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Emerging Issues in Animal

Sustainable Animal Agriculture

Authors: OVERVIEW:  Marcus Hollmann, Michigan State University, Department of Animal Agricultural practices are often defi ned as either Animal agriculture within society sustainable or unsustain- able. This categorization is Animal production has been a vital part of augments those dangers. Unfortunately, subject to how one defi nes civilization for millennia. Animal it seems impossible to assign a concrete “”. include such as milk, value to animal agriculture’s intrinsic meat and eggs that are rich in important contributions to society. agriculture may mean, for . Furthermore, animal agriculture example, to lower inputs provides organic , labor, hides fl ow within agricultural (chemicals, fossil fuel en- and hair to clothe, horns and bones for production systems tools, and energy, and serves for ergy), to promote a certain Consumption of products derived from , entertainment and spirituality. scale or pattern of farming, or animals by or animals to maximize production Animal agriculture also has contributed completes the fl ow of nutrients and (conventional agriculture; to the rise and fall of several cultures. For energy in nature. Currently, humans in example, the collapse of the once- developed and developing countries Thompson, 2007) or to acquire roughly 27 percent and 13 minimize release of environ- blossoming cultures in Mesopotamia around 3000 B.C. was due, at least in part, percent of calories, respectively, from mentally harmful byproducts to deforestation and of the animal products (Gilland, 2002). of agriculture. Thompson once fertile and subsequent soil Conceptually, agricultural production can (2007) argued, however, that and desertifi cation. Since that be viewed as controlled management of time, prospering societies have emerged the fl ow of nutrients and energy. each individual practice in Nutrients fl ow within a cycle in the whole agriculture is neither sus- and vanished, and strong societies have been established predominantly around as a system. This cycle is by no means tainable nor unsustainable centers of productive agriculture. perpetual -- there are nutrient infl ows and in itself. The true meaning outfl ows from the whole farm (Figure 1). of agricultural sustainability Positive contributions of animal For example, volatilizes agriculture to local societies are often inevitably during agricultural may be reached only from a overlooked. Family-owned and production and has to be reintroduced holistic view of a system that independently operated animal into the cycle by means of addition of encompasses a wide vari- production operations add to the wealth organic or inorganic , fi xation ety of farming practices by of the local community. Honeyman (1996) via (N-fi xing plants) or both small and large opera- listed increased income, community atmospheric deposition. services and participation in democratic tions. A broad and dynamic processes, as as a more balanced class Furthermore, the cyclic fl ow of nutrients defi nition of sustainability for structure, in communities with family- is dynamic. Raising animals in times animal agriculture describes owned and -operated animal . In of excess crop production will provide a system of suffi cient and addition, rearing of domestic animals nutrition for following “lean” years. In the cradles of civilization, Mesopotamia and profi table production increases overall joyous feeling in society and serves as a learning tool to educate Egypt, was originally that is independent of scale people, especially children; or, as Aldo introduced to utilize fi brous plants in dry and includes complex inter- Leopold once stated: “There are two hills distant to the fl ood plains as a food actions between agriculture spiritual dangers in not owning a farm. reserve for years of excess or and society. One is the danger of supposing that missing fl oods. Today, human breakfast comes from the grocery and the consumption of grains remains rather other that heat comes from the furnace.” stable in times of crop failures, whereas Society with little animal agriculture intake of animal products decreases

Michigan State University Extension | Emerging issues in animal agriculture 1 Figure 1. Example of a farm . Courtesy of Michigan State University Extension Dairy Team (2006).

drastically (Gilland, 2002). This suggests exorbitant cost in the short and midterm, in many cases, forages from local farms or a shift from grain usage from animal to not only to animal agriculture but also to even distant regions as discussed above. human consumption and may contribute rural communities of the affected regions. Under these circumstances, may to the malnutrition during . not have been valued as a resource but Animal agriculture and the as a waste product that had to Historically, the fl ow of nutrients was industrial paradigm dispose of. The once cyclic nutrient fl ow largely confi ned within individual, in agriculture gave way in some cases to multipurpose farms. Yet, the Animal production has increasingly a straight-line industrial waste-disposal modernization of agriculture in the past followed the paradigm of traditional system. The subsequent contributions century has spread nutrient fl ow over a industries rather than of animal agriculture to past and current larger area as farms often concentrated one primarily focused on cyclic nutrient environmental problems were thus in part solely on either crop or animal production, fl ow. Improvements of labor and land an artifact of enhancing economics and, subsequently, crop (feed) products productivity, technological advances and without attention to the overall were transferred to animal farms. increased value of products have occurred sustainability of the food production Eventually, designated regions of crop over the same time period in animal farms system (Hoshiba, 2002). and animal production emerged, and the to increase economic effi ciency and farm once cyclic fl ow of nutrients between crop income (Hoshiba, 2002). However, the Nonetheless, it is noteworthy that farm and animal enterprises on a single farm manufacturing process is not cyclic but scale does not categorically affect farm became a one-way street with nutrients straight-line -- products are effi ciently sustainability. Large animal operations are (e.g., ) moved from manufactured from raw materials, with not unsustainable per se. They are crop-producing farms and regions to the goal of generating very little waste. sustainable if they are part of an intact farms in animal-dense regions and not cycle of nutrient, or energy fl ow. And Animal agriculture is relatively ineffi cient recycled. Consequently, nutrients have small farms are unsustainable if they, for in transforming dietary nutrients into been accumulating in regions with an example, have a low effi ciency of nutrient meat, milk and eggs (Hoshiba, 2002). emphasis on animal production while and energy use or cause environmental Huge volumes of waste accumulate during being depleted in crop-producing regions. . the transformation of feed to milk. For Recently established regulations require example, effi ciency of dietary N larger animal farms to account for their Dimensions of agricultural recaptured in milk on dairy farms rarely manure nutrients and avoid sustainability exceeds 30 percent with the remaining 70 overapplication of nutrients. This leads to percent excreted as manure (Hollmann the export of manure nutrients and/or to The defi nition of sustainability is often et al., 2008). Often, animal production is the depopulation of animals in ambiguous or poorly stated, and depends based on large imports of feed grains and, -dense regions. Both impose on personal experience, intellect and

2 Michigan State University Extension | Emerging issues in animal agriculture worldview. In addition, “sustainability”, an infi nite time period, which implies an resources -- e.g., extensive or exactly what is to be sustained, can intact environment. One may think of may affect and quality, water change with time. This is true for the combination of use of fi nite resources quality and biodiversity. Thus, the system animal agricultural sustainability. and environmental cost as destructive of food production ought additionally to Douglass (1984) proposed that there are units. Under the assumption that there is include its resources as subsystems three emerging dimensions to sustainable an ethical obligation to assure suffi cient (Figure 2). This ensures that food agriculture, and each dimension is food (nutrients) for all humans now and production effectively can alter the founded on a different school of thought in the future, agriculture must produce resources. Conversely, narrowing food or view. the necessary amounts of nutrients while production to just production effi ciency minimizing the destructive units within a surrounding environment that The fi rst dimension encompasses food generated. The emergence of a second supplies resources, as in the fi rst security and profi tability, in that dimension from the fi rst dimension of dimension, neglects the complexity of agriculture is obligated to produce exemplifi es general systems dynamics between food production and suffi cient amounts of healthy food that theory --. i.e., combining several lower the resources. This emphasizes the need are acceptable for consumption by people level dimensions (subsystems) leads to to examine food production, including while providing suffi cient income to the emergence of a broader system. Food animal agriculture, from a more holistic farmers, farm workers, and processers production is the system of the fi rst view than simply production effi ciency. up- and downstream from the farm. This dimension, surrounded by an environment dimension describes a sustainability based that supplies resources such as air, water, The third proposed dimension of mainly on the market regulations of sup- soil fertility, biodiversity and energy. sustainability incorporates “society” and ply and demand, on profi tability and on However, food production actively its expectations of what is sustainable technological progress to ensure interacts with these resources and food production or agriculture. In this ever-increasing yields (e.g., grain per changes the availability or quality of these philosophy, agriculture no more is its own acre or milk yield per cow). Mathematically, this can be equated as maximization of outputs divided by inputs. Proponents of this school of thought trust in conventional agriculture and its regulation by the free market and are skeptical about the need for programs (Thompson, 2007). This view implies unlimited resources such as energy, fresh water, a fertile land base and minerals, and an indestructible environment.

The second dimension to sustainable agriculture accounts for the fi nite nature of most resources in agriculture and environmental degradation. In this dimension, sustainability is regarded as “stewardship” (Douglass, 1984). Where the previous dimension of food security and profi tability relies on maximization of output over input, the stewardship dimension adds a time-variable and views sustainable agriculture as “resource management” (Berkes and Folke, 1998): food must be secured for an ever-growing population indefi nitely. According to the stewardship school, production has an environmental cost, and neither resources nor the environment can be depleted to attain food security. Resource management seeks to optimize yield (output) and effi ciency of resource use (input) over

Michigan State University Extension | Emerging issues in animal agriculture 3 entity but is embedded in a larger system sociopolitical changes in society. Societies have various beliefs about with other subsystems, all relying on the agricultural practices, such as animal same limited resources. Demand of products and availability welfare and animal rights; the extent by of resources which , especially Abstractly, the three dimensions Estimations by the United biotechnologies such as cloning or symbolize an increasing hierarchy (Figure Nations Population Division (2008) hormonal treatments, should be utilized 1). At the lowest dimension of revealed that will have in animal production; or scale and hierarchy, the ’s responsibility surpassed the 9 billion mark by 2050. patterns of farming. These beliefs revolves around suffi cient and profi table Sustaining 6.8 billion people in 2010 transform and evolve over time. Society production of food. Subsequently, differs greatly from sustaining 9-plus enforces its beliefs by exercising ecological and environmental billion people in 2050 -- additional food consumer preference for certain food responsibilities emerge in the second demands will put additional strain on types and tastes, and foods of a specifi c dimension of agricultural resource management. Certainly, given the origin; by lobbying for laws and sustainability. Part of the environment current state of agricultural regulations; and by voting during is no longer viewed as a surrounding of production, securing food for 9 billion democratic elections. food production but is itself an important people shifts the pendulum further from and dynamic factor in the production of These three variables impose a strong maximizing resource effi ciency and closer suffi cient nutrients and energy. At the dynamism on agricultural production of to yield maximization. The challenge is third dimension, the most integrated and food. However, “sustainability” is based not only to achieve sustainable resource sophisticated, sustainable agriculture on specifi c values refl ecting a snapshot management in the current world, a is seen interactive with society and vice in time; therefore, these dynamics make monumental task in itself, but to do even versa -- members of society have an active it rather impossible to concretely defi ne more in the world of 2050 and beyond. role as stakeholders in agricultural “sustainability”. It is, however, naïve to Therefore, two related aspects of production. Society obtains the assume that feeding 6 billion people in the paramount importance in agricultural responsibility of providing the year 2000 and more than 9 billion people science, including animal science, are infrastructures (roads and transport, by 2050 worldwide can ever be based on to improve drastically the effi ciency of governmental support, industries a perpetual system. In addition, it may be agricultural production, and to increase upstream and downstream of agricultural illusionary that any agricultural practice the units of production per destructive production, etc.) and political assurances will be sustainable indefi nitely. Any type unit generated in the production process. (monetary system, banks, , of agriculture and utilizations of other Meanwhile, food production must remain enforcement of laws and regulations, food resources such as hunting and fi shing profi table for the farmers and food must etc.). In return, farmers not only provide will dissipate resources and environment. be affordable for the consumers. nutrients for the people in return for A reasonable goal should be to extend income but support the local community Changes of the surrounding sustainability as far into the future as by provision of leadership, jobs and public possible. The following sections will environment services. Sustainable agriculture in this examine ways to limit the destructive scenario obtains a role in the larger system This variable encompasses changes within units originating from animal of a sustainable rural community or, on an or outside the rural community that are agriculture. even greater scale, a rural-urban not easily controlled. Examples include community. long-term changes in temperature, solar Sustainable animal agriculture energy, concentrations of atmospheric In 2002, Tilman and co-workers reported Dynamic changes aff ecting gases, natural disasters, outbreaks of that food production worldwide exceeded diseases and pests, and loss of availability animal agriculture in a food consumption by roughly 8 of resources or market outlets due to war sustainable rural community percent. However, per capita cereal or trade embargos from other societies. As a result of the ever-changing nature of worldwide had peaked in the early 1980s and declined from there on the balance of subsystems within and the Sociopolitical transformation environment surrounding the sustainable while meat production increased linearly Governments and societies impose community, the exact meaning of from 23 kg/person in 1960 to 37 kg/person ever-changing demands on agriculture, “sustainability” is dynamic, and thus in 1997, despite an exponential growth in especially on animal agriculture. changing over time, because of three global human population. Some Governments decide on and oversee variables: the demands for the amount, researchers project a continuous increase compliance with laws and regulations, type, prize and quality of products in grain yields per acre (Borlaug, 2009), secure and regulate the monetary and (output) and availability and price of while others forecast diminishing taxation systems, may supply incentives inputs vary; the changes in the increases and stagnation in grain yields or subsidies, and negotiate bi- and environments surrounding the rural or (Tilman et al., 2002). In the near future, multilateral trade agreements on rural-urban community; and the scarce resources such as water, fertile soil agricultural products and resources. and arable grounds, as well as energy from

4 Michigan State University Extension | Emerging issues in animal agriculture fossil fuel and, subsequently, synthetic et al., 2008). In practical terms, greater on very few crops – e.g., corn and nitrogen fertilizers, will become limiting. production yields in animal agriculture, ; infrastructures (e.g., for Therefore, the need to utilize human food and in crop production as an upstream transport and processing); and decreased and animal feed sources more effi ciently unit of animal production, should be standards of living locally. Currently, the constantly rises. achieved with less resources and lower fundamental question is whether we want environmental cost. This includes less to continue with the current system of Conversion of humanly inedible dependence of intensive crop and animal inexpensive food prices and have greater foodstuff s production on water availability and on social and environmental cost accumulate Animals have the ability to convert feed the use of inorganic fertilizers for crop elsewhere. If food prices are kept sources of little value to human nutrition production. inexpensive, society will need to provide (e.g., fi brous plants, byproducts, food incentives to communities including Effi cient use of food waste) into nutrient-rich foods for human farmers to increase their sustainability. consumption (e.g., meat, milk and eggs) or Agricultural sustainability neither starts Alternatively, increased food prices need to increase the quality of nor ends at the farm gate. Further to provide income for farmers to cover human-edible foods. Perennial fi brous destructive units may accumulate short- and mid-term cost related to an feeds such as grasses can be grown and upstream and downstream of the farm evolving sustainability. utilized from poor soil that is unsuitable during production of farm facilities and Sustainable animal agriculture is or only marginally suitable for cultivation. equipment, and transport, storage and inseparably connected with sustainable Compared with annual row crops, preparation of foods. Within the crop production (Figure 1). Both need to perennials require less fossil fuel energy, community, food should, therefore, be be interconnected within a cyclic fl ow of reduce soil erosion, enhance produced close to centers of consumption nutrients and energy. Inclusion of biodiversity and regenerate destructed to reduce transportation. Animal products perennial fi brous crops and legumes may soil, and ought to be included in crop have less seasonality than products improve sustainability of a crop rotations. In addition, animals transform and thus require less storage time and rotation. Manure generated in animal byproducts and food waste such as cost. Additionally, spoilage and waste of farms represents a valuable fertilizer for distiller’s grains from grain ethanol food products must be minimized. crop production. The utilization of this production or kitchen waste, respectively, Destructive units generated for for crop production which otherwise would have to be production of later wasted food reduce must be maximized to make resources disposed of as waste, into for sustainability. These include foods lost, such as fertile soil, clean waters and human consumption. spoiled and prepared but not consumed, mineral deposits last longer, and to reduce and nutrients consumed above one’s reliance on fossil fuel. Moreover, animal Effi ciency of feed conversion into requirement. agriculture needs to maximally use feed humanly edible foodstuff s sources provided by the cropping entities, Economics of sustainable agriculture Animals do not convert all nutrients either directly or indirectly via by consumed, mainly protein and energy, A community has two major requirements products from other sectors. directly into foods for human if it is to retain sustainable food consumption; protein and energy are production: foods for a well-balanced diet Lastly, to ensure optimization of the inevitably lost during the conversion. must be affordable for every member of nutrient cycle and the well-being of More importantly, however, protein of the community, and farmers, as well as society, animal agriculture must be animal origin has a higher nutritive value upstream and downstream agricultural integrated with other agricultural than protein in animal feed. In nutritive markets, must receive enough money to production units within a community. value, protein effi ciency in milk from dairy sustain themselves fi nancially. For Currently, food production in the United cows is 96 percent to 276 percent, and in decades, food in industrialized countries States relies heavily on transportation of meat from beef , 52 percent to 104 has been kept inexpensive and inputs and products. Likewise, the percent, using moderate conversion rates affordable. The current trend in regionalization of agriculture into areas of (Oltjen and Beckett, 1996). agriculture to increase size to remain crop production and areas of animal economically secure is in part a production is detrimental to soil fertility Generation of environmentally destructive consequence of that policy. However, and exacerbates use of inorganic units (e.g., gases, phosphorus keeping food prices low has other types of fertilizers and chemicals to sustain in surface waters) and usage of fossil fuel costs (Corson, 2002). Costs are production while enhancing energy and energy-derived fertilizer must reallocated and paid indirectly in farm and environmental destruction. In be minimized while usage of energy subsidies and other governmental addition, profi t gained in animal photosynthetic energy is maximized. programs; environmental destruction and operations ought to be reinvested locally, Indeed, maximization of effi ciency in cleanup of environmental problems; loss leading to increased wealth of rural animal production may reduce the overall of biodiversity; increased risk with communities (Honeyman, 1996). generation of destructive units (Capper , such as a great dependence Sustainability, as discussed previously,

Michigan State University Extension | Emerging issues in animal agriculture 5 can be vaguely defi ned as providing the Colding (eds.), Linking social and Population Division of the Department population with suffi cient nutrients for a ecological systems. Cembridge, UK: of Economic and Social Affairs of the balanced diet while conserving fi nite Cambridge University Press. United Nations Secretariat. 2008. resources and the environment and World Population Prospects: The furthering the overall well-being of Borlaug, N.E. 2009. Farmers can feed the 2008 Revision. Available at http:// societies. Animal agriculture is a vital part world. The Wall Street Journal, 30- esa.un.org/unpp. Accessed August 11, not to but in society, not only with regard July, 2009. Available at http://online. 2009. to food suffi ciency but also as a provider wsj.com/article/SB100014240529702 of social capital as an employer, provider 03517304574304562754043656.html. Thompson, P.B. 2007. Agricultural of leadership, conservationist of nature Accessed August 13, 2009. sustainability: what it is and what it is and educator. Sustainable animal not. Int. J. Agric. Sustain. 5: 5-16. Capper, J.L., E. Castenada-Gutierrez, agriculture is a main cornerstone of a R.A. Cady and D.E. Bauman. Tilman, D., K.G. Cassman, P.A. Matson, sustainable society. 2008. The environmental impact R. Naylor and S. Polasky. 2002. of biotechnology: application of Agricultural sustainability and Conclusion recombinant intensive production practices. Nature (rbST) in dairy production. Proc. Nat. 418:671-677. Sustainability of animal agriculture Acad. Sci. 105 9668-9673. cannot be evaluated on the basis of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: Corson, W.H. 2002. Recognizing hidden individual practices but must be viewed  Dr. David Beede (major advisor) environmental and social costs and on a holistic basis. Animal agriculture is and Dr. Dale Rozeboom (guidance reducing ecological and societal a vital part of society in the United States committee chair) damage through tax, price, and and worldwide. Sustainability of societies  Reviewers: Dr. Jason Rowntree – Dept. subsidy reform. Environmentalist 22: depends largely on the sustainability of of Animal Science, MSU; Dr. Paul 67-82. their agriculture. Agricultural B. Thompson – Dept.’s Philosophy, sustainability is based on a concept of Douglass, G.K. 1984. The meanings of Agricultural, Food, and Resource three emerging dimensions. The agricultural sustainability. Pages 3-29 Economics and Community, Ag, responsibility of animal agriculture is to in: G.K. Douglass (ed.), Agricultural Recreation and Res Studies, MSU; Dr. provide food security in concert with crop sustainability in a changing world Paul Ebner – Dept. of Animal Science, production. On a broader scheme, animal order. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. Purdue University, Mike Hogan agriculture must maximize effi cient use –Extension Educator, Agriculture of energy and nutrients to be sustainable. Gilland, B. 2002. Can food production and Natural Resources, Ohio State Within the context of sustainable com- keep pace with University, Derrel White. munities, social sustainability demands in the next half of the century? Food that agriculture provide leadership and Policy 27:47-63. invest money in its rural communities. In return, society establishes the Hollmann, M., K.F. Knowlton and M.D. infrastructures and regulations for Hanigan. 2008. Evaluation of solids, profi table agriculture, and provides nitrogen, and phosphorus excretion inputs, markets and labor. Holistically, models for lactating dairy cows. J. MSU is an affi rmative-action, equal-opportuni- sustainable animal agriculture is best Dairy Sci. 91: 1245-1257. ty employer, committed to achieving excellence described as regionally diverse; integrated through a diverse workforce and inclusive cul- with crop production within the Honeyman, M.S. 1996. Sustainability ture that encourages all people to reach their full nutrient and energy cycle; effi ciently issues of U.S. swine production. J. potential. Michigan State University Extension converting nutrients into products for Anim. Sci. 74:1410-1417. programs and materials are open to all without regard to race, color, national origin, gender, human consumption; preserving food Hoshiba, S. 2002. Perspectives for gender identity, religion, age, height, weight, security; fi nancially secure and profi table realizing agricultural production disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, for farmers, farm workers, and industries systems with material circulation. marital status, family status or veteran status. up- and downstream of the farm; Pages 51-58 in: J. Takahashi and B.A. Issued in furtherance of MSU Extension work, family-owned and -operated; and acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in coopera- Young (eds.). Greenhouse gases and embedded within its local community. tion with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. animal agriculture. [where]: Elsevier Thomas G. Coon, Director, MSU Extension, REFERENCES: Science B.V. East Lansing, MI 48824. This information is for educational purposes only. Reference to com- Berkes, F., and C. Folke. 1998. Linking Oltjen, J.W., and J.L. Beckett. 1996. Role mercial products or trade names does not imply social and ecological systems for of ruminant livestock in sustainable endorsement by MSU Extension or bias against resilience and sustainability. Pages agricultural systems. J. Anim. Sci. 74: those not mentioned. 1-26 in: F. Berkes, C. Folke and J. 1406-1409. Produced by ANR .

6 Michigan State University Extension | Emerging issues in animal agriculture