A judicious account of the war’s complex Prelude to the First World War (2000). origins, assessing both the evidence and On diplomacy in the decades after divergent interpretations, is J. Joll and 1870, there are impressive diplomatic G. Martel, The Origins of the First World accounts in two volumes by G. F. Kennan: War (rev. 2007), but readers may also con- The Decline of Bismarck’s European Or- sult W. Mulligan, The Origins of the First der: Franco-Russian Relations, 1875–1890 World War (2010), which argues against (1979) and The Fateful Alliance: France, the view that international alliances were Russia, and the Coming of the First World a major cause for the confl ict. Numerous War (1984). A colorful reconstruction of books were published in anticipation of the the era for the general reader, focusing on hundredth anniversary of 1914, including monarchs, military leaders, and diplomats, M. Neiberg, Dance of the Furies: Europe is available in R. K. Massie, Dreadnought: and the Outbreak of World War I (2011); Britain, Germany, and the Coming of the E. D. Brose, A History of the Great War: First World War (1992). N. Ferguson, The World War One and the International Cri- Pity of War (1999), despite many striking sis of the Early Twentieth Century (2010); insights into diplomatic and military mat- F. Zagare, The Games of July: Explaining ters, argues, not convincingly, that there the Great War (2011); M. Carter, George, was no compelling reason for the British to Nicholas and Wilhelm: Three Royal Cous- become involved and that the consequences ins and the Road to World War I (2010); were disastrous for Britain. and J. Beatty, The Lost History of 1914: Re- D. E. Lee’s careful study, Europe’s considering the Year the Great War Started Crucial Years: The Diplomatic Background (2012). Attempts to examine and synthesize of World War I, 1902–1914 (1974), reaffi rms the continuing debate over war responsi- the older argument that each state acted out bility are available in J. W. Langdon, July of desperate concern for its own presumed 1914: The Long Debate: 1918–1990 (1991); interests. The infl uence of national elites is R. J. W. Evans and H. P. Van Strandmann examined in R. F. Hamilton and H. H. Her- (eds.), The Coming of the First World War wig, Decisions for War, 1914–1917 (2004). (1989); A. Mombauer, The Origins of the Domestic and foreign considerations

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are linked in a British series of books that of the Great War, 1914 to 1918 (2006); includes V. R. Berghahn, Germany and the S. Robson, The First World War (2007); I. Approach of War in 1914 (rev. 1993); Z. F. W. Beckett, The Great War, 1914–1918 S. Steiner, Britain and the Origins of the (2007); W. K. Storey, The First World First World War (1977); R. J. B. Bosworth, War: A Concise Global History (2009); J. Italy, the Least of the Great Powers: Italian Black, The Great War: And the Making of Foreign Policy before the First World War the Modern World (2011); and R. Freed- (1980); J. F. V. Keiger, France and the Ori- man, The War to End All Wars: World War I gins of the First World War (1984); D. C. B. (2010). Other informative narratives appear Lieven, Russia and the Origins of the First in works by M. Gilbert (1995), J. Keegan World War (1984); and S. R. Williamson (1999), and M. Howard (2002). Books fo- Jr., Austria-Hungary and the Origins of the cusing on the social impact of the war in- First World War (1991). clude M. Ferro, The Great War, 1914–1918 For prewar diplomacy and strategic (trans. 1973); K. Robbins, The First World planning, readers will fi nd especially use- War (1984); B. E. Schmitt and H. C. Ve- ful three books by P. Kennedy: The Rise of deler, The World in the Crucible, 1914– the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860–1914 1919 (1984); and J. M. Winter, The Experi- (1980), Strategy and Diplomacy, 1870– ence of World War I (1989). 1945 (1984), and a collaborative volume for Books that seek to convey the ordeal which Kennedy was the editor, War Plans of trench warfare on the western front in- of the Great Powers, 1880–1914 (1979). clude S. Bull, Trench: A History of Trench Two recent contributions are R. Prete, Strat- Warfare on the Western Front (2010); A. egy and Command: The Anglo-French Coa- Kramer, Dynamic of Destruction: Culture lition on the Western Front, 1914 (2009); and Mass Killing in the First World War and R. Hamilton and H. Herwig (eds.), War (2007); R. Neillands, The Death of Glory: Planning 1914 (2010). The involvement The Western Front, 1915 (2006); and A. of the United States in the war is studied Saunders, Reinventing Warfare, 1914–18: in E. R. May, The World War and American Novel Munitions and Tactics of Trench War- Isolation, 1914–1917 (1959), an outstand- fare (2012). J. Keegan, The Face of Battle ing study; M. Harries and S. Harries, The (1976), in one memorable chapter evokes Last Days of Innocence: America at War, the horrors of the Somme. For the American 1917–1918 (1997); R. Tucker, Woodrow military experience, one may read J. Keene, Wilson and the Great War: Reconsidering World War I (2006); and for the American America’s Neutrality, 1914–1917 (2007); commander in Europe, J. Lacey, Pershing D. Traxel, Crusader Nation: The United (2008), and J. Perry, Pershing: Commander States in Peace and the Great War, 1898– of the Great War (2011). The naval war is 1920 (2006); and J. Doenecke, Nothing described in R. K. Massie, Castles of Steel: Less Than War: A New History of America’s Britain, Germany, and the Winning of the Entry into World War I (2011). Great War at Sea (2003); and in V. Carolan, WWI at Sea (2007). The War For the war, readers may turn to the com- The Home Front: Social, Economic, prehensive accounts in H. Strachan, The and Cultural Impact of the War First World War (2004); D. Stevenson, For the impact of war and of preparations Cataclysm: The First World War as Politi- for war on European society, one should cal Tragedy (2004); M. S. Neiberg, Fighting read B. Bond, War and Society in Europe, the Great War: A Global History (2005); 1870–1970 (rev. 1998); and A. Marwick, G. J. Meyer, A World Undone: The Story War and Social Change in the Twentieth

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Century (1975), a comparative examination Survived without Men after the First World of fi ve countries. For the war on the home War (2007), and E. Kuhlman, Of Little Com- front, one may turn to N. M. Heyman, Daily fort: War Widows, Fallen Soldiers, and the Life during World War I (2002); the essays Remaking of Nation after the Great War in R. Wall and J. Winter (eds.), The Up- (2012). For women’s political activism, see heaval of War: Family, Work, and Welfare in A. Fell and I. Sharp (eds.), The Women’s Move- Europe, 1914–1918 (1989); P. Cooksley, ment in Wartime: International Perspectives, The Home Front: Civilian Life in World War 1914–19 (2007), and D. Patterson, The Search One (2006); T. Proctor, Civilians in a World for Negotiated Peace: Women’s Activism and at War, 1914–1918 (2010); and C. M. Kings- Citizen Diplomacy in World War I (2008). bur, For Home and Country: World War I The devastating worldwide infl uenza Propaganda on the Home Front (2010). epidemic that doubled the combat toll is de- For Britain, one may read J. M. Winter, The scribed in G. Kolata, The Story of the Great Great War and the British People (1986), an Infl uenza Pandemic of 1918 (2000); J. M. outstanding volume; A. Gregory, The Last Barry, The Great Infl uenza: The Epic Story Great War: British Society and the First of the Deadliest Plague in History (2004); World War (2008); and I. F. W. Beckett, J. E. Fisher, Envisioning Disease, Gender, Home Front, 1914–1918: How Britain Sur- and War: Women’s Narratives of the 1918 vived the Great War (2006). For Germany: Infl uenza Pandemic (2012); and N. John- J. Kocka, Facing Total War: German Society, son, Britain and the 1918–19 Infl uenza 1914–1918 (trans. 1984); L. V. Meyer, Vic- Pandemic: A Dark Epilogue (2006). tory Must Be Ours: Germany in the Great One of the tragedies of the war, the War, 1914–1918 (1995); R. Chickering, Im- forced deportation of the Armenians by the perial Germany and the Great War, 1914– Turkish authorities, and the ensuing mass 1918 (1998); and M. Stibbe, Germany, 1914– deaths, is recounted in C. J. Walker, Arme- 1933: Politics, Society, and Culture (2010), nia: The Survival of a Nation (rev. 1990); R. which carries the analysis of the war through Melson, Revolution and Genocide: On the to postwar Germany. The dictatorial pow- Origins of the Armenian Genocide and the ers that the German generals preempted are Holocaust (1993), which sees the episode examined with telling detail in M. Kitchen, as the fi rst chapter in twentieth-century eth- The Silent Dictatorship: The Politics of the nic destruction; and D. Bloxham, The Great German High Command under Hinden- Game of Genocide: Imperialism, National- burg and Ludendorff, 1916–1918 (1976). ism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Ar- For France, there are useful accounts in J. J. menians (2005), a well-researched study of Becker, The Great War and the French People the international context in which the assault (trans. 1986); P. J. Flood, France, 1914–1918: on the Armenians took place. Recent ac- Public Opinion and the War Effort (1989); L. counts include R. Kévorkian, The Armenian V. Smith, France and the Great War (2003); Genocide: A Complete History (2011), and G. Thomas, Treating the Trauma of the and M. Gunter, Armenian History and the Great War: Soldiers, Civilians, and Psychia- Question of Genocide (2011). The fi rst try in France, 1914–1940 (2009). Turkish account accepting culpability is T. The contributions of women to the war Akçam, The Young Turks’ Crime against effort are examined in S. R. Grayzel, Women Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and and the First World War (2002), and G. Bray- Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire bon, Women Workers in the First World War: (2012). The cultural meaning of the war The British Experience (1981). The social is examined in P. Fussell, The Great War effects of the war are examined in V. Nichol- and Modern Memory (1975, 2000), a mov- son, Singled Out: How Two Million Women ing account of how the miseries of the war

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became part of contemporary literature, The War outside of Europe culture, and a modern “ironic” sensibility; For Allied activities in the Middle East, and S. Hynes, A War Imagined: The First World on the revolt of the Arabs against the Turks, War and English Culture (1992); and G. one may perhaps begin with J. Wilson, Law- Robb, British Culture and the First World rence of Arabia: The Authorized Biography War (2002). Other studies of the war’s of T. E. Lawrence (1989), a comprehensive impact on intellectual life are R. Wohl, account of a fi gure who became a cultural The Generation of 1914 (1979); R. N. symbol. More recent studies of Lawrence Stromberg, Redemption by War: The Intel- and wartime Arab mobilizations include lectuals and 1914 (1982); J. Cruickshank, J. Hulsman, To Begin the World Over Again: Variations on Catastrophe: Some French Re- Lawrence of Arabia from Damascus to sponses to the Great War (1982); A. Kramer, Baghdad (2009); M. Korda, Hero: The Life Dynamic of Destruction: Culture and Mass and Legend of Lawrence of Arabia (2010); Killing in the First World War (2007); A. and J. Schneider, Guerrilla Leader: T. E. Carden-Coyne, Reconstructing the Body: Lawrence and the Arab Revolt (2011). Fo- Classicism, Modernism, and the First World cusing on the Middle East and the end of the War (2009); J. Williams, Modernity, the Me- Ottoman Empire are D. Fromkin, A Peace to dia and the Military: The Creation of National End All Peace: Creating the Modern Middle Mythologies on the Western Front, 1914– East, 1914–1922 (1989), especially inform- 1918 (2009); F. Field, British and French ative; the previously cited work by E. Karsh Writers of the First World War (1991); and I. Karsh, Empires of the Sand: The A. Roshwald and R. Stites (eds.), European Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East, Culture in the Great War: The Arts, En- 1789–1923 (1999); D. A. Butler, Shadow tertainment and Propaganda, 1914–1918 of the Sultan’s Realm: The Destruction of (1999); and M. Eksteins, Rites of Spring: The the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Great War and the Birth of the Modern Age Modern Middle East (2011); C. Townshend, (rev. 2012), an inquiry into the shaping of a When God Made Hell: The British Invasion new cultural consciousness. The works by of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, G. Mosse, Sites of Mourning: The Great War 1914–1921 (2010); D. Woodward, Hell in in European Cultural History (1996), and the Holy Land: World War I in the Middle D. J. Sherman, The Construction of Memory East (2006); and A. J. Barker, The First Iraq in Interwar France (1999), describe the War, 1914–1918: Britain’s Mesopotamian ways in which Europeans remembered and Campaign (2009). The shared fate of two mourned the millions of deceased soldiers. of the major empires engaged in the confl ict is the focus of the previously cited book by Wartime Diplomacy M. Reynolds, Shattering Empires: The For wartime diplomacy, one profi ts from D. Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Stevenson, The First World War and Inter- Russian Empires, 1908–1918 (2011). national Politics (1988). Two provocative The emergence of the British man- studies focusing on the diplomatic duel date for Palestine is studied in impressive between the United States and Russia are detail in L. Stein, The Balfour Declaration V. S. Mamatey, The United States and East (1961), and R. Sanders, The High Walls of Central Europe, 1914–1918 (1975), and A. Jerusalem: A History of the Balfour Decla- J. Mayer, Wilson vs. Lenin: The Political ration and the Birth of the British Mandate Origins of the New Diplomacy (1959). An (1984), a subject that receives more recent interesting case study is M. Abbenhuis, The analysis in the important book by J. Schneer, Art of Staying Neutral: The Netherlands in The Balfour Declaration: The Origins of the First World War, 1914–1918 (2006). the Arab-Israeli Confl ict (2010).

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The Peace D. S. Newhall (1991), and of David Lloyd For the armistice, one may turn to S. Wein- George by J. Grigg (1973–1985) and oth- traub, A Stillness Heard Round the World: ers, have been cited for chapter 14; to them The End of the Great War, November 1918 should be added J. F. V. Keiger, Raymond (1987), a colorful evocation of the war’s Poincaré (1997). end; N. Best, The Greatest Day in History: A study arguing that the major preoc- How the Great War Really Ended (2008); cupation underlying decisions at Versailles and B. Lowry, Armistice 1918 (1996), a was the threat of Bolshevism and domestic thorough diplomatic analysis. The post- radicalism is A. J. Mayer, Politics and Di- war revolutionary mood is described in plomacy of Peacemaking: Containment and F. L. Carsten, Revolution in Central Europe, Counter-Revolution at Versailles, 1918– 1918–1919 (1972), and S. Stephenson, The 1919 (1967); it may be compared with Final Battle: Soldiers of the Western Front J. M. Thompson, Russia, Bolshevism, and the and the German Revolution of 1918 (2009). Versailles Peace (1966); and with A. Read, The end of the Dual Monarchy is discussed The World on Fire: 1919 and the Battle with in Z. A. B. Zeman, The Breakup of the Bolshevism (2008). Important balanced re- Habsburg Empire, 1914–1918 (1961), and appraisals, many based on previously inac- J. Van der Kiste, Emperor Francis Joseph: cessible archival materials, may be found in Life, Death and the Fall of the Habsburg the contributions to M. F. Boemeke, G. D. Empire (2005). Feldman, and E. Glaser (eds.), The Treaty On the Paris peace conference, there is of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years a good introduction in A. Sharp, The Ver- (1998). The emergence of new nations in sailles Settlement: Peacemaking in Paris central Europe is described in A. Webb, The (1991), and the more comprehensive M. Routledge Companion to Central and East- MacMillan, Paris 1919: Six Months That ern Europe since 1919 (2008). The Polish Changed the World (2002). The legacy of question is carefully examined by a Danish Versailles is considered in A. Sharp, Con- historian, K. Lundrgreen-Nielsen, The Pol- sequences of Peace: The Versailles Settle- ish Problem at the Paris Peace Conference ment: Aftermath and Legacy (2010); and (trans. 1979); A. Orzoff, Battle for the Cas- D. Andelman, A Shattered Peace: Versailles tle: The Myth of Czechoslovakia in Europe, 1919 and the Price We Pay Today (2008). 1914–1948 (2009) covers that nation’s fate at On Wilson’s role, the best study is Versailles and beyond. On the disputed issue A. Walworth, Wilson and His Peacemakers: of reparations, J. M. Keynes, The Economic American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Consequences of the Peace (1920), became Conference, 1919 (1987); also helpful are a highly infl uential book, vehemently critical W. Reisser, The Black Book: Woodrow Wil- of the entire peace settlement. E. Mantoux, son’s Secret Plan for Peace (2012); and The Carthaginian Peace: Or the Economic J. M. Cooper, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography Consequences of Mr. Keynes (1946), pro- (2009). There are also two insightful stud- vided a vigorous later reply to Keynes. The ies by A. S. Link, the editor of Wilson’s col- fi rst volume of a valuable three-volume study, lected papers: Wilson the Diplomatist (1957) R. Skidelsky, John Maynard Keynes: A Biog- and Woodrow Wilson: War, Revolution, and raphy, vol. 1, Hopes Betrayed, 1883–1920 Peace (1979). Wilson’s impact on the colo- (1986), carries Keynes through the peace nial world is considered in E. Manela, The conference; there is also a one-volume edi- Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination tion of Skidelsy’s biographical study, John and the International Origins of Anticolo- Maynard Keyes, 1883–1946: Economist, nial Nationalism (2007). Biographies of Philosopher, Statesman (2005). D. Markwell, Clemenceau by D. R. Watson (1974) and John Maynard Keynes and International

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Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace maintains that the Revolution’s utopian (2006), reviews Keynes’s economic ideas goals were doomed from the beginning; on global politics through both wars and the the same author’s Russia under Western Depression. Eyes: From the Bronze Horseman to the Lenin Mausoleum (1999) argues that Rus- Useful Web Sites and Online Resources sia at least since Peter the Great was always There are numerous links to both documents more Western-oriented than most observers and images from the First World War at The believed. M. Lewin, The Soviet Century World War I Document Archive, http://wwi. (2005), is an insightful assessment by a lib.byu.edu, a site at the Brigham Young longtime student of the Soviet regime. University Library. Other resources may be found at the Museum of the Great War, Russia before 1917: Late Tsarist Russia a French museum that provides English- A number of books on nineteenth-century language materials at http://en.historial.org ; Russia have been cited earlier. Books that and there are materials focusing on Britain look at precursors and the long trajectory of at BBC-History cited previously. Helpful the Russian Revolution include H. Rogger, materials on the postwar settlement are Russia in the Age of Modernization and available at Paris Peace Conference and Revolution, 1881–1917 (1983); R. Service, the Treaty of Versailles, www.ctevans.net/ The Russian Revolution, 1900–1927 (2009); Versailles/Index.html T. Weeks, Across the Revolutionary Divide: 18. THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION Russia and the USSR, 1861–194 5 (2011); AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE and L. Haimson, Russia’s Revolutionary SOVIET UNION Experience, 1905–1917: Two Essays With the collapse of the Soviet Union in (2005). Political thought and ferment may 1991, new archival materials have made it be studied in F. Venturi, Roots of Revolu- possible to confi rm, modify, or refute ear- tion (trans. 1983), cited earlier; A. Vucinich, lier works and to rethink twentieth-century Social Thought in Tsarist Russia (1976); Russian history. Revised histories include P. Pomper, The Russian Revolutionary Intel- O. Figes, A People’s Tragedy: A History ligentsia (rev. 1993); and W. Fuller, The Foe of the Russian Revolution (1997), and G. Within: Fantasies of Treason and the End of Hosking, Russia and the Russians (2001), Imperial Russia (2006). Two books stress- an excellent one-volume narrative. Hosk- ing the nonrevolutionary progressive views ing’s Russia: Empire and Nation (1997) of many pre-1914 Russian intellectuals are may be compared with D. Lieven’s The I. Berlin, Russian Thinkers (1978), cited Russian Empire and Its Rivals (2001). Three earlier, and A. H. Kelly, Toward Another recent works that review the Revolution in Shore: Russian Thinkers between Necessity full are R. Wade, The Russian Revolution, and Choice (1998). The world of labor is 1917 (2005); S. Fitzpatrick, The Russian examined in V. E. Bonnell, Roots of Rebel- Revolution (rev. 2008); and A. D’Agostino, lion: Workers’ Politics and Organizations The Russian Revolution, 1917–1945 (2011). in St. Petersburg and Moscow, 1900–1914 Other surveys include C. Evtuhov and (1983), and in the volume Bonnell has ed- R. Stites, A History of Russia: Peoples, Leg- ited of workers’ autobiographical accounts, ends, Events, Forces since 1800 (2004); and The Russian Worker: Life and Labor under R. Service, A History of Modern Russia: the Tsarist Regime (1983). E. Lohr, Russian From Nicholas II to Putin (2003), which Citizenship: From Empire to Soviet Union begins with the prerevolutionary era. M. (2012), discusses political identity over the E. Malia, The Soviet Tragedy: A History course of the nineteenth and twentieth centu- of Socialism in Russia, 1917–1991 (1993), ries. Cultural and social life in this period is

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the subject of two books by L. McReynolds, Dark Shadow (1983) and Passage through Russia at Play: Leisure Activities at the End Armageddon (1986). The confusion at of the Tsarist Era (2003) and Murder Most the court graphically emerges from R. K. Russian: True Crime and Punishment in Massie’s Nicholas and Alexandra (1967, Late Imperial Russia (2012). 2000); and in V. Rounding, Alix and Nicky: Right-wing extremism linked to anti- The Passion of the Last Tsar and Tsarina Semitic pogroms is explored in W. Laqueur, (2012). For the last Romanoff, one may also Black Hundred: The Rise of the Extreme read M. Ferro, Nicholas II: The Last of the Right in Russia (1993). For the Jewish ex- Tsars (1993), and R. D. Warth, Nicholas II: perience in Russia during the prerevolution- The Life and Reign of Russia’s Last Mon- ary and revolutionary era, see J. D. Klier, arch (1998). H. Rappaport, Ekaterinburg: Russians, Jews, and the Pogrom Crisis of The Last Days of the Romanovs (2008), and 1881–1882 (2011); O. Budnitskii, Russian E. Radzinsky, The Last Tsar: The Life and Jews between the Reds and the Whites, Death of Nicholas II (trans. 1992), recon- 1917–1920 (trans. 2012); and K. Moss, struct the execution of the royal family in Jewish Renaissance in the Russian Revo- 1918; the latter author has also used a new- lution (2009). On the anarchists, there is ly available dossier on Rasputin to write a P. Avrich, The Russian Anarchists (1967), vivid biography of the mad monk who be- and on a leading exemplar, M. A. Miller, came the royal family’s close adviser, The Kropotkin (1976), and C. Cahm, Peter Rasputin File (trans. 2000). Readers may Kropotkin and the Rise of Revolution- also consult J. Fuhrmann, Rasputin: The ary Anarchism (1989). For non-Bolshevik Untold Story (2012). socialists, see E. White, The Socialist Al- ternative to Bolshevik Russia: The Socialist The Revolutions of 1917 Revolutionary Party, 1917–1939 (2011). An informative account of the earlier revo- The events of 1905 are narrated and lution is T. Hasegawa, The February Revo- analyzed in a valuable two-volume account lution: Petrograd, 1917 (1981); there are by A. Ascher, The Revolution of 1905: vol. other well-informed studies by G. Katkov 1, Russia in Disarray (1988), and vol. 2, (1967), M. Ferro (1971), and E. N. Burdzh- Authority Restored (1992), carrying the alov (1987). The ill-fated Kerensky is stud- story to 1907. Also informative is A. M. ied in R. Abraham, Alexander Kerensky: Verner, The Crisis of Russian Autocracy: The First Love of the Revolution (1987). Nicholas II and the 1905 Revolution (1990); For comprehensive accounts of the revo- and a more recent collection of essays in J. lutionary years, one turns to R. Pipes, The Smele and A. Heywood (eds.), The Russian Russian Revolution (1990) and Russia un- Revolution of 1905: Centenary Perspectives der the Bolshevik Regime (1994), the latter (2005). A seminal event in Russian revolu- carrying the story through Lenin’s death tionary history is covered in N. Bascomb, in 1924. Available on the turbulent early Red Mutiny: Eleven Fateful Days on the years also are C. Read, From Tsar to Sovi- Battleship Potemkin (2005). ets: The Russian People and the Revolution, Explorations of the ill-fated effort to es- 1917–1921 (1996); Y. Felshtinsky, Lenin tablish a constitutional monarchy after 1905 and His Comrades: The Bolsheviks Take include A. E. Healy, The Russian Autocracy Over Russia, 1917–1924 (2010); S. Smith, in Crisis, 1905–1907 (1976); and G. Hos- Captives of Revolution: The Socialist Revo- king, The Russian Constitutional Experi- lutionaries and the Bolshevik Dictatorship, ment: Government and Duma, 1906–1914 1918–1923 (2011); and A. Rabinowitch, (1973). The Russian wartime experience is The Bolsheviks in Power: The First Year of vividly described in W. B. Lincoln, In War’s Soviet Rule in Petrograd (2007). Readers

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may also consult A. Retish, Russia’s Peas- cited earlier, which examines in detail the ants in Revolution and Civil War: Citizen- consolidation of the dictatorial regime by ship, Identity, and the Creation of the Soviet 1924. P. Avrich, Kronstadt, 1921 (1970, State, 1914–1922 (2008); and R. Service, 1991), describes the leftist uprising and its Spies and Commissars: The Early Years of suppression. Comprehensive and retrospec- the Russian Revolution (2012). tive histories of the U.S.S.R. and Russia The best introductions to the civil war, published in recent years include P. Kenez, the formation of the Soviet state, and foreign A History of the Soviet Union from the Be- intervention are W. B. Lincoln, Red Victory: ginning to the End (2006); G. Hosking, Rul- A History of the Russian Civil War (1990); ers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet V. N. Brovkin, Behind the Front Lines of Union (2006); S. Lovell, The Soviet Union: the Civil War: Political Parties and Social A Very Short Introduction (2009); M. Kort, Movements in Russia, 1918–1922 (1994); The Soviet Colossus: History and After- and D. J. Raleigh, Experiencing Russia’s math (2010); and D. Satter, It Was a Long Civil War: Politics, Society, and Revolution- Time Ago, and It Never Happened Anyway: ary Culture in Saratov, 1917–1922 (2002). Russia and the Communist Past (2012). Additional works on the confl ict are M. For the years under Lenin and the early Occleshaw, Dances in Deep Shadows: The years of Stalin’s rule, one may consult E. H. Clandestine War in Russia, 1917–20 (2006); Carr’s synthesis of his massive 14-volume M. Rendle, Defenders of the Motherland: study (1950–1979), The Russian Revolu- The Tsarist Elite in Revolutionary Russia tion: From Lenin to Stalin (1979, reissued (2010); E. Landis, Bandits and Partisans: 2004), in which Carr seeks to make the best The Antonov Movement in the Russian Civil possible case for the reconstruction of So- War (2008); and C. Lazarski, The Lost Op- viet society in the years 1917–1929; and portunity: Attempts at Unifi cation of the J. Brooks and G. Chernyavskiy, Lenin and Anti-Bolsheviks, 1917–1919: Moscow, Kiev, the Making of the Soviet State: A Brief His- Jassy, Odessa (2008). Detailed accounts of tory with Documents (2007). For Lenin as a the intervention by coalitions and individual leader, see R. Service, Lenin: A Biography states are available in C. Kinvig, Churchill’s (2000); and for cultural and social changes Crusade: The British Invasion of Russia, under his leadership, there are S. Pirani, 1918–1920 (2006); P. Dunscomb, Japan’s The Russian Revolution in Retreat, 1920– Siberian Intervention, 1918–1922: A Great 24: Soviet Workers and the New Commu- Disobedience against the People (2011); nist Elite (2008); and L. Chamberlain, The B. Isitt, From Victoria to Vladivostok: Philosophy Steamer: Lenin and the Exile Canada’s Siberian Expedition, 1917–19 of the Intelligentsia (2006). Also focusing (2010); and J. M. Mohr, The Czech and Slo- on sociological and cultural aspects of this vak Legion in Siberia, 1917–1922 (2012). period are V. Brovkin, Russia after Lenin: The peace imposed by Germany is described Politics, Culture and Society, 1921–1929 in an older work by J. W. Wheeler-Bennett, (1998); G. Hosking, The First Socialist So- The Forgotten Peace: Brest-Litovsk, March ciety: A History of the Soviet Union from 1918 (1939, 1966). A helpful reference guide Within (rev. 1990), which carries a compre- for all these events is H. Shukman (ed.), hensive social history through to the end of The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the Russian the Soviet experiment; and the books by S. Revolution (rev. 1994). Fitzpatrick, The Cultural Front: Power and Culture in Revolutionary Russia (1992) The U.S.S.R. and Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in For the early years one may read R. Pipes, Extraordinary Times (1999). For all aspects Russia under the Bolshevik Regime (1994), of economic developments from 1917 on,

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one may turn to A. Nove, An Economic the Soviet Union, 1924–1953 (2009); and History of the U.S.S.R. (rev. 1992). For W. Goldman, Terror and Democracy in studies of controversial aspects of Bol- the Age of Stalin: The Social Dynamics of shevik economics, readers should consult Repression (2007). For precursors and S. McMeekin, History’s Greatest Heist: mechanisms of Stalin’s police state, see The Looting of Russia by the Bolsheviks J. Ryan, Lenin’s Terror: The Ideologi- (2009); and H. Hudson, Peasants, Political cal Origins of Early Soviet State Violence Police, and the Early Soviet State: Surveil- (2012); and R. Butler, Stalin’s Instruments lance and Accommodation under the New of Terror: Cheka, OGPU, NKVD, KGB from Economic Policy (2012). 1917–1991 (2006). Some of the corrobora- For the general principles of Stalin- tive new evidence surfacing in the years after ism, see M. McCauley, Stalin and Stalin- 1985 is discussed in R. Pipes, The Unknown ism (2008); D. Priestland, Stalinism and Lenin: From the Soviet Archives (1997); the Politics of Mobilization: Ideas, Power, W. Laqueur, Stalin: The Glasnost Revela- and Terror in Inter-War Russia (2007); and tions (1990); and A. Appelbaum, Gulag: Mark Edele, Stalinist Society, 1928–1953 A History (2003). The origins of the party (2011). J. Brent, Inside the Stalin Archives: purges are examined in R. Conquest, Stalin Discovering the New Russia (2008), con- and the Kirov Murder (1989), and M. Le- tains many new insights. Stalin’s attempts noe, The Kirov Murder and Soviet History to sell the Soviet Union to the world as (2010); and from a different perspective in an example of a model society are dis- the controversial J. A. Getty, Origins of the cussed in K. Clark, Moscow, the Fourth Great Purges: The Soviet Communist Party Rome: Stalinism, Cosmopolitanism, and Reconsidered, 1933–1938 (1986). Stalin’s the Evolution of Soviet Culture, 1931–1941 tyrannical repression of the Communist in- (2011); and M. David-Fox, Showcasing ner circle is described in S. S. Montefi ore, the Great Experiment: Cultural Diplomacy Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar (2003); and Western Visitors to the Soviet Union, while the experience of living under Stalin 1921–1941 (2012). is recounted in O. Figes, The Whisperers: Stalin’s collectivization of agriculture Private Life in Stalin’s Russia (2007), and may be studied in R. Conquest, The Har- H. Kuromiya, The Voices of the Dead: Sta- vest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and lin’s Great Terror in the 1930s (2007). the Terror-Famine (1986), which graphically reconstructs the ruthlessness of col- Biographical Accounts lectivization and the accompanying famine Among older biographical accounts for of 1932; and the case studies in N. Baron, these years are H. Shukman, Lenin and Soviet Karelia: Politics, Planning and Ter- the Russian Revolution (1987), and A. B. ror in Stalin’s Russia, 1920–1939 (2007); Ulam, Lenin and the Bolsheviks (1965, and T. McDonald, Face to the Village: The 1969). There are also lives of Lenin by M. Riazan Countryside under Soviet Rule, Lewin (1978); L. Lih (2011); and S. Shee- 1921–1930 (2011). han (2009); the previously noted work by For the political terror in the Stalin era, R. Service, Lenin: A Biography (2000), a the most revealing studies are R. Conquest, well-researched study; and H. Rappaport, The Great Terror: A Reassessment (1968, Conspirator: Lenin in Exile (2009). Lenin’s rev. 2008); D. Brandenberger, Propaganda wife and her fate in the Stalin years are ably State in Crisis: Soviet Ideology, Indoctrina- studied in R. H. McNeal, Bride of the Revo- tion, and Terror under Stalin, 1927–1941 lution: Krupskaya and Lenin (1972). Other (2011); D. Shearer, Policing Stalin’s So- members of Lenin’s family are studied in cialism: Repression and Social Order in P. Pomper, Lenin’s Brother: The Origins of

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the October Revolution (2010), which ex- on into the interwar years and beyond are plores the signifi cance of Lenin’s relation- T. H. Von Laue, Why Lenin? Why Stalin? ship with a brother who was executed by A Reappraisal of the Russian Revolution, the tsarist regime; and K. Turton, Forgot- 1900–1930 (rev. 1993); R. Gellately, Lenin, ten Lives: The Role of Lenin’s Sisters in the Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Ca- Russian Revolution, 1864–1937 (2007). tastrophe (2007); E. Acton, Rethinking the I. Deutscher’s overly sympathetic Russian Revolution (1990); S. F. Cohen, three-volume Life of Trotsky (1954–1963) Rethinking the Soviet Experience: Politics may be compared with the more balanced and History since 1917 (1985); and two appraisals in I. D Thatcher (2003); R. Ser- books by M. Lewin: The Making of the So- vice, Trotsky: A Biography (2009); and viet System: Essays in the Social History of B. Patenaude, Trotsky: Downfall of a Revo- Interwar Russia (1985) and The Gorbachev lutionary (2009). S. F. Cohen, Bukharin and Phenomenon: A Historical Interpretation the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biog- (rev. 1991). Books on the last years of the raphy, 1888–1938 (1973, 1980), is an out- Soviet regime and on its collapse in 1991 standing study of a leading Old Bolshevik will be described for chapter 25. who helped shape Lenin’s New Economic Policy and who, had he prevailed, might Other Themes and Institutions have averted Stalin’s dictatorship. On other subjects and institutions, one may In addition to books on Stalin and Sta- read L. R. Graham, Science and Philosophy linism cited above, readers may consult R. C. in the Soviet Union (1972); C. V. James, Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879–1929 Soviet Socialist Realism (1973), on the arts (1973) and Stalin in Power: The Revolution and literature; and V. Vourkoutiotis, Reform from Above, 1928–1941 (1990). Other bio- in Revolutionary Times: The Civil-Military graphical accounts are A. B. Ulam, Stalin: Relationship in Early Soviet Russia (2009), The Man and His Era (1973); R. Service, which discusses the formation of the Red Stalin: A Biography (2005), which exam- Army. For Soviet policies toward various ines both public policies and Stalin’s private nationalities, one may turn to T. Martin, The life; K. McDermott, Stalin: Revolutionary Affi rmative Action Empire: Nations and Na- in an Era of War (2006); S. S. Montefi ore, tionalism in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939 Young Stalin (2007); and J. Plamper, The (2001); R. G. Suny and T. Martin (eds.), A Stalin Cult: A Study in the Alchemy of Power State of Nations: Empire and Nation-Making (2012). In a special category, a series of bi- in the Age of Lenin and Stalin (2001); and ographies by D. Volkogonov has appeared D. Northrup, Veiled Empire: Bender and in English translation. Volkogonov was for Power in Stalinist Central Asia (2004). Ac- many years a top-ranking Soviet military counts of Soviet religious policies are avail- intelligence offi cial with unique access to able in S. P. Ramet (ed.), Religious Policy key archival sources, and his books provide in the Soviet Union (1992), and N. Davis, indispensable special information. Among A Long Walk to Church: A Contemporary them are Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (trans. History of Russian Orthodoxy (1995). The 1992), Lenin: A New Biography (trans. Jewish question is thoughtfully explored in 1994), Trotsky: The Eternal Revolutionary Z. Gitelman, The Jews of Russia and the (trans. 1996), and for his overall review of Soviet Union (1988); A. Vaksberg, Stalin Soviet history, Autopsy for an Empire: The against the Jews (1994); G. Kostyrchenko, Seven Leaders Who Built the Soviet Regime Out of the Red Shadows: Anti-Semitism in Sta- [Lenin to Gorbachev] (trans. 1998). lin’s Russia (1996); and J. Brent and V. Nau- Among thoughtful efforts to assess mov, Stalin’s Last Crime: The Plot against the Russian experience from the revolution the Jewish Doctors, 1948–1953 (2003).

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The role of women in the prerevolu- Useful Web Sites and Online Resources tionary and postrevolutionary years may be The Fordham University Internet History studied in R. Stites, The Women’s Liberation Sourcebook includes a section of linked Movement in Russia: Feminism, Nihilism, documents on the Russian Revolution at and Bolshevism, 1860–1930 (rev. 1991); www.fordham.edu/Halsall/index.asp ; and L. Engelstein, The Keys to Happiness: Sex there are links to additional resources on and the Search for Modernity in Fin-de- early twentieth-century Russia at the pre- Siècle Russia (1992), on the late nineteenth viously cited Russian Studies at Bucknell century; G. W. Lapidus, Women in Soviet University. Readers will also fi nd excel- Society: Equality, Development, and Social lent materials on the revolutionary era and Change (1978); B. E. Clements et al. (eds.), later periods of Russian history at the Web Russia’s Women: Accommodation, Resis- sites of the School of Slavonic and East tance, Transformation (1990); L. Edmond- European Studies in London, www.ssees son (ed.), Women and Society in Russia and .ucl.ac.uk/dirctory.htm; the University of the Soviet Union (1992); and S. Fitzpatrick Pittsburgh’s Russian and East European and Y. Slezkine (eds.), In The Shadow of Studies Virtual Library, www.ucis.pitt.edu/ Revolution: Life Stories of Russian Women reesweb/; and the Russian and East European from 1917 to the Second World War (2000); Network Information Center at the Uni- and there is an interesting study of views of versity of Texas, http://reenic.utexas.edu/ . women in S. A. Kowalksy, Deviant Women: These sites provide up-to-date links to other Female Crime and Criminology in Revolu- sites with documents, images, biographical tionary Russia, 1880–1930 (2009). narratives, and historical information on Russia and other republics that were part of Soviet Foreign Relations and World the U.S.S.R. Communism Still useful for Soviet foreign policy are 19. DEMOCRACY, ANTI-IMPERIAL- A. B. Ulam, Expansion and Coexistence: ISM, AND THE ECONOMIC CRISIS The History of Soviet Foreign Policy, AFTER THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1917–1973 (rev. 1974), and the volumes by A number of general histories of the twenti- L. F. Fischer: The Soviets in World Affairs, eth century begin with the First World War 1917–1929 (rev. 1960) and Russia’s Road and the revolutionary changes that accom- from Peace to War: Soviet Foreign Rela- panied it. Among these are E. J. Hobsbawm, tions, 1917–1941 (1969). A welcome recent The Age of Extremes: A History of the World, addition for the early years is A. Kocho- 1914–1991 (1994), an insightful book on Williams, Russian and Soviet Diplomacy, the years between the First World War and 1900–39 (2012). the collapse of the Soviet Union, which he On the Comintern, one may turn to K. calls the “short twentieth century,” and J. A. McDermott and J. Agnew, The Comintern: S. Grenville, A History of the World from A History of International Communism the 20th to the 21st Century (rev. 2005), a from Lenin to Stalin (1997); the essays in detailed narrative. Informative also are the T. Rees and A. Thorpe (eds.), International essays in R. W. Bulliet (ed.), The Columbia Communism and the Communist Interna- History of the Twentieth Century (1998); tional, 1919–43 (1998); and D. Hallas, The and M. Howard and R. Louis (eds.), The Comintern (2008). The clash of Bolshevism Oxford History of the Twentieth Century with French, Italian, and German socialism (1998, 2000). A useful reference book for is ably explored in A. S. Lindemann, The twentieth-century world history is C. Cook “Red Years”: European Socialism vs. Bol- and J. Stevenson, The Routledge Compan- shevism, 1918–1920 (1974). ion to World History since 1914 (2005).

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For Europe in the twentieth century, International Relations in the 1920s one may read S. M. Di Scala, Twentieth Introductions to international affairs and Century Europe: Politics, Society, Culture movements in this era are available in (2004); R. O. Paxton, Europe in the Twenti- A. P. Adamthwaite, The Lost Peace: Inter- eth Century (rev. 2004), especially informa- national Relations in Europe, 1918–1939 tive; H. James, Europe Reborn: A History, (1981), and D. Laqua (ed.), International- 1914–2000 (2003); and M. Mazower, Dark ism Reconfi gured: Transnational Ideas and Continent: Europe’s Twentieth Century Movements between the World Wars (2011). (1999), a thoughtful book that sees more The high point of reconciliation with Ger- negative than positive features in Europe’s many is ably treated in J. Jacobson, Lo- history during these years. Other broad and carno Diplomacy: Germany and the West, varied assessments of the century in Europe 1925–1929 (1972). include: A. Badiou, The Century (trans. B. Kent, The Spoils of War: The Poli- 2007); B. Wasserstein, Barbarism and Civi- tics, Economics, and Diplomacy of Repa- lization: A History of Europe in Our Time rations, 1918–1932 (1989), synthesizes (2007); P. M. H. Bell, Twentieth-Century the considerable literature on the complex Europe: Unity and Division (2006); J. reparations question, an issue that is also Sheehan, Where Have All the Soldiers examined in B. F. Martin, France and the Gone? The Transformation of Modern Eu- Après Guerre, 1918–1924 (1999); A. P. Ad- rope (2008); and the collection of essays in amthwaite, Grandeur and Misery: France’s G. Martel (ed.), A Companion to Europe: Bid for Power in Europe, 1914–1940 (1995), 1900–1945 (2006). G. Mak, In Europe: which describes French objectives in this pe- Travels through the Twentieth Century riod; and L. Gomes, German Reparations, (rev. 2007), imaginatively combines a trav- 1919–1932: A Historical Survey (2010). elogue and history with fascinating case studies. The American role in Europe in these years The attempt in the interwar years to put is studied in F. Costigliola, Awkward Do- together a shattered polity in Europe is de- minion: American Political, Economic, and scribed in M. Kitchen, Europe between the Cultural Relations with Europe, 1919–1933 Wars (1988), and in Z. Steiner, The Lights (1984); and the growing transatlantic eco- That Failed: European International His- nomic and cultural infl uence of the United tory, 1919–1933 (2005), an insightful ac- States is examined in V. de Grazia, Irresis- count that stresses the constructive efforts tible Empire: America’s Advance through to rebuild postwar European societies and Twentieth-Century Europe (2005). On the diplomacy. These developments are also British role, one may read A. Orde, British traced in A. Sharp, The Versailles Settlement: Policy and European Reconstruction after Peacemaking after the First World War, the First World War (1990). The response of 1919–1923 (2008). Two efforts to examine the United States and Britain to the revolu- patterns of reconstruction in Europe after tionary events of the era, and not only to the the war are C. S. Maier, Recasting Bourgeois revolution in Russia, is examined critically Europe: Stabilization in France, Germany in L. C. Gardner, Safe for Democracy: The and Italy in the Decade after World War I Anglo-American Response to Revolution, (1975), stressing the link between interest 1913–1923 (1984). groups and conservative governments, and The cooperation between the Soviet D. P. Silverman, Reconstructing Europe af- Union and Weimar Germany is studied in ter the Great War (1982). Additional books K. Rosenbaum, Community of Fate: Ger- for the interwar years, including works man-Soviet Diplomatic Relations, 1922– on the new states of central and eastern 1928 (1965), and V. Vourkoutiotis, Making Europe, are described for chapter 20. Common Cause: German-Soviet Relations,

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1919–22 (2007). The wider diplomatic con- and Its Impact: A Comparative Approach to text is the subject of S. Salzmann, Great the End of the Colonial Empires (2008). In Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union: addition to books cited for chapters 16 and Rapollo and After, 1922–1934 (2003); and 17, introductions to the Middle East and Germany’s leading diplomat is described in the continuing importance of the “Eastern J. R. C. Wright, Gustav Stresemann: Wei- question” include W. L. Cleveland, A His- mar’s Greatest Statesman (2002). tory of the Modern Middle East (2004); For the League of Nations, one may J. L. Gelvin, The Modern Middle East: A read F. S. Northedge, The League of Na- History (rev. 2011), which includes analy- tions: Its Life and Times, 1920–1946 (1986), sis of both the Ottoman Empire and modern which notes that despite its shortcomings Arab nationalism; M. E. Yapp, The Near the League helped to transform the older East since the First World War (rev. 1996); diplomacy; and E. Goldstein, The First and L. Robson, Colonialism and Christi- World War Peace Settlements, 1919–1925 anity in Mandate Palestine (2011). French (2002), which includes the early history of imperial policies during this period are the League. A special problem in which the examined in M. Thomas, The French League played an important role is discussed Empire between the Wars: Imperialism, in a wide-ranging study, M. R. Marrus, Politics, and Society (2005). The Unwanted: European Refugees in the For the Turkish Revolution, B. Lewis, Twentieth Century (1985). Books on ef- The Emergence of Modern Turkey (rev. forts at disarmament include E. W. Bennett, 2002), remains a useful introduction. Among German Rearmament and the West, 1932– other informative studies are E. J. Zürcher, 1933 (1979). Turkey: A Modern History (rev. 2004); N. Pope and H. Pope, Turkey Unveiled: Anticolonialism in the Interwar Period A History of Modern Turkey (2011); A. On the resentments stirred by the treatment Mango, From the Sultan to Atatürk: Turkey of the Chinese at Versailles, one should (2009); H. Özoglu, From Caliphate to Secu- read V. Schwarcz, The Chinese Enlighten- lar State: Power Struggle in the Early Turkish ment: Intellectuals and the Legacy of the Republic (2011); and A. Reisman, Turkey’s May Fourth Movement of 1919 (1986). On Modernization: Refugees from Nazism and the emergent Communist movement, one Ataturk’s Vision (2007). Biographical ac- may read A. Dirlik, The Origins of Chi- counts of the Turkish statesman-reformer in- nese Communism (1988). An older study clude J. P. D. Balfour [P. Kinross], Atatürk: of Asian nationalist ferment is provided A Biography of Mustafa Kemal (1965, 1992); in J. Romein and J. E. Romein, The Asian A. Mango, Atatürk: The Biography of the Century: A History of Modern Nationalism Founder of Modern Turkey (2001), a bal- in Asia (trans. 1962), which may be sup- anced, comprehensive account that distributes plemented by H. Grimal, Decolonization: both praise and criticism; and M. S. Hanioglu, The British, French, Dutch, and Belgian Atatürk: An Intellectual Biography (2011). Empires, 1919–1963 (1978), and by the es- Arab stirrings in the Middle East in these says in P. Duara (ed.), Decolonization: Per- years are discussed in two notable books by spectives from Now and Then (2003), and J. L. Gelvin, Divided Loyalties: Nationalism in M. Thomas, B. Moore, and L. J. Butler, and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of Crisis of Empire: Decolonization and Eu- the Empire (1999) and The Israel-Palestine rope’s Imperial States, 1918–1975 (2008). Confl ict: One Hundred Years of War (rev. These works begin with developments in 2007); J. Jankowski and I. Gershoni (eds.), the interwar period, which is also the start- Rethinking Nationalism in the Arab Mid- ing point for M. Shipway, Decolonization dle East (1997); and B. M. Nafi , Arabism,

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Islamism and the Palestine Question, 1908– will appear in the section for chapter 20. 1941 (1998). Other works that focus on the The economy of the post-1919 world may ramifi cations of Zionism and the Mandate be studied in C. Feinstein, P. Temin, and for the region, with often strong and varying G. Toniolo, The World Economy between the opinions, are J. Renton, The Zionist Mas- World Wars (2008); and R. Parker, The Eco- querade: The Birth of the Anglo-Zionist nomics of the Great Depression: A Twenty- Alliance, 1914–1918 (2007); B. Neumann, First Century Look Back at the Economics Land and Desire in Early Zionism (2011); of the Interwar Era (2007). For the stock and R. Florence, Lawrence and Aaronsohn: market collapse, J. K. Galbraith, The Great T. E. Lawrence, Aaron Aaronsohn, and the Crash, 1929 (1955, 1988), remains a vivid Seeds of the Arab-Israeli Confl ict (2007). account, while a comprehensive analysis of For Turkish and Arab identities in the inter- the worldwide Depression is available in war era, see the excellent study in S. Shields, C. P. Kindleberger, The World in Depres- Fezzes in the River: Identity Politics and Eu- sion, 1929–1939 (rev. 1986). Informative ropean Diplomacy in the Middle East on the too are P. Fearon, The Origins and Nature Eve of World War II (2011), a book that also of the Great Slump, 1929–1932 (1979); analyzes the role of the League of Nations in and D. Rothermund, The Global Impact of Middle Eastern confl icts. the Great Depression, 1929–1939 (1996), The origins of Indian nationalism against which describes the economic crisis in all British rule are discussed in A. Seal, The parts of the world. Emergence of Indian Nationalism (1968); There are helpful essays in W. Laqueur Ian Talbot, India and Pakistan (2000), which and G. L. Mosse (eds.), The Great Depres- describes the development of both Hindu and sion (1970), and K. Brunner (ed.), The Muslim national identities; and W. Gould, Great Depression Revisited (1981). Two Hindu Nationalism and the Language of Pol- informative international studies are E. W. itics in Late Colonial India (2004). Of many Bennett, Germany and the Diplomacy of existing studies of Gandhi, one may turn to the Financial Crisis, 1931 (1962), and A. J. M. Brown’s impressive trilogy: Gandhi’s Schubert, The Credit-Anstalt Crisis of 1931 Rise to Power in Indian Politics (1972); Gan- (1992), on the Austrian bank failure. dhi and Civil Disobedience (1977), carrying For Keynes, there is the illuminating the story to 1934; and Gandhi: Prisoner of second volume of the three-volume bi- Hope (1990). Gandhi’s relations and interac- ography by R. Skidelsky, John Maynard tions with the West are covered in D. Prasad, Keynes: The Economist as Saviour, 1920– Gandhi and Revolution (2012); S. Scalmer, 1937 (1993). There are also biographi- Gandhi in the West: The Mahatma and the cal accounts by D. E. Moggridge (1992), Rise of Radical Protest (2011); and A. Her- the editor of Keynes’s papers, and by man, Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Rivalry C. Hession (1989). One may also read That Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our P. Clarke, The Keynesian Revolution in the Age (2008). For Nehru, among many stud- Making, 1924–1936 (1989). Recent contri- ies there are S. Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: butions that take into account twenty-fi rst- A Biography (1 vol. abridged ed.; 1993); century debates on Keynesianism are R. S. Wolpert, Nehru: A Tryst with Destiny Backhouse and B. Bateman, Capitalist Rev- (1996); and J. M. Brown, Nehru (1999). olutionary: John Maynard Keynes (2011); and R. Skidelsky, Keynes: A Very Short In- The Depression: Collapse of the World troduction (2010). Economy There are useful descriptions of mod- Books on the impact of the Depression on ernist literature in M. Levenson (ed.), The politics and society in various countries Cambridge Companion to Modernism

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(1999); and G. Day, Modernist Literature, Europe between Democracy and Dictator- 1890–1950 (2010). For the artistic move- ship, 1900–1945 (2011); and J. Jackson ment that challenged bourgeois society (ed.), Europe, 1900–1945 (2002). Two in- in the interwar period, see N. Brodskaïa, formative comparative studies are S. Salter Surrealism: Genesis of a Revolution and J. Stevenson, The Working Class and (2009); and A. Lyford, Surrealist Masculin- Politics in Europe and America, 1929–1945 ities: Gender Anxiety and the Aesthetics of (1989), and J. A. Garraty, The Great Depres- Post–World War I Reconstruction in Franc e sion (1986), which examines diverse na- (2007). tional responses to the crisis in the United States and Europe. For studies in women’s Useful Web Sites and Online Resources history of the era, see A. Kershaw and A. Excellent materials and links to numerous Kimyongür (eds.), Women in Europe between other sites on diplomacy and the League the Wars: Politics, Culture and Society (2007). of Nations may be found in the Research Guide to League of Nations Documents and Britain between the Wars Publications, at the library of Northwestern General accounts for Britain, some extend- University, http://digital.library.northwest- ing beyond the interwar years, are A. J. P. ern.edu/league/background.html . There are Taylor, English History, 1914–1945 (1965), also links and readings on modern interna- written with the author’s usual verve; A. tional relations and anticolonial movements Marwick, A History of the Modern British at Resources for the Study of International Isles, 1914–1999 (2000); and M. Beloff, Relations and Foreign Policy, a Web site Wars and Welfare: Britain, 1914–1945 of V. Ferraro in the International Relations (1984). An overview of the British eco- Program at Mount Holyoke College, www. nomic scene is provided in S. Pollard, The mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/feros-pg.htm . Development of the British Economy, 1914– Useful materials on Asia, the Middle East, 1990 (rev. 1992). and decolonization are available at the in- An outstanding account of changes dispensable Internet History Sourcebook, in British life is provided in J. Stevenson, cited often for previous chapters; material British Society, 1914–1945 (1984). Other on the modern era may be found at www. suggested studies include S. Glynn and fordham.edu/Halsall/mod/modsbook.asp . J. Oxborrow, Interwar Britain: Social and Economic History (1976); J. Stevenson and 20. DEMOCRACY AND DICTATORSHIP C. Cook, The Slump: Society and Politics IN THE 1930s during the Depression (1978); S. Hynes, Some general accounts for the interwar The Auden Generation: Literature and years and the Great Depression have been Politics in the 1930s (1977); R. Blythe, The described for chapter 19, and books on the Age of Illusion: Some Glimpses of Britain international crisis of the 1930s will be list- between the Wars, 1919–1940 (rev. 1984); ed for chapter 21. Helpful introductions to and two informative books by R. McKib- the democracies and dictatorships in this era ben, Classes and Cultures: England 1918– are P. Brendon, The Dark Valley: A Pano- 1951 (1998) and Parties and People: Eng- rama of the 1930s (2000); R. W. Winks and land 1914–1951 (2010). The postwar lot R. J. Q. Adams, Europe, 1890–1945: Cri- of the British wartime women workers is sis and Confl ict (2003), cited earlier; D. C. portrayed in D. Beddoe, Back to Home and Large, Between Two Fires: Europe’s Path Duty: Women between the Wars, 1919–1939 in the 1930s (1990); Z. Steiner, The Tri- (1989), and women activists are described umph of the Dark: European International in B. Harrison, Prudent Revolutionar- History, 1933–1939 (2011); C. Fischer, ies: Portraits of British Feminists between

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the Wars (1987). The campaign for wom- issue of Northern Ireland is examined in N. en’s rights is also examined in M. Pugh, Mansergh, The Unresolved Question: The Women and the Women’s Movement in Anglo-Irish Settlement and Its Undoing, Britain, 1914–1999 (2000). 1912–1972 (1991), and M. Mulholland, On the decline of the Liberal Party The Longest War: Northern Ireland’s Trou- and the rise of Labour, one may read bled History (2002). M. Freeden, Liberalism Divided: Brit- ish Political Thought, 1914–1938 (1986); France between the Wars J. Shepherd and K. Laybourn, Britain’s General accounts for these years are First Labour Government (2006); and D. P. Bernard and H. Dubief, The Decline of the Howell, MacDonald’s Party: Labour Iden- Third Republic, 1914–1938 (trans. 1985); tities and Crisis, 1922–1931 (2002). For the J. P. Azéma, From Munich to the Libera- general strike of 1926 and the cabinet crisis tion, 1938–1944 (trans. 1985), somewhat of 1929, a valuable synthesis is P. William- more probing; and W. Fortescue, The Third son, National Crisis and National Govern- Republic in France, 1870–1940: Confl icts ment: British Politics, the Economy, and the and Continuities (2000), which provides Empire, 1926–1932 (1992); see also, A. excellent source materials. The general Perkins, A Very British Strike: 3 May–12 anxiety of the era is treated in R. Panchasi, May, 1926 (2006); and R. H. Saltzman, A Future Tense: The Culture of Anticipation Lark for the Sake of Their Country: The in France between the Wars (2009). P. Nord, 1926 General Strike Volunteers in Folklore France’s New Deal: From the Thirties to and Memory (2012). Among many biog- the Postwar Era (2010), examines France’s raphies, there are studies of Ramsay Mac- long economic decline and postwar recov- Donald by D. Marquand (1977), A. Morgan ery. An illuminating study of government (1987), and K. Morgan (2006); and of his ri- planning, which was less successful in the val conservative leader by R. Jenkins, Bald- interwar years than later, is R. F. Kuisel, win (1987). K. Rose, King George V (1984), Capitalism and the State in Modern France: is a scholarly biography of the monarch. Renovation and Economic Management in On British relations with the empire the Twentieth Century (1981). The politi- and dominions, one may turn to D. Ken- cal and social divisions within France are nedy, Britain and Empire, 1880–1945 colorfully conveyed in E. Weber, The Hol- (2002); M. Kitchen, The British Empire low Years: France in the 1930s (1994). and Commonwealth: A Short History The response to the Depression and the (1996); and A. Smith, The Royal Over-Seas threat to the Third Republic are explored League: From Empire into Commonwealth, in two books by J. Jackson: The Politics of a History of the First 100 years (2010). For Depression in France, 1932–1936 (1985) the Irish Revolution and the transition to and The Popular Front in France: Defend- indepen dence, see J. M. Curran, The Birth ing Democracy, 1934–1938 (1988). More of the Irish Free State, 1921–1923 (1980); recent treatments of the Popular Front are P. Cottrell, The War for Ireland: 1913–1923 J. Wardhaugh, In Pursuit of the People: Po- (2009); W. H. Kautt, Ambushes and Armour: litical Culture in France, 1934–39 (2009); The Irish Rebellion 1919–1921 (2010); C. and S. Dell, The Image of the Popular Front: Kostick, Revolution in Ireland: Popular The Masses and the Media in Interwar Militancy, 1917–1923 (2009); and R. Kil- France (2007). For the Socialist leader of the leen, A Short History of the Irish Revolution, Popular Front, one may read J. Colton, Léon 1912 to 1927 (2007). For a broader time pe- Blum: Humanist in Politics (1966, 1987), riod, there is J. J. Lee, Ireland, 1912–1985: and J. Lacouture, Léon Blum (1977; trans. Politics and Society (1990). The thorny 1982). Other studies of the political left in

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the Popular Front era include N. Greene, Mussolini and Italian Fascism (2008). Crisis and Decline: The French Socialist There is also an impressive account of the Party in the Popular Front Era (1969); D. early years in A. Lyttelton, The Seizure of Caute, Communism and the French Intellec- Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–1929 (1973), tuals, 1914–1960 (1965); and D. R. Brower, and a concise survey of the entire Fascist era The New Jacobins: The French Communist in P. Morgan, Italian Fascism, 1915–1945 Party and the Popular Front (1968). For (2004). Mussolini’s fl amboyant precur- right-wing and fascist-type movements, in sor is studied in J. Woodhouse, Gabriele addition to books cited for chapter 15, one d’Annunzio: Defi ant Archangel (1998). may read R. Soucy, French Fascism: The The Fascist state is examined in C. Bor- First Wave, 1924–1933 (1985) and French sella, Fascist Italy: A Concise Historical Fascism: The Second Wave, 1933–1939 Narrative (2007); M. Blinkhorn, Mussolini (1995). Additional works on the topic in- and Fascist Italy (2006); and M. Hametz, In clude M. Antliff, Avant-Garde Fascism: the Name of Italy: Nation, Family, and Patri- The Mobilization of Myth, Art, and Culture otism in a Fascist Court (2012). The Fascist in France, 1909–1939 (2007); P. Mazgaj, impact on Italian society is comprehensively Imagining Fascism: The Cultural Politics of examined in two books by V. de Grazia, the French Young Right, 1930–1945 (2007); The Culture of Consent: Mass Organization S. Kennedy, Reconciling France against of Leisure in Fascist Italy (1981) and How Democracy: The Croix de Feu and the Parti Fascism Ruled Women: Italy, 1922–1945 Social Français, 1927–1945 (2007); and (1991); in R. J. B. Bosworth, Mussolini’s S. Sanos, The Aesthetics of Hate: Far-Right Italy: Life under the Dictatorship, 1915–1945 Intellectuals, Antisemitism, and Gender (2006); and in E. Gentile, The Socialization in 1930s France (2013). French national of Politics in Fascist Italy (1994), which por- identity is examined in H. Lebovics, True trays fascism as a civic and political religion. France: The Wars over Cultural Identity, Worthy recent texts on special topics in Fas- 1900–1945 (1992). Studies of the country- cist Italy include M. Ebner, Ordinary Vio- side include G. Wright, Rural Revolution lence in Mussolini’s Italy (2011); G. Talbot, in France: The Peasantry in the Twentieth Censorship in Fascist Italy, 1922–43 (2007); Century (1964), and R. O. Paxton, French P. Baxa, Roads and Ruins: The Symbolic Peasant Fascism: Henry Dorgères’ Green- Landscape of Fascist Rome (2010); and shirts and the Crisis of French Agriculture, L. Benadusi, The Enemy of the New Man: 1929 (1997). French responses to the rise Homosexuality in Fascist Italy (2012). of Nazism are examined in several useful The compromise with the church is books: R. Davis, Anglo-French Relations explored in J. F. Pollard, The Vatican and before the Second World War: Appeasement Italian Fascism, 1920–1932 (1985) and and Crisis (2001); B. F. Martin, France in The Vatican and Italian Fascism, 1929–32: 1938 (2005); and J. B. Duroselle, France A Study in Confl ict (2005). Mussolini’s ra- and the Nazi Threat: The Collapse of French cial policy, moving on into the war years, Diplomacy, 1932–1939 (trans. 2004). is studied in M. Michaelis, Mussolini and the Jews: German-Italian Relations and Italy: The Fascist Experience the Jewish Question in Italy, 1922–1945 A helpful introduction to the general devel- (1978); S. Zucotti, The Italians and the opment of modern Italy may be found in S. M. Holocaust: Persecution, Rescue, and Sur- Di Scala, Italy: From Revolution to Repub- vival (1988); and A. Stille, Benevolence lic, 1700 to the Present (rev. 2009). The rise and Betrayal: Five Italian Jewish Families of Italian Fascism is examined in G. Finaldi, under Fascism (1993), a poignant portrayal.

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On Il Duce, the best studies are by political parties and diverse interest groups D. Mack Smith, Mussolini (1982), straight- to cooperate is examined in L. E. Jones, Ger- forward and comprehensive, and the more man Liberalism and the Dissolution of the recent biography by R. J. B. Bosworth, Mus- Weimar Party System, 1918–1933 (1989). solini (2002). There are also informative bi- W. L. Guttman, The German Social Demo- ographies by J. Ridley, Mussolini (1997); M. cratic Party, 1875–1933 (1981), examines a Clark, Mussolini (2005); and A. L. Cardoza, major party of the Left. The resort to extra- Benito Mussolini: The First Fascist (2006). parliamentary tactics receives attention in Other useful studies include A. J. Gregor, J. M. Riehl, Paramilitary Politics in Weimar Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins Germany (1977); P. Fritzsche, Rehearsals of Fascism (1979), and Z. Sternhell, The Birth for Fascism: Populism and Political Mo- of Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebellion bilization in Weimar Germany (1990); and to Political Revolution (1993), a controversial E. Rosenhaft, Beating the Fascists? The but outstanding study cited earlier. German Communists and Political Violence, Foreign and colonial policy is exam- 1929–1933 (1984). The Nazi paramilitary ined in D. Mack Smith, Mussolini’s Ro- apparatus is the subject of O. Mitchell, man Empire (1976); E. Gentile, La Grande Hitler’s Stormtroopers and the Attack on the Italia: The Myth of the Nation in the Twenti- German Republic, 1919–1933 (2008). The eth Century (trans. 2009); N. Arielli, Fascist question of army loyalties is examined in Italy and the Middle East, 1933–40 (2010); depth in F. L. Carsten, The Reichswehr and and S. A. Smith, Imperial Designs: Italians Politics, 1918 to 1933 (trans. 1966); J. W. in China, 1900–1947 (2012). Wheeler-Bennett, The Nemesis of Power: The German Army in Politics, 1918–1945 Germany, 1919–1933: The Weimar (rev. 1964); and G. A. Craig, The Politics Republic of the Prussian Army, 1640–1945 (1956, For the collapse of the Weimar Repub- 1964), cited earlier. lic and the emergence of Hitler, several of Among thoughtful efforts to explore the longer-range histories of Germany by the ideological roots of Weimar’s failure are G. A. Craig and others, cited for chapters 13 F. Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair: and 14, will also be helpful. For accounts of A Study in the Use of the Germanic Ideology Weimar, one may turn to E. Kolb, The Wei- (1961), and G. L. Mosse, The Crisis of Ger- mar Republic (trans. 1988); H. Heiber, The man Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Weimar Republic: Germany, 1918–1933 Third Reich (1964). Cultural history in these (1986); H. Mommsen, The Rise and Fall of years is examined in P. Gay, Weimar Cul- Weimar Democracy (trans. 1996); E. Weitz, ture: The Outsider as Insider (1968, 2001); Weimar Germany: Promise and Tragedy W. Laqueur, Weimar: A Cultural History, (2007); and R. J. Evans, The Coming of the 1918–1933 (rev. 2011); D. J. K. Peukert, Third Reich (2003), the fi rst volume of a The Weimar Republic: The Crisis of Classi- trilogy on the Nazi party and regime. cal Modernity (trans. 1992); and W. Grange, The most informed inquiry into Cultural Chronicle of the Weimar Republic German efforts to cope with the Depression (2008). A helpful discussion of key political is H. James, The German Slump: Politics fi gures is available in P. Stachura, Political and Economics, 1924–1936 (1986). Readers Leaders in Weimar Germany: A Biographi- may also turn to A. Fergusson, When Money cal Study (1993). For key individuals, see H. Dies: The Nightmare of Defi cit Spending, Harmer, Friedrich Ebert: Germany (2008), Devaluation, and Hyperinfl ation in Wei- and S. Volkov, Walther Rathenau: The Life of mar Germany (2010). The inability of the Weimar’s Fallen Statesman (2012).

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Germany, 1933–1945: The Third Reich German Town, 1922–1945 (rev. 1989), and A valuable introduction to the vast literature J. H. Grill, The Nazi Movement in Baden, on the Third Reich is I. Kershaw, The Nazi 1920–1945 (1984). Two efforts to assess Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives the Nazi appeal at the polls are R. F. Ham- of Interpretation (rev. 2000). P. Ayçoberry, ilton, Who Voted for Hitler? (1982), and The Nazi Question: An Essay on the Inter- T. Childers, The Nazi Voter: The Social pretation of National Socialism, 1922–1975 Foundations of Fascism in Germany, 1919– (trans. 1981), and J. Lukacs, The Hitler of 1933 (1983), which both tend to confi rm History (1997), are also helpful historio- that Nazi support came from all segments graphical studies. Two successful efforts to of the population, not only from the lower provide a thoughtful overview of the Nazi middle class. The movement’s mobilization era are K. P. Fischer, Nazi Germany (1995), of “populist nationalism” is recounted in and M. Burleigh, The Third Reich (2000); P. Fritzsche, Germans into Nazis (1998). there is also an excellent account of the Nazi M. H. Kater, The Nazi Party: A Social regime in R. J. Evans, The Third Reich in Profi le of Members and Leaders, 1919– Power, 1933–1939 (2005), the second vol- 1945 (1983), is an exhaustive sociological ume of his trilogy, informative on the lives analysis of those who joined and led the of people as well as the politics and ideology party, while D. Orlow, The History of the of the regime. Among the numerous nar- Nazi Party (2 vols.; 1969–1973) is a com- ratives that appear every year, the follow- prehensive organizational history. There are ing recent ones are of note: R. Scheck, many studies of such key Nazi institutions Germany, 1871–1945: A Concise History as the SS, the Gestapo, and the courts, too (2008); T. Kirk, Nazi Germany (2007); numerous to cite here. For the military, one D. Williamson, The Third Reich (2011); and may read O. Bartov, Hitler’s Army: Sol- M. Whittock, A Brief History of the Third diers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich Reich (2011). (1991). For the broad spectrum of right-wing Religion and related matters are ex- nationalism in the era, see B. Jackisch, The amined in E. C. Helmreich, The German Pan-German League and Radical National- Churches under Hitler (1979); D. Ber- ist Politics in Interwar Germany, 1918–39 gen, Twisted Cross: The German Chris- (2012); and D. Luhrssen, Hammer of the tian Movement in the Third Reich (1996); Gods: The Thule Society and the Birth of D. Hastings, Catholicism and the Roots of Nazism (2012). On the coming to power of Nazism: Religious Identity and National the Nazis, one may fi rst turn to M. Broszat, Socialism (2010); and S. Friedländer, Pius Hitler and the Collapse of Weimar Ger- XII and the Third Reich (1966). Books on many (trans. 1987), focusing on the years Hitler’s persecution of the Jews, and on 1929–1933. Informative studies may also the death camps and the Holocaust, will be found in H. A. Turner, Hitler’s Thirty be described for the next chapter, but one Days to Power: January 1933 (1997); should mention here L. S. Dawidowicz, The H. Beck, The Fateful Alliance: German War against the Jews, 1933–1945 (1976); Conservatives and Nazis in 1933: The S. Gordon, Hitler, Germans, and the Jewish Machtergreifung in a New Light (2008); Question (1984); S. Friedländer, Nazi Ger- F. McDonough, Hitler and the Rise of the many and the Jews: The Years of Persecu- Nazi Party (2012); and T. Abel, The Nazi tion, 1933–1939 (1997); and A. Steinweis, Movement (2012). Two studies illuminate Kristallnacht 1938 (2009). the Nazi appeal to diverse segments of The Nazi state is described in outstand- the population: W. S. Allen, The Nazi Sei- ing analyses by K. D. Bracher, The German zure of Power: The Experience of a Single Dictatorship (trans. 1970); M. Broszat, The

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Hitler State (trans. (1981); K. Hildebrand, Women in Nazi Society (1976) and The The Third Reich (1984); and M. Burleigh Nazi Organization of Women (1981); and W. Wippermann, The Racial State: E. Heineman, What Difference Does a Germany, 1933–1945 (1992). D. Schoen- Husband Make? Women and Marital Sta- baum, Hitler’s Social Revolution: Class and tus in Nazi and Postwar Germany (1999); Status in Nazi Germany, 1933–1939 (1966), W. Sarti, Women and Nazis: Perpetrators of sees a leveling effect not accomplished by Genocide and Other Crimes during Hitler’s earlier German regimes. A concise treat- Regime, 1933–1945 (2011); and for family ment is found in R. Moeller, The Nazi State life and law, see R. Loeffel, Family Punish- and German Society: A Brief History with ment in Nazi Germany: Sippenhaft, Terror Documents (2010). Studies exploring new and Myth (2012). avenues to understanding popular responses That there was no mass resistance, but include I. Kershaw, The “Hitler Myth”: Im- opposition only from resolute individuals age and Reality in the Third Reich (1987); and small groups, emerges from two com- D. J. K. Peukert, Inside Nazi Germany: prehensive accounts: P. Hoffmann, German Conformity, Opposition, and Racism in Resistance to Hitler (rev. 1988), and M. Everyday Life (trans. 1987); P. Ayçoberry, Balfour, Withstanding Hitler in Germany, The Social History of the Third Reich (trans. 1933–1945 (1989). These accounts may 2000); and C. Koonz, The Nazi Conscience be supplemented by F. Millard, The Palace (2003), which argues that the Nazis gained and the Bunker: Royal Resistance to support by claiming to represent the virtues Hitler (2012); E. Brothers, Berlin Ghetto: of the German people. There are also per- Herbert Baum and the Anti-Fascist Resis- ceptive insights into life under the Nazis in tance (2012); C. Petrescu, Against All Odds: R. Bessel (ed.), Life in the Third Reich Models of Subversive Spaces in National (1987), and G. L. Mosse, Nazi Culture: Socialist Germany (2010); J. Cox, Circles Intellectual, Cultural, and Social Life in of Resistance: Jewish, Leftist, and Youth the Third Reich (1966). For the labor and Dissidence in Nazi Germany (2009); F. Mc- economic policies of the Nazi state, there Donough, Sophie Scholl: The Real Story of are several excellent studies, including A. the Woman Who Defi ed Hitler (2009); and Tooze, The Wages of Destruction: The Mak- A. Nelson, Red Orchestra: The Story of ing and Breaking of the Nazi Economy the Berlin Underground and the Circle of (2006); D. Gluckstein, The Nazis, Capitalism, Friends Who Resisted Hitler (2009). One and the Working Class (2012); S. J. Wiesen, may also consult D. C. Lodge (ed.), Con- Creating the Nazi Marketplace: Commerce tending with Hitler: Varieties of German and Consumption in the Third Reich (2011); Resistance in the Third Reich (1992), and and D. Jeffreys, Hell’s Cartel: I. G. Farben on the Resistance legacy, M. Geyer and and the Making of Hitler’s War Machine J. W. Boyer (eds.), Resistance against the (2008). The changing role of the army in Third Reich, 1933–1990 (1994). mobilizing state resources is the subject of For a brief treatment of Hitler’s life, M. Strohn, The German Army and the Defence one may consult A. N. Wilson, Hitler: A of the Reich: Military Doctrine and the Con- Short Biography (2012). Of the many biog- duct of the Defensive Battle, 1918–1939 (2011). raphies of Hitler, the two volumes by I. Ker- The best study of women in the Third shaw are now the most authoritative: Hit- Reich, with special attention to those who ler, 1889–1936: Hubris (1998) and Hitler, supported and those who resisted the regime, 1936–1945: Nemesis (1999), a remarkable is C. Koonz, Mothers in the Fatherland: study explaining how Germans identifi ed Women, the Family, and Nazi Politics (1987). with Hitler and how his arrogance and pride It may be supplemented by J. Stephenson, brought him initial success and then disaster.

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Two earlier biographies are outstanding: R. S. Wistrich, Who’s Who in Nazi Germany A. Bullock, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (rev. 1995), and C. Zentner and F. Bedür- (1952, 1964), and J. C. Fest, Hitler (trans. ftig, The Encyclopedia of the Third Reich (2 1975). Bullock has also written a remark- vols.; 1991). able in-depth comparative study, Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives (1992). Hitler’s D e fi ning Totalitarianism and Fascism early years in Vienna have been reexam- The origins and nature of twentieth-century ined in B. Hamann, Hitler’s Vienna: A Por- ideologies are explored in many books, no- trait of the Tyrant as a Young Man (2010). tably in K. D. Bracher’s comprehensive A Interpretive essays that raise pertinent History of Political Thought in the Twen- questions are S. Haffner, The Meaning of tieth Century (trans. 1984). Among efforts Hitler (trans. 1980); W. Carr, Hitler: A Study to examine totalitarianism, Left and Right, in Personality and Politics (1979); R. H. are C. J. Friedrich and Z. K. Brzezinski, S. Stolfi , Hitler: Beyond Evil and Tyranny Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (2011); and M. Munn, Hitler and the Nazi (rev. 1965); H. Arendt, Origins of Totali- Cult of Celebrity (2012). Hitler’s longtime tarianism (rev. 1966), cited for chapter 15; lover and short-lived wife is the subject of H. Bucheim, Totalitarian Rule (trans. 1967); H. Görtemaker, Eva Braun: Life with Hitler and S. P. Soper, T otalitarianism: A Concep- (2011). The end of the leader and his regime tual Approach (1985). Other works on the is vividly recounted in H. R. Trevor-Roper, subject include G. Barhaim, Public-Private The Last Days of Hitler (rev. 1966). Relations in Totalitarian States (2012); A. J. Some of Hitler’s associates are studied Gregor, Marxism, Fascism, and Totalitari- in J. C. Fest, The Face of the Third Reich: anism: Chapters in the Intellectual History Portraits of the Nazi Leadership (trans. of Radicalism (2009); and for the Europe- 1977). For the second man of the Reich, an context, D. Williamson, The Age of the see B. F. Smith, Heinrich Himmler: A Nazi Dictators: A Study of the European Dicta- in the Making, 1900–1926 (1971); and torships, 1918–53 (2007). Important com- P. Longerich, Heinrich Himmler (trans. parative studies are the collections of essays 2012). For the master propagandist, see R. in I. Kershaw and M. Levin (eds.), Stalinism G. Reuth, Goebbels (trans. 1994); R. Man- and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison vell and H. Fraenkel, Doctor Goebbels: His (1997); M. Geyer and S. Fitzpatrick (eds.), Life and Death (2010); and T. Thacker, Jo- Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and seph Goebbels: Life and Death (2009). Hit- Nazism Compared (2009); and R. J. B. Bos- ler’s foreign minister is studied in M. Bloch, worth (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Fas- Ribbentrop (1993), a detailed diplomatic cism (2009). R. O. Paxton, The Anatomy of account, and J. Weitz, Hitler’s Diplomat: Fascism (2004), is the best recent effort to The Life and Times of Joachim Ribbentrop arrive at a general defi nition of fascist ideas (1992). G. Serenz, Albert Speer: His Bat- and political movements. tle with Truth (1995), is rightly and highly For other insightful studies of fas- critical of Hitler’s wartime economic plan- cism as a broad phenomenon of the inter- ner, while J. Fest, Albert Speer: Conversa- war years, one must turn to S. G. Payne, tions with Hitler’s Architect (2007), offers A History of Fascism, 1914–1945 (1995); some defense of the technocrat. For more W. Laqueur, Fascism: Past, Present, Future on Speer’s work, see B. Taylor, Hitler’s (1996); D. Orlow, The Lure of Fascism in Engineers: Fritz Todt and Albert Speer— Western Europe: German Nazis, Dutch and Master Builders of the Third Reich (2010). French Fascists, 1933–1939 (2009); and Two convenient handbooks on the institu- I. Landa, The Apprentice’s Sorcerer: Lib- tions and personalities of the regime are eral Tradition and Fascism (2010). Readers

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will fi nd E. Nolte, Three Faces of Fascism: tory (2010); and D. Djokic´, Elusive Com- Action Française, Italian Fascism, National promise: A History of Interwar Yugoslavia Socialism (trans. 1966), provocative but dif- (2007). For Poland: M. K. Dziewanowski, fi cult. For the romantic appeal of fascism in Poland in the Twentieth Century (1977); A. Britain, see M. Jefferies and M. Tyldesley, Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, Rolf Gardiner: Folk, Nature and Culture in 1921–1939 (1972); and the volumes of Interwar Britain (2011). N. Davies cited for chapter 11. For Finland and the Baltic states: D. G. Kirby, Finland Other European Developments in the in the Twentieth Century (1979); G. von Interwar Years Rauch, The Baltic States—Estonia, Latvia, Spain and the Spanish Civil War are dis- and Lithuania: The Years of Independence, cussed for chapter 21. Informative volumes 1917–1940 (trans. 1974, 1995); and A. Pla- on central and eastern Europe are J. Roth- kans, A Concise History of the Baltic States schild, East Central Europe between the (2011). Two World Wars (1975), and I. T. Berend, Decades of Crisis: Central and Eastern Useful Web Sites and Online Resources Europe before World War II (1998). A special In addition to the numerous general his- subject is ably explored in E. Mendelsohn, tory collections cited for previous chapters, The Jews of East Central Europe between the readers will fi nd links to information and re- World Wars (1983). sources on all aspects of European society A few titles may be suggested for some and politics in the 1930s (and other eras too) of the successor states. For Austria: B. F. at the helpful British site, Spartacus Educa- Pauley, Hitler and the Forgotten Nazis: tional, at www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/ , A History of Austrian National Socialism which provides a convenient student-level (1981) and From Prejudice to Persecution: guide to information on key events and in- A History of Austrian Anti-Semitism (1998); fl uential historical fi gures. Readers may be and J. Lauridsen, Nazism and the Radical interested in the less rigorous but accessible Right in Austria 1918–1934 (trans. 2007). site Worldology, for general history, and, for For Hungary: C. A. Macartney, October the interwar period, the link www.worldol- Fifteenth: A History of Modern Hungary, ogy.com/Europe/interwar.htm . 1929–1945 (2 vols.; rev. 1962); R. L. Tönes, Bela Kun and the Hungarian Soviet Re- 21. THE SECOND WORLD WAR public (1967), on the short-lived Communist Spain and the Spanish Civil War regime of 1919; and T. Sakmyster, Hunga- The most comprehensive narrative account ry’s Admiral on Horseback: Miklós Horthy, of the Spanish confl ict, including the inter- 1918–1944 (1999). For Czechoslovakia: national ramifi cations, is H. Thomas, The Z. A. B. Zeman, The Masaryks: The Making Spanish Civil War (rev. 2001), in which of Czechoslovakia (1976, 1991); V. Olivova, Franco’s skill as a manipulator and survivor The Doomed Democracy: Czechoslovakia clearly emerges. Other well-informed ac- in a Disrupted Europe, 1918–1938 (1972); counts of the events in Spain include S. G. C. S. Leff, National Confl ict in Czecho- Payne, The Spanish Civil War (2012), and slovakia: The Making and Remaking of a M. Seidman, The Victorious Counterrevo- State, 1918–1987 (1988); and the collec- lution: The Nationalist Effort in the Span- tion that was compiled by M. Cornwall and ish Civil War (2011). These works may be R. J. W. Evans (eds.), Czechoslovakia in a supplemented by B. Bolloten, The Span- Nationalist and Fascist Europe, 1918–1948 ish Civil War: Revolution and Counter- (2007). For Yugoslavia: V. Drapac, Con- revolution (1991); A. Durgan, The Spanish structing Yugoslavia: A Transnational His- Civil War (2007), a concise introduction;

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C. Medina, The Spanish Civil War, 1936– most informative general inquiries into the 1939 (2011); and H. Browne, Spain’s coming of the war are P. Renouvin, World Civil War (rev. 1996). Brief overviews are War II and Its Origins: International Rela- also available in F. Ribeiro de Meneses, tions, 1929–1945 (trans. 1969); J. Black, Franco and the Spanish Civil War (2001), Avoiding Armageddon: From the Great and F. Lannon, The Spanish Civil War War to the Fall of France, 1918–40 (2012); (2002). G. Esenwein and A. Shubert, Spain R. Boyce, The Great Interwar Crisis and at War: The Spanish Civil War in Context, the Collapse of Globalization (2009); P. M. 1931–1939 (1995), and R. Carr, The Spanish H. Bell, The Origins of the Second World Tragedy: The Civil War in Perspective (1977, War in Europe (rev. 2007); J. Maiolo, Cry 2000), add broader analytical insights. Havoc: How the Arms Race Drove the World The emotions stirred by the Spanish to War, 1931–1941 (2010); R. Overy, The Civil War are evoked by S. Weintraub, The Origins of the Second World War (2008); and Last Great Cause: The Intellectuals and the the collection of essays in Frank McDon- Spanish Civil War (1968). The volunteers ough (ed.), The Origins of the Second World who fought for the Republic are studied War: An International Perspective (2011). in C. Geiser, Prisoners of the Good Fight: On the 11 months between Munich and The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1938 (1994); the outbreak of the war, D. C. Watt, How and M. Jackson, The International Bri- War Came: The Immediate Origins of the gades in the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1938 Second World War, 1938–1939 (1989), (1994). For Franco’s relations with Western is a masterful study. One may also read democracies, see J. M. Thomàs, Roosevelt R. Overy, 1939: Countdown to War (2010); and Franco during the Second World War: and M. J. Carley, The Alliance That Never From the Spanish Civil War to Pearl Harbor Was and the Coming of World War II (1999), (2008); and P. Day, Franco’s Friends: How on the failure to create a Western-Soviet al- British Intelligence Helped Bring Franco to liance at the time. A. J. P. Taylor’s contro- Power in Spain (2011). A large-scale criti- versial, problematic work The Origins of cal study of Franco is P. Preston, Franco: the Second World War (1961) depicts Hitler A Biography (1995); but one may also read as one who did not desire war but took ad- S. Ellwood, Franco (1994); G. A Hodges, vantage of his opponents’ uncertainty. On Franco: A Concise Biography (2000), which the Taylor thesis one may read the evalu- offers a psychological interpretation of Fran- ations in G. Martel (ed.), “The Origins of co’s actions; and D. W. Pike, Franco and the the Second World War” Reconsidered: The Axis stigma (2008). S. G. Payne has written A. J. P. Taylor Debate after Twenty-Five a comprehensive study, Fascism in Spain, Years (1986), and R. Boyce and E. M. Rob- 1923–1977 (1999); an earlier study on ertson (eds.), Paths to War: New Essays on Franco’s years in power, The Franco Regime, the Origins of the Second World War (1989). 1936–1975 (1987); and an account of the So- A major study of German foreign viet role in the war, The Spanish Civil War, the policy based on exhaustive use of the docu- Soviet Union, and Communism (2004). ments and strongly emphasizing Hitler’s responsibilities and initiatives is G. L. Wein- Background to the Second World War berg, Hitler’s Foreign Policy: The Road to Although there is no one comprehen- World War II, 1933–1939 (1970, 2005). A sive treatment taking into account all the second study with similar conclusions is N. sources now available for the diplomacy of Rich, Hitler’s War Aims (2 vols.; 1973–1974). the interwar years and the background to the For assessments of German foreign policy, Second World War, there are a number of one may also read K. Hildebrand, The Foreign important books on the subject. Among the Policy of the Third Reich (1974); J. Hiden,

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Germany and Europe, 1919–1939 (rev. Realities behind Diplomacy: Background 1993); J. Wright, Germany and the Ori- Infl uences on British External Policy, 1865– gins of the Second World War (2007); and 1980 (1983), and C. J. Bartlett, British For- J. Thies, Hitler’s Plans for Global Domina- eign Policy in the Twentieth Century (1989). tion: Nazi Architecture and Ultimate War For French foreign policy in these Aims (trans. 2012). years, the fullest accounts are by A. P. Ad- British policy in the 1930s, includ- amthwaite, France and the Coming of the ing the economic and political constraints Second World War, 1936–1939 (1977) and on a more assertive policy, is examined in Grandeur and Misery: France’s Bid for M. Cowling, The Impact of Hitler: Brit- Power in Europe, 1914–1940 (1995), cited ish Politics and British Policy, 1933–1940 earlier. They may be supplemented by R. J. (1975); R. P. Shay Jr., British Rearmament Young, France and the Origins of the Sec- in the Thirties: Politics and Profi ts (1977); ond World War (1996). The limited options J. Levy, Appeasement and Rearmament: of the Popular Front are carefully examined Britain, 1936–1939 (2006); A. D. Sted- in N. Jordan, The Popular Front and Cen- man, Alternatives to Appeasement: Neville tral Europe: The Dilemmas of French Im- Chamberlain and Hitler’s Germany (2011); potence, 1918–1940 (1992). and F. McDonough, Neville Chamberlain, There are many books on specifi c epi- Appeasement, and the British Road to War sodes and subjects. The German militariza- (1998), which shows the links between do- tion of the Rhineland is examined in J. T. mestic and foreign policies. Perspectives Emerson, The Rhineland Crisis, 7 March that focus on more than Chamberlain’s 1936 (1977), and the earlier Allied occupa- role are S. Rudman., Lloyd George and the tion of that region is discussed in M. Pawley, Appeasement of Germany, 1919–1945 The Watch on the Rhine: The Military Occu- (2011); and P. Neville, Hitler and Appease- pation of the Rhineland, 1918–1930 (2007). ment: The British Attempt to Prevent the On the annexation of Austria, one may read Second World War (2006). The opposi- J. Thorpe, Pan-Germanism and the Austro- tion to appeasement is examined in two fascist State, 1933–38 (2011), and D. Wag- books by R. A. C. Parker, Chamberlain and ner and G. Tomkowitz, Anschluss: The Week Appeasement (1993) and Churchill and Hitler Seized Vienna (1971). For Munich, Appeasement (2000). K. Robbins, Appease- the best detailed account is T. Taylor, Mu- ment (rev. 1997), provides a brief overview nich: The Price of Peace (1978), but there of the debate. are more recent perspectives in D. Gillard, For the 1930s, Winston Churchill’s Appeasement in Crisis: From Munich to The Gathering Storm (1948), covering his Prague, October 1938–March 1939 (2007), years in the opposition, the fi rst volume and D. Faber, Munich, 1938: Appeasement of his indispensable six-volume history, and World War II (2009); and the Soviet described below, offers valuable perspec- response is examined in H. Ragsdale, The tives. Biographical studies focusing on Soviets, the Munich Crisis, and the Com- British foreign policy include two studies of ing of World War II (2004). G. A. Craig and Anthony Eden—one, by D. Carlton (1981), F. Gilbert (eds.), The Diplomats, 1919–1938 highly critical; the second, by R. Rhodes (1953, 1994), includes valuable chapters on James (1987), more defensive. For Neville the individuals who helped make foreign Chamberlain there is a study by J. Charm- policy in the era. The interpretations and ley (1990), somewhat defensive, and a bal- misinterpretations of appeasement in later anced assessment by W. R. Rock (1969). historical periods is the subject of J. Record, Studies of British foreign policy in a longer- The Specter of Munich: Reconsidering the range perspective include P. Kennedy, The Lessons of Appeasing Hitler (2007).

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Studies focusing on eastern Europe in- the war in Europe, see M. Perry, World War clude A. Cienciala, Poland and the Western II in Europe: A Concise History (2013); M. Powers, 1938–1939 (1968); and A. J. Praz- Hastings, Armageddon: The Battle for Ger- mowska, Britain, Poland, and the Eastern many, 1944–1945 (2004), which focuses on Front, 1939 (1987). The origins and subse- the war’s fi nal military campaigns; S. P. Mac- quent history of the German-Soviet Pact of Kenzie, The Second World War in Europe August 23, 1939, are recounted in A. Read (2009); and S. Mercatante, Why Germany and D. Fisher, The Deadly Embrace: Hitler, Nearly Won: A New History of the Second Stalin and the Nazi-Soviet Pact, 1939–1941 World War in Europe (2012). The Oxford (1989). The role of the United States in Companion to World War II (1995) offers these years is traced in C. A. MacDonald, encyclopedic coverage of all aspects of the The United States, Britain, and Appease- war, and D. Flower and J. Reeves, The War, ment, 1930–1939 (1981); D. Reynolds, The 1939–1945: A Documentary History (1960, Creation of the Anglo-American Alliance, 1997), is a helpful anthology. J. Keegan has 1937–1941 (1982); W. R. Rock, Chamber- edited the superb Times Atlas of the Second lain and Roosevelt: British Foreign Policy World War (1989), and he analyzes histori- and the United States, 1937–1940 (1989); cal and other writings on the war, includ- and W. F. Kimball, Roosevelt, Churchill, ing the myths and controversies surround- and the Second World War (1997). For the ing it, in The Battle for History: Re-fi ghting United States’ entrance into the war, see World War II (1996). W. S. Churchill, The C. Shirley, December 1941: 31 Days That Second World War (6 vols.; 1948–1953; Changed America and Saved the World 1 vol. abridged, 1959), already mentioned, (2011). The widening of the Japanese inva- is a valuable narrative history by the sion of China in 1937 and the later expan- historian-statesman written in the grand sion of the European confl ict into a global style, but it should be read in conjunction war are discussed in A. Iriye, The Origins with other studies now available. M. Gil- of the Second World War in Asia and the Pa- bert, Churchill: A Life (1992), synthesizes cifi c (1987), and W. Carr, Poland to Pearl Gilbert’s monumental offi cial biography (8 Harbor (1985). vols.; 1966–1989). Of many other biographies, K. Robbins, Churchill (1992, and J. The War: Military Aspects Keegan, Winston Churchill (2002), provide Of the numerous narrative histories of the balanced brief studies; J. Lukes, Churchill: war, the most comprehensive syntheses Visionary, Statesman, Historian (2002), ex- include J. Keegan, The Second World War amines Churchill’s strategic ideas; and I. S. (1989, 2005), and G. L. Weinberg, A World Wood, Churchill (2000), surveys the his- at Arms: A Global History of World War II torical literature on the British prime min- (rev. 2005). Also available are H. P. Will- ister. The latest single-volume account is A. mott, The Great Crusade: A New Complete Jackson, Churchill (2011). Churchill’s view History of the Second World War (2008); of the war is also examined in G. Wein- T. Zeiler, Annihilation: A Global Military berg, Visions of Victory: The Hopes of Eight History of World War II (2011); P. Calva- World War II Leaders (2005), an important coressi, G. Wint, and J. Pritchard, Total work that includes analysis of other key fi g- War: Causes and Courses of the Second ures such as Hitler, Stalin, and Roosevelt. World War (rev. 1989); A. W. Purdue, The Another source for biographical informa- Second World War (rev. 2011), a concise tion is S. Berthon and J. Potts, Warlords: An overview of the main events; S. Tucker, Extraordinary Re-Creation of World War The Second World War (2004); and A. II through the Eyes and Minds of Hitler, Beevor, The Second World War (2012). For Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin (2006).

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The naval war is described in R. Gates, End of the Affair: The Collapse of the Hough, The Longest Battle: The War at Anglo-French Alliance, 1939–1940 (1981). Sea, 1939–1945 (1986), and the air war W. L. Shirer, The Collapse of the is examined in R. Grattan, The Origins of Third Republic: An Inquiry into the Fall the Air War: The Development of Military of France in 1940 (1969), is a thoughtful Air Strategy in World War I (2009), and R. older account by a refl ective journalist; and Ehlers, Targeting the Third Reich: Air Intel- M. Bloch, Strange Defeat (1940), is an in- ligence and the Allied Bombing Campaigns cisive memoir by the eminent medievalist (2009). The greatest air battle is the subject later executed as a member of the Resist- of R. Hough and D. Richards, The Battle of ance. J. Blatt (ed.), The French Defeat of Britain (1989), and J. Holland, The Battle 1940: Reassessments (1997), provides a of Britain: Five Months That Changed His- valuable set of essays. tory, May–October 1940 (2011). The moral The Russo-Finnish confl ict of 1939– implications of bombing are discussed in 1940 is narrated in W. Trotter, A Frozen A. C. Grayling, Among the Dead Cities: Hell: The Russo-Finnish Winter War of The History and Moral Legacy of the WWII 1939–1940 (1991, 2000); B. Irincheev, War Bombing of Civilians in Germany and Ja- of the White Death: Finland against the pan (2006); and in the collection, Y. Tanaka Soviet Union, 1939–40 (2011); and R. Ed- and M. Young (eds.), Bombing Civilians: A wards, The Winter War: Russia’s Invasion Twentieth-Century History (2009). A com- of Finland, 1939–40 (2008). For the grand prehensive account of cryptography cover- and deadly sweep of the central European ing all theaters of the war is S. Budiansky, confl ict before and during the war, read- Battle of Wits: The Complete Story of Code- ers should consult the excellent T. Snyder, breaking in World War II (2000), which is Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and updated in M. Paterson, The Secret War: Stalin (2010). The war in eastern Europe The Inside Story of the Code Makers and after the German invasion is described in A. Code Breakers of World War II (2007). Clark, Barbar ossa: The Russian-German The military aspects of France’s de- Confl ict, 1941–1945 (1965, 1996); two feat in 1940 may be approached through works by J. Erickson, The Road to Stalin- A. Horne, To Lose a Battle: France, 1940 grad (1975, 1999) and The Road to Berlin (1969); A. Shennan, The Fall of France, (1984, 1999); L. Baker, The Second World 1940 (2000); J. Jackson, The Fall of France: War on the Eastern Front (2009); and D. The Nazi Invasion of 1940 (2003); and E. R. Stahel, Operation Barbarossa and Ger- May, Strange Victory: Hitler’s Conquest of many’s Defeat in the East (2009). A. Paul, France (2001), a provocative in-depth study, Katyn: The Untold Story of Stalin’s Polish which concludes that the German victory Massacre (1991), and G. Stanford, Katyn was far from inevitable. The background and the Soviet Massacre of 1940 (2005), tell to the defeat is explored in R. F. Young, In the history of an early episode of the war in Command of France: French Foreign Policy which more than 4,000 Polish offi cers and and Military Planning, 1933–1940 (1978), soldiers captured in 1939 were executed at and M. S. Alexander, The Republic in Dan- Stalin’s orders. ger: General Maurice Gamelin and the Pol- The war in the Pacifi c is ably presented itics of French Defence, 1938–1940 (1993). in D. Ford, The Pacifi c War: Clash of Em- The effects on civilians are covered in N. pires in World War II (2012). A far-reaching D. Risser, France under Fire: German In- study examining the impact of the war on vasion, Civilian Flight and Family Survival Asia is C. Thorne, The Far Eastern War: during World War II (2012). The French re- States and Societies, 1941–1945 (1985, lationship with Britain is studied in E. M. 1988). On the last phase in the Pacifi c,

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W. Craig, The Fall of Japan (1968), helps D. Reynolds, The American Occupation of illuminate debates over how inevitable or Britain, 1942–1945 (1995). imminent Japan’s surrender was. This issue The entry of women into the wartime is also addressed in the controversial work labor force is examined in K. Anderson, War- of T. Hasegawa, Racing the Enemy: Stalin, time Women: Sex Roles, Family Relations, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan (2005), and the Status of Women during World War II which argues that the Soviet Union’s entry (1981), and in the essays in M. R. Higonnet et into the war against Japan was the key fac- al. (eds.), Behind the Lines: Gender and the tor in the Japanese decision to surrender. Two World Wars (1987). Women’s wartime On the development of the atomic experiences are also described in N. A. Dom- bomb and its fi rst use, one may read R. browski (ed.), Women and War in the Twen- Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb tieth Century (1999); H. Diamond, Women (1986), a remarkably comprehensive ac- and the Second World War in France, count, which may be supplemented by J. S. 1939–1948 (1999); J. Purcell, The Domestic Walker, Prompt and Utter Destruction: Tru- Soldiers (2010); and V. Nicholson, Millions man and the Use of Atomic Bombs against Like Us: Women’s Lives in War and Peace, Japan (rev. 2004); and W. Miscamble, The 1939–1949 (2011). Most Controversial Decision: Truman, the Many aspects of the home front in Ger- Atomic Bombs, and the Defeat of Japan many are covered in books cited for chapter (2011). M. Walker, German National So- 20. That Hitler did not prepare for war in cialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power, depth because he expected a quick victory 1939–1949 (1990), describes the German emerges from B. A. Carroll, Design for Total effort to create an atomic bomb. War: Arms and Economics in the Third Re- ich (1968), and A. S. Milward, The German The War: Social and Economic Impact Economy at War (1965). R. J. Overy, War and The social and economic dimensions of Economy in the Third Reich (1995), by con- the war are examined in a well-informed, trast, argues that the German economy was one-volume synthesis by A. S. Milward, well prepared for prolonged military produc- War, Economy, and Society, 1939–1945 tion. The daily experience of war is illuminat- (1977); but readers should also consult ed in F. Tubach, German Voices: Memories of the more recent works by P. Cooksley, The Life during Hitler’s Third Reich (2011). Home Front: Civilian Life in World War Two (2007), and S. Kennedy, The Shock Hitler’s New Order: Collaboration of War: Civilian Experiences, 1937–1945 and Resistance (2011). For the British wartime scene, A. The fi rst attempt to study the German oc- Calder, The People’s War: Britain, 1939– cupation of Europe as a whole appeared 1945 (1969), is highly informative, and to in A. Toynbee and V. Toynbee (eds.), Hit- it should be added J. Welshman, Church- ler’s Europe (1954). Readers should con- ill’s Children: The Evacuee Experience in sult the latest account, however, found in Wartime Britain (2010); and J. Anderson, M. Mazower, Hitler’s Empire: How the The War Years: Life in Britain during 1939 Nazis Ruled Europe (2008). The econom- to 1945 (2007). E. S. Beck, The European ics of occupation are covered in G. Aly, Home Fronts, 1939–1945 (1993), is a useful Hitler’s Benefi ciaries: Plunder, Racial War, brief synthesis. The wartime Soviet scene is and the Nazi Welfare State (trans. 2007); H. studied in detail in J. Barber and M. Har- Klemann, Occupied Economies: An Eco- rison, The Soviet Home Front, 1941–1945 nomic History of Nazi-Occupied Europe, (1992). The American troops stationed 1939–1945 (2012); and R. Evans, The in Britain are studied with good humor in Third Reich at War, 1939–1945 (2008).

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On the enslavement of workers for the Nazi experiences under Vichy. A. S. Milward, war industry, see U. Herbert, Hitler’s For- The New Order and the French Economy eign Workers: Enforced Foreign Labor un- (1970), surveys the economic aspects of der the Third Reich (trans. 1997). Studies on the regime, while cultural aspects may the experience of occupation and resistance be approached through A. Kaplan, Fas- include R. Gildea, O. Wieviorka and A. War- cism, Literature, and French Intellectual ring (eds.), Surviving Hitler and Mussolini: Life (1986); G. Hirshfeld and P. Marsh Daily Life in Occupied Europe (2006); and (eds.), Collaboration in France: Politics P. Blood, Hitler’s Bandit Hunters: The SS and Culture during the Nazi Occupation, and the Nazi Occupation of Europe (2006). 1940–1944 (1989); and M. C. Cone, Art- Among the most informative books ists under Vichy (1992). For the French on the French responses to the Nazi oc- postwar struggle to face up to the Vichy cupation are J. Jackson, France: The Dark trauma, one should read H. Rousso, The Years, 1940–1944 (2001), a comprehen- Vichy Syndrome: History and Memory in sive analysis; P. Burrin, France under the France since 1944 (trans. 1991); E. Conan Germans: Collaboration and Compromise and H. Rousso, Vichy: The Ever-Present (trans. 1997); I. Ousby, Occupation: The Past (trans. 1998); and R. J. Golsan, Vi- Ordeal of France (1997); R. Gildea, Mari- chy’s Afterlife: History and Counterhistory anne in Chains: Daily Life in the Heart in Postwar France (2000). of France during the German Occupation The Resistance in France may be (2002); R. Vinen, The Unfree French: Life studied in D. Schoenbrun, Soldiers of under the Occupation (2006); A. Mitchell, the Night: The Story of the French Resis- Nazi Paris: The History of an Occupation, tance (1980); J. F. Sweets, The Politics of 1940–1944 (2008); N. Tafl inger, Season Resistance in France, 1940–1944 (1976); of Suffering: Coming of Age in Occupied M. L. Rossiter, W omen in the Resistance France, 1940–45 (2010); and O. Wievi- (1985); and M. Cobb, The Resistance: The orka, Divided Memory: French Recollec- French Fight against the Nazis (2009). tions of World War II from the Liberation to The liberation is dramatically described in the Present (2012). A concise overview is R. Aron, France Reborn (trans. 1964); re- available in P. Davies, France and the Sec- lated events are also discussed in P. Novick, ond World War: Occupation, Collaboration The Resistance versus Vichy: The Purge of and Resistance (2001). R. O. Paxton, Vichy Collaborators in Liberated France (1969), France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940– and H. R. Lottman, The Purge (1986). The 1944 (1972), examines the ideology and divisions in France over the purge are stud- policies of the Vichy regime. R. O. Paxton ied in M. Koreman, The Expectation of and M. R. Marrus, Vichy France and the Justice: France, 1944–1946 (1999). On the Jews (1981, 1995), demonstrates the trials of collaborators, some of them years French initiative for many actions against later, one may read R. J. Golsan (ed.), Mem- the Jews, on which one should also read ory, the Holocaust, and French Justice: The S. Zucotti, The Holocaust, the French, Bousquet and Touvier Affairs (1996), and and the Jews (1993). J. F. Sweets, Choices A. Kaplan , The Collaborator: The Trial and in Vichy France: The French under Nazi Execution of Robert Brassillach (2000). Occupation (1986), poignantly demon- For the years from the 1930s to liberation, strates the complexities of collaboration Charles de Gaulle’s War Memoirs (3 vols.; and resistance in an industrial city; and trans. 1958–1960) are indispensable. De S. Fogg, The Politics of Everyday Life in Gaulle’s wartime diffi culties with London Vichy France: Foreigners, Undesirables, and Washington are described in F. Ker- and Strangers (2009), offers insights on the saudy, Churchill and de Gaulle (1982), and

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R. Aglion, Roosevelt and de Gaulle: Al- war effort is disclosed in I. Vincent, Silent lies in Confl ict (trans. 1988), by one of de Partners: Swiss Bankers, Nazi Gold, and Gaulle’s diplomats. For de Gaulle, J. La- the Pursuit of Justice (1998); while S. Hal- couture’s biography (2 vols.; trans. 1992) is brook, The Swiss and the Nazis: How the an outstanding account: vol. 1, The Rebel, Alpine Republic Survived in the Shadow of 1890–1944, and vol. 2, The Ruler, 1945– the Third Reich (2006), offers another per- 1970; there are more recent interpretations spective on Swiss behavior during the war. in J. Jackson, Charles de Gaulle (2003); M. Useful studies of the Europe-wide Haskew, De Gaulle: Lessons in Leadership Resistance include M. R. D. Foot, Resis- from the Defi ant General (2011); and J. tance: European Resistance to Nazism, Fenby, The General: Charles de Gaulle and 1940–1945 (1977); J. Haestrup, European the France He Saved ( 2012). Resistance Movements, 1939–1945 (rev. A sampling of studies of other coun- 1981); and D. Gluckstein, A People’s His- tries under the German occupation in- tory of the Second World War: Resistance clude G. Hirschfeld, Nazi Rule and Dutch versus Empire (2012). Country-specifi c ac- Collaboration, 1940–1945 (trans. 1988); counts include D. Lampe, Hitler’s Savage J. Foray, Visions of Empire in the Na- Canary: A History of the Danish Resistance zi-Occupied Netherlands (2012); R. L. in World War II (2011); B. Hoogstraten, The Braham, The Hungarian Labor Service Resistance Fighters: The Immense Struggle System, 1939–1945 (1977); J. Gillingham, of Holland during World War II (2008); Belgian Business and the Nazi New Order P. Cooke, The Legacy of the Italian Resis- (1977); V. Hionidou, Famine and Death in tance (2011); T. Behan, The Italian Resis- Occupied Greece, 1941–1944 (2006); S. tance: Fascists, Guerrillas and the Allies Lecoeur, Mussolini’s Greek Island: Fas- (2009); and D. Williamson, The Polish Un- cism and the Italian Occupation of Syros derground, 1939–1947 (2012); while a very in World War II (2009); and M. Mazower, different response to the Nazis is the sub- Inside Hitler’s Greece: The Experience of ject of L. Rein, The Kings and the Pawns: Occupation, 1941–1944 (1993). The Polish Collaboration in Byelorussia during World experience is recounted in R. C. Lukas, The War II (2011). The renovative spirit of the Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles under Ger- Resistance and its message for the postwar man Occupation, 1939–1944 (1986); and E. world are captured in J. D. Wilkinson, The Tucker, Remembering Occupied Warsaw: Intellectual Resistance in Europe (1981). Polish Narratives of World War II (2011). The ethical aspects of collaboration and N. Davies, Rising ’44: “The Battle for War- resistance are explored in R. Bennett, Un- saw” (2003), recounts the Polish uprising der the Shadow of the Swastika: The Moral against the Germans, which was crushed in Dilemmas of Resistance and Collaboration 1944; while M. Arens, Flags over the War- in Hitler’s Europe (1999). For the role of saw Ghetto: The Untold Story of the Warsaw women, see I. Strobl, Partisanas: Women Ghetto Uprising (2011), covers its precur- in the Armed Resistance to Fascism and sor. In its Norwegian setting, collaboration- German Occupation (1936–1945) (2008). ism is illustrated in detail in O. K. Hoidal, Books on the German Resistance have been Quisling: A Study in Treason (1989). The cited for chapter 20. Nazi purloining of Europe’s art treasures is described in L. H. Nicholas, The Rape of The Holocaust Europa: The Fate of Europe’s Treasures in There is now a vast literature on the grim the Third Reich and the Second World War subject of the Nazis’ systematic, willful, (1994). The role of the Swiss banks in con- mass slaughter of the European Jews dur- cealing the looted gold used for the Nazi ing the war years. The most informative

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and comprehensive study is R. Hilberg, The Levi’s moving accounts of his experience, Destruction of the European Jews (3 vols.; Survival in Auschwitz (trans. 1947; 1958) rev. 2003), which may be supplemented and The Drowned and the Saved (trans. by the same author’s Perpetrators, Vic- 1986). One may also read E. Kogon, The tims, Bystanders: The Jewish Catastrophe, Theory and Practice of Hell (1950); T. Des 1933–1945 (1992). The early organization Pres, The Survivor: An Anatomy of a Life of the Nazi system of mass murder is de- in the Death Camps (1976); T. Segev, Sol- scribed in C. R. Browning, The Origins of diers of Evil: The Commandants of the Nazi the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Concentration Camps (trans. 1989); and Jewish Policy, September 1939–March W. Sofsky, The Order of Terror: The Con- 1942 (2004), an outstanding, carefully re- centration Camp (trans. 1997). Recent con- searched study. Other important studies are tributions include P. Montague, Chełmno M. Gilbert, The Holocaust: The History and the Holocaust: The History of Hitler’s of the Jews of Europe during the Second First Death Camp (2012); D. Blatman, The World War (1986); I. Kershaw, Hitler, the Death Marches: The Final Phase of Nazi Germans, and the Final Solution (2008); Genocide (2012); C. Browning, Remem- Y. Bauer, A History of the Holocaust (1982) bering Survival: Inside a Nazi Slave-Labor and Re-thinking the Holocaust (2001); and Camp (2012); and W. Gruner, Jewish Forced P. Longerich, Holocaust: The Nazi Per- Labor under the Nazis: Economic Needs secution and Murder of the Jews (trans. and Racial Aims, 1938–1944 (2006). On 2010). A provocative interpretive account the link between the medical profession and is A. J. Mayer, Why Did the Heavens Not the killings, R. J. Lifton, The Death Doc- Darken? The “Final Solution” in History tors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of (1989), which sees the root cause in earlier Genocide (1987), may be read along with H. twentieth-century destructiveness. An ex- Friedlander, The Origins of Nazi Genocide haustive reference work, with contributions (1995), focusing on its prewar program of by many scholars and with bibliographies euthanasia for the sick and the handicapped. in many languages, is I. Gutman (ed.), En- For a case study, see U. Schmidt, Karl cyclopedia of the Holocaust (4 vols.; 1990), Brandt: The Nazi Doctor, Medicine, and while the best one-volume coverage is in W. Power in the Third Reich (2007). Laqueur (ed.), The Holocaust Encyclopedia For the debate over the origin of the (2001). M. Gilbert edited an Atlas of the Holocaust, that is, between “intentional- Holocaust (1993). A more recent resource ists,” who see the genocidal destruction is J. Friedman (ed.), The Routledge History as motivated from the beginning by Hitler of the Holocaust (2011). and his ideology, and “functionalists,” who H. Fein, Accounting for Genocide: see it as developing incrementally once National Responses and Jewish Victimiza- the Nazis controlled eastern Europe, the tion during the Holocaust (1979), examines best synthesis is C. Browning, The Path to the diversity of the experience in different Genocide: Essays on Launching the Final countries, while R. L. Braham, The Politics Solution (1992); readers should also con- of Genocide: The Holocaust in Hungary (2 sult the more recent T. Lawson, Debates on vols.; 1981), is an outstanding study of one the Holocaust (2010). Hitler’s fundamental country. A key episode of Jewish resistance responsibility is described in G. Fleming, is recounted in I. Gutman, The Jews of War- Hitler and the Final Solution (1984), and saw, 1939–1943: Ghetto, Underground, Re- R. Breitman, The Architect of Genocide: volt (trans. 1982). The Final Solution (1991). Among many studies of the concentra- The subject of much discussion and tion and death camps, one should read Primo controversy, D. Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing

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Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the books: D. E. Lipstadt, The Growing Assault Holocaust (1996), argues that ordinary Ger- on Truth and Memory (1993), and P. Vidal- mans, not only Nazi extremists, participated Naquet, Assassins of Memory: Essays on in the brutal killings because they shared the Denial of the Holocaust (trans. 1992). a German legacy of “eliminationist anti- For an account of the holocaust and its Semitism.” On the other hand, C. Browning, legacy in Russia, see Y. Arad, The Holo- Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion caust in the Soviet Union (2009). 101 and the Final Solution in Poland (1992, There is a large literature on the failure 1999), demonstrates that peer pressures on of the authorities in the United States, Brit- the German participants seemed to be more ain, and the Vatican to rescue the doomed important than any historical legacy of anti- European Jews; among the more searching Semitism. inquiries are B. Wasserstein, Britain and How historians have written about the the Jews of Europe, 1939–1945 (1979); subject is explored in L. S. Dawidowicz, M. Gilbert, Auschwitz and the Allies (1981); The Holocaust and the Historians (1981); and R. Breitman, Offi cial Secrets: What the D. Engel, Historians of the Jews and the Nazis Planned, What the British and Ameri- Holocaust (2010); D. Stone, Histories of cans Knew (1998). For German institutional the Holocaust (2010); and P. Bartrop and complicity, see R. Ericksen, Complicity in S. L. Jacobs, Fifty Key Thinkers on the the Holocaust: Churches and Universi- Holocaust and Genocide (2010). A much- ties in Nazi Germany (2012). On the role discussed essay on the question of respon- of the Vatican in these years, one may read sibility and guilt is H. Arendt, Eichmann in M. Phayer, The Catholic Church and the Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil Holocaust, 1930–1965 (2000), and J. P. (1963, 1994), written at the time of the trial Gallagher, The Scarlet and the Black: The of the high-ranking bureaucrat who carried True Story of Monsignor Hugh O’Flaherty, out much of the operation. Y. Bauer, The Hero of the Vatican Underground (2009). Holocaust in Historical Perspective (1978), Numerous studies that indict the wartime argues the uniqueness of the episode and pope for failure to take more decisive action disputes later misuses of the word “geno- include J. Cornwell, Hitler’s Pope: The Se- cide”; on that issue, one may also read cret History of Pius XII (1999); S. Zucotti, L. Kuper, Genocide: Its Political Use in the Under the Very Windows: The Vatican and Twentieth Century (1982). the Holocaust in Italy (2001); and G. Noel, The acrimonious debate among Ger- Pius XII: The Hound of Hitler (2008). More man historians in the mid-1980s, in which balanced accounts are P. O’Shea, A Cross E. Nolte and others sought to diminish the Too Heavy: Pope Pius XII and the Jews of evils of the Holocaust by comparing it to Europe (2011); and E. Fattorini, Hitler, Mus- other twentieth-century atrocities such as solini and the Vatican: Pope Pius XI and the those of Stalin, is thoughtfully explored in C. Speech That Was Never Made (2011). S. Maier, The Unmasterable Past: History, For the Nazi atrocities against other Holocaust, and German National Identity ethnic groups in Europe, including Rus- (1988), and R. J. Evans, In Hitler’s Shadow: sians, Poles, Gypsies, and others, one may West German Historians and the Attempt read B. Wytwycky, The Other Holocaust: to Escape from the Nazi Past (1989). On Many Circles of Hell (1986), a brief intro- a related subject one may read J. Kramer, duction, and the essays in M. Berenbaum The Politics of Memory: Looking for Ger- (ed.), A Mosaic of Victims: Non-Jews Per- many in the New Germany (1996). Broader secuted and Murdered by the Nazis (1992). efforts to deny or minimize the Holocaust For the fate of the Gypsies, or Roma, one are critically scrutinized in two persuasive may read I. Fonseca, Bury Me Standing:

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The Gypsies and Their Journey (1995), and Between War and Peace: The Potsdam Con- D. Kenrick and G. Puxon, Gypsies under ference (1960); and on the last phase, The the Swastika (2009). Atomic Bomb and the End of the War in the The proceedings of the Nuremberg tri- Pacifi c (1961, 1966). Of special value are J. als were published by the postwar Interna- L. Gaddis, The United States and the Origins tional Military Tribunal as Trial of the Major of the Cold War, 1941–1947 (rev. 2000), and War Criminals before the International Mil- the early chapters of the same author’s The itary Tribunal, 1945–1946 (42 vols.; 1947– Cold War: A New History (2005); V. Mast- 1949) and Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression ny, Russia’s Road to the Cold War (1979); (8 vols., 2 supplements; 1946–1958). B. F. and R. V. Daniels, Russia: The Roots of Smith’s Reaching Judgment at Nuremberg Confrontation (1985). Recent contribu- (1977) and The Road to Nuremberg (1981) tions to the literature include I. Kershaw, argue that the trials prevented an anarchic Fateful Choices: Ten Decisions That bloodbath and should not be dismissed as Changed the World, 1940–1941 (2007); merely “victor’s justice.” Other thought- F. Harbutt, Yalta 1945: Europe and America ful discussions are found in R. E. Conot, at the Crossroads (2010); and F. Costigliola, Justice at Nuremberg (1983); J. E. Persica, Roosevelt’s Lost Alliances: How Personal Nuremberg: Infamy on Trial (1995); T. Politics Helped Start the Cold War (2012). Taylor, The Anatomy of the Nuremberg On the American use of the atomic Trials (1993), by a chief prosecutor who bomb, one may read M. J. Sherwin, A analyzes defi ciencies in the procedures and World Destroyed: The Atomic Bomb and questions the effectiveness of the trials as the Grand Alliance (1975), an impressive, a deterrent to later wrongdoing; and V. G. balanced study; and J. Delgado, Nuclear Hébert, Hitler’s Generals on Trial: The Last Dawn: The Atomic Bomb, from the Man- War Crimes Tribunal at Nuremberg (2010). hattan Project to the Cold War (2009). For M. R. Marrus, The Nuremberg War Crimes the debate over the dropping of the bomb, Trial, 1945–46: A Documentary History a debate that was renewed on its 50th (1997), provides a concise analysis as well anniversary, one may read G. Alperowitz and as excerpts from key documents. The trials others, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb of the Japanese war leaders are analyzed in and the Architecture of an American Myth Y. Totani, The Tokyo War Crimes Trial: The (1995), highly critical; while R. V. Maddox, Pursuit of Justice in the Wake of World War The Hiroshima Decision Fifty Years Later II (2008). On national responses to these (1995), defends the use of the bomb. The events in later years, one may read an in- continuing moral dilemma is ably presented sightful study by I. Buruma, The Wages of in R. J. Lifton and G. Mitchell, Hiroshima in Guilt: Memories of War in Germany and America: Fifty Years of Denial (1995). Japan (1994). For studies of the historically unpar- alleled movements of populations during Wartime Diplomacy and Origins and following the war, readers may turn to of the Cold War M. Wyman, DP: Europe’s Displaced Per- A large literature has emerged stressing the sons, 1945–1951 (1989, 1998); G. D. Cohen, origins of the Cold War in Soviet-American In War’s Wake: Europe’s Displaced Persons wartime relations. The volumes of H. Feis, in the Postwar Order (2012); P. Ahonen, sympathetic to the Western leaders, are in- People on the Move: Forced Population dispensable as an introduction: Churchill, Movements in Europe in the Second World Roosevelt, Stalin: The War They Waged and War and Its Aftermath (2008); and T. Zahra, the Peace They Sought (1957), covering the The Lost Children: Reconstructing Europe’s years from 1941 to the collapse of Germany; Families after World War II (2011).

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Useful Web Sites and Online Resources Politics, 1941–1991 (1995); S. J. Ball, The A comprehensive, well-organized listing Cold War: An International History, 1947– of Web sites on every aspect of the Second 1991 (1998); J. L. Gaddis, The Cold War: World War may be found at Hyperwar: A New History (2005); G. Barrass, The A Hypertext History of the Second World Great Cold War: A Journey through the Hall War, www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar . Additional of Mirrors (2009); and J. L. Harper, The materials on the war, focusing somewhat on Cold War (2011). In addition to other books Great Britain, are available at BBC-History, on the wartime origins of the Cold War, cited previously; and other resources may cited for the previous chapter, thoughtful be consulted at the Belgian-based Centre works include W. LaFeber, America, Russia, for Historical Research and Documentation and the Cold War, 1945–2000 (rev. 2002); on War and Contemporary Society, at www. F. J. Harbutt, The Cold War Era (2002); cegesoma.be/cms/index_en.php . Readers C. Kennedy-Pipe, The Origins of the Cold will fi nd helpful links to diverse sources on War (2007); and M. McCauley, Origins of France during the war and the Nazi occu- the Cold War, 1941–1949 (2008). J. L. Gad- pation at Vichy Web, http://artsweb.bham. dis has helped to evaluate interpretations of ac.uk/vichy, an excellent site maintained the Cold War, on the basis of archival evi- in Great Britain by S. Kitson at the Univer- dence now available from the Soviet fi les, sity of Birmingham. The best starting point in We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War for Web-based materials on the Holocaust History (1997), much of which confi rms is the United States Holocaust Memo- many earlier interpretations. For a judicious rial Museum, at www.ushmm.org ; and Yad assessment of the Cold War compromises in Vashem’s site, at www.yadvashem.org . Europe, one may read M. Trachtenberg, A Constructed Peace: The Making of the Eu- 22. COLD WAR AND RECONSTRUC- ropean Settlement, 1945–1963 (1999). TION AFTER THE SECOND WORLD Two early efforts to examine the ten- WAR sions in broader historical perspective, go- The Cold War ing back to 1917, are L. Halle, The Cold War Informative narratives for the global history as History (1967), and A. Fontaine, History of the post-1945 years include D. Reynolds, of the Cold War (2 vols.; trans. 1968–1969). One World Divisible: A Global History since A large revisionist literature blamed Ameri- 1945 (2000); W. M. Spellman, A Concise can postwar political and economic ambi- History of the World since 1945: States and tions or miscalculations for the Cold War. Peoples (2006); M. Hunt, The World Trans- One of the most cogent of such interpreta- formed: 1945 to the Present (2004); W. R. tions is W. A. Williams, The Tragedy of Keylor, A World of Nations: The Interna- American Diplomacy (rev. 1988). For guid- tional Order since 1945 (2009); and P. Cal- ance to the literature as a whole, including vocoressi, World Politics since 1945 (2009). the revisionist accounts, one may turn to J. For the twentieth century as a whole, see L. Black, Origins, Evolution and Nature of J. M. Roberts, Twentieth Century: The His- the Cold War: An Annotated Bibliography tory of the World, 1901 to 2000 (2000); and (1986), and J. W. Young, The Longman Com- W. R. Keylor, The Twentieth-Century World panion to America, Russia, and the Cold and Beyond: An International History since War, 1941–1998 (rev. 1999). E. H. Judge and 1900 (rev. 2006). Studies examining the J. W. Langdon (eds.), The Cold War: A His- Cold War with new historical perspectives tory through Documents (1999), provides a after the collapse of the Soviet Union in- helpful selection of key documents. clude R. Crockett, The Fifty Years’ War: The The transition from the Second World United States and the Soviet Union in World War to the postwar years is explored in

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H. Thomas, Armed Truce: The Beginnings the Creation of the UN (1998); S. Meisler, of the Cold War, 1945–1946 (1986); F. J. United Nations: The First Fifty Years Harbutt, The Iron Curtain: Churchill, Amer- (1998); and S. C. Schlesinger, Act of Crea- ica, and the Origins of the Cold War (1986); tion: The Founding of the United Nations K. Larres, Churchill’s Cold War: The Poli- (2003). The limitations of international tics of Personal Diplomacy (2002); C. Craig cooperation are astutely assessed in T. M. and S. Radchenk, The Atomic Bomb and the Franck, Nation against Nation (1985), and Origins of the Cold War (2008); and M. A. Roberts, United Nations, Divided World Dobbs, Six Months in 1945: FDR, Stalin, (1988). An interesting recent analysis is Churchill, and Truman–From World War to developed in M. Mazower, No Enchanted Cold War (2012). D. McCullough, Truman Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideolog- (1992), is a colorful, carefully researched ical Origins of the United Nations (2009). biography; Secretary of State Dean Ache- son is studied in biographies by J. Chace, Economic Reconstruction and the Acheson (1998), a detached and comprehen- Reshaping of the World Economy sive treatment, and R. Beisner, Dean Ache- Informative studies of postwar economic son: A Life in the Cold War (2006). On the reconstruction and of the economic growth diplomat who helped shape the American that followed for close to three decades are containment policy, one may read a compre- H. van der Wee, Prosperity and Upheaval: hensive biography by J. Gaddis, George F. The World Economy, 1945–1980 (1986), Kennan: An American Life (2011). Kennan, and P. Armstrong, A. Glyn, and J. Harrison, Acheson, and other key American foreign Capitalism since World War II: The Mak- policy fi gures are studied in W. Isaacson ing and Breakup of the Great Boom (1984). and E. Thomas, The Wise Men (1986). They may be supplemented by the analysis Two informative volumes on the nu- of European developments in D. H. Ald- clear dangers confronting the postwar world croft, The European Economy, 1914–2000 are D. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: (rev. 2001); by the essays in S. A. Marglin The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, and J. B. Schor (eds.), The Golden Age of 1939–1956 (1994), and R. Rhodes, Dark Capitalism: Reinterpreting the Postwar Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb Experience (1990); and by B. Eichengreen, (1995), a sequel to his book on the atomic The European Economy since 1945: Coor- bomb cited for the previous chapter. The dinated Capitalism and Beyond (2007). arms race is discussed in M. Gordin, Red The Bretton Woods monetary arrange- Cloud at Dawn: Truman, Stalin, and the ments and their evolution are examined in End of the Atomic Monopoly (2009); and R. Solomon, The International Monetary R. Rhodes, Arsenals of Folly: The Making System, 1945–1981 (1982) and, in a sequel of the Nuclear Arms Race (2007). The revo- volume, Money on the Move: The Revolu- lutionary implications of nuclear weapons tion in International Finance since 1980 for the post-1945 world are discussed in (1999). More general studies, which in- M. Mandelbaum, The United States and clude valuable information on the postwar Nuclear Weapons, 1946–1976 (1979) and era, include S. Pollard, The International The Nuclear Revolution: International Poli- Economy since 1945 (1997); J. Mills, Man- tics before and after Hiroshima (1981). Ad- aging the World Economy (2000), a useful ditional books on nuclear arms and disar- survey of the twentieth century as a whole; mament will be suggested for later chapters. and R. K. Schaeffer, Understanding Glo- The origins, founding, and subsequent balization: The Social Consequences of history of the United Nations are studied Political, Economic, and Environmental in T. Hoopes and D. Brinkley, FDR and Change (rev. 2009).

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For the immediate trauma of the war An Economic History of Twentieth-Century in Europe, see K. Lowe, Savage Continent: Europe: Economic Regimes from Laissez- Europe in the Aftermath of World War II Faire to Globalization (2006). An impor- (2012). Thoughtful surveys of Europe for tant social issue receives attention in three the fi rst several decades of the postwar era books by S. Castles: Here for Good: West- include C. E. Black and others, Rebirth: ern Europe’s New Ethnic Minorities (1984); A Political History of Europe since World Migrant Workers in European Societies War II (rev. 2000); P. Thody, Europe since (1989); and, with M. J. Miller, The Age of 1945 (2000); M. Fulbrook (ed.), Europe Migration: International Population Move- since 1945 (2001), which includes helpful ments in the Modern World (rev. 2009). essays on politics, social history, economic Other works on the growing multicultural- changes, and culture; T. Judt, Postwar: A ism of European societies include G. Dale History of Europe since 1945 (2005), an and M. Cole (eds.), The European Union excellent, wide-ranging survey and analy- and Migrant Labour (1999); and S. Castles sis; and T. Buchanan, Europe’s Troubled and A. Davidson, Citizenship and Migra- Peace, 1945–2000 (2006). For a narrative tion: Globalization and the Politics of Be- that takes into account the challenges of the longing (2000). For the effects of consumer new millennium, see T. Buchanan, Europe’s culture on Europe, see the case study by Troubled Peace: 1945 to the Presen t (2012). R. Pulju, Women and Mass Consumer Soci- For the American role in reconstruc- ety in Postwar France (2011). tion, M. J. Hogan, The Marshall Plan: The postwar welfare state is exam- America, Britain, and the Reconstruction ined in D. E. Ashford, The Emergence of of Western Europe, 1947–1952 (1987), is the Welfare States (1987); and S. Berman, outstanding. Other books that merit atten- The Primacy of Politics: Social Democracy tion are A. S. Milward, The Reconstruc- and the Making of Europe’s Twentieth Cen- tion of Western Europe, 1945–1951 (1984), tury (2006). On Keynes and Keynesianism, which credits European initiative and skills infl uential in the managed economies of as much as American aid; C. L. Mee, The the early postwar decades, one may read Marshall Plan and the Launching of the R. Lekachman, The Age of Keynes (1966) Pax Americana (1980); D. W. Ellwood, Re- and books on Keynes cited for chapter building Europe: Western Europe, America, 20. R. Skidelsky, John Maynard Keynes: and Postwar Reconstruction, 1945–1955 Fighting for Britain, 1937–1946 (2000), (1992); the essays in M. Schain (ed.), The concludes his three-volume biography, Marshall Plan: Fifty Years After (2001); and which is also available in a concise one-vol- N. Mills, Winning the Peace: The Marshall ume edition (2005). On the postwar role of Plan and America’s Coming of Age as a Su- governments, one may also read S. Lieber- perpower (2008). An impressive synthesis man, The Growth of the European Mixed on postwar reconstruction in all aspects is Economies, 1945–1970 (1977), and the P. Duignan and L. H. Gann, The Rebirth essays in A. Graham with A. Seldon (eds.), of the West: The Americanization of the Government and Economies in the Postwar Democratic World, 1945–1958 (1992). The World (1990). same authors have extended their analysis On western European economic in- of transatlantic relations in The USA and the tegration, A. S. Milward, The European New Europe, 1945–1993 (1994). Rescue of the Nation-State (rev. 2000), is Some of the social consequences of an outstanding study that explores and in- the economic changes in Europe are also terprets the origins of the European Com- explored in G. Therborn, European Mo- munity, while J. Lukacs, Decline and Rise dernity and Beyond (1995); and I. Berend, of Europe (1965, 1976), provides additional

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historical background. Informative also for 1945–1951 (1984). The creation and con- these years are J. Gillingham, Coal, Steel, solidation of the welfare state is studied in and the Rebirth of Europe, 1945–1955: T. O. Lloyd, Empire, Welfare State, Europe: The Germans and the French from Ruhr History of the United Kingdom, 1906–2001 Confl ict to Economic Community (1991); (rev. 2002); and D. Fraser, The Evolution A. Blair, The European Union since 1945 of the British Welfare State: A History of (2010); and M. Gilbert, European Integra- Social Policy since the Industrial Revolu- tion: A Concise History (2012). For a key tion (2009). For the social impact, one may architect of European unity, one may turn to read A. Marwick, British Society since 1945 M. Bromberger and S. Bromberger, Jean (rev. 2003), and A. Sampson, The Chang- Monnet and the United States of Europe ing Anatomy of Britain (rev. 1983). Special (trans. 1969); and S. B. Wells, Jean Monnet: subjects are explored in two books by Z. A. Unconventional Statesman (2011). Addi- Layton-Henry: The Politics of Race in Brit- tional books on European integration will ain (1984) and The Politics of Immigration: be cited for chapter 26. Immigration, “Race” and “Race” Rela- tions in Post-War Britain (1992). The Western Countries after 1945 Britain. K. O. Morgan, The People’s France. Concise surveys are available in Peace: British History since 1945 (rev. R. Gildea, France since 1945 (rev. 2002); 2001). and D. Childs, Britain since 1945: H. Drake, Contemporary France (2011); A Political History (rev. 2001) provide good and T. E. Stovall, France since the Second overviews. Two more recent studies are World War (2002); and a useful reference P. Addison, No Turning Back: The Peace- tool is W. Northcutt (ed.), Historical Dic- ful Revolutions of Post-War Britain (2010); tionary of the French Fourth and Fifth Re- and G. O’Hara, Governing Post-War Brit- publics, 1946–1991 (1991). The best syn- ain: The Paradoxes of Progress, 1951– theses for the short-lived Fourth Republic 1973 (2012). Britain’s loss of primacy and are J. P. Rioux, The Fourth Republic, 1944– world power is discussed in R. Blake, The 1958 (trans. 1987), and F. Giles, The Lo- Decline of Power, 1915–1964 (1985); B. Por- cust Years: The Story of the French Fourth ter, Britain, Europe, and the World, 1850– Republic, 1946–1958 (1996). I. M. Wall’s 1986: Delusions of Grandeur (1987); and The United States and the Making of Post- in two incisive analyses by C. Barnett: The war France, 1945–1954 (1991) and France, Collapse of British Power (1986) and The the United States, and the Algerian War Pride and the Fall: The Dream and Illusion (2001); R. Kuisel, Seducing the French: of Britain as a Great Nation (1987). That the The Dilemma of Americanization (1993); reasons for decline remained controversial, and B. A. McKenzie, Remaking France: however, emerges from the discussion in A. Americanization, Public Diplomacy, and Sked, Britain’s Decline: Problems and Per- the Marshall Plan (2005), are insightful on spectives (1987), and from the essays in B. American political and cultural infl uences. Collins and K. Robbins (eds.), British Cul- A. Brogi, Confronting America: The Cold ture and Economic Decline (1990). War between the United States and the The best account of the postwar La- Communists in France and Italy (2011), bour governments and the emergence of addresses the Cold War tension between the welfare state is K. O. Morgan, Labour foreign alliances and domestic politics in in Power, 1945–1951 (1984), a balanced Western Europe. Kuisel’s Capitalism and study with in-depth portraits of Clement the State in Modern France (1981), cited Attlee and other key fi gures; informative for chapter 20, places government direc- also is H. Pelling, The Labour Governments, tion of the postwar economy in historical

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perspective. Pierre Mendès-France’s efforts the Popular Front: Government and People, to bring about reforms in the early 1950s are 1936–1996 (rev. 1997). J. Lacouture’s au- sympathetically portrayed in J. Lacouture, thoritative biography of de Gaulle (2 vols.; Pierre Mendès-France (trans. 1984). Inci- trans. 1992) has been mentioned for chap- sive on the cultural and political scene are ter 21; there are also biographical accounts T. Judt, Past Imperfect: French Intellectu- by B. Ledwidge (1983), D. Cook (1984), als, 1944–1956 (1992), a critique of the A. Shennan (1993), C. Williams (1997), political infl uence of Sartre and other intel- and J. Jackson (2003). lectuals in the early postwar years, and The Burden of Responsibility: Blum, Camus, Germany. For West Germany during the Aron and the French Twentieth Century years of partition, an impressive compre- (1998), on three infl uential fi gures who he hensive narrative is D. L. Bark and D. R. believes made more positive contributions. Gress, A History of West Germany (2 vols.; The colonial wars that helped bring rev. 1993). A briefer account is M. Balfour, down the Fourth Republic have attracted West Germany: A Contemporary History wide historical attention. The war in In- (rev. 1982). For the West German “eco- dochina is graphically portrayed in B. B. nomic miracle,” one may read J. C. Van Fall, Street without Joy: Indochina at War, Hook, Rebuilding Germany: The Creation 1946–1954 (rev. 1964) and Hell in a Very of the Social Market Economy, 1945–1957 Small Place: The Siege of Dien Bien Phu (2004), and A. Kramer, The West German (1967), and in M. Woodrow, The Last Val- Economy, 1945–1955 (1991); and for the ley: Dien Bien Phu and the French Defeat powerful economy that emerged, E. Har- in Vietnam (2004). Readers interested in the trich, The Fourth and Richest Reich (1980). process of Americanizing the war may turn For analysis of the postwar reconstruc- to F. Logevall, Embers of War: The Fall of tion of German civil society, see K. H. Ja- an Empire and the Making of America’s Vi- rausch, After Hitler: Recivilizing Germans, etnam (2012). Other books on Vietnam and 1945–1995 (trans. 2006); and the political Indochina will be cited for chapter 23. The transformations of West Germany are de- ill-fated effort to retain Algeria is described scribed in A. Grünbacher, The Making of in A. Horne, A Savage War of Peace: Alge- German Democracy: West Germany dur- ria, 1954–1962 (rev. 1987); J. Talbott, The ing the Adenauer Era, 1945–65 (2010). War without a Name: France in Algeria, Of special interest is V. R. Berghahn, The 1954–1962 (1980); and M. Evans, Algeria: Americanization of West German Industry, France’s Undeclared War (2012). Subse- 1945–1973 (1986). Konrad Adenauer’s ac- quent relationships with Algeria are traced complishments are assessed in biographi- in J. Reudy, Modern Algeria: The Origins cal studies by R. Irving, Adenauer (2002), and Development of a Nation (rev. 2005). and C. Williams, Adenauer: The Father of The effect of the war on French culture and the New Germany (2000); and the career of society is covered in the excellent book by another important German leader is exam- T. Shepard, The Invention of Decoloniza- ined in B. Marshall, Willy Brandt (1990). tion: The Algerian War and the Remaking of For West and East Germany, includ- France (2006). For the Fifth Republic, there ing the relationship of the two states over are available S. Berstein, The Republic of de the four postwar decades of partition, three Gaulle, 1958–1969 (trans. 1993), an excel- informative accounts are H. A. Turner Jr., lent synthesis; S. Hoffmann’s informative Germany from Partition to Reunifi cation Decline or Renewal? France since the Pop- (rev. 1992); M. Fulbrook, History of Ger- ular Front: Government and People, 1936– many, 1918–2008: The Divided Nation 1986 (1988); and M. Larkin, France since (rev. 2009); and M. Gehler, Three Germa-

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nies: West Germany, East Germany and the since 1945 (2000). The special role of the Berlin Republic (2011). For the formation Italian Communist Party from liberation to of the national divide and its impact, see E. the mid-1980s is examined in J. B. Urban, Sheffer, Burned Bridge: How East and West Moscow and the Italian Communist Party: Germans Made the Iron Curtain (2011); From Togliatti to Berlinguer (1986); A. P. Major, Behind the Berlin Wall: East De Grand, The Italian Left in the Twenti- Germany and the Frontiers of Power (2010); eth Century: A History of the Socialist and and J. Palmowski, Inventing a Socialist Na- Communist Parties (1989); and E. Agarossi tion: Heimat and the Politics of Everyday and V. Zaslavsky, Stalin and Togliatti: Italy Life in the GDR, 1945–1990 (2009). T. Gar- and the Origins of the Cold War (2011). ton Ash, In Europe’s Name: Germany and For Spain, changes under Franco are the Divided Continent (1993), incisively well conveyed in J. Grugel and T. Rees, reassesses Willy Brandt’s efforts to improve Franco’s Spain (1997); and S. Black, Spain East–West relations. For the formation and since 1939 (2010). For daily life in a West- early years of the German Democratic Re- ern European postwar authoritarian sys- public, one should read N. M. Naimark, The tem, see A. C. Sánchez, Fear and Progress: Russians in Germany (1995). The East Ger- Ordinary Lives in Franco’s Spain, 1939– man Communist state is examined in P. Ma- 1975 (2010). The transition to a modern jor and J. Osmond (eds.), The Workers’ and democracy after Franco is described in K. Peasants’ State: Communism and Society in Maxwell and S. Spiegel, The New Spain: East Germany under Ulbricht (2002); and From Isolation to Infl uence (1994), and V. the history of Berlin and the Berlin Wall is Pérez-Diaz, Spain at the Crossroads (1999). the subject of A. Tusa, The Last Division: A History of Berlin, 1945–1989 (1997). The Soviet Union: From Stalin to There are provocative insights into the Brezhnev German search for self-understanding in Of the many volumes for the Stalin years R. Dahrendorf, Society and Democracy in listed for chapter 18, one of the best assess- Germany (1967); F. Stern, Dreams and Delu- ments is A. B. Ulam, Stalin: The Man and sions: The Drama of German History (1987, His Era (1987). Stalin in the Cold War is 1999); and two books cited earlier: G. A. covered in G. Roberts, Stalin’s Wars: From Craig, The Germans (1982), and H. James, World War to Cold War, 1939–1953 (2006); A German Identity, 1770–1990 (1990). A. Weeks, Assured Victory: How “Sta- lin the Great” Won the War but Lost the Italy and Spain. Three insightful stud- Peace (2011); and E. Pollock, Stalin and ies of Italian political life are F. Spotts and the Soviet Science Wars (2006). The evo- T. Wieser, Italy: A Diffi cult Democracy lution of the Soviet system after Stalin is (1986); J. LaPalombara, Democracy, Italian explored in A. Nove, Stalinism and After: Style (1987); and R. Putman, Making De- The Road to Gorbachev (rev. 1989); and mocracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern A. Fursenko and T. Naftali, Khrushchev’s Italy (1993). All three describe the paradox Cold War: The Inside Story of an American whereby the country has known remarkable Adversary (2006). Foreign policy is exam- social and economic progress despite politi- ined in R. Edmonds, Soviet Foreign Policy: cal diffi culties. For the postwar years, one The Brezhnev Years (1983), and V. Mastny, may also read N. Kogan, A Political History The Cold War and Soviet Insecurity (1996); of Postwar Italy (2 vols.; 1966–1981); P. and the origins and nature of the Soviet Ginsborg, A History of Contemporary Ita- involvement in Afghanistan are studied in ly: Society and Politics, 1943–1988 (1990, G. Feifer, The Great Gamble: The Soviet 2003); and the essays in P. McCarthy, Italy War in Afghanistan (2009).

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For the Soviet dissenters, one may turn Shook the Communist World: The 1956 to R. T. Tökes (ed.), Dissent in the U.S.S.R.: Hungarian Uprising and Its Legacy (trans. Politics, Ideology, and People (1975); and 2008); L. Eörsi, The Hungarian Revolution M. Shatz, Soviet Dissent in Historical Per- of 1956: Myths and Realitie s (2006); and for spective (2008). M. Scammell, Solzhenitsyn the martyred leader, J. Rainer, Imre Nagy: (1984), provides a balanced assessment of A Biography (trans. 2009). Czechoslovakia the controversial novelist. A. Knight, The as victim, fi rst of Hitler, then of Stalin, is KGB: Police and Politics in the Soviet Un- examined in E. Toborsky, President Eduard ion (rev. 1990), carries the story of the secret Benes: Between East and West, 1938–1948 police to the mid-1980s. Anti-Semitism in (1981). The crisis of 1968 is described in K. these years may be studied in L. Rapoport, N. Skoug Jr., Czechoslovakia’s Lost Fight Stalin’s War against the Jews: The Doctors’ for Freedom, 1967–1969 (1999), by a for- Plot and the Soviet Solution (1990), and mer American diplomat who was in Prague R. O. Freedman (ed.), Soviet Jewry in the at the time; and in other books by V. Ku- Decisive Decade, 1971–1980 (1987). For sin (1971), Z. A. B. Zeman (1969), and K. the international Communist movement in Dawisha (1984). More recent analysis of the the postwar years, A. Westoby, Communism Czech events may be found in G. Bischof, since World War II (rev. 1989) provides in- S. Karner, and P. Ruggenthaler (eds.), The depth coverage. An initial effort to assess Prague Spring and the Warsaw Pact Inva- Soviet archival material is V. Zubak and sion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 (2010), and C. Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold in M. Klimke, J. Pekelder, and J. Scharloth War: From Stalin to Khrushchev (1996). For (eds.), Between Prague Spring and French an engaging study of people who grew up in May: Opposition and Revolt in Europe, Soviet society during this era, see D. J. Ra 1960–1980 (2011), which places the events leigh, Soviet Baby Boomers: An Oral His- of 1968 in a wider European context. tory of Russia’s Cold War Generation (2011). For the emergence of communism in Yugoslavia, A. Djilas, The Contested Coun- Eastern Europe under Soviet Domination try: Yugoslav Unity and Communist Revolu- The imposition of Communism on east- tion, 1919–1953 (1991), is an outstanding ern Europe was explored in an early work study. Informative on Tito’s efforts to gov- by H. Seton-Watson, The East European ern the multinational state are H. Lydall, Revolution (rev. 1956). The years of Com- Yugoslavia in Crisis (1989); J. Ridley, Tito munist domination and the mounting res- (1994); and H. K. Haug, Creating a Social- tiveness in eastern Europe are studied in ist Yugoslavia: Tito, Communist Leadership J. Rothschild and N. M. Wingfi eld, Return and the National Question (2012). Addi- to Diversity: A Political History of East tional books for the former Yugoslavia and Central Europe since World War II (rev. other East European countries after com- 2008), and G. Schöpfl in, Politics in East- munism will be described for chapter 25. ern Europe, 1945–1992 (1993). For a compelling narrative of the transformation of Useful Web Sites and Online Resources postwar eastern Europe, see A. Applebaum, Helpful resources for the international his- Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Eu- tory of the postwar era have been compiled rope, 1944–1956 (2012). The work of G. by V. Ferraro at Documents Relating to Swain and N. Swain, Eastern Europe since American Foreign Policy, The Cold War, 1945 (2009), offers a more prosaic account. www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/coldwar. For Hungary and the uprising of 1956, htm , and at the useful Cold War Interna- one may read C. Gati, Hungary and the So- tional History Project, which is one of the viet Bloc (1988); P. Lendvai, One Day That numerous programs at the Woodrow Wilson

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International Center for Scholars, www. books cited for chapter 11 on the older na- wilsoncenter.org/. There are also informa- tionalism should also be consulted. To them tive interviews, images, and other sources should be added A. D. Smith, Nationalism at the Cold War Museum, which may be in the Twentieth Century (1979), Nations visited at www.coldwar.org . The best gate- and Nationalism in a Global Era (1995), way to materials on the Soviet Union and and Nationalism: Theory, Ideology, History all of eastern Europe in this period is the (2001); and B. Anderson, Imagined Com- University of Pittsburgh’s Russian and East munities: Refl ections on the Origin and European Studies Virtual Library, www. Spread of Nationalism (rev. 2006), cited ucis.pitt.edu/reesweb , which was cited for earlier. A challenging work by D. Chakra- chapter 18. Numerous documents and other barty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial materials on the postwar history of all the Thought and Historical Difference (2000), larger European nations are available at the examines postcolonial efforts to defi ne na- previously cited Fordham University In- tional cultures in opposition to European ternet Modern History Sourcebook, www. cultural traditions. The struggle for inde- fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook.asp . pendence of action in the bipolar world of the Cold War is the subject of C. Lee (ed.), Making a World after Empire: The Bandung 23. DECOLONIZATION AND THE Moment and Its Political Afterlives (2010). BREAKUP OF THE EUROPEAN EMPIRES The End of European Empires in Asia Anticolonial Movements in the Euro- The disintegration of the British empire is pean Empires studied in J. Darwin, Britain and Decolo- Many of the books mentioned for chapters nization: The Retreat from Empire in the 16 and 19 should also be consulted for the Post-War World (1988), and his briefer ac- background to the anticolonial revolutions counts, End of Empire (1991) and The End after 1945. There are useful introductions of the British Empire: The Historical De- in two works by R. F. Betts, Uncertain bate (1991); D. W. McIntyre, British De- Dimensions: Western Overseas Empires colonization, 1946–1997 (1998); and for in the Twentieth Century (1985) and De- wider perspectives, see D. Judd, Empire: colonization (rev. 2004). The end of colo- The British Imperial Experience from 1765 nial rule is comprehensively treated in F. to the Present (1996); J. Lawrence, The Ansprenger, The Dissolution of Colonial Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1996); Empires (1989), while informative briefer and P. Brendon, The Decline and Fall of accounts are available in M. E. Chamber- the British Empire, 1781–1997 (2007). lain, Decolonization: The Fall of the Euro- There are valuable essays in vol. 5 of the pean Empires (rev. 1999), and J. Springhall, Oxford History of the British Empire: J. M. Decolonization since 1945 (2001). There is Brown (ed.), The Twentieth Century (1999). a useful collection of essays by historians Of special interest for Britain’s continuing in James D. Le Sueur (ed.), The Decoloni- global role are P. J. Cain and A. G. Hop- zation Reader (2003). Books that examine kins, British Imperialism: Crisis and De- colonial administration in the fi nal phases construction, 1914–1990 (1993), and J. G. before independence include F. Furedi, A. Pocock, The Discovery of Islands: Es- Colonial Wars and the Politics of Third says in British History (2005), which ana- World Nationalism (1994); and H. Spruyt, lyzes Britain’s enduring global infl uence. Ending Empire: Contested Sovereignty and British and French reactions to the loss of Territorial Partition (2005). On national- empire are compared in M. Kahler, De- ism and the emergent nations, many of the colonization in Britain and France (1984).

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For Anglo-American relations in the postan informative study of the key Vietnam- colonial world, see P. F. Clarke, The Last ese leader, see P. Brocheux, Ho Chi Minh: Thousand Days of the British Empire: A Biography (trans. 2007), which places its Churchill, Roosevelt, and the Birth of the subject in a wider historical context. The Pax Americana (2008). struggle against the Dutch in Indonesia and The Indian nationalist struggle, the the early years of independence may be ap- British withdrawal from the Indian subcon- proached through D. Bernhard, Sukarno tinent, and the early years of independence and the Struggle for Indonesian Indepen- are examined in H. V. Hodson, The Great dence (1969), and L. De Jong, The Collapse Divide: Britain–India–Pakistan (rev. 1985, of a Colonial Society: The Dutch in Indo- 1997); A. Read and D. Fisher, The Proudest nesia during the Second World War (2002). Day: India’s Long Road to Independence (1998); Y. Khan, The Great Partition: The The End of European Empires in Africa Making of India and Pakistan (2007); and To the histories of Africa cited for chapter S. Wolpert, Shameful Flight: The Last Years 16 should be added the informative J. Iliffe, of the British Empire in India (2006). For Africans: The History of a Continent Pakistan and its founder, informative stud- (rev. 2007), which includes descriptions ies are A. S. Ahmed, Jinnah, Pakistan, and of decolonization. Two other informa- Islamic Identity (1997); and J. Singh, Jin- tive surveys of modern African history are nah: India, Partition, Independence (2010). F. Cooper, Africa since 1940: The Past of The wars fought by the British in the Ma- the Present (2002), and P. Nugent, Africa lay Peninsula and Burma are described in since Independence: A Comparative His- R. Jackson , The Malayan Emergency: The tory (rev. 2012). For decolonization, two Commonwealth Wars, 1948–1966 (1990); indispensable volumes are P. Gifford and C. Bayly and T. Harper, Forgotten Wars: W. R. Louis (eds.), The Transfer of Power in The End of Britain’s Asian Empire (2007); Africa: Decolonization, 1940–1960 (1982), and P. Webb, The Peacock’s Children: The and Decolonization and African Indepen- Struggle for Freedom in Burma, 1885– dence: The Transfer of Power, 1960–1980 Present (2009). For the British success in (1988). Good overviews are provided in attracting the newly independent states J. D. Hargeaves, Decolonization in Africa to membership in the transformed Com- (rev. 1996), H. S. Wilson, African De- monwealth of Nations, one may read R. J. colonization (1994), and D. Birmingham, Moore, Making the New Commonwealth The Decolonization of Africa (1995). An (1987), and V. Velde, The Commonwealth insightful survey for the years 1914 to the Brand: Global Voice, Local Action (2011). 1990s is available in B. Davidson, Modern In addition to works mentioned for Africa: A Social and Political History (rev. chapter 22, the French response to anticolo- 1994). There is a comprehensive analysis of nial movements is examined in R. F. Betts, social changes in F. Cooper, Decolonization France and Decolonization (1991); and and African Society: The Labor Question in A. Clayton, The Wars of French Decoloni- French and British Africa (1996); and the zation (1994). The origins of France’s post- same historian has examined the legacy of 1945 campaign in Indochina are described imperial systems in Colonialism in Ques- in S. Tonnesson, Vietnam 1946: How the tion: Theory, Knowledge, History (2005). War Began (2010), and the connections Important perspectives by African histori- between Vietnam and the Cold War are ans are provided in A. A. Mazrui (ed.), Af- explored in M. A. Lawrence, Assuming the rica since 1935 (1993). Assessments of the Burden: Europe and the American Com- years after independence include B. David- mitment to the War in Vietnam (2005). For son, The Black Man’s Burden: Africa and

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the Curse of the Nation-State (1992), which History (2012), cited earlier. Relations be- sees the European model of the nation-state tween Arab cultures and Europeans are as an artifi cial importation into the conti- discussed in B. Lewis, Islam and the West nent; and two important books by C. Young, (1993). For the many events and crises The African Colonial State in Comparative punctuating modern Middle Eastern his- Perspective (1994) and The Postcolonial tory, see N. Al-Rodhan, G. Herd, and L. State in Africa: Fifty Years of Independence, Watanabe, Critical Turning Points in the 1960–2010 (2012), both stressing the com- Middle East: 1915–2015 (2011). plex and often harmful legacy bequeathed For the impact of the Middle East on by European colonialism; and M. Meredith, the Cold War, and vice versa, see C. Daigle, The Fate of Africa: From the Hopes of Free- The Limits of Détente: The United States, dom to the Heart of Despair (2005), a wide- the Soviet Union, and the Arab-Israeli Con- ranging survey of postcolonial history. The fl ict, 1969–1973 (2012). The economic im- obstacles to democracy are examined in portance of the region for the postwar world L. A. Villalón and P. VonDoepp (eds.), The is discussed in S. Galpern, Money, Oil, and Fate of Africa’s Democratic Experiments: Empire in the Middle East: Sterling and Elites and Institutions (2005). Francophone Postwar Imperialism, 1944–1971 (2009). Africa is studied in E. Mortimer, France Readers interested in the postwar decline and the Africans, 1944–1960 (1969), and of French and British infl uence in the re- J. F. Clark and D. E. Gardinier (eds.), Politi- gion should consult J. Barr, A Line in the cal Reform in Francophone Africa (1997). Sand: The Anglo-French Struggle for the The career of the poet-statesman of Senegal Middle East, 1914–1948 (2012); S. Smith, is portrayed in J. G. Vaillant, Black, French, Ending Empire in the Middle East: Britain, and African: A Life of Léopold Sédar the United States and Post-War Decoloni- Senghor (1990). zation, 1945–1973 (2012); and M. Wool- Studies of specifi c anticolonial move- lacott, After Suez: Adrift in the American ments and key African leaders include the Century (2006). Recent perspectives on the works by D. Birmingham, Kwame Nkru- British-French intervention in the Suez cri- mah: The Father of African Nationalism sis may be found in S. Smith, Reassessing (1998), and B. A. Ogot and W. R. Ochieng Suez 1956: New Perspectives on the Crisis (eds.), Decolonization and Independence and Its Aftermath 2008), and in B. Turner, in Kenya, 1940–93 (1998). The French Suez 1956 (2006). experience in Algeria is examined in the Soviet and Russian interests in the re- previously cited book by M. Evans, Alge- gion are the focus of Y. Primakov, Russia ria: France’s Undeclared War (2012), and and the Arabs: Behind the Scenes in the Mid- in the comprehensive study of a key fi gure dle East from the Cold War to the Present by D. Macey, Frantz Fanon: A Biography (trans. 2009). For the history of Israel (rev. 2012). in the Cold War, see L. Stein, The Making of Modern Israel, 1948–1967 (2009). The Europe and the Middle East Arab-Israeli wars from 1948 to 1973 are Good introductions to the modern history traced in D. Lesch, The Arab-Israeli Con- of the Middle East and the legacies of Eu- fl ict: A History (2008); B. Morris, 1948: A ropean involvement in the region include History of the fi rst Arab-Israeli War (2008); M. Kammrava, The Modern Middle East: A A. Bregman, Israel’s Wars: A History since Political History since the First World War 1947 (2002); and in a concise survey by (rev. 2011); W. L. Cleveland, A History of T. G. Fraser, The Arab-Israeli Confl ict (rev. the Modern Middle East (rev. 2013); and 2008). For the long-standing source of J. L. Gelvin, The Modern Middle East: A tensions in the region, see C. D. Smith,

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Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Confl ict (2008); and M. Leffl er, For the Soul of Man- (rev. 2010); and B. Morris, A History of the kind: The United States, the Soviet Union, Zionist-Arab Confl ict, 1881–1999 (1999), and the Cold War (2007). synthesizing his earlier books on Arab- The global dimensions of the Soviet- Israeli relations and the Palestinian refugees. Western confrontation are explored in G. The revolutionary events in Iran and Kolko , Confronting the Third World: U.S. their effect on global politics may be stud- Foreign Policy, 1945–1980 (1988), critical ied in N. R. Keddie, Modern Iran: Roots of U.S. policies; B. D. Porter, The U.S.S.R. and Results of Revolution (rev. 2006); and in Third World Confl icts: Soviet Arms and R. Mottahedeh, The Mantle of the Prophet: Diplomacy in Local Wars, 1945–1980 Religion and Politics in Iran (1985, 2000). (1984); G. Lundestad, East, West, North, For the American involvement, one may South: Major Developments in Interna- read K. M. Pollack, The Persian Puzzle: tional Politics since 1945 (rev. 2010); The Confl ict between Iran and America O. A. Westad, The Global Cold War: Third (2004), informative for the historical back- World Interventions and the Making of our ground on Iran and on the years since 1979. Times (2005); and P. Muehlenbeck, Betting on the Africans: John F. Kennedy’s Court- Useful Web Sites and Online Resources ing of African Nationalist Leaders (2012). Readers will fi nd excellent materials on For the background and international signif- decolonization at the specialized sites for icance of Castro’s revolution in Cuba, one Africa, India, Asia, and Latin America may read L. A. Perez Jr., Cuba: Between housed at Fordham’s Internet History Sour- Reform and Revolution (rev. 2011); and M. cebook, at www.fordham.edu/Halsall/index. Pérez-Stable, The Cuban Revolution: Ori- asp, cited previously, and at links on that site gins, Course and Legacy (2012). for documents pertaining to European na- A helpful introduction to the global tions, the United States, and the Cold War. crises of the Kennedy years is M. R. Links to diverse sources of information on Beschloss, The Crisis Years: Kennedy and the modern history of all Middle Eastern Khrushchev, 1960–1963 (1991). The mis- nations and societies are maintained at The sile crisis of 1962 is studied in L. Brune, Middle East Network Information Center, The Missile Crisis (rev. 1996); G. T. Alli- http://menic.utexas/edu/menic/ , a site at the son and P. D. Zelikow, Essence of Decision: University of Texas. Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis (rev. 24. COEXISTENCE, CONFRONTA- 1999); S. M. Stern, The Week the World TION AND THE NEW EUROPEAN Stood Still: Inside the Secret Cuban Missile ECONOMY Crisis (2005); and A. Fursenko and T. Naf- International Relations: Confrontation tali, “One Hell of a Gamble”: Khrushchev, and Détente Castro, and Kennedy, 1958–1964 (1997), To the books described for chapters 21 and by a Russian and an American scholar 22 that focus on the postwar decades of with access to Khrushchev’s papers. On the Soviet-American relations may be added American relationship with its European R. Levering, The Cold War (1994), and allies in the Cold War years, one may read G. A. Craig and F. Loewenheim (eds.), The R. J. Barnet, The Alliance (1983); D. P. Diplomats, 1939–1979 (1994), a valuable Calleo, Beyond American Hegemony set of essays. Recent contributions to the lit- (1987); and L. S. Kaplan, NATO and the erature on this era include N. Saul, Histori- United States (rev. 1994) and NATO 1948: cal Dictionary of United States–Russian/ The Birth of the Transatlantic Alliance (2007) . Soviet Relations (2009); W. LaFeber, Amer- For the American confl ict in Vietnam ica, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–2006 and its effect on American relations with

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Europe, see J. P. Harrison, The Endless Peace Movements: International Protest War: Vietnam’s Struggle for Independence and World Politics since 1945 (1992). (1989); M. B. Young, The Vietnam Wars, Books that illuminate the successes and 1945–1990 (1991), a valuable synthesis; failures of détente include R. L. Garthoff, and W. J. Duiker, The Communist Road to Détente and Confrontation (rev. 1994); Power in Vietnam (rev. 1996). The Ameri- R. W. Stevenson, The Rise and Fall of Dé- can involvement is skillfully explored in tente (1985); and W. Bundy, A Tangled G. McT. Kahin, Intervention: How America Web: The Making of Foreign Policy in the Became Involved in Vietnam (1986). Euro- Nixon Presidency (1998), an in-depth criti- pean responses to America’s involvement cal assessment. Also available are R. D. in Vietnam are described in J. P. Dunbabin, Schulzinger, Henry Kissinger: Doctor of The Cold War: The Great Powers and Their Diplomacy (1989); W. Isaacson, Kissinger: Allies (rev. 2008), and in the previously A Biography (1992), and R. C. Thornton, cited work by M. A. Lawrence, Assuming The Carter Years: Toward a New Global the Burden: Europe and the American Com- Order (1991). N. Friedman, The Fifty Years’ mitment to War in Vietnam (2005). War: Confl ict and Strategy in the Cold War (2000); C. Layne, The Peace of Illusions: The Nuclear Arms Buildup and the American Grand Strategy from 1940 to the Limits of Détente Present (2006); F. Gavin, Nuclear Statecraft: There are numerous books on the nuclear History and Strategy in America’s Atomic Age arms buildup, the apocalyptic dangers the (2012); and J. L. Harper, The Cold War (2011), world gradually learned to live with, and an informative survey of confl icts and détente. the contributions of strategic deterrence The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and to the armed peace in the Cold War years. the altered international scene have brought The great fear that followed the 1962 crisis additional books, cited for chapter 25. is discussed in L. Scott, The Cuban Mis- sile Crisis and the Threat of Nuclear War: Europe and the World Economy: Global Lessons from History (2007). An outstand- Recession ing exhaustive study is M. Bundy, Danger To books on the global economy as it de- and Survival: Choices about the Bomb in veloped in the fi rst four decades after 1945 the First Fifty Years (1988); only gradu- may be added S. Pollard, The International ally, he notes, was it recognized that the Economy since 1945 (1997). For the multi- bomb could not be thought of as an instru- national corporations as they evolved in this ment of war like other weapons. Another era, one may turn to R. Vernon, Storm over kind of literature called for a fundamental the Multinationals (1977); and R. J. Barnet rethinking about nuclear arms. Representa- and J. Cavanagh, Global Dreams: Impe- tive are J. Schell’s two books, The Fate of rial Corporations and the New World Order the Earth (1982) and The Abolition (1984), (1994). The role of oil in the economy and both now available in a one-volume edition in global politics is admirably described in (2000); the same author’s The Gift of Time: D. Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, The Case for Abolishing Nuclear Weap- Money, and Power (1991), and P. R. Odell , ons Now (1998); and F. Dyson, Weapons Oil and World Power (rev. 1986). The crisis and Hope (1984), by an eminent physicist. sparked by the OPEC embargo of the 1970s A thoughtful contribution to the discussion is the subject of K. Merrill, The Oil Crisis of is J. Finnis, J. M. Boyle Jr., and G. Grisez, 1973–1974: A Brief History with Documents Nuclear Deterrence, Morality, and Realism (2007); and A. É. Gfeller, Building a Euro- (1987). The worldwide movement for nu- pean Identity: France, the United States, clear disarmament is examined in A. Carter, and the Oil Shock, 1973–1974 (2012).

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The historic link between economic Union: An Introduction to European Inte- strength and political and military hege- gration (rev. 2010). For the expansion of mony is traced masterfully in P. Kennedy, the organization, see George Vassiliou (ed.), The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: The Accession Story: The EU from Fifteen Economic Change and Military Confl ict to Twenty-Five Countries (2007). Other from 1500 to 2000 (1987), cited earlier; books on the European Union will be cited it may be read along with M. Olson, The for chapter 26. Rise and Decline of Nations (1982); and I. Clark, Hegemony in International Society Western Europe: Politics and Society (2011). Kennedy’s volume and other books since 1974 in the 1970s and 1980s raised the question For Britain, Margaret Thatcher’s conserva- of America’s relative decline in economic tive leadership and the changes in Britain leadership. P. Golub, Power, Profi t and in the decade after 1979 are assessed in Prestige: A History of American Imperial P. Jenkins, Mrs. Thatcher’s Revolution: Expansion (2010), describes America’s rise The Ending of the Socialist Era (1988); to global infl uence, while two books by J. S. P. Riddell, The Thatcher Era and Its Nye, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature Legacy (rev. 1991); H. Young, The Iron of American Power (1990) and Power in the Lady: A Biography of Margaret Thatcher Global Information Age (2004), reassess (1989); A. Seldon and D. Collings, Brit- the global balance of power. The impact ain under Thatcher (2000); and R. Vinen, of the global recession that began in 1974 Thatcher’s Britain: The Politics and Social and the dilemmas it posed for policymak- Upheaval of the Thatcher Era (2009). The ers are studied in several of the books on historical legacy of Conservative rule is ex- the global economy cited for chapter 22; to amined in E. A. Reitan, The Thatcher Revo- them should be added E. S. Einhorn and J. lution: Margaret Thatcher, John Major, and Logue, Welfare States in Hard Times (1982); Tony Blair, 1979–2001 (2003); and G. Fry, and Niall Ferguson (ed.), The Shock of the The Politics of the Thatcher Revolution: Global: The 1970s in Perspective (2010). An Interpretation of British Politics, 1979– In addition to books cited for chapter 1990 (2008). Two comparative studies of 22, the operations, accomplishments, and the conservative efforts in the United States problems of the European Community and Britain in the 1980s to curb the welfare may be studied in D. Swann, The Econom- state, encourage entrepreneurial spirit, and ics of the Common Market (rev. 1988) and revive national pride are A. Gamble, The European Economic Integration (1996); Free Economy and the Strong State (rev. and H. Brugmans (ed.), Europe: Dream, 1994), and P. Pierson, Dismantling the Wel- Adventure, Reality (1987), assessing the fare State? Reagan, Thatcher, and the Poli- fi rst 30 years of West European integration. tics of Retrenchment (1994). For the Labour On progress toward closer unity and the prime ministers who followed the conserva- transformation of the European Community tive regimes of Thatcher and Major, see (EC) into the European Union (EU) under F. Faucher-King and P. Le Galès, The New the Maastricht treaty, there are two good Labour Experiment: Change and Reform books by J. Pinder, European Community: under Blair and Brown (trans. 2010). The Building of a Union (rev. 1995) and The For France, Mitterrand’s leadership of European Union: A Very Short Introduction the Socialist Party and his presidency are (2001). Other studies of European integra- assessed in J. W. Friend, Seven Years in tion include A. Teasdale and T. Bainbridge, France: François Mitterrand and the Un- The Penguin Companion to European Un- intended Revolution, 1981–1988 (1989) ion (rev. 2012), and D. Dinan, Ever Closer and The Long Presidency: France in the

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Mitterrand Years, 1981–1995 (1998); in at www4.uwm.edu/cie , a site developed M. Mclean (ed.), The Mitterrand Years: by A. Dye at the University of Wisconsin, Legacy and Evaluation (1998); and in Milwaukee. Readers will fi nd current in- D. S. Bell, François Mitterrand: A Political formation on the EU and other aspects of Biography (2005). France’s response to the contemporary Europe at the UCLA Center reunifi cation of Germany is the subject of for European and Eurasian Studies, www. T. Schabert, How World Politics Is Made: international.ucla.edu/euro/ ; and additional France and the Reunifi cation of German y information is available at the EU Web site, (trans. 2009). Europa—The European Union On-Line, For the evolution of European social- http://europa.eu/index_en.htm . ism, one may read S. Padgett and W. Pat- terson, A History of Social Democracy in 25. THE INTERNATIONAL REVOLT Postwar Europe (1991), the previously cited AGAINST SOVIET COMMUNISM D. Sasson, One Hundred Years of Socialism: Books on the recent past inevitably face The West European Left in the Twenti- limitations in their perspectives and sources eth Century (1997), and G. Eley, Forging as historians and journalists seek to analyze Democracy: The History of the Left in Eu- events that are often still developing. It can rope, 1850–2000 (2002); and a discussion of thus be diffi cult to assess the durable value recent ideas for socialist revisionism can be of historical writing about the most recent found in M. Harnecker, Rebuilding the Left two or three decades, and yet historians (2007). begin to write about the very recent past There are informative accounts of the almost as quickly as it recedes from current evolving political and social systems in events. Readers should therefore continue other European nations in P. McCarthy (ed.), to look for new books on recent events in Italy since 1945 (2000), cited earlier, and L. the reviews and bibliographies that are Kettenacker, Germany since 1945 (1997). published constantly in periodicals, profes- On developments in Spain one may read sional journals, and the contemporary elec- J. Hooper, The New Spaniards (rev. 2006); tronic media. and the Portuguese revolution of 1974, leading to the gradual emergence of politi- The Soviet Union: Crisis, Reform, and cal stability in that nation, is analyzed in Collapse H. G. Ferreira and M. W. Marshall, Portu- Efforts to assess the Gorbachev reforms in gal’s Revolution: Ten Years On (1986). their historical context include A. Nove, Glasnost in Action: Cultural Renaissance Useful Web Sites and Online Resources in Russia (1989); A. Aslund, Gorbachev’s The Woodrow Wilson International Center Struggle for Economic Reform (rev. 1991); for Scholars provides a helpful Web site B. Kerblay, Gorbachev’s Russia (1989); with materials on all regions of the contem- and G. Hosking, The Awakening of the So- porary world and on themes such as inter- viet Union (1991). For analyses of the key national security and the global economy, transitions, see A. Brown, The Gorbachev accessible through a link to “programs” at Factor (1996), a convincing assessment; www.wilsoncenter.org . Current debates G. W. Breslauer, Gorbachev and Yeltsin on international confl icts and security is- as Leaders (2002); and A. Brown, Seven sues may be explored through the Web Years That Changed the World: Perestroika site of Stanford University’s Center for in Perspective (2007). The fi nal phase of International Security and Cooperation, at the Cold War is examined in J. F. Matlock, http://cisac.stanford.edu . There are helpful Reagan and Gorbachev: How the Cold War links to resources on the global economy Ended (2004), an important work by a for-

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mer American diplomat; and J. Mann, The omy; A. Shleifer and D. Treisman, Without Rebellion of Ronald Reagan: A History of a Map: Political Tactics and Economic Re- the End of the Cold War (2009). Especially form in Russia (2000). For biographical ac- valuable also is J. B. Dunlop, The Rise of counts and discussion of the president’s role Russia and the Fall of the Soviet Empire in Russia’s political and economic develop- (1993), while M. E. Malia, The Soviet ment, see T. Colton, Yeltsin: A Life (2008); Tragedy: A History of Socialism in Russia, and H. Ellison, Boris Yeltsin and Russia’s 1917–1991 (1994), cited earlier, critically Democratic Transformation (2006). The evaluates those decades; for an analysis that suppression of the Chechen rebellion is includes post-Soviet Russia, see S. Rose- studied in J. Dunlop, Russia Confronts fi elde and S. Hedlund, Russia since 1980: Chechnya (1998); M. Evangelista, The Wrestling with Westernization (2009). Chechen Wars (2002); J. Hughes, Chech- F. Furet, The Passing of an Illusion (trans. nya: From Nationalism to Jihad (2007); 1999), by a distinguished French historian, E. Gilligan, Terror in Chechnya: Russia assesses the ending of an era in which many and the Tragedy of Civilians in War (2010); in Europe and elsewhere were attracted and I. Akhmadov and M. Lanskoy, The to communism. Chechen Struggle: Independence Won and Lost (2010). The Demise of Communism and the Dissolution of the Soviet Union The Transformation of Central For the events of 1991 and the dissolu- and Eastern Europe, 1989 tion of the U.S.S.R., one may turn to Several books have already been cited for D. Remnick, Lenin’s Tomb: The Last Days chapter 22 for central and eastern Europe in of the Soviet Empire (1993), by a percep- the post-1945 years. The growing restive- tive journalist-observer; J. F. Matlock Jr., ness under Soviet domination emerges as a Autopsy on an Empire (1995), a compelling theme in M. Charlton, The Eagle and the contribution by the American ambassador Small Birds: Crisis in the Soviet Union from at the time; and R. V. Daniels, The End of Yalta to Solidarity (1984), and G. Schöpfl in the Communist Revolution (1993). On the and N. Woods (eds.), In Search of Central ethnic and national tensions that led to the Europe (1989); the opposition to the Sovi- dissolution of the union, one may read H. ets is also described in M. Pittaway, Eastern Carrère d’Encausse, The End of the Soviet Europe, 1939–2000 (2004). The connection Empire: The Triumph of the Nations (trans. between Soviet reform and the collapse of 1993); G. I. Mirsky, On Ruins of Empire: eastern European communism is covered Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Former in H. Hardman, Gorbachev’s Export of Soviet Union (1997); and R. G. Suny, The Perestroika to Eastern Europe: Democrati- Soviet Experiment: Russia, the U.S.S.R., sation Reconsidered (2012); and A. Grachev, and the Successor States (1998). An en- Gorbachev’s Gamble: Soviet Foreign Policy gaging narrative description of the end of and the End of the Cold War (2008). The the U.S.S.R is developed in C. O’Clery, best account of the long transition in East- Moscow, December 25, 1991: The Last Day ern Europe from the height of Communism of the Soviet Union (2011). to the beginning of the new millennium is Assessments of the Yeltsin presidency I. T. Berand, From the Soviet Bloc to the and efforts at economic reform may be European Union: The Economic and Social found in R. W. Davies, Soviet History in the Transformation of Central and Eastern Yeltsin Era (1997); D. Remnick, Resurrec- Europe since 1973 (2009). tion: The Struggle for a New Russia (1997); T. Garton Ash, a British journalist- T. Gustafson, Capitalism Russian Style historian, vividly describes the collapse (1997), especially informative for the econ- of the Communist regimes in central and

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eastern Europe in 1989 as he witnessed and M. Veenis, Material Fantasies: Ex- and refl ected on these events in The Uses pectations of the Western Consumer World of Adversity: Essays on the Fate of Central among East Germans (2012). Europe (1989) and The Magic Lantern: A few additional books on the Revo- The Revolution of ’89 Witnessed in Warsaw, lution of 1989 in the central and eastern Eu- Budapest, Berlin, and Prague (1990); and ropean countries merit citing. For Poland, Garton Ash also summarized his assess- one may read A. Kemp-Welch, The Birth of ments of the Polish upheavals in The Pol- Solidarity (1991); J. Harrison, The Solidar- ish Revolution: Solidarity (rev. 2002). Other ity Decade: Poland, 1980–1991 (1993); and informative studies include Z. A. B. Zeman, M. Szporer, Solidarity: The Great Workers The Making and Breaking of Commu- Strike of 1980 (2012). For Czechoslova- nist Europe (1991); the essays in I. Banac kia, readers may consult B. Wheaton and (ed.), Eastern Europe in Revolution (1992); Z. Kavan, The Velvet Revolution (1992); G. Stokes, The Walls Came Tumbling Down: two biographical accounts of its leader, The Collapse of Communism in Eastern communicating the playwright-statesman’s Europe (1993); V. Bunce, Subversive Insti- thought and infl uence: E. Kriscova,Va- tutions: The Design and the Destruction of clav Havel: The Authorized Biography Socialism and the State (1999); M. E. Sa- (1993), somewhat uncritical; J. Keane, Va- rotte, 1989: The Struggle to Create Post- clav Havel (2000), exploring in depth his Cold War Europe (2009); and S. Kotkin, political career both as dissident activist Uncivil Society: 1989 and the Implosion of and as president. An informative survey of the Communist Establishment (2009). For Czech history carrying the story toward the the role of nationalism in the revolutions, present is D. Sayer, The Coasts of Bohemia: see C. King, Extreme Politics: Nationalism, A Czech History (1999), while E. Stein, Violence, and the End of Eastern Europe Czecho/Slovakia: Ethnic Confl ict, Constitu- (2010); and for the legacy of liberation, tional Fissure, Negotiated Breakup (1997), A. Michnik, In Search of Lost Meaning: helps explain the peaceful separation of the The New Eastern Europe (trans. 2011). Of Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993. A special interest is J. Lévesque, The Enigma recent account of the Velvet Revolution is of 1989: The U.S.S.R. and the Liberation of J. Duberstein, A Velvet Revolution: Václav Eastern Europe (1997), an effort to assess Havel and the Fall of Communism (2006). reactions in the Soviet Union. For the revolt against the Romanian dicta- Careful assessments of the events lead- tor, one may read N. Ratesh, Romania: The ing to German reunifi cation are T. Garton Entangled Revolution (1992), an informa- Ash, In Europe’s Name: Germany and the tive brief account; P. Siani-Davies, The Divided Continent (1993), cited for chapter Romanian Revolution of December 1989 22; K. H. Jarausch, The Rush to German (2005), a well-informed, comprehensive Unity (1994); E. Pond, Beyond the Wall: study; and A. M. Pusca, Revolution, Demo- Germany’s Road to Unifi cation (1993); cratic Transition and Disillusionment: The C. S. Maier, The Crisis of Communism and Case of Romania (2008). the End of East Germany (1997), with spe- The Baltic states, where the indepen- cial insights into the decayed East German dence movements helped catalyze the dis- economy; and P. Zelikow and C. Rice, Ger- solution of the U.S.S.R., are studied in many Unifi ed and Europe Transformed: A A. Lieven, The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Study in Statecraft (1997), with early access Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Indepen- to key documents. More recent contribu- dence (1993), and R. J. Misiunas and R. tions to the literature include G. Ritter, The Taagepera, The Baltic States: Years of Price of German Unity: Reunifi cation and Depen dence, 1940–1990 (1993), a detailed the Crisis of the Welfare State (trans. 2011); account of the years under Soviet rule. For

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a broad account of their postwar history see G. Toal and C. T. Dahlman, Bosnia Remade: A. Purs, Baltic Facades: Estonia, Latvia Ethnic Cleansing and Its Reversal (2011). and Lithuania since 1945 (2012). For the international reactions to the ethnic warfare, one may turn to J. Gow, The Disintegration of Yugoslavia Triumph of the Lack of Will: International To books cited earlier on Balkan history Diplomacy and the Yugoslav War (1997); one should add M. Glenny, The Balkans: W. Bert, The Reluctant Superpower: United Nationalism, War, and the Great Powers, States Policy in Bosnia, 1991–1995 (1997); 1804–1999 (2000), and M. Mazower, The D. Rohde, Endgame: The Betrayal and Fall Balkans: A Short History (2000), an in- of Srebrenica: Europe’s Worst Massacre sightful distillation of the complex story. since World War II (1997), on the mass slay- For the background and nature of the Tito ing of Bosnian Muslims; and R. Holbrooke, years, one should read A. Djilas, The Con- To End a War (1998), by the American dip- tested Country: Yugoslav Unity and Com- lomat who helped negotiate the Dayton ac- munist Revolution, 1919–1953 (1991), cords. M. Ignatieff, The Warrior’s Honor: cited earlier; R. West, Tito and the Rise and Ethnic War and the Modern Conscience Fall of Yugoslavia (1995); and J. R. Lampe, (1998), refl ects on the moral dilemmas the Yugoslavia as History: Twice There Was events posed to the international commu- a Country (1996), focusing on the years nity; and S. J. Kaufman, Modern Hatreds: 1918–1941, the Second World War, and the The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War (2001), years 1945–1991. and V. R. Gagnon, The Myth of Ethnic War The events of the 1990s may be fol- (2004), provide additional insights on east- lowed in T. Judah, The Serbs: History, Myth ern Europe. Recent contributions to the and the Destruction of Yugoslavia (rev. history of these events include J. Glaurdic´, 2009), which graphically demonstrates that The Hour of Europe: Western Powers and the breakup was the consequence of dema- the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2011); and gogic incitement of ethnic animosities, not D. Gibbs, First Do No Harm: Humani- the ethnic differences themselves; L. Silber tarian Intervention and the Destruction of and A. Little, Yugoslavia: Death of a Na- Yugoslavia (2009). tion (1999); and M. Glenny , The Fall of Yugo- For the suppression of the rebellion slavia: The Third Balkan War (rev. 1996). in Kosovo, one may read N. Malcolm, The Serb dictator and his regime are stud- Kosovo: A Short History (1998), and M. ied in R. Thomas, Serbia under Milosevic: Vickers, Between Serb and Albanian: A Politics in the 1990s (1999); D. Bujosevic History of Kosovo (1998); and for the Amer- and I. Radovanovic, The Fall of Milosevic: ican-led NATO air offensive against Serbia, The October 5th Revolution (2003); and in M. Ignatieff, Virtual War: Kosovo and Be- N. Vladisavljevic´, Serbia’s Antibureaucratic yond (2000), and T. Judah, Kosovo: War and Revolution: Miloševic´, the Fall of Commu- Revenge (2000). Accounts that bring the nism and Nationalist Mobilization (2008). narrative further toward the present include Additional biographical details are pro- M. Weller, Contested Statehood: Kosovo’s vided in D. Dodier and L. Branson, Milo- Struggle for Independence (2009); and sevic: Portrait of a Tyrant (2000); and in A. D. Phillips, Liberating Kosovo: Coercive Lebor, Milosevic: A Biography (2002). Se- Diplomacy and U.S. Intervention (2012). cession and the wars that followed are studied in M. Tanner, Croatia: A Nation Forged After Communism: Russia and Central in War (rev. 2010); N. Malcolm, Bosnia: A and Eastern Europe Short History (rev. 1996); and for a study of The transitions in Russia after the Yeltsin reconciliation in the multiethnic nation, see era are examined in various books about

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Vladimir Putin, including P. Baker and S. Useful Web Sites and Online Resources Glasser, Kremlin Rising: Vladimir Putin’s There are useful links to diverse resources Russia and the End of Revolution (2005); on the recent history of central and east- L. Jonson, Vladimir Putin and Central ern Europe and the countries of the former Asia: The Shaping of Russian Foreign Pol- Soviet Union at REENIC: Russian and East icy (2004); and A. Roxburgh, The Strong- European Network Information Center, man: Vladimir Putin and the Struggle for http://reenic.utexas.edu/index.html , a site at Russia (2012). The biographical accounts the University of Texas; at the East Central often stress Putin’s authoritarian tenden- European Center of Columbia University, cies, but other works emphasize the chal- at http://ece.columbia.edu ; and at the lenges that required decisive leadership; the University of Pittsburgh’s Russian and East contextual themes emerge in K. C. Lynch, European Studies Virtual Library, www. Vladimir Putin and Russian Statecraft ucis.pitt.edu/reesweb , an excellent starting (2011), and in P. Sutela, The Political Econ- point for links to materials on both the omy of Putin’s Russia (2012). fall of Soviet communism and the later Insightful books on eastern Europe history of the former communist nations in after 1989 include R. Dahrendorf, Refl ec- central Europe. tions on the Revolution in Europe (1991); T. Rosenberg, The Haunted Land: Facing 26. EUROPE AND THE CHANGING Europe’s Ghosts after Communism (1995); MODERN WORLD and R. Skidelsky, The Road from Serfdom: Europe since the 1990s The Economic and Political Consequences Books that examine the new confi guration of the End of Communism (1996). There are of European relationships and the evolv- also well-informed analyses of central Eu- ing EU include A. E. Stent, Russia and ropean societies in T. Garton Ash, History Germany Reborn: Unifi cation, the Soviet of the Present: Essays, Sketches, and Dis- Collapse, and the New Europe (1999); E. patches from Europe in the 1990s (1999). Pond, The Rebirth of Europe (rev. 2002); The efforts to establish stable democra- M. Keens-Soper, Europe in the World: cies are assessed in R. Rose and others, The Persistence of Power Politics (1999); Democracy and Its Alternatives: Under- and M. Emerson, Redrawing the Map of standing Post-Communist Societies (1998); Europe (1999). There are helpful accounts P. Juviler, Freedom’s Ordeal: The Struggle of international cooperation in E. Bomberg for Human Rights and Democracy in Post- and A. Stubb (eds.), The European Union: Soviet States (1997); and V. Tismaneanu, How Does it Work? (2008); and D. Dinan, Fantasies of Salvation: Democracy, Nation- Europe Recast: A History of the European alism and Myth in Post-Communist Europe Union (2004). T. Judt, A Grand Illusion? (1998). Some unsavory aspects of the post- An Essay on Europe (1996) expresses pes- liberation era are described in P. Hockenos, simism on the future of European unity, Free to Hate: The Rise of the Right in Post- but he has provided further analysis of this Communist Eastern Europe (1993). Ob- process in his comprehensive Postwar: servations written with greater historical A History of Europe since 1945 (2005), distance from the events are J. Mark, The cited earlier. The most optimistic view on Unfi nished Revolution: Making Sense of the this subject is the stimulating, if not en- Communist Past in Central-Eastern Europe tirely convincing, M. Leonard, Why Europe (2010); G. Kolodko, The World Economy Will Run the 21st Century (2005). Europe and Great Post-Communist Change (2006); has suffered major shocks to its economic and P. Kenney, The Burdens of Freedom: well-being since 2005. Some recent assess- Eastern Europe since 1989 (2006). ments—many of them pessimistic—which

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must be read as contemporary analysis of parties, which are analyzed in G. Goodliffe, ongoing changes, include J. McCormick, The Resurgence of the Radical Right in The European Superpower (2007); E. France: From Boulangisme to the Front Na- Eriksen, The Unfi nished Democratization tional (2012). Other political trends, how- of Europe (2009); G. Ross, The European ever, have led to the rise of women in political Union and Its Crises: Through the Eyes of life, a theme in R. Harneis, Ségolène Royal: the Brussels’ Elite (2011); A. Toje, The Eu- A Biography (2007). ropean Union as a Small Power: After the Post-Cold War (2010); and F. Bongiovanni, Culture, Science, and Thought The Decline and Fall of Europe (2012). The Many of the books described for chapter 15 transformation of EU institutions is covered refer to cultural and intellectual trends that in J. Trondal, An Emergent European Ex- continued through much of the twentieth ecutive Order (2010); and other works on century, but American cultural infl uence the recent EU fi nancial crisis are listed at became increasingly important in Europe. the end of this chapter bibliography. Such infl uences are described in D. Ellwood, A fresh overview of Britain in the post- The Shock of America: Europe and the war half-century is presented in H. Young, Challenge of the Century (2012), and in This Blessed Plot: Britain and Europe from the previously cited work by V. de Grazia, Churchill to Blair (1999); and Tony Blair’s Irresistible Empire: America’s Advance “new Labour” program is examined in through Twentieth-Century Europe (2005). A. Giddens, The Third Way: The Renewal Other cultural developments are analyzed in of Social Democracy (1998); M. A. Sully, J. Winders, European Culture since 1848: The New Politics of Tony Blair (2000); S. From Modern to Postmodern and Beyond Driver and L. Martell, New Labour (2006); (2001), which provides a well-informed A. Thorpe, A History of the British Labour survey of twentieth-century thought Party (2008); and A. Rawnsley, The End of For distinctions between “modernism” the Party (2010). For Italy, three books that and “postmodernism” in various contexts, examine the unseating of the Christian Dem- one may read S. Toulmin, Cosmopolis: ocrats in the 1990s and the attempts to deal The Hidden Agenda of Modernity (1989); with the corruption that tarnished the regime Z. Bauman, Legislators and Interpreters: include A. Stille, Excellent Cadavers: The On Modernity, Post-Modernity, and Intel- Mafi a and the Death of the Italian Republic lectuals (1987); J. McGowan, Postmodern- (1995); M. Frei, Italy: The Unfi nished Revo- ism and Its Critics (1991); M. Sarup, An lution (1996); P. McCarthy, The Crisis of the Introductory Guide to Post-structural- Italian State (1995); and, more prescriptive ism and Postmodernism (rev. 1993); and than historical, B. Emmott, Good Italy, Bad E. Heartney, Postmodernism (2001). A. Italy: Why Italy Must Conquer Its Demons Grafton, Worlds Made by Words: Scholar- to Face the Future (2012). ship and Community in the Modern West The disillusionment with European (2009), discusses the development and political leaders emerges as a theme in contemporary state of the international V. Maurizio, The Liberty of Servants: Ber- academic community. Two helpful surveys lusconi’s Italy (trans. 2012), and D. Alber- are available in C. Butler, Postmodernism: tazzi (ed.), Resisting the Tide: Cultures of A Very Short Introduction (2002); and C. Opposition under Berlusconi (2001–2006) Belsey, Poststructuralism: A Very Short (2009); and British complaints appear in Introduction (2002). A postmodern critique C. Hughes (ed.), What Went Wrong, Gordon of historical studies is developed in K. Jenkins, Brown? (2010). Political disillusionment Why History? (1999); while K. Windschuttle, in France has led to a revival of far-right The Killing of History (1998), strongly

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objects to the assault by literary critics, Passion of Michel Foucault (1993); but his social theorists, and others on more tradi- main ideas are examined in S. Mills, Michel tional conceptions of historical knowledge. Foucault (2003); and P. Veyne, Foucault: Other works on modern historical thought His Thought, His Character (trans. 2010) . are cited for the Introduction. For additional accounts of his ideas, readers A helpful survey of key intellectuals may consult L. Downing, The Cambridge is available in R. N. Stromberg, Makers of Introduction to Michel Foucault (2008). Modern Culture: Five Twentieth-Century Another infl uential French thinker is de- Thinkers (1991), exploring Freud, Einstein, scribed in N. Royle, Jacques Derrida Wittgenstein, Joyce, and Sartre. Other (2003); D. Mikics, Who Was Jacques Derri- views of modern intellectual life appear in da? An Intellectual Biography (2009); and the Marxist cultural analysis of F. Jameson, in M. Thomas, The Reception of Derrida: Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Translation and Transformation (2006). Late Capitalism (1991), and T. Eagleton, There is also an accessible summary in The Idea of Culture (2000). L. Hill, The Cambridge Introduction to For an assessment of contemporary Jacques Derrida (2007). L. E. Cahoone Western philosophy, see J. Margolis, Prag- (ed.), From Modernism to Postmodernism: matism’s Advantage: American and Euro- An Anthology (rev. 2003), provides a useful pean Philosophy at the End of the Twentieth collection of readings from key fi gures in Century (2010). Useful introductions to modern and contemporary cultural and in- earlier professional philosophers are avail- tellectual movements. The debate on Freud, able in J. Passmore, Recent Philosophers referred to in the section for chapter 15, (rev. 1985), and A. J. Ayer, Philosophy in continues with numerous books, among the Twentieth Century (1982). Two recom- them P. Robinson, Freud and His Critics mended biographical accounts of twentieth- (1993), which defends Freud but explores century philosophers are C. Moorehead, the challenges to his infl uence. Bertrand Russell: A Life (1993), and R. Introductions to the complexities of Monk, Ludwig Wittgenstein: The Duty of contemporary art are provided in A. Neu- Genius (1990). The origins and nature of meyer, The Search for Meaning in Modern existentialism may be studied in R. C. Solo- Art (trans. 1964); L. Parmesani, Art of the mon, From Rationalism to Existentialism: Twentieth Century: Movements, Theories, The Existentialists and Their Nineteenth- Schools, and Trends, 1900–2000 (2000); and Century Backgrounds (1972, 2001); R. J. Robertson, Themes of Contemporary Art: Aronson, Camus and Sartre (2004); A. Visual Art after 1980 (2013). A. Appel Jr., Cohen-Salal, Sartre (trans. 1987); T. R. The Art of Celebration: Twentieth-Century Koenig, Existentialism and Human Exist- Painting, Literature, Sculpture, Photogra- ence (1992); J. Catalano, Reading Sartre phy, and Jazz (1992), stresses the vitality (2010); and R. Solomon, Dark Feelings, of contemporary culture, including popular Grim Thoughts: Experience and Refl ection culture; while R. Templin (ed.), The Arts: in Camus and Sartre (2006). A History of Expression in the Twentieth An infl uential French anthropologist Century (1991), is informative on both the is described in P. Wilcken, Claude Levi- visual arts and literature. Strauss: The Poet in the Laboratory (2010). Western religious thought is explored For Michel Foucault, several of whose in- in J. Macquarrie, Twentieth-Century Reli- fl uential historical works were cited for gious Thought (rev. 2002), and J. C. Living- the Introduction, an unfl attering personal ston, Modern Christian Thought: From the portrait emerges from D. Eribon, Michel Enlightenment to Vatican II (1971). R. N. Foucault (trans. 1991), and J. Miller, The Bellah, Beyond Belief: Essays on Religion

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in a Post-Traditional World (1970, 1991), A Life of Pope John Paul II (2005); and in explores the major world religions in di- C. Holloway, The Way of Life: John Paul verse cultural contexts. The effects of mul- II and the Challenge of Liberal Modernity ticulturalism on European religious life is (2008). For the conservatism of John Paul’s the focus of P. Jenkins, God’s Continent: successor, see T. Rowland, Ratzinger’s Christianity, Islam, and Europe’s Reli- Faith: The Theology of Pope Benedict XVI gious Crisis (2007).The rise and growing (2008). strength of religious fundamentalist move- Books on Einstein and early twentieth- ments in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam century physics have been cited for chapter is studied in K. Armstrong, The Battle for 15, but there is also a good introduction in God (2000); and M. E. Marty, When Faiths B. Greene, The Elegant Universe (1999). Collide (2005), examines confl icts among A. Pais has followed his earlier biography of religions in the contemporary world. The Einstein (1982) with Niels Bohr’s Times: In changing face of European religion in the Physics, Philosophy, and Polity (1992). For twentieth century from liberalization to contemporary physics, one may turn also to secularization is covered in G. Horn, West- H. C. Von Baeyer, The Taming of the Atom: ern European Liberation Theology: The The Emergence of the Visible Microworld First Wave (1924–1959 ) (2008); and T. Zi- (1992), and J. Bernstein, Quantum Profi les olkowski, Modes of Faith: Secular Surro- (1991) and Cranks, Quarks, and the Cos- gates for Lost Religious Belief (2007). mos (1993). A remarkable biographical The continuing debate between sci- account of the leading architect of the fi rst ence and religion is studied in J. H. Brooke, atomic bomb is K. Bird and M. J. Sherwin, Science and Religion: Some Historical American Prometheus: The Triumph and Perspectives (1991); M. H. Barnes, The Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer (2005); Co-Evolution of Religious Thought and while other accounts providing broader Science (2000); and T. Edis, Science and contexts are S. Schweber, Einstein and Op- Nonbelief (2006). For the profound doctri- penheimer: The Meaning of Genius (2008); nal and social changes in modern Roman and J. Hunner, J. Robert Oppenheimer, the Catholicism, one may turn to J. D. Holmes, Cold War, and the Atomic West (2009). Of The Papacy in the Modern World, 1914– special interest to the general reader will be 1978 (1981); E. O. Hanson, The Catholic L. M. Krauss, Fear of Physics: A Guide for Church in World Politics (1987); and for the Perplexed (1993). the Church’s relation to modern science, On the biological revolution, an excel- P. M. J. Hess and P. L. Allen, Catholi- lent introduction is S. Jones, The Language cism and Science (2008). For the ground- of the Genes: Biology, History and the Evo- breaking 1962 reform of the Church, see lutionary Future (1994), while E. F. Keller, M. Wilde, Vatican II: A Sociological The Century of the Gene (2000), is informa- Analysis of Religious Change (2007); and tive but somewhat technical. One may also I. Linden, Global Catholicism: Diversity read R. Olby, The Path to the Double Helix and Change since Vatican II (2009). For (1974); H. F. Judson, The Eighth Day of the recent popes, there are biographies of Creation: The Makers of Revolution in Biol- John XXIII by M. Trevor (1967) and L. ogy (1979); and B. Wallace, The Search for Elliott (1973); of Paul VI by P. Hebbleth- the Gene (1993). In J. Watson, The Double waite (1993), a detailed and documented Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery account; and valuable assessments of of the Structure of DNA (rev. 1980), a scien- John Paul II in J. Kwitny, Man of the Cen- tist describes himself and other biologists at tury: The Life and Times of John Paul II work. For a broad historical narrative that (1998); in G. O’Connor, Universal Father: considers the implications of gene research

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on our understanding of evolution, readers Activist Movements: 1968 and Its should consult J. Schwartz, In Pursuit of the Legacy Gene: From Darwin to DNA (2008). On the A comprehensive account of the student up- need for communication between scientists heaval of 1968 as a worldwide phenomenon and nonscientists, an indispensable book is D. Caute, The Year of the Barricades: A remains C. P. Snow, The Two Cultures and Journey through 1968 (1988); it may be the Scientifi c Revolution (1959; new critical supplemented by G. Katsiafacis, The Imagi- ed., with introduction by S. Collini, 1993). nation of the New Left: A Global Analysis of It may be supplemented by B. Appleyard, 1968 (1987); A Marwick, The Sixties: Cul- Understanding the Present (1993), on the tural Revolution in Britain, France, Italy, links of science, philosophy, and society; and the United States (1998); M. Kurlansky, and F. J. Dyson, The Sun, the Genome, 1968: The Year That Rocked the World and the Internet (1999), by a renowned (2004); and the essays in C. Fink and oth- physicist. ers (eds.), 1968: The World Transformed To study modern medicine in per- (1999). For a broad analysis of protest in spective, one should turn to R. Porter, The Europe, including precursors to 1968, see Greatest Benefi t to Mankind: A Medical M. Klimke and J. Scharloth (eds.), 1968 History of Humanity (1998). A review of in Europe: A History of Protest and Activ- European postwar cooperation in the fi elds ism, 1956–1977 (2008). The effect of 1968 of public and clinical health is available in on the Cold War is the subject of J. Suri, Sixty Years of WHO in Europe (2010). The Power and Protest: Global Revolution and setback to medical science and the chal- the Rise of Détente (2003). The turbulent lenges to society posed by the appearance French scene in 1968 is studied from a vari- of AIDs are studied in M. D. Grmek, His- ety of perspectives in R. Aron, The Elusive tory of AIDs: Emergence and Origin of a Revolution (trans. 1969); A. Touraine, The Modern Pandemic (trans. 1990); E. Fee May Movement: Revolt and Reform (trans. and D. Fox (eds.), AIDS: The Making of a 1979); M. Seidman, The Imaginary Revolu- Chronic Disease (1991); V. Berridge and tion: Parisian Students and Workers in 1968 P. Strong (eds.), AIDS and Contemporary (2004); J. Bourg, From Revolution to Eth- History (1993, 2002); and K. R. Hope Sr. ics: May 1968 and Contemporary French (ed.), AIDS and Development in Africa Thought (2007); and D. Gordon, Immi- (1999), which examines the pandemic’s so- grants & Intellectuals: May ’68 & the Rise cial effects on the continent that has been of Anti-Racism in France (2012). K. Reader, most affected by the disease. Of special The May 1968 Events in France (1993), in- interest for health matters is L. Garrett, cludes documents from the period as well Betrayal of Trust: The Collapse of Global as a wide range of historical interpretations. Public Health (2000). P. Berman, Power and the Idealists (2005), For space exploration in all its aspects, sympathetically explores the legacy of 1968 one should read W. A. McDougall, The through the career of Joachim Fischer, Heavens and the Earth: A Political History youthful activist at the time and later German of the Space Age (1985); W. J. Walter, Space foreign minister. Age (1992); and W. E. Burrows, This New Ocean: The Story of the Space Age (1998), The Women’s Liberation Movement a comprehensive survey. The essays in J. T. For the background to the women’s libera- Andrews and A. A. Siddiqi (eds.), Into the tion movement, the books on the history of Cosmos: Space Exploration and Soviet Cul- women described for the Introduction and ture (2011), add interesting cultural dimen- for earlier chapters will also serve as a guide. sions to the history of space travel. A valuable resource for the background of

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women’s history is A. T. Allen, Women in convenient anthology for the German scene Twentieth-Century Europe (2008); while is H. Altbach and others (eds.), German P. Albanese, Mothers of the Nation: Women, Feminism: Readings in Politics and Litera- Families and Nationalism in Twentieth- ture (1984); for Italy one may read L. C. Century Europe (2006), considers the polit- Birnbaum, Liberazione della Donna: Femi- ical role of women throughout the century. nism in Italy (1986); and for Russia see A thoughtful survey is available in O. Banks, F. du P. Gray, Soviet Women: Walking the Faces of Feminism: A Study of Feminism Tight Rope (1990); and B. E. Clements, as a Social Movement (1981, 1986); J. S. A History of Women in Russia: From Ear- Chafetz and A. G. Dworkin, Female Revolt: liest Times to the Present (2012). Valuable The Rise of Women’s Movements in World comparative assessments are available in and Historical Perspective (1986); and I. Tinker (ed.), Persistent Inequalities: D. Dahlerup (ed.), The New Women’s Move- Women and World Development (1990), and ment (1986). I. Whelehan, Modern Feminist in A. Sen, Inequality Reexamined (1996), Thought: From the Second Wave to “Post- which is the work of a leading development Feminism” (1995), describes the histori- economist and social philosopher. cal development of feminist theories that On the European movement toward shaped the modern women’s movement; legal rights for same-sex marriages, see and M. Schneir, Feminism in Our Time: J. Rydstrom, Odd Couples: A History of The Essential Writings: World War II to the Gay Marriage in Scandinavia (2011), and Present (1994), provides a useful collection K. Boele-Wolki and A. Fuchs (eds.), Legal of infl uential writings. Recognition of Same Sex Couples in Europe For the European context, good intro- (2003). ductions include J. Lovenduski, Women and European Politics: Contemporary Feminism International Confl icts after the Cold and Public Policy (1986), and G. Kaplan, War Contemporary Western European Feminism The end of the Cold War brought a num- (1992); while J. Gelb, Feminism and Poli- ber of thoughtful studies on the changing tics (1990), compares American and Euro- international scene, among them W. G. pean experiences. The British scene is stud- Hyland, The Cold War Is Over (1991), and ied in S. Rowbotham, The Past Is before Us: J. L. Gaddis, The Cold War: A New His- Feminism in Action since the 1960s (1989), tory (2005), cited earlier; and J. Chace, and in her impressive comparative study, A The Consequences of the Peace: The New Century of Women: The History of Women Internationalism and American Foreign in Britain and the United States (1997). For Policy (1992). Additional insightful stud- France one may turn to C. Duchen, Femi- ies include M. Mandelbaum, The Dawn nism in France: From May ’68 to Mitterrand of Peace in Europe (1996) and his other (1986), and Women’s Rights and Women’s books; S. Hoffmann, World Disorder: Trou- Lives in France, 1944–1968 (1994); D. M. bled Peace in the Post–Cold War Era (1999) Stetson, Women’s Rights in France (1987); and The Ethics and Politics of Humanitar- J. W. Scott, Parité: Sexual Equality and the ian Intervention (1996); and M. Howard, Crisis of French Universalism (2005); and a The Invention of Peace: Refl ections on War selection of readings in E. Marks and I. De and International Order (2001). Courtivron (eds.), New French Feminisms: The continuing nuclear threat is ex- An Anthology (1980). There is a percep- plored in W. E. Burrows and R. Windrem, tive analysis of the famed French activist in The Dangerous Race for Superweapons in T. Moi, Simone de Beauvoir: The Mak- a Fragmenting World (1994); J. Cirincione, ing of an Intellectual Woman (2008). A Bomb Scare: The History and Future of

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Nuclear Weapons (2007); and R. Rhodes, War (2008); and P. Lee, Blair’s Just War: The Twilight of the Bombs: Recent Chal- Iraq and the Illusion of Morality (2012). lenges, New Dangers, and the Prospects for The new tensions in European-American a World without Nuclear Weapons (2010). relations during the Iraq War are examined For terrorism and its implications for con- in D. M. Andrews (ed.), The Atlantic Alli- temporary society, one may turn to B. Hoff- ance under Stress: US-European Relations man, Inside Terrorism (1998), a concise after Iraq (2005); and the impact of the but comprehensive, historically informed Afghan war is examined in S. Rynning, account; C. Townshend, Terrorism: A Very NATO in Afghanistan: The Liberal Discon- Short Introduction (2002); while works nect (2012). since the opening of the Global War on The explosive ethnic tensions in the Terror include M. Jacobson, The West at contemporary world are thoughtfully ex- War: U.S. and European Counterterrorism amined in D. P. Moynihan, Pandemonium: Efforts, Post-September 11 (2006); and P. Ethnicity in International Politics (1993); Neumann, Joining Al-Qaeda: Jihadist Re- W. Pfaff, The Wrath of Nations: Civilization cruitment in Europe (2008). There are in- and the Furies of Nationalism (1993); and sightful essays in W. Gutteridge (ed.), The A. D. Smith, Myths and Memories of the New Terrorism (1986), and W. Reich (ed.), Nation (2000). Of interest also are M. Juer- Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ide- gensmeyer, The New Cold War? Religious ologies, Theologies, States of Mind (1990). Nationalism Confronts the Secular State M. Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of (1993); M. Ignatieff, Blood and Belonging: God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence Journeys into the New Nationalism (1994); (rev. 2003), J. Burke, Al-Qaeda: The True and M. J. Esman, An Introduction to Ethnic Story of Radical Islam (rev. 2007), and Confl ict (2004). M. Silber, The Al Qaeda Factor: Plots A much-discussed, controversial book against the West (2012), describe the history by S. P. Huntington, The Clash of Civili- of contemporary religious-based terrorism. zations and the Remaking of World Order For the Persian Gulf War of 1990– (1996), predicted future confl icts among civ- 1991, one may read D. Hiro, Desert Shield ilizations shaped by the world’s major his- to Desert Storm: The Second Gulf War toric religions and warned against Western (1992), excellent on the military aspects; L. “universalist” missions in international Freedman and E. Karsh, The Gulf Confl ict, affairs. The complex historical nature 1900–1991: Diplomacy and War in the New of Western cultures is well conveyed in World Order (1993), a comprehensive ac- D. Gress , From Plato to NATO: The Ideas count; and a briefer study in A. Finlan, The of the West and Its Opponents (1998). Two Gulf War 1991 (2003). books exposing the failures of twentieth- The terrorist attack on America in 2001 century regimes that sought to reshape hu- is analyzed by F. Halliday in Two Hours man society are R. Conquest, Refl ections on That Shook the World: September 11, 2001, a Ravaged Century (1999), describing the Causes and Consequences (2002); and M. human costs of war and totalitarianism, and L. Dudziak (ed.), September 11 in History: J. C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Cer- A Watershed Moment? (2003). For the im- tain Schemes to Improve the Human Condi- pact on Europe, see Giovanna Bono (ed.), tion Have Failed (1998). Both may be read The Impact of 9/11 on European Foreign in conjunction with Isaiah Berlin’s rejection and Security Policy (2006). Books on Eu- of utopianism and social engineering in The rope’s role in the buildup and execution of Crooked Timber of Humanity (1990, 1998), the Iraq War include S. Serfaty, Architects cited earlier, and his other writings in de- of Delusion: Europe, America, and the Iraq fense of pluralist liberalism.

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Human Rights books on the subject are J. McAdams, Judg- On the increasing importance of human ing the Past in Unifi ed Germany (2000); J. rights issues in international affairs, readers Borneman, Settling Accounts: Violence, may fi nd informative historical studies in P. Justice, and Accountability in Postsocialist G. Lauren, The Evolution of Human Rights: Europe (1997); and the essays in I. Deák, Visions Seen (1999); J. Morsink, The Uni- J. T. Gross, and T. Judt (eds.), The Politics versal Declaration of Human Rights: Ori- of Retribution in Europe: World War II and gins, Drafting, and Intent (1999); and the Its Aftermath (2000). essays in Y. Danieli and others (eds.), The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Modern Society, Information Technology, Fifty Years and Beyond (1999). An eloquent Globalization statement by a Roman Catholic philosopher The present and future impact of informa- is J. Maritain, The Rights of Man and Natu- tion technology on contemporary society ral Law (1986), cited earlier. W. T. de Bary, may be studied in M. Dertouzos, What Will Asian Values and Human Rights (1998), Be: How the New World of Information Will makes clear that cultural relativism should Change Our Lives (1997); and F. Cairncross, not affect universal human rights. The pre- The Death of Distance: How the Communi- viously cited book by S. Moyn, The Last cations Revolution Is Changing Our Lives Utopia: Human Rights in History (2010), (rev. 2001). argues that the quest for universal human On the much-discussed issue of glo- rights developed only recently and gradu- balization, helpful introductions include ally replaced other utopian political creeds T. L. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree that had lost credibility. (1999), which analyzes the gap between A key study examining past and pres- modernization and traditional values as well ent efforts to judge and punish crimes as the attempts to narrow the gap by technol- against humanity and human rights abuses ogies such as the Internet; and by the same is Y. Beigbeder, Judging War Criminals: author, The World Is Flat: A Brief History The Politics of International Justice (1999); of the Twenty-First Century (2005), which other informative books, inspired by events describes the contemporary proc esses of in Bosnia, Rwanda, and elsewhere, include global economic exchange. The debate W. Shawcross, Deliver Us from Evil: Peace- on globalization continues in P. Kennedy, keepers, Warlords, and a World of Endless Preparing for the Twenty-First Century Confl ict (2000); A. Neier, War Crimes: (1993); J. N. Rosenau, Along the Domes- Brutality, Genocide, Terror, and the Strug- tic-Foreign Frontier: Exploring Govern- gle for Justice (1999); and J. Armatta, Twi- ance in a Turbulent World (1997), touching light of Impunity: The War Crimes Trial of on such questions as the erosion of sovereign- Slobodan Milosevic (2012), strongly sup- ty; R. Gilpin, The Challenge of Global Capi- portive of international jurisdictions; and talism (2000), an especially helpful, balanced M. Minow, Between Vengeance and For- study; and R. Heilbroner, T wenty-First Century giveness: Facing History after Genocide Capitalism (1999). Highly critical of efforts and Mass Violence (1999), less convinced to remake the world on Western economic of the effi cacy of international tribunals. models are W. Greider, One World, Ready On the question of political justice and or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capi- retribution by postdictatorial regimes in talism (1997); J. Gray, The Delusions of Europe and elsewhere, a large-scale study is Global Capitalism (1999); and E. Luttwak, available in N. J. Kritz (ed.), How Emerging Turbo-Capitalism: Winners and Losers in Democracies Reckon with Former Regimes the Global Economy (1999), the title refer- (3 vols., 1995). For Europe, informative ring to unregulated market economies. Other

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illuminating books include D. Yergin, The communism. For a critical assessment, see Commanding Heights: The Battle between C. Hughes, Liberal Democracy as the End of Government and the Marketplace That Is History: Fukuyama and Postmodern Chal- Reshaping the Modern World (1998); J. H. lenges (2012). On predictions in general, R. Mittleman, The Globalization Syndrome: Heilbroner, Visions of the Future: The Distant Transformation and Resistance (2000), Past, Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow (1995), ex- informative on the opposition to interna- plores the expectations of earlier generations tional lending agencies and the World Trade about their future and the fate of those expec- Organization; J. Micklethwaite and A. tations. R. D. Germain (ed.), Globalization Wooldridge, A Future Perfect: The Essen- and Its Critics (2000), provides useful writ- tials of Globalization (2000), which sees ings by economists on recent debates about the benefi ts of present trends outweighing the international economy. the disadvantages; and J. Bhagaviti, In De- fense of Globalization (2004). D. Hamilton Population, Resources, Environment and J. Quinlan, Globalization and Europe: One of the best introductions to the global Prospering in the New Whirled Order demographic explosion of our times and the (2008), presents a sanguine assessment pressure on natural resources is J. E. Cohen, of economic opportunity in a global eco- How Many People Can the Earth Support? nomic order. For discussions of the effects (1997), a provocative demographic analy- of the worldwide shift to capitalism and free sis relating population numbers to living markets since the 1980s, see M. Steger and standards; and L. R. Brown, Outgrowing R. Roy, Neoliberalism: A Very Short Intro- the Earth: The Food Security Challenge in duction (2010); and G. Duménil and D. Lévy, an Age of Falling Water Tables and Rising The Crisis of Neoliberalism (2011). Temperatures (2005), examines the envi- On the related question of the role ronmental problem of water supplies and played by cultural values in economic de- global warming. The “fertility collapse” in velopment, see H. De Soto, The Mystery of Western societies and its social and political Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the implications are studied in M. S. Teitel- West and Fails Everywhere Else (2000); baum and J. M. Winter, A Question of Num- D. S. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of bers: High Migration, Low Fertility, and Nations (1998), an important book cited the Politics of National Identity (1998); and earlier; and the essays in L. E. Harrison and for Europe, see N. Eberstadt and H. Groth, S. P. Huntington (eds.), Culture Matters: Europe’s Coming Demographic Challenge: How Values Shape Human Progress (2000). Unlocking the Value of Health (2007). The lessons of fi nancial history from the Good introductions to environmental seventeenth century to the present are ably issues include D. Worster (ed.), The Ends conveyed in E. Chancellor, Death Take the of the Earth: Perspectives on Modern En- Hindmost: A History of Financial Specula- vironmental History (1988); two books by tion (1999), while fi nancial markets in the A. Gore, Earth in the Balance: Ecology United States and elsewhere at the turn of and the Human Spirit (1992, reissued 2000) the twenty-fi rst century are shrewdly scru- and An Inconvenient Truth: The Planetary tinized in R. J. Shiller, Irrational Exuber- Emergency of Global Warming and What ance (rev. 2005). One of the most discussed We Can Do About It (2006); J. R. McNeill, books in recent years, F. Fukuyama, The Something New under the Sun: An Environ- End of History and the Last Man (1992, rev. mental History of the Twentieth-Century 2006), perceptive in some ways, proved to World (2000); and J. Hughes, An Environ- be overly optimistic about the triumph of mental History of the World: Humankind’s liberal democracy after the fall of Soviet Changing Role in the Community of Life

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(2001), which describes both the premodern of dissolving the common currency. Other and modern history of human interaction views of the EU economic problems, which with the environment. Environmentalism is remain a question for open-ended historical also examined in C. O. Paepke, The Evo- analysis, appear in N. Fligstein, Euroclash: lution of Progress: The End of Economic The EU, European Identity, and the Future Growth and the Beginning of Human Trans- of Europe (2008); J. Piris, The Future of formation (1993); C. Ponting, A Green His- Europe: Towards a Two-Speed EU? (2012); tory of the World: The Environment and the and P. Arestis and M. Sawyer (eds.), The Collapse of Great Civilizations (1991); and Euro Crisis (2012). J. Diamond, Collapse: How Societies Choose Useful Web Sites and Online Resources to Fail or Succeed (2005), cited earlier. Useful sites for materials on eastern and Issues in Contemporary Europe western Europe have been noted for ear- Books cited in this section deal with ongoing lier chapters, but readers should also visit issues, but most also refer to historical con- Brigham Young University’s Center for the texts. For the growing radicalization of the Study of Europe, at http://europe.byu.edu/ , Muslim population of Europe, see A. Par- which provides excellent links to diverse geter, The New Frontiers of Jihad: Radical materials on contemporary European his- Islam in Europe (2008); M. Radu, Europe’s tory. This site may be supplemented by the Ghost: Tolerance, Jihadism, and the Crisis resources at Europa—The European Union in the West (2009); R. Berman, Freedom On-Line, http://europa.eu/index_en.htm , or Terror: Europe Faces Jihad (2010); and cited previously. There is helpful informa- R. Leiken, Europe’s Angry Muslims: The tion on global population trends, economic Revolt of the Second Generation (2012). development, environmental changes, hu- For a good historical analysis of the debates man rights, and other issues at the Web site about the tensions between French Republi- of the United Nations, www.un.org . Valu- can values and Islamic religious values, see able, updated materials on the economic, J. W. Scott, The Politics of the Veil (2007). political, and cultural components of glo- A key social and political issue is examined balization are available at the Yale Center in A. Geddes, The Politics of Migration and for the Study of Globalization, www.ycsg. Immigration in Europe (2003). Debates yale.edu/center , where readers will also about the Euro and the sovereign debt cri- fi nd resources on subjects such as terror- sis are discussed in G. Zestos, European ism, international confl icts, health care, and Monetary Integration: The Euro (2006), the environment. The Yale Center’s Inter- B. Brown, Euro Crash: The Exit Route from net publication, YaleGlobal Online, http:// Monetary Failure in Europe (2012), and yaleglobal.yale.edu , provides current, well- P. De Grauwe, Economics of Monetary Union informed perspectives on events and con- (2012), which all suggest the possibility fl icts in all regions of the world.

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