ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND LAW
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
MA THESIS TITLE:
PROCESSES AND PRACTICES OF WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN LAND CERTIFICATION IN BEGHI WOREDA, WESTERN ETHIOPIA
BY:
KENASA GELETA
AUGUST, 2017
ADAMA, ETHIOPIA
ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND LAW DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
PROCESSES AND PRACTICES OF WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN LAND CERTIFICATION IN BEGHI WOREDA, WESTERN ETHIOPIA
BY: KENASA GELETA
ADVISOR MESSAY MULUGETA (Ph.D)
MA THESIS SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY
AUGUST, 2017 ADAMA, ETHIOPIA
ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
As Thesis Research advisor, I hereby certify that I have read and evaluated this Thesis prepared, under my guidance, by Kenasa Geleta Regassa entitled ―Processes and Practices of Women‘s Empowerment in Land Certification in Beghi Woreda, Western Ethiopia‖ I recommend that it be submitted as fulfillment of the Thesis requirement.
Messay Mulugeta (PhD) ______
Advisor Signature Date
APPROVAL BY BOARD OF EXAMINERS
As member of the Board of Examiners of the MA Thesis Open Defense Examination, we certify that we have read, evaluated the Thesis prepared by Kenasa Geleta Regassa and examined the candidate. We recommended that the Thesis be accepted, as fulfilling the Thesis requirement for the Degree of Master of Art in Geography and Environmental Studies.
______Chairperson Signature Date
______Internal Examiner Signature Date
______External Examiner Signature Date
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DGC Chairman Signature Date DECLARATION I Kenasa Geleta, declare that this thesis is the result of my work and that all sources of materials used for this thesis have been duly acknowledged. It has not already been submitted for any degree in any other university and it has never been published nor submitted for any journal by another person. This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Master of Art; degree in Geography and Environmental Studies at Adama Science and Technology University, School of Humanities and Law.
Name: ______Signature: ______
Place: Adama Science and Technology University; School of Humanities and Law Date of submission: ______
Kenasa Geleta August, 2017 BIOGRAPHY
The author of this thesis was born in Ethiopia, Oromia Region, East Wellega Zone, Gobu Sayo Woreda in April 12, 1989 from his father Geleta Regassa and his Mother Hirphe Gemechu. He learned his primary (grades 1-5) in Cheka karu and junior secondary school education at Jare elementary School. He learned his secondary and preparatory school education at Sire Secondary and preparatory school. After he successfully passed to the Ethiopian Higher Education Entrance Certificate Examination (EHEECE), he joined Wollega University and graduated on July 10, 2002 with B.A degree in Geography and environmental studies.
DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my father Geleta Regassa and my mother Hirphe Gemechu to whom I pay tribute at every step in my life.
Acknowledgments First of all, I would like to thank the Almighty God since everything is done through His help.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisor Dr. Messay Mulugeta for his unreserved professional advice and guidance by giving constructive comments and useful suggestions. Indeed, without his great dedication, the development and completion of this study would have been impossible. I have also acknowledged my indebtedness for their kind cooperation to the government staff members and communities in Beghi Woreda, especially: Wandimu Yonas, Agricultural Bureau expert; Mengistu Wakjira, Woreda Rural Land administration Office; Ashenafi Nabiyu, implementer of land certification who are helped me in providing a necessary information and data during my research work.
I would also like to express my admiration to my beloved wife; Alemi Amente for her good- natured tolerance and endurance in shouldering different responsibilities, encouragement, and making me free to devote my time to the research work. It is an honor to me to thank Adama Science and Technology University for sponsoring my graduate study and to conduct this study. My thanks go to all my instructors in Geography since the department enabling me to acquire the necessary skills and sharing me their experiences.
Moreover, I express my heartfelt gratitude with affection to my parents Ato Geleta Regassa and W/ro Hirphe Gemechu for their moral support and indispensable encouragement; also to my classmate friends; Girma Shumeta and Lamessa Hailu for their valuable suggestions.
Last, but by no means least, I wish to express my thanks to Beghi preparatory school directors ( Gamede Abera and Abate Alemu) for their financial support, all my friends, for their consistent support and cooperation
Kenasa Geleta August, 2017
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Table of Contents
Contents Page Acknowledgments...... i Table of Contents ...... ii List of tables ...... v List of Figures ...... vi List of Acronyms ...... vii Abstract ...... viii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1. Background of the Study ...... 1 1.2. Statement of the Problem ...... 3 1.3. Objectives of the Study ...... 4 1.3.1. General Objective ...... 4 1.3. 2. Specific Objectives ...... 4 1.4. Research Questions ...... 4 1.5. Scope of the Study...... 5 1.6. Limitation of the Study ...... 5 1.7. Significance of the Study ...... 5 1.8. Organization of the Thesis ...... 6 1.9. Definition of Terminologies ...... 6 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURES ...... 9 2.1. Meaning and Concept of Women‘s Empowerment ...... 9 2.2. Meaning and Concept of Land Certification ...... 10 2.3. Women‘s Land Rights ...... 10 2.3.1 Why issue of Gender Equality is required in Land Certification? ...... 11 2.4. Empirical Literatures ...... 12 2.5. International Policy frameworks and Institutions towards Women‘s Empowerment13 2.6. Land Policy and Certification Issues in Ethiopia ...... 15 2.6.1. Land Policy Issues during the Imperial Era (1875-1974)...... 16
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2.6.2. Land Policy Issues during the Marxist Regime (1974-1991) ...... 16 2.6.3. Land Policy Issues during the Era of Decentralization (Since 1991) ...... 17 2.7. Land Registration and Certification Issues in Current Ethiopia (FDRE) ...... 17 2.8. Rural Land Policy Issues of Oromia National Regional State ...... 18 2.8.1. Legal framework ...... 18 2.8.2. The Land Administration Processes ...... 19 2.8.3. The Rationale for Land Certification in Oromia Region ...... 20 2.9. Conceptual Framework of the Study ...... 20 2.10. Literature Gap ...... 22 CHAPTER THREE: DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA AND RESEARCH METHODS AND MATERIALS ...... 23 3.1. Description of the Study Area ...... 23 3.1.1. Location ...... 23 3.1.2. Topography and Climate ...... 24 3.2. Demographic and Socio-Economic Characteristics ...... 25 3.3. Research Methods and Materials ...... 27 3.3.1 Research Design and Approach ...... 27 3.3.2. Data types and source ...... 28 3.3.3. Sample Size Determination ...... 28 3.3.4. Sampling Techniques ...... 30 3.3.5. Data Collection Tools and Instruments ...... 31 3.3.6. Data Analysis Techniques ...... 33 3.4. Data Validity and Reliability...... 34 3.5. Ethical Considerations...... 35 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 36 4.1. General Characteristics of the Households ...... 36 4.1.1. Demographic characteristics of survey respondents ...... 36 4.1.2. Socio-economic Characteristics of survey respondents ...... 39 4.1.3. Type and Main sources of Households income ...... 42 4.2. Means of Land Acquisition ...... 43 4.3. Farmers perception and knowledge to land certification ...... 46
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4.4. Perceptions of landownership ...... 49 4.5. The Implementation of Land Registration and Certification ...... 50 4.5.1. Land Registration and Certification Processes ...... 50 4.5.2. Land Certification processes and Systems of Oromia Region ...... 51 4.6. The Effect of Land Registration and Certification on Women‘s Land Rights...... 52 4.7. Women‘s Control of Land and other Resources ...... 54 4.8. Land Certification in Tenure Security ...... 55 4.9. The Effects of the Land Certification on Reducing Land Related Disputes ...... 58 4.10. Women‘s Role in Land Administration ...... 60 4.11. The Socio-Cultural Constraints impeding Women‘s Land Rights...... 61 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...... 65 5.1 Conclusion ...... 65 5.2 Recommendations ...... 67 References ...... 69 Annex I...... 76 Annex II ...... 87 Annex III ...... 89
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List of tables Page Table 3.1: Sample size distributions of households………………………………….30 Table 4.1: Distribution of respondents by age and family sizes of the survey Respondents…………………………………………………...……… 37 Table 4.2: Distribution of respondents by marital status and type of marriage……..38 Table 4.3: Distribution of respondents by their Average Annual income…………...40 Table 4.4: Relationship between average annual income and marital status……...... 41 Table 4.5: Distribution of income sources and total income of the respondents.…....42 Table 4.6: Relationship between marital status and means of land acquisition…...... 44 Table 4.7: Relationship between Landholding size and marital status……………....45 Table 4.8: Farmers‘ perception and knowledge to land certification ……………….46 Table 4.9: Relationship between Land certificate and Marital status…………….….48 Table 4.10: Household views on current landownership………………………….…..49 Table 4.11: Effects of land registration and certification on women‘s land rights…...52 Table 4.12: Relationship between Sharecropping and survey respondents income…..54 Table 4.13: Shows land certification in tenure security………………………….……55 Table 4.14: Pearson correlations of land tenure security variables……………….…..56 Table 4.15: Indicates the effects of land certification for respondents………….…….59 Table 4.16: Land registration reduces border and inheritance disputes…………….…59 Table 4.17: Shows women‘s role in economic development……………………….…60 Table 4.18: The socio-cultural and customary practices that impede women‘s land
rights………………………………………………………………………61 Table 4.19: Parameter Estimates to the practices of women‘s land certification in Beghi Woreda………………………………………………………….63
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List of Figures Page Figure 2.1: Conceptual frame work of the study………………..………………..………. 21 Figure 3.1: Map of the study area………………………………..……………..……..….. 24 Figure 3.2: Percentage distribution of land coverage use of Beghi Woreda……………… 27 Figure 3.3: Interviewee held at a place called K/chandi on 02/04/2017…….…………….. 32 Figure 3.4: FGD discussants held at a place called Lalo Nora on 14/03/2017……………………. 33 Figure 4.1 : Bar graph showing distribution of respondents by educational background…...…………………………………………………………….. 39
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List of Acronyms
BoARD: Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development BWEO: Beghi Woreda Educational Office BWAO: Beghi Woreda Agricultural Office CSA: Central Statistics Agency DA: Development Agent ECA: Economic Commission for Africa EMA: Ethiopian Mapping Agency ELRP Ethiopia Land Reform proclamation FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization FDRE: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia ILC: International Land Coalition LAC: Land Administration Committee at community level MDG: Millennium Development Goals MOFED: Ministry of Finance and Economic Development NGO: Non-Governmental Organization OAU: Organization of African Unity ONRS: Oromia National Regional State PA: Peasant Association SLM: Sustainable Land Management SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Science UN: United Nations UNDAW: United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women UNDP: United Nations Development Programme USAID: United States Agency for International Development WID: Women in Development
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Abstract
Land is a life blood of rural population, main source of livelihood for men and women in Ethiopia. However, women are the most marginalized and disadvantaged group of society in relation to accessing and controlling land in rural Ethiopia. The study were explored the processes and practices of women’s empowerment in land certification in the Beghi Woreda, West Wollega Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Both quantitative and qualitative information generated from about 315 households. The study used both primary and secondary sources. Under primary data; questionnaire survey, group discussions, and key informant interviews were carried out. Under Secondary data; review of related literatures, documents and research papers were used. Data was analyzed by using software called Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Software (SPSS v20.0). Data is analyzed by descriptive (frequency, percentage) and inferential statistics (Chi-square test, correlation coefficient and binary logistic regression). This study result indicated that land certification has strong positive correlation with women’s empowerment, gender equality, improves women’s tenure security, reduce land disputes and increases women’s power over land (r=0.176, 0.174, 0.131, 0.113, and 0.140; significant at the =0.01). But, it has slightly significant impacts on women’s empowerment (p=002), gender equality (p=0.004), improves women’s position (p=009) and bring sustainable development (p=0.009). As this study result showed, the majority of the respondents seemed to understand that land registration and certification objectives were lead to maintain gender equality and more tenure security. Based on the thesis results, recommendations were given at the end of the study.
Keywords: Rural land registration and certification, Women’s empowerment, Gender equality, Tenure security.
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study
Many scholars and development agencies have been reiterating that absence and/or unfitting land tenure security policy in developing and under-developing countries of the world including the Africa nations. Since 1990s issue of land property rights has been top agenda in development policy of African nations (Holden et al., 2011), which is multifaceted factors like expansion of urbanization and increasing demand for land by investor that evict rural farmers from their land often without compensation (Deiniger et al., 2006). Cognizing the fact, the African governments have been attempting to resolve land right issue through enacting new rules of land use, land registration and certification that may tackle adverse socio- economic outcomes.
Rural women are agents of change at different levels in society, including in the household. Since rural women form the backbone of smallholder agriculture and are the main producers and processors of food in many developing countries, their voices must be heard. Many women have limited economic opportunities outside their home, and spend most of their time indoors. In an effort to reverse these realities, gender equality has received a great deal of attention on the recent development agenda. This is evidenced, for example, by its standalone inclusion in the Millennium Development Goals-empowering women and ―gender mainstreaming‖ have become integral components of project interventions and policy reform efforts.
The provision of land rights to women has been regarded as a key to their empowerment (Agarwal, 1997; Yngstrom, 2002). Empowering women is expected to have multiplier effects on household welfare via its impact on household resource allocations (Agarwal, 1994). Resources controlled by women are more likely to benefit a wider swath of household members, particularly children (Quisumbing and Maluccio, 2003). There is policy move towards provision of gender-equitable land reform in many countries (Lastarria-Cornhiel, 1997).
Ethiopia is one of those countries in Africa that made changes which includes locally administered rights in land, improved position of women related to land rights and (local) dispute resolution mechanisms. For the rural areas several Ethiopian states have introduced land administration systems that aim at issuing land use certificates for all farmers in that state at an
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affordable cost. The Federal Democratic Republic Ethiopian (FDRE) constitution, Article 40(sub-Article 3) states that the right to ownership of rural and urban land, as well as of all natural resources, is exclusively vested in the State and in the peoples of Ethiopia. Land is a common property of the Nations, Nationalities and Peoples of Ethiopia and shall not be subject to sale or to other means of exchange.
After the administration of land has been decentralized to the regional governments, Oromia Regional State (ORS) amended proclamation No. 56/2002, 70/2003, 103/2005 of Rural Land Use and Administration and currently the proclamation No. 130/ 2007. For instance, Article15 proclamation stresses that the rural land measurement, registration and holding certification systems. It declared that the rural lands under the holdings (private, communities, governmental and none governmental organizations) shall be measured and registered accordingly (land size, land use, fertility status, its boundaries and potentials) as well as any holder of rural land shall be given a holding certificate.
The actual process and practices of land tenure in Ethiopia is through land registration and certification. Land registration and certification has been perceived as a precondition for securing property rights and agricultural development. The main actor in data collection for the registration and issuance of the certificates is a committee at the lowest level of local government (at kebele or sub-kebele ). The members of these so-called Land Administration Committees get training to undertake this endeavor, but do not get paid for their time.
Land certification has been implemented in Ethiopia since 1998 and over 5 million certificates have been delivered, the largest delivery of non-freehold rights in such a short time period in Sub Saharan Africa (Deininger et al., 2007). The New Federal and Regional Land Proclamations that are the basis for this land reform, aim to increase tenure security and strengthen women‘s rights to land and to ensure more sustainable use of land resources (Holden and Tefera, 2008; ORS Proclamation No. 130/2007; FDRE Proclamation No. 456/2005).
The aim of this paper was to investigate the processes and practices of the Ethiopian land certification program on women‘s empowerment within the household. The current Oromia rural land proclamation and its implementation process were considered in this study with regards to
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women‘s empowerment in land certification. This particular study in the Oromia Region, aimed to assess the early impacts of processes and practices of women‘s empowerment in land registration and certification that has been implemented.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
Land is a critical asset and a vital source of livelihood for the majority of agrarian countries of the world. Women‘s equality in land rights is a global issue. Governments have entered commitments through ratifying various women‘s rights conventions and have issued national policies supporting women‘s access rights to land in many countries. In spite of these commitments, problems exist in ensuring women‘s equal landholding rights with that of men in many countries, mainly due to deep rooted patriarchal gender power relations in societies.
Addressing women‘s particular disadvantages in relation to land ownership should be major focus in drafting new land policies. Progress achieved on issuing gender-equitable land policy became deficient at level of implementation in most African countries (Jacobs 2001 cited in Almaz, 2007). However, creating gender equality is a principal challenge for land policies and land administration systems. This is mainly because of lack of understanding on complex nature of property rights in existing gender relations in society.
The FDRE and the Oromia Rural Land Policies and Proclamation; (FDRE Proclamation No. 456/2005, ORS proclamation No. 130/ 2007) give emphasis to establishment of transparent land administration system and enhancement of community participation at the level of implementation. Studies carried out in other regions however, reflected women‘s low awareness on their land rights and low involvement in the land administration process (Askale, 2005 cited in Almaz, 2007). Land is commonly allocated to households and is registered on names of household heads in the region. The rural land administration process applies spousal-joint land registration and certification in married households (ONRS, 2003).
Despite such a firm commitment of the government in recognizing a woman‘s right to possess and use rural lands, the customary laws and practices, which deny women‘s equality, are still persistent in the Beghi Woreda. Women generally lack legal awareness over their householding
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lands rights. The government authorities at Kebele (lowest administrative unit) level are also very much hesitant to enforce the legal rights of women.
Thus, the study used to examine the socio-cultural issues that hamper effective implementation of the regional rural land policy towards women‘s in administering land and their unsuccessful involvement in household decision making, looks at problems that retarded women‘s involvement in the land administration processes in the Beghi Woreda of Oromia National Regional State.
1.3. Objectives of the Study
1.3.1. General Objective
The overall objective of this study was to explore the processes and practices of women‘s empowerment in land certification in Oromia National Regional State, West Wollega Zone, Beghi Woreda.
1.3. 2. Specific Objectives
More specifically, the study was aspired to:
assess the degree to which Oromia Rural Land Proclamation and other relevant regional legislations address issues of women‘s empowerment over land administrations. analyze the processes and practices of land registration and certification in terms of women‘s socio-economic benefits and decision-making power, and examine the impacts of customary landholding practices on women‘s empowerment over land in the three rural kebeles.
1.4. Research Questions
The questions are drawn from the objectives stated above. At its completion, this research vividly answers the following questions as:
How do the Oromia Rural Land Proclamation and other relevant regional legislations address issues of women‘s empowerment over land administrations?
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How the practice of land registration and certification benefits women‘s in the socio- economic activities and decision-making power? In what way customary landholding practices would bring an impact on women‘s empowerment over land in the study area?
1.5. Scope of the Study
This study tried to examine the processes and practices of women‘s empowerment in land certification. The selected woreda is Beghi in West wollega Administrative Zone, Oromia Region. The study sites are three kebeles in the woreda. The spatial scope of the study is mainly limited to Beghi Woreda, whereas the temporal scope is conducted from September 2016-August 2017. The study focused only on Beghi Woreda of three purposively selected kebeles as this type of study demands enormous amount of money and time to conduct the research at large spatial coverage.
1.6. Limitation of the Study
The study was limited in investigating the processes and practices of women‘s empowerment in land certification in Beghi woreda, Western Ethiopia. The study considers the effects of land certification in women‘s empowerment, reducing border disputes on agricultural lands and enhances tenure security to farmers. However, due to time, resource and manageability of the data; three rural kebeles are purposively selected.
1.7. Significance of the Study
Women‘s land rights are critical for women‘s own advancement first and foremost; nationally and regionally, and also to Africa‘s development. The researcher expects that the study identifies the processes and practices of land certification in women‘s empowerment. Women‘s empowerment in land administration is constrained by their social positions in the society. Women‘s disempowerment in administering rural agricultural land generally in Ethiopia and specifically in Oromia Regional State obviously would have negative impact on the rural development. This study would be a bit of contribution to show significance of women‘s
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empowerment in having legal land right certificates to the socio-economic well- being of women as well as the rural livelihood in the region.
The study was also look at factors affecting women‘s empowerment over land in the land administration system in three rural kebeles of Beghi Woreda in Oromia region. Study findings was give better insight to gender issues and significance of addressing these issues in rural land administration system to ensure the processes and practices of women‘s empowerment in land certificate. The study would come up with important recommendations on gender issues to be considered in the regional rural land administration policy which is under revision currently.
1.8. Organization of the Thesis
This thesis has basically attempted to describe the processes and practices of land certification in women‘s empowerment in Beghi Woreda under five chapters. The first subsection of the thesis centered with the background, statement of the problem, objectives, research questions, significance, scope and limitations, and organization of the study. The second chapter focuses on the theoretical orientation and literary review. This part makes a brief assessment of written document and various approaches in relation to the targeted research topic and other reviews of related literature. The third chapter is the description and interpretation of the study area, the method in which the researcher used to gather information from the targeted woreda, the type of model employed to analyze the data and the procedures of their presentation. The fourth chapter has centered with findings, results, and discussion that consists both descriptive and inferential statistics. The last Chapter deals with conclusion and recommendations.
1.9. Definition of Terminologies
Empowerment: is a ‗process that enhances the ability of disadvantaged (powerless) individuals or groups to challenge and change (in their favor) the existing power relationships that place them in a subordinate economic, social, and political position’ (Agarwal 1994:39). It is also a process through which women and men in disadvantaged positions increase their access to knowledge, resources, and decision-making power, and raise their awareness of participation in their communities, in order to reach a level of control over their own environment (FAO, 2002).
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Disempowerment: Any action, policy development and/or relief program or process through which women‘s and men‘s priorities, needs and interests are further ignored, reducing their participation in decision-making and representing an obstacle to their economic, political and social improvement (Ibid).
Access to land: refers to the idea that displaced and returnee women should enjoy equal access with men to lands, goods and services, which increase a woman‘s overall security (Akuna Beatrice, 2004 cited in Almaz, 2007 ). To understand access as empowering, one must examine the social, political and economic context of a population.
Control over land and other resources: It means women can access land (use it), can own land (can be legal title-holders) and can make decisions on selling or leasing out the land (Akuna Beatrice, 2004 cited in Almaz, 2007). It also means a balance of power between women and men, so that neither is in a position of dominance. It means that women have power alongside men to influence their destiny and that of their society.
Sharecropping: It is a system of cropping where the farmer gives his/her land to another farmers to share the product of the long together.
Land rights registration: It is a recording procedure describing a parcel of land and identifying its current owner/holder and the form of ownership she/he or they had. It is a process of recording rights on land which provides safe and certain foundation of acquisition and disposal of rights on land (ELTAP, 2006 cited in Assefa, 2010).
Land tenure: (FAO, 2002) as ―the relationship, whether legally or customarily defined, among people, as individuals or groups, with respect to land and associated natural resources. Land tenure is an institution, i.e rules invented by societies to regulate behavior and determine who can use what resources for how long, and under what conditions.
Rist: was a land use right and access to land involving all individual member of a particular community of their ancestor to which those individual belonged (Bruce, 1976 cited in Berhanu Adugna, 2009).
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Landownership: the rights to land that are, in everyday language, associated with the ability to use, control, transfer, or otherwise enjoy a land parcel as long as those activities are allowed by law (FAO, 2002).
Patriarchy: ―A set of social relations between men which, have a material base and which, though hierarchical establish or create interdependence and solidarity among men that enable them to dominate women‖ (Heidi, 2003 cited in Almaz, 2007)
Property rights: are rights of any claims, entitlements, and related obligations among people regarding the use of scarce resources. Such rights have no meaning without a correlation of duties of aspiring users to refrain from use (FAO, 2002).
Tenure security: ―is the certainty that a person‗s rights to land will be recognized by others and protected in case of specific challenges‖. The attributes of security of tenure may change from context to context: investments that require a long time before benefits are realized require secure tenure for a commensurately long time (Ibid)
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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURES
2.1. Meaning and Concept of Women’s Empowerment
Different scholars have conceptualized empowerment in different ways. Empirical research to date has emphasized economic indicators of empowerment, ignoring other dimensions of power. The overall goal of the Gender and Development (GAD) approach is women‘s empowerment. When women have secure land rights, women‘s empowerment increases. Secure access to land acts as a source of empowerment by increasing women‘s economic security and increasing their control over household decisions. Empowerment entails increasing women‘s access to knowledge, resource and decision-making power to change their disadvantaged positions to the level of having control over their own lives (Parpart, 1989).
The concept of empowerment reflects one‘s control over resources, which affects the outcomes of bargaining processes. For example, (Narayan, 2005) adopted an institutional approach to empowerment, defining it as the expansion of assets and capabilities of poor people to participate in, negotiate with, influence, control, and hold accountable institutions that affect their lives. (Kabeer, 1999 cited in Mintewab, 2012) proposed an ―ability approach‖ to empowerment, conceptualizing it as the expansion in people‘s ability to make strategic life choices. Hence, women‘s empowerment is typically related to the expansion of asset bases and capabilities to make strategic life alternatives (choices).
Women are the most marginalized group of the society in relation to accessing and controlling rural land in Ethiopia. The main challenge for an effective implementation of women‘s right to rural land in the country is largely attributable to the negative attitudes and harmful practices which deny a woman‘s right to own, administer property and control the rural land. Moreover, women do not have a customary right to inherit land from their family; and the control of land during marriage falls chiefly under the control of their husband. Besides, a woman cannot control the fruits of the land as she does not successfully involve in household decision making. Worst of all, after divorce, a woman has to leave her husband‘s home and look for another marriage without claiming her share of the matrimonial property.
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Women‘s struggle emerged to remove these inequalities and bring change in women‘s lives hence, feminism was born. Feminism is an organized movement which aims to promote equality between men and women in political, economic and social spheres. Feminism is defined in a number of ways. I prefer this definition of feminism for it covers most of the underlying facts:
Feminism is, "A belief that women universally face some form of oppression or exploitation; a commitment to uncover and understand what causes and sustains oppression in all its forms and a commitment to work individually and collectively in everyday life to end all forms of oppression" (Maguire, 1987: 79 sited on Brayton, 1997 cited in Almaz, 2007)
2.2. Meaning and Concept of Land Certification
Land certificate is a document issued by the land registry to the owner of registered land as a proof of ownership with no mortgage on it. It is the prima facie evidence of the truth of the matters contained in the certificate. As of (Lyons and Chandra, 2001 cited in Assefa, 2010), land certification is a processes of registering holding or use rights in land, terms used to indicate the evidence of a person‘s holding or use rights to land. The certificate contains description of the property with details of boundaries, name and address of the owner and the covenants affecting it. A genuine land certificate means a certificate issued to a person or tribunals clothed with the lawful power to issue them as evidence of right to land. Land holding certification has been issued for the purposes of providing tenure security, gender equality, to provide a legal document, to identify illegal land grabbers, and to record data on land holding and holders as well as it aimed to increase land investments for country‘s sustainable development.
2.3. Women’s Land Rights
Land is recognized as primary source of wealth, social status and power throughout history to those who have access to and control over it. Arguments raised on women‘s land rights in the course of the 1990s that influenced international discourses on gender equality is well established as basic component of policy nowadays. Gender equality was included and promoted as a major goal in the Millennium Development Goals - MDGs (World Bank, 2001) and in country‘s Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program (MOFED, 2006). However,
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there is a persistent gender gap in landholding rights because; women‘s rights to land are affected by various factors in communities (FAO, 2002).
2.3.1 Why issue of Gender Equality is required in Land Certification?
Gender inequalities are pervasive across many dimensions of societal life including households, social, economic and political institutions. The UN recognized that gender inequality resulting from women‘s low status persist in all societies although the extent of the gap varies across countries, cultures and time. The UN presented the burden of this inequality as follows: “Women, who comprise half the world's population, do two thirds of the world's work, earn one tenth of the world's income and own one hundredth of the world's property‖ (UN, 1980). A World Bank study on regional patterns of gender inequalities in basic rights and in access to and control of resources reflect that disparities exist all over the world and no women in the developing regions has equal rights with men (World Bank, 2001). Gender inequality differences are reflected in marriage, inheritance, property ownership and management, in household and community activities and decision-making.
Women‘s direct access to land is often limited in traditional societies. Women have indirect access to land in terms of use rights acquired through kinship relationships and their status as wives, mothers, sisters or daughters (Davison, 1988 cited in Almaz, 2007). However, these use rights may not grant enough security for women when family structures break due to various reasons. Breach in marriage is a serious issue in women‘s access to and control over land because; it results in vulnerable group of women, FHHs as single parents, widows or divorcees. The gendered face of poverty makes gender an issue in women‘s access to and control over land. The outcome of a study carried out by UNDP in developing countries reflected that poverty has a gendered face and that women are poorer than men (UNDP, 2000).
International human rights instruments related to women‘s property ownership and inheritance revealed that denial of these rights makes women‘s land rights a human rights issue. Gap exists between international human rights provisions and national legal provisions because national laws of property rights are influenced by customs, attitudes and perceptions (Benschop, 2002). The interaction of statuary laws and community customs and traditions will determine how women‘s legal rights on land are actually realized in practice. Therefore, women‘s equal right on
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land is a human rights issue, issue of equity, poverty reduction, food security, sustainable development.
2.4. Empirical Literatures
A number of studies point to lack of access to resources (particularly land) faced by rural women in the developing world as major sources of their economic underperformance. Women face an array of constraints in their day-to-day economic activities, including access to extension services (Mutimba and Bekele, 2002). Other studies have associated lack of control of resources by women with lower agricultural productivity (Quisumbing, 1996).
The impact of land reforms on the economic performance of female-headed households has rarely been studied. However, the literature investigating the impact of interventions on the livelihoods of female farmers is still relatively thin and is mainly qualitative analysis. Assessment of the efficiency and equity of land reforms has yielded decidedly mixed results. Because land reforms help secure property rights, they are expected to lead to a number of benefits. (Deininger et al., 2007) argued that these benefits could include incentives for land related investment, enhanced gender equality and bargaining power by women, improved governance, reduced conflict potential, and lower transaction costs for productivity-enhancing land transfers (either rental or sale). Similarly, in their study of the impact of low-cost land certification in the Amhara region of Ethiopia, (Deininger et al., 2009) found that the land reform increased soil conservation investment and participation in the land rental market.
Pre-existing land-tenure systems in many developing countries are characterized as rigid and highly intertwined with socio-cultural customs, leaving huge room for efficient reforms (Nega et al., 2003 cited in Assefa, 2010). Women, in particular, are often disadvantaged by both statutory and traditional land-tenure systems (Agarwal, 1994; Lastarria-Cornhiel, 1995). They have weak property and contractual rights to land, water, and other natural resources (Quisimberg et al., 2003).
Since the 1990s, most African countries have passed new land legislation to remedy some of the perceived shortcomings of existing systems, particularly by strengthening customary land rights, recognizing occupancy short of full title, improving female land ownership, and decentralizing
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land administration (Deininger et al., 2009). In some cases, privatization has led to different land rights being concentrated in the hands of a few people, while other people (such as poor rural women or ethnic minorities) lose the few rights they have and generally are not able to participate fully in the land market (Lastarria-Cornhiel, 1997). In addition, (Tripp, 2004) argued that traditional institutions suffer from a limited ability to deal with gender-related conflict and tend to be gender-biased. Even with recent reforms, gender equality has not been thoroughly addressed.
Among other equity and efficiency concerns, the land certification program in Ethiopia attempts to address gender bias concerns of the current land-tenure system. The program issues a non- alienable joint certificate to both spouses that confer equity and joint land ownership. The certificates include maps of the land and photos of both husband and wife even if variations exist among the regional states of Ethiopia. Women are also actively involved in the certification process, and the land administration committees at the kebele level are required to have at least one female member (Deininger et al., 2007).
International women‘s conferences held consecutively; in Mexico City in 1975, in Nairobi in 1985 and in Beijing in 1995 were measures towards realizing women‘s political, social and economic equality with men (UN Action for Women, 1980). Many gender issues which are very important to well-being of millions of women and girls around the world got public attention after these conferences. (Agarwal, 1994) provided explanation on why gender equality should be major component of land reform policies. She particularly stressed on the need for policy to address women‘s control over land and identified four main reasons on the need for women‘s control over land in addition to getting access to it.
2.5. International Policy frameworks and Institutions towards Women’s Empowerment
International law has framed gender equality as part of global concern on human rights and basic freedoms for social, economic and political rights. These include claims on access to and control over productive resources like land. Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted in 1948 (UDHR, 1948) and international laws and conventions developed afterwards have a number of provisions to address gender equality. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
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Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) prohibits any distinction, exclusion or restriction on the basis of gender that harms or nullifies women‘s human rights and fundamental freedoms (UNCEDAW, 1979:3 cited in Almaz, 2007). It establishes women‘s rights on par with those of men to political, economic and social participation and benefit. Articles 7-8, 10-13 and 16 of CEDAW have comprehensive coverage and oblige signatory states to achieve these goals.
The United Nations Higher Commission on Human Rights passed resolution on women‘s equal ownership over property and land (UNHCR, 2003/ 22). International conventions ratified by governments including international human rights instruments and women‘s equal rights conventions were bases for considering women‘s access to and control over land as human rights issue in the resolution. African Protocol to the African Charter on the Rights of Women in Africa adopted by the then OAU called upon all African states to eliminate discrimination against women and to ensure women‘s rights as set in international declarations and conventions (OAU, 2003).
The outcome of a study carried out by UNDP in developing countries reflected that poverty has a gendered face and that women are poorer than men (UNDP, 2000). This UNDP study carried out on selected countries of Sub-Saharan Africa showed the GDP per capita figures for women were less than that of men. Comparative figures in 1998 were US$1,142, per woman and US$2,079, per man (UNDP, 2000). International human rights instruments related to women‘s property ownership and inheritance revealed that denial of these rights makes women‘s land rights a human rights issue. Gap exists between international human rights provisions and national legal provisions because national laws of property rights are influenced by customs, attitudes and perceptions (Benschop, 2002).
Gender power relation has serious influence on land tenure systems because it determines roles and statuses of women and men in society. Intra-household gender relations reveal gender power imbalances (Parpart, 1989; Young, 1992 as cited in Almaz, 2017). These relations are reflections of inequalities in access to resources, intra household distribution of income and decision- making power. These inequalities are directly related to level of household poverty and food insecurity. Ensuring property rights is considered as one mechanism to enhance women‘s bargaining power at household and community levels (Agarwal, 1994). In Africa predominance
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of the patriarchal system induces gender power relations which downgrade women to inferior position. The patriarchal system influences socio-economic and political structures, government policies and strategies and this has impact on accessing, managing and controlling resources.
However, empirical evidence of the impact of land reform does not always ensure that land reforms live up to intended objectives. For instance, land titling in Kenya brought little increase in land market activity (Place and Migot-Adholla, 1998) found the same results in a similar study in Madagascar. In some instances, land titling programs benefit the wealthy and powerful at the expense of the poor and marginalized (Besley and Burgess, 2000; Deininger et al., 2003). Even where legislation does strengthen women‘s property rights, lack of legal knowledge and weak implementation may limit women‘s ability to exercise their rights (Deininger et al., 2008).
As many African countries, the issue of rural land in Ethiopia has been considered as a political or social questions. Several radical land reforms have been accomplished since 1975. Land registration and granting land holding certificates to land holders have recently become one of the government‘s interventions in Ethiopia. The main objective is to improve tenure security through land registration and certification that promotes better land management, more investment on land and reduce disputes over land.
2.6. Land Policy and Certification Issues in Ethiopia
Land in Ethiopia is the basic economic resource. As a result, the mode of land ownership has been and is still one of the burning political issues in recent political history of the country. Rural land has been center of focus and land tenure system has a long history in the country. Rural land policy issues still continue to be agenda of scholarly debates in view of its impacts on rural livelihoods, the rural economy and that of the country as a whole. Historical records reveal that land registration started almost a century ago in Ethiopia. It began during Emperor Menelik‘s reign (Pankhrust, 1966). For the purpose of clarification, the researcher has focused on the historical records of land registration and certification which started from the imperial period up to the current government (FDRE).
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2.6.1. Land Policy Issues during the Imperial Era (1875-1974)
During the Imperial period the country had a complex land tenure system with a variety of arrangements in place although they are usually broadly categorized into two main forms. On the one hand in most parts of the southern half of the country private ownership of lands after the territorial expansion the Imperial government from the second half of the 19th century. The tenure system that turned millions of people into tenants who had little incentive to produce more and keep-up the productivity of the land they work on (Melaku, 2003 cited in Gadisa, 2012). From the second half of 1960‗s, the expansion of large scale commercial agriculture put additional pressure on the tenants who were forcefully evicted from the lands they used to cultivate (Jemma, 2004, cited in Gadisa, 2012).
On the other hand, tenure arrangements in Northern Ethiopia could largely be identified as communal. The main form of access to land was through what was known as rist or kinship. It was a system of allocating land in a given community belonged to descendants of an ancestor, who is believed to have been the first settler of the land in that community. Thus, in this system insecurity was manifested through the possibility of dispossession of the present occupier‗s rights and the sale of land was not a common practice outside of the extended family unless all members agree to it (Rahmato, 1994 cited in Gadisa, 2012).
In general; during the imperial era land was concentrated in the hands of absentee landlords, tenure was highly insecure, arbitrary evictions posed a serious threat, characterized by great inequality. This could have been the most important cause of political grievances that eventually led to the over throw of the regime (Deininger et al., 2007)
2.6.2. Land Policy Issues during the Marxist Regime (1974-1991)
The Derg regime that overthrew the last imperial government in 1975 abruptly instituted a series of measures that changed the political and economic landscape of the country from a feudal system to a socialist state (Kebede, 2002 cited in Mintewab, 2012). The 1975 land reform proclamation is considered the most radical when it declared all land as the collective property of the Ethiopian people and introduced identical tenure over the whole country (ELRP, 1975).
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Among the many radical measures, the land reform proclamation of February 1975 nationalized all rural lands, announcing that all land was owned by the state and given to farmers on a right- to-use (usufruct) basis, organized via peasant associations (Kebede, 2008, cited in Mintewab, 2012). Per the 1975 legislation, spouses enjoyed joint ownership of the land, implying that on paper men and women were entitled to the same land rights. However, women‘s rights to land depended on marriage and were not registered separately; they therefore had no control of the land (Crewett et al., 2008 cited in Gadisa, 2012).
2.6.3. Land Policy Issues during the Era of Decentralization (Since 1991)
The EPRDF (the ruling political coalition in Ethiopia) led government that overthrew the military government (Derg) in 1991 largely maintained the land policy of its predecessor, keeping all rural and urban land under public (government) ownership (Gebreselassie, 2006). Significant changes included formal confirmation that land rights were to be granted to men and women, including the right to lease out land. The severe limitations in these provisions still exist, particularly for women. For instance, divorced women lack secure land rights, due to numerous exceptions which strictly curtail these rights (Crewett et al., 2008 cited in Gadisa, 2012).
The 1995 Ethiopian constitution has restated that the right to ownership of rural and urban land, as well as of all natural resources, is exclusively vested in the State and in the peoples of Ethiopia. Land is a common property of the Nations, Nationalities and Peoples of Ethiopia and shall not be subject to sale or exchange‗(FDRE Constitution, Articles 40, 1994). But it allows the right to obtain land without payment and the protection against eviction from their possession and full right to the immovable property he/she builds and to the permanent improvements he/she brings about on the land by his/her labor or capital which shall include the right to alienate, to bequeath, and, where the right of use expires, to remove his property, transfer his title, or claim compensation for it.
2.7. Land Registration and Certification Issues in Current Ethiopia (FDRE)
Land administration and use laws that focus on issues of land access and tenure security are among important measures that must be undertaken to alleviate land tenure problem. Accordingly, the Federal Land Administration Law, Proclamation No. 89/1997, was enacted in
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July 1997. The Federal Land Administration and Land Use Proclamation stated that farmers have a perpetual use right on their agricultural holdings in FDRE Proclamation No. 89/1997 which was amended by Proclamation No. 456/2005. The law vested regional government with the power of enacting rural land administration and use law.
Rural land registration and certification in Ethiopia was started in 1998 (Amdissa, 2006). Although it was late, the four main regional governments have made their land laws. The initiative was taken by Amhara in 2000, followed by other regions, Oromia in 2002, Tigray in 2002 and SNNP in 2003 (Yigremew, 2007; cited in Berhanu, 2009). These regions have conducted land registration and certification programs with different approaches and methodologies of land parcel identification, boundary demarcation, land registration, land certification and dissemination of land information (Solomon et al., 2006 cited in Berhanu, 2009)
2.8. Rural Land Policy Issues of Oromia National Regional State
2.8.1. Legal framework
Oromia Region issued Proclamation No. 56/2002 as the first Rural Land Use and Administration Proclamation of the Oromia Regional State, which grants higher levels of tenure security (Crewett et al., 2008 cited in Gadisa, 2012), on rural land use and administration (ONRS, 2002) and Regulation No. 39/2003, the implementation regulation (ONRS, 2003), based on the mandate provided by FDRE rural land administration and use Proclamation (FDRE, 1997). Women‘s equal right with men in rural land use and administration was put as an underlying principle in the Oromia rural land Proclamation No. 56/2002: Article 4:2. The Proclamation affirmed free access to land to any resident of the region 18 years or above who wishes to live by farming.
Lifelong certificate of holding were provided to every landholder to ensure tenure security. Spousal joint registration and certification was applied in the land administration system of the region Proclamation No. 56/2002: Article 15:2. It specifically states that women will have rights to land on equal basis with men on divorce and that the family holding will be shared equally between the spouses Proclamation No. 56/2002: Article 6:6. The proclamation has provision on the rights of women under polygamous marriage Proclamation No. 56/2002: Article 15:4.
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The rural land administration and use regulation states that all spouses shall get holding right certificate with their husband and that all of them have equal access to land rights. Land use right transfer through inheritance to family members is endorsed by the Proclamation No. 56/2002: Article 6/10. Proclamation No. 103/2005 is amended from Proclamation No. 39/2003 referred to land transferring and renting rights (Article 9 and 10). The current Proclamation No. 130/2007 amended from Proclamation No. 103/2005, for land dispute solutions (Article 16:1) which stated land disputes should be solved locally with the help of elders. Regulation 39/2003 has provisions on rights and responsibilities of land users on individual holdings. The regulation provided guidelines on the land administration process. Accordingly, Land Administration Committees (LACs) was established at kebele levels and Sub-committees was established at village levels to carry out the land registration processes. Guidelines on mechanisms of dispute and conflict resolution are also provided by the regulation.
2.8.2. The Land Administration Processes
As of (Tesfaye, 2005 cited in Almaz, 2007) research focused on the land administration process being carried out in four regions of the country (Amhara, Oromia, Tigrai, and SNNPR) revealed that the process reflected a range of issues in regional similarities and differences. Rural land proclamations issued in Amhara, Oromia and SNNPR regions mandated joint titling to spouses and land is registered on names of both spouses. Space is provided on the landholding certificates to put photos of both spouses in Amhara and SNNPR but not in Oromia (Deininger, et al., 2007). In Oromia the certificate had space to put photo of the landholder only even in spousal joint-registration.
In Oromia the land administration process started from calling community meetings to explain about the land administration programme and conducting election of LAC members (Tesfaye, 2005 cite in Almaz, 2007). LACs demarcate boundaries of communal lands and individual holdings, measure individual plots using traditional measurements and record information on formats provided by Woreda Offices of Agriculture and Rural Development. Field information is transferred to Woredas and is compiled in the registry book. The information is finally recorded on books of landholding (certificates). A landholding certificate carrying photo of the landholder
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is finally signed and handed to the land holder by Woreda offices. The detail of land certification processes and practices of Oromia is provided under chapter four of the thesis.
2.8.3. The Rationale for Land Certification in Oromia Region
Land registration in Oromia meant to serve two purposes: improving tenure security in gender wise and encouraging land and natural resources conservation & rehabilitation. The first objective is in line with overall policy of the Ethiopian government in recent years. Tenure insecurity has been the subject of much discussion, which seems to have convinced the government to develop measures to improve the situation. The recently issued federal land law (Proclamation No. 456/2005), for instance, states that certificate of title was issued as a proof of rural land use right. It is believed that in the absence of secure property rights, land and natural resource degradation will accelerate (Berhanu & Fayera, 2005:4 cited by Berhanu, 2009). The regional government has decided, therefore, to include goals towards environmental protection and improved land management in the land administration legislations. Therefore, it can be argued that the basic rationale for the land registration and certification is to secure land tenures for both male and female equally, and in the long run to bring sustainable use of land.
2.9. Conceptual Framework of the Study
Gender based sensitive empowerment process was not necessarily linear. It is further complicated by the fact that very often; empowerment strategies do not produce immediate results, but require multiple interventions over the long-term. Any empowerment initiative must engage the multiple dimensions shaping the lives of women and girls, including racial and ethnic barriers, and discrimination on the basis of ability, age or sexual orientation.
Women‘s empowerment framework is an important tool to assess the situation of displaced and returnee women and to measure the empowerment process. Land certification and registration was expected to enhance women‘s empowerment, reduce land dispute, secure gender equality over land and it might increase long-term land investments. There were different empirical evidences verifying that land titling (holding certificate) enhances tenure security and motivates farmers to fully utilize their lands for different economic productivities (Bouquet, 2006 and Benjaminsen et al., 2008 cited in Gadisa, 2012; FAO, 2002). The following conceptual
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framework intended to illustrate the most important variables which enhance women‘s empowerment via land certification processes were considered for the organization of this study (Figure 2.1).
Reduces land Women's disputes Enhances Empower tenure ment security
Women's Larger Land Women's demand for Administra Empowerment investment tion in Land Certification Women's Surplus decision agricultural making production power Gender Poverty Equality reduction
Figure 2 1: Conceptual framework (designed based on empirical literature review)
The flow chart indicates that the practices and processes of land certification can maintain gender equality among male and female household heads. At where there is no partiality in managing resources like agricultural lands among male and female, it paves the way in which the sound of the discriminated population groups (particularly women‘s) are to be heard. If landholding certification is given to household heads equally without any discrimination, it reduces land related disputes and enhances tenure security among farmers. This framework also indicates when the displaced and discriminated women‘s have access to landholding rights (certification), it maintain gender equality, empower women over their plot of agricultural lands, encourage investment, surplus agricultural production and reduce poverty.
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2.10. Literature Gap
Many studies conducted in the area of women‘s land rights at worldwide and even across Africa. Available evidence indicates that the distribution of land ownership is heavily skewed toward men (Doss, 2006). In Sub-Saharan Africa, unmarried women have little access to land because they are not allowed to inherit property while wives have better access to their husbands‘ land through marriage.
However, in Ethiopia, (Nzioki, 2006 cited in Assefa, 2010) argued that despite affirmative action‘s have been taken to maintain women land rights based on constitutional provisions and the land administration proclamation (FDRE, 1997), which have opened new opportunities for altering gender relations in general and access to land in particular, women still face constraints in achieving equal rights on land with men. There is lack of knowledge on the part of women on their constitutional rights overland due to high levels of illiteracy (Nzioki, 2006 cited in Assefa, 2010). Due to patriarchal orientation, in rural Ethiopia gender equality has not been achieved and women do not enjoy equal right with men in accessing and having land and effectively participate in public affairs (Teklu, 2005; Verma 2007 cited in Mebrat, 2011).
A similar study conducted in Oromia and SNNP Regional States found that women have limited knowledge of their property rights under the legal system and that gaps in the legal system prevent the inheritance and co-ownership of property acquired in marriage (Holden and Tefera, 2008). A similar study conducted in the Northern Ethiopia by (Adal, 2005) also confirms the discriminatory application of law and socio-cultural practices precluded women from exercising their right.
In line with this, the aim of this thesis was to assess the gap that weakened women‘s empowerment and their participation on agricultural land rights, and also investigate the socioeconomic, cultural and political related factors that hinder women‘s active involvement in land registration and certification processes.
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CHAPTER THREE: DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA AND RESEARCH METHODS AND MATERIALS
3.1. Description of the Study Area
3.1.1. Location
Beghi Woreda is one of the eighteen woredas in West Wollega administrative zone of Oromia National Regional State /ONRS/ (CSA, 2015). Beghi town is the administrative town of the woreda, which is far situated at 250km from Gimbi - administrative town of West wollega Zone on the way to Nekemte town and situated roughly at 685km from Addis Ababa. Beghi is situated in western part of Addis Ababa. As indicated in (Figure 3.1), Beghi Woreda bordered with four other Woreda all found in West Wollega administrative zone. It shares its administrative boundary in Northern by Bambasi woreda, in Southern by Jimma Gidame Woreda, Western part with Tongo Woreda, and in its Eastern part by Kondala Woreda. In its astronomical position, Beghi Woreda extends from 9059'38" - 21045'00" North latitude and 9019'38" - 340 31'00" East Longitude (Woreda Communication Bureau, 2016). In its relative location, the area is situated in West Wollega Zone of Oromia National Regional State. The total area of the district is estimated to be 155,112 hectares and partitioned into 45 smallest administrative units – kebeles. The woreda’s total kebeles are grouped into 42 farmers associations and three is urban administrative unit.
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Figure 3. 1: The study area of Beghi Woreda, Oromia, Ethiopia
Source: Ethiopian Mapping Agency, 2017
3.1.2. Topography and Climate
Beghi Woreda is situated at the altitude between1400 to 2900 meter above mean sea level. The average annual rainfall in Beghi Woreda ranges from 1100mm to 2600mm, while the average annual temperature varies between 18oC and 21oC (BoARDO, 2016). The rainfall is characterized by heavy rainfall prevalence and rainfall is absent only for three-four months. The agro-climatic zones of Beghi Woreda could generally be divided into temperate (dega in Amharic), which is greater than 2500 meters above sea level and accounting 20%, subtropical (woina dega in Amharic) which ranges from 1,600 - 2,500 meters above sea level and sharing 70%, and Tropical (qola in Amharic) which is less than 1,500 meters above sea level and accounting for 10% of the woreda total area. Land which exists in the study area constitutes mountains, plateaus, plains, ups and down with gentle features of landform configuration.
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3.2. Demographic and Socio-Economic Characteristics
A. Population size
The population and housing census conducted in 2007 by central statistical authority is considered to see the trend of the population size of the woreda under study. Beghi Town is the capital town of Beghi Woreda with the population size of 142,581 (males 70,599 and females 71,982). According to 2007 population and housing census of CSA, among total population size of the woreda, 126,315 is rural population (men constitutes 62,659, female constitutes about 63,656) and 16,266 is urban population (male is about 7940, female is about 8326). Due to shortage of time and financial resources it was difficult to include population of all 42 rural kebeles. As the result the study were delimited to three kebeles out of the 42 rural kebeles. Therefore, population of the three kebeles was the target population of the study.
The population that included under the study area was restricted to rural population; hence the economic base of the rural households is more or less depending up on land to that land certification/titling is needed. The total population of the study population constitutes about 13,920 (males 6,644 and female 7,276). In this case, the researcher has selected 1622 female households due to the fact that the problem under investigation is confined to women‘s empowerment via land certification.
B. Age Composition
Age data are useful for demographic analysis and for various types of socio economic development planning. The population distribution of the study area population by age group in 2017 indicated that the highest age proportion of population is found between 36-50 (44.4%) years old, the second highest proportion of population is found age between 51-65 (28.9%) years old, about (17.1%) of its population is found age between 20-35 years old and the least proportion of population category, about (9.5%) is found above 66 years of old. These data indicate that a significant proportion of the population was within age group 36-50 years implying intermediate age group.
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The sample survey conducted at household level had a sample of 321 respondents. Data such as Age, sex, marital status, educational status, employment condition, and annual income were collected from sampled household to observe the socio economic variation among the sampled household in the study area
C. Socio-Economic activities
The major means of livelihood of the study area are mixed agricultural practices where production of crops and animal rearing are widely undertaken. As per a project document compiled by woreda agricultural and (SLM office, 2015) the livelihood strategy of residents was dominated by subsistence farming. Few number of people involve in livestock rearing. Cattle population is the dominant livestock population in the woreda which accounts for 70.3percent of livestock population. Rearing of goat and sheep in the woreda constitute about 22.6percent of the total livestock population. In addition, donkey accounts about 4.7percent, and the rest percentage (2.4percent) occupied by mule and horse.
Among total area of land, about 97,641 hectares is using for agricultures and 20, 420.45 hectares occupied by forest and other hectares are used for different purpose. Hence, the area has reliable and efficient amount of rainfall, irrigation schemes and other water development projects across the woreda are highly practiced for different socio-economic activities. There is also sufficient water supply to the rural community since most of the springs and streams are high yielding and intermittent. Maize, Sorghums, Teff, Barley, Wheat, Millet and Daguza are the most dominant cereal crops produced in the woreda. In addition to these, cash crops like coffee and chat are also produced.
According to the estimated data from Beghi Woreda Office of Agriculture, about 61% of the total area is cultivated land (41% of land is used for cereal crop productions and 20% is used for commercial agricultures), about 12% is covered by forest land, 16% being occupied by pasture land, about 5% is left empty (bare land) and 6% land is being used for different purposes. Types of tree growing in the study area are Wanza (Cordia Africana), Tid (juniperus), Zigba (podocurpus), Bahurzaf (Eucalyptus Globus) and Shola.
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Percentage land coverage of the study area
5% 6% 12% Agricutural land Pasture land 16% 61% Forest land Bareland Other
Figure 3. 2: Percentage distribution of land coverage use of Beghi Woreda
(Source: Own construction based on the data from Beghi Woreda Office of Agriculture).
D. Educational Facilities
According to 2015 educational statistics obtained from BWEO, the projected population of Beghi Woreda in the year 2016 is estimated to be about142, 581, the literate people include about 24,066 students. These total students consists of about 20,529 primary school students (both first cycle and second cycle students), about 2,877 high school students, and about 660 preparatory level students.
3.3. Research Methods and Materials
3.3.1 Research Design and Approach
As per arguments of (Vaus, 2001) research needs design before commencement of data collection. Accordingly the researcher used a cross-sectional survey design which involves a collection of data at defined time, by using different data gathering tools which help to triangulate the data sources to explore on the processes and practices of women‘s empowerment in land certification. Therefore, the research design incorporated the overall framework of the research process with the help of cross-sectional survey.
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As indicated by (Cresswell, 2009) research incorporates both quantitative and qualitative research approach. The researcher applied a mixed research approach to triangulate numerical and non numerical data.
3.3.2. Data types and source
In order to be fully fledged with this research, data required for the study was collected from both primary and secondary types of data sources. To get the required data from the primary type of data; questionnaire survey respondents, focus group discussions, in-depth key informants‘ interviewees with development agents (DAs), experts from woreda agricultural and land administration offices, the elders, well experienced local farmers and experts with extensive experiences were undertaken.
Secondary data was obtained from books, published or pre-existing documents, proclamations and statistical data collected from the offices at the local and woreda levels was used. The researcher used qualitative and quantitative sources of data.
The research applied both quantitative and qualitative sources of data. The quantitative sources of data are a numerical data that the researcher is going to quantify. The researcher collected quantitative data sources through questionnaire and analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The researcher was used the qualitative data sources that was collected using interview and focus group discussion and expressed interims of words or statements.
3.3.3. Sample Size Determination
The basic issue in social and behavioral research is how to determine optimum samples for both quantitative surveys and qualitative participants of research process that needs great care to avoid inappropriate samples. The study was better, if it includes all kebeles of the woreda. However due to shortage of time and financial resources, it is difficult to manage the data gathered from all kebeles that are found in the woreda and to conduct a research within the given time and available resources. As a result, the study was delimited to few kebeles only. Therefore, to conduct the study, 3 kebeles, namely Alade waberi, Kama Chandi and Lalo Nora was selected as sample kebeles using purposive sampling method.
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The researcher determined the sample sizes from the total household heads of the study population with the help of statistical algorism in order to control sampling errors within 95% confidence level and 5% margin of error as in (Yamane, 1967; cited in Yilma, 2005). Therefore, the researcher selected 1622 target population out of 13,920 base populations.
Thus, this study has used the following formula to calculate sample size:
n = ( ) Where: n - designates the sample size the research uses; N - designates total number of households in three kebeles assuming that women in all households are affected by the issue; e - designates maximum variability or margin of error 5% (.05); 1 - designates the probability of the event occurring.
As of data obtained from woreda agricultural office, the base population of the study area is 142,581, and from this the researcher were selected purposively about 1622 target female population in the selected rural kebeles of the study area.
Accordingly, the total sample size for the study area:
n = = 321 women (respondents). ( ) ( )
The required sample size thus is 321 women respondents. The sample size from each sample kebeles was proportionally determined from the total households of the three kebeles using systematic random sampling technique. Sample size for each kebele is calculated by using proportion of number of households in the three kebeles (Alade Waberi 529, Kama Chandi 495 and Lalo Nora 598), (BoARD, 2016). Therefore, the selected households from each kebele are calculated as the following.
Sample size for Alade Waberi Kebele is: = 105
Sample size for Kama Chandi kebele is: = 98
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Sample size for Lalo Nora kebele is: = 118
Sum of sample sizes taken from each Kebele = Survey sample. 105+ 98+ 118 = 321.
To select respondents, the list of household of each sample kebele was used as a target population of the study. Finally, proportionate samples assigned were selected by systematic random sampling technique by using the total listings of selected kebele female population. To select sample size ―n‖ first find ―k‖ which is: K= N/n so 1622/321=5.
Table 3 1: Sample size distributions of respondents in selected kebeles, 2017
Sample Total Proportionate Number of Who didn‘t respond b/c of Kebeles Households samples respondents unforeseen reason
Alade Waberi 529 105 101 4 Kama Chandi 495 98 97 1 Lalo Nora 598 118 117 1 Total 1622 321 315 6
Source: Row data obtained from Woreda agricultural office, 2017
3.3.4. Sampling Techniques
The researcher selected three rural kebeles out of forty five kebeles. These of the three kebeles were selected purposively based on the large number of female households residing there. The researcher selected kebeles in consultation with experienced experts. The researcher selected respondents of the questionnaire survey based on probability sampling from the total listing of kebele population.
The proportionate samples assigned were selected systematically from the total listing of female kebele population. Key informant interviewees and focus group discussion were selected from local elders, women farmers, rural development agents and woreda experts purposively. Accordingly, the researcher selected five (5) key informant interviewees from each kebeles. Informative community groups (women and elderly) were selected and contacted for interviews
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for five informants. Key informant interviewees were purposively selected with respect to their roles at kebele levels and in land administration processes; and their knowledge and experience on the subject of the study for the qualitative survey.
Focus group discussions with rural women was considered important to get information on their lived experiences and views on their rights to and control over land, household resources and equal decision-making power. Discussion participants were purposely selected exclusive of quantitative survey respondents. Accordingly, the researcher was selected participants for focus group discussant in three sessions one by one among the three kebeles, one session incorporate seven participant sizes in each session.
3.3.5. Data Collection Tools and Instruments
The combination of formal and informal techniques of data collection was employed to generate adequate and reliable data.
A. Household Questionnaire Survey: Questionnaire method was the most important method through which the primary data in this study was collected. The researcher has utilized household questionnaire survey of numerical data for quantitative analysis. The questions were designed so as to fit the objectives of the study and included information regarding households‘ characteristics, socio-economic status, and practices of land certification via women‘s empowerment in the study area. The questionnaire was distributed by systematic random sampling to the selected respondents. The questionnaire was prepared initially in English and translated into ‗Afan Oromo‗language for simplicity and precision purposes. The consent of each respondent were be sought and secured prior to the commencement of the actual survey processes. Questionnaires was pre-tested on randomly selected few households to check the validity of the tool prior to the distribution of final questionnaires, enumerators were trained and the final survey was administered.
B. Key Informant Interview: In depth-interviews were conducted with five informants who are selected purposively. That is two (2) experts in agricultural and rural development offices and/or development agents (DA); and three (3) elders from each kebele.
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Qualitatively, the necessary data for the study was collected from the key informants from community by structured interview to extract detailed information related to women‘s role related to economic, social and decision-making processes in domestic and public spheres, access to agricultural land and land administration selected purposively to residents-who have firsthand knowledge, community leaders, elders, experiences on agricultural activity. The interview were conducted in Afan Oromo (the local language) based on interview guides and information from interviewees were written on paper by the researcher.
Figure 3. 3: Photo showing an interviewee held on 02/04/2017
C. Focus Group Discussion: The researcher employed this tool for qualitative analysis. The study employed three different focus group discussants with selected community members by using purposive sampling technique to cross-check and validates the data gathered through in- depth interviews and to come up with common understanding with seven members from the local women, kebele managers on the practices of land certification in gender perspectives. The focus group discussions were in handled using a checklist prepared by the researcher. The discussions were conducted in Afan Oromo language through discussion guides and the discussions were recorded by intensive note taking from the constructed questions on the processes and practices of women‘s empowerment in land certification.
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Figure 3. 4: Photo shows focus group discussion held on 14/03/2017.
D. Observation: Informal discussion with local farmers was also held for some general information of the topic. In order to have an insight understanding on the biophysical settings of the study site, such as boundary demarcation of the rural agricultural land, the physical land arrangements, amounts of lands used for agricultural activities per hectare, other natural resources exist there, the researcher were undertake unstructured on selected PAs. To the same way, to observe some tangible data given to the specified rural women who are legally certified in land rights and the behind measurements undertaken in order to empower them by the resident of rural women populations the researcher had planned to undertake a reconnaissance inspection at the study site in the form of observatory transect walk.
3.3.6. Data Analysis Techniques
In this section the researcher employed both quantitative and qualitative methods of analysis. Quantitative data sample was taken from randomly selected households. Data was collected from women in 321 eligible households. The quantitative method of analysis was applied for the data that were collected from households through structured questionnaire.
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The researcher has used descriptive statistics (frequency, percentages, crosses tabulation, mean, maximum, minimum, standard deviation) and pie-chart, bar- graphs to analyze the results. The researcher has also employed inferential statistics (such as chi-square test, correlation and binary logistic regressions) with the help of SPSS software version 20 computer software. The researcher has used chi- square and correlation coefficient for discrete data in order to test the relationship between variable.
To examine the research questions, the researcher has employed a binary logistic regression to assess if the independent variable(s) predict the dependent variable. In this study, the overall model significance (model fitness) for the binary logistic regression results were examined using the χ2 omnibus test of model coefficients with p<0.05. Nagelkerke-R2 was examined to assess the percentage of variance accounted by the independent variables. The qualitative data was analyzed based on researcher‘s judgment through description, narration and interoperating the situation.
3.4. Data Validity and Reliability
One of the conceptualization concern in validity and reliability given by American Psychological Association (1985:19) as it was noted on (Dooley, 2003: 17-18 cited in Mahlet, 2013) stated validity and reliability as:
reliability refers the degree to which observed scores are free from errors of measurement that can be gauged by consistency of scores while validity refers to the appropriateness, meaningfulness and usefulness of the specific inferences made from a given measurements.
In order to keep the content validity of the research (Vanderstoep & Johnston, 2009 cited in Mahlet, 2013), the author has reviewed many conceptual and empirical literatures on the problem issued in order to incorporate major concepts in data generating instruments, which enabled to investigate the issue in all-inclusive way. Therefore, the researcher observed methodological aspects on previous researches and scholarly articles written in Ethiopia and abroad to keep constructive validity of the study.
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The researcher has undertaken pilot survey prior to actual survey in order to prove legibility, formats and logical sequences of questions for actual survey. The researcher distributed ten questions to make the research valid and reliable before actual survey. Questionnaires were pre- tested by ten of farmers from one kebele to check the validity of the tool prior to the distribution of final questions. Based on the feedback obtained from the pilot test, the necessary corrections were made. At the end, the questionnaire was redistributed to the respondents.
The researcher conducted pilot study in the actual survey to keep the reliability of measurements (Gaur, 2007) in focus group discussion and key informal interview to assure its legibility, formats and logical sequences of questions for actual survey. To keep the reliability during qualitative research process, the researcher has kept himself in a good interpersonal relation with research participants. The researcher kept reliability of the research by triangulating qualitative and quantitative data.
3.5. Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations have been seriously taken into account. Accordingly, household questionnaire survey respondents, focus group participants and key informants were asked for their voluntariness just by informing the objectives of the research and their information is kept confidential that except group summary, individuals personal information was not be publicized and not given to any third party. These were vividly expressed on the forward part of household‘s questionnaire survey sheet and for focus group discussants and key informants the researcher himself explained orally. Beyond the ethics on human subjects, research ethics also considers acknowledgement of data generated by others and appropriate citations of scholarly research outputs, books, websites, and any other related documents in order to assure intellectual and scientific integrity of the research/er. Moreover, the researcher tried to cite and acknowledge all concepts, quotations, words and phrases taken from past scholarly literatures and reports.
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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. General Characteristics of the Households
Quantitative data is collected and analyzed on demographic and social characteristics of survey respondents. Respondents are asked about their age, income, marital status and type of marriage they are in (monogamous or polygamous), family size and educational background.
4.1.1. Demographic characteristics of survey respondents
As the problem under investigation is directly associated with women‘s empowerment, only women respondents were selected for questionnaires. This can be attributed to the cultural factors as men are traditionally assumed to be eligible for landownership rights in the family. Thus, inheritance of land in the family belongs to husbands and the right to inherit land was obvious to sons. This was supported by (Daniel, 2007) which men control all the resources and they are decision makers in all economic, political and social affairs while the women become the receptor of all issues guided by men.
From the total of 321 respondents, the majority of respondents (315) have answered to the questions incorporated in the questionnaire (see annex I). The analysis carried out on this study depends up only on the data that came from these 315 respondents. Among these, the proportionate sample size of respondents; Alade Waberi was 101(31%), Kama Chandi was 97(27%) and Lalo Nora was 117(42%).
To this effect, about 315 rural women respondents were analyzed systematically from the three kebeles (Alade Waberi, Kama Chandi and Lalo Nora) in Beghi Woreda. The data that came from the rural household survey was analyzed to describe the sample respondents in terms of demographic and socioeconomic factors with regards to the processes and practices of women‘s empowerment in land certification.
Table 4. 1: Distribution of respondents by age and family sizes of the survey respondents.
Age of the respondents Frequency Percent Between 20-35 years old 54 17.1
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Between 36-50 years old 140 44.4 Between 51-65 years old 91 28.9 Above 66 years old 30 9.5 Total 315 100.0 Mean 47.2 Std. deviation 11.3
Minimum 21 Maximum 72 Respondents family sizes Frequency Percent Below three family size 34 10.8 Between 3-6 family sizes 154 48.9 Between 6-9 family sizes 103 32.7 Above 9 family 24 7.6 Total 315 100.0 Mean 6.3 Std.deviation 2.3 Minimum 2 Maximum 12 Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
Data collected on age of survey respondents showed that (table 4.1), the highest age proportion 140(44.4%) of respondents are found between 36-50 age groups, about 91(28.9%) of the respondents found between 51-65 age groups, about 54(17.1%) of the respondents found between 20-35 age groups and lowest proportion 30(9.5%) of the age category is found above 66 years old. The mean and standard deviation of respondents‘ age is respectively 47.2 and 11.3. The minimum and maximum age respondent is respectively 21 and 72. This showed that the youngest and eldest person in the three study kebeles were 21 and 72 years respectively. The significant highest proportion of respondents‘ age was found between 36-50 years among the three kebeles.
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In the study area; much of the family sizes of the households 154(48.9%) have family sizes between 3-6, 103(32.7%) have family sizes between 6-9, 34(10.8%) have family size below 3, and 24(7.6%) have family sizes above 9. The mean and standard deviation of respondents‘ family sizes was respectively 6.3 and 2.3. The minimum and maximum of the respondents‘ family sizes was respectively 2 and 12. The minimum family sizes of the respondents were 2 persons where as the maximum family size of respondents were 12 persons in head count.
Table 4. 2: Distribution of respondents by marital status and type of marriage
Variables Frequency Percent Marital status Single 6 1.9 Married 172 54.6 Divorced 86 27.3 Widow 51 16.2 Total 315 100.0 Type of marriage Monogamous 166 52.7 Polygamous 52 16.5 Single/divorce/widow 84 26.7 Non respondent 13 4.1 Total 315 100.0 Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
Surveyed data in the (table 4.2) showed that with regards to marital status; the highest proportion 172(54.6%) of respondents are married, about 86(27.3%) are divorced, about 51(16.2%) are widowed and the least proportion 6(1.9%) of the marital status of respondents are single (unmarried). As to the type of marriage, 166(52.7%) are in monogamous marriage (are the only spouses in their marriage) and 52(16.5%) are in polygamous marriage. Hence, the study covers women from different age groups and marital statuses; single/divorce and/or widow respondents constitute about 84(26.7%). About 13(4.1%) respondents are not freely expressed (afraid) their marriage type.
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4.1.2. Socio-economic Characteristics of survey respondents
Socio-economic characteristics of survey respondents is measured on educational background, main sources of income, annual household income, expenditure trends and household asset ownership, These issues are also considered in the qualitative survey questions and observation
check list (Figure 4.1)
250 200 150 100 50
0 Frequency Frequency respondents the of Frequency
Educational Levels
Figure 4. 1: Graphical representation of educational levels of the respondents.
Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
The bar graph above displays responses obtained on educational background of survey respondents. Out of the total 315 respondents; 69.2% are illiterate, 22.9% have non-formal basic education, 6.0% have formal first cycle academic education (grades 1-4) and 1.6% have second cycle (grades 5-8) level academic education. At the study area, there is only one educated female extension worker‘s who have attended above grade 10. Survey findings on educational status of respondents reflects high illiteracy rate among women in the study area. The majority of female households are limited within household works; as a result they are unable to read and write hence they are illiterate. Only some female respondents can able to read and write, they are attending basic education (informal learning) given at kebele and sub-kebele levels.
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Table 4. 3: Distribution of respondents by their Average Annual income
Average earning per year from sale of crops Frequency Percent and other farm products (Eth. Birr) Earn below Birr 2000 141 44.8 Earn Birr 2000-5000 109 34.6 Earn Birr 5000-7000 54 17.1 Earn over Birr 7000 11 3.5 Total 315 100.0 Minimum 900.0
Maximum 8500.0
Mean 2888.5
Std. Deviation 1943.8
HH expenditure trends Frequency Percent For households need satisfaction 81 25.7 For purchase of farm inputs; fertilizer 90 28.6 For house construction (maintenance) 21 6.7 For other investment (buying cattle, 117 37.1 leasing land...) Non respondent 6 1.9 Total 315 100.0
Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
Survey data in the (table 4.3) displays, quantitative data collected on average annual income earned from sales of agricultural products revealed that 141(44.8%) responded they earn below birr 2000, 109(34.6%) responded they earn birr 2000 – 5000, 54(17.1%) responded they earn birr 5000 – 7000, and 11(3.5%) responded they earn over birr 7000. The mean and standard deviation of respondents‘ income is respectively 2888.5 and 1943.8. In terms of income differences, the minimum average annual income is 900.00 with Eth. Birr and the maximum average annual income is 8500.00 with Eth. birr. This means that, respondents‘ lowest annual average income is about 900 birr and the maximum is about 8500 birr.
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Data collected on respondents expenditure trends reflect that 117(37.1%) responded that they spend incomes on other investments like buying cattle, leasing land etc, 90(28.6%) responded their income is spent on purchase of farm inputs like fertilizer, plough oxen, 81(25.7%) responded they spend income on households need satisfaction, 21(6.7%) responded income is used for house construction and maintenance and 6(1.9%) not responded to the question.
On the other hand, qualitative information obtained from focus group discussion with rural women on income and expenditure trends revealed that they give priority to farm land inputs (mainly for fertilizer).
Table 4. 4: Relationship between average annual income and marital status
Marital Average Annual income (Ethiopian Birr) status Below Birr Birr over Birr Total χ2 p-value Birr 2000 2000-5000 5000-7000 7000 Single 6 0 0 0 6 21. 241 .012 Married 84 53 31 4 172
Divorced 31 31 20 4 86 Widow 20 25 3 3 51 Total 141 109 54 11 315
Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
Surveyed data in the (table 4.4) demonstrates that, data obtained on the relationship between average annual incomes earned from agricultural products with marital status. The data on this relationship reflect that out of the total 172 married respondents, 84 earn birr below 2000 from sales of agricultural products, 53 earn birr 2000 – 5000, 31 earn birr 5000 – 7000, 4 earn over birr 7000.
Out of the total 86 widowed respondents, 31 earn birr below 2000 from sales of farm products, 31earn birr 2000 – 5000, 20 earn birr 5000 – 7000, 4 earn over birr 7000 and 3 did not responded to the questions. Out of 51 divorcees, 20 earn birr below 2000, 25 earn birr 2000 – 5000, 3 earns birr 5000 – 7000 and 3 earns birr over 7000. Responses obtained from 6 single/unmarried
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women reflects that 5 responded that each of them earn birr below 2000, only 1 earns birr 2000 – 5000 from sales of agricultural products and non- of them earn birr over 5000. Findings of table 4.4 revealed that there was a strong relationship between marital status and family income of the respondents with (χ2= 21.241, p= 0.012).
4.1.3. Type and Main sources of Households income
Total household income is categorized into different types and different income sources have different contribution to income and poverty reduction (Ellis, 2000 cited in Mebrat, 2011). The most common sources of income to the respondents are: on-farm, off-farm, and non- farm incomes.
On farm income is an income that is earned by the households working in his/her own farm from selling of crops (cereals and/or commercial), animal products, vegetables, fruits etc. Non-farm refers to an income source which is not farming sector but done in the compound of their own farm. As an example, selling of ‗tella‘, ‗areke‘or local bear is considered as non farming income sources. Whereas off-farm income is an income earned free from agricultural products (output) like participating in small local trades with the help of (donkey, mule, horse loads), employment wages (such as hire servants), income from honey bees were considered as off-farm income.
Table 4. 5: Distribution of income sources and total income of respondents
Average Annual income of Type and Source of incomes respondents (Eth. Birr) on farm non farm Off farm Total χ2 p-value Below 2000 Birr 105 33 3 141 3.551 .737 Between Birr 2000-5000 81 24 4 109
Between Birr 5000-7000 41 13 0 54 over 7000 Birr 7 4 0 11 Total 234 74 7 315 Percentage 74.1 23.5 2.2 100.0
Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
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Surveyed data in the (table 4.5) display that, about 234(74.1%) of the respondents earn their income from on farm, about 74(23.5%) and 7(2.2%) earns respectively from non-farm (by selling of tella or areke) and off-farm means of incomes. In both households, engaging in another source of income such as off farm or non farm income sources is vital for the survival of the household. In this case female headed households are in more trap of poverty than male headed households. As many researchers findings showed that female headed households are vulnerable to shocks and poverty, and they lack human, capital and physical resources (Frank, 1999; Atiklt, 2005 cited in Mebrat, 2011). Lack of the resources they have and the cultural taboos together are affecting the women to have full control of the land (Ibid).
Qualitative information obtained from interviews with kebele land administration committee (LAC) members and focus group discussions with rural women on land ownership and income source assets indicates, the highest proportion of on farm income is controlled by male rather than women; as a result women‘s average annual income is too low as it is indicated in the table 4.5. This is because women in the study area own and manage assets that have less value. In that women own poultry, use and sell hens, eggs and animal products like milk, butter and cheese as their sources of income. A bias is not only in asset ownership but also cultural constraints on women‘s using household assets.
4.2. Means of Land Acquisition
Acquisition of land rights has brought an increase in women self-confidence and it empowers them in making decisions with men on the use of the land and income generated at the household level. The introduction of a legal framework has empowered women to take decision together with the husband. According to Oromia National Regional States Land Proclamation 2007; Women have equal rights with men to possess, use and administer rural land under joint ownership. The holder has the right to transfer land to his family member living anywhere through inheritance.
Table 4. 6: Relationship between marital status and means of land acquisition
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Marital Means of Land Acquisition Total χ2 p- Status Inheritance Redistribute Gift from Share Non- value somebody holder respondents Single 3 0 1 0 2 6 53.953 .000 Married 85 32 36 15 4 172
Divorced 32 34 17 3 0 86 Widow 26 4 10 9 2 51 Total 146 70 64 27 8 315 Percent 46.3 22.2 20.3 8.6 2.5 100.0
Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
Surveyed data displayed in the (table 4.6) shows the relationship between means of land acquisition and marital status in the study area. About 146(46.3%) respondents responded they accessed land through land inheritance; in this case 85 are married, 32 are divorcees, 26 are widows and 3 is single/unmarried. About 70(22.2%) respondents responded they accessed land through redistribution; in this case 34 are divorcees, 32 are married and 4 are widows. About 64(20.3%) respondents responded they accessed land through gifts from somebody, 36 are married, 17 are divorcees and 10 are widows. About 27(8.6%) respondents that they are accessed land through shareholder, in this case15 are married, 9 are widows, and 3 are divorcees. About 8(2.5%) are non-respondents, in this case 4 are married women, 2 are widows and 2 are single/unmarried did not give responses to this question. Unmarried women have little access to land because they have no property right to inherit in most patriarchal societies (Nizoki, 2002 cited in Assefa, 2010). Where customary law is in force, it directly discriminates against women and provides them with few rights of control over land. Findings of table 4.6 revealed that there was a strong significant relationship between marital status and means of land acquisition of the respondents with (χ2= 53.953, p= 0.000).
The revised family codes of the federal and state governments, which are updated in line with the (FDRE, 1995) Constitution, recognize the pecuniary effects of marriage whose primary aim is to protect the women‘s right to property before marriage, during marriage and upon its dissolution.
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Spouses have a right to own personal property in addition to their common property which they own jointly. But any property obtained in the form of income is always considered to be the common property of spouses although it is derived from the personal income of one of the spouses (Article 57 - 73 of the Revised Federal Family Code (RFC); Article 73-89 of the Oromia Family Code).
Table 4. 7: Relationship between Landholding size and marital status
Landholding size Marital status Total % χ2 p-value Single Married Divorced Widow Below 0.5hect. 2 8 3 2 15 4.8 28.716 .017 Between 0.5-2hect. 4 79 42 33 158 50.2 Between 2-4hect. 0 54 35 12 101 32.1
Between 4-6hect. 0 13 3 1 17 5.4 Above 6hect. 0 8 1 0 9 2.9 Landless 0 10 2 3 15 4.8 Total 6 172 86 51 315 100.0
Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
Surveyed data in the (table 4.7) shows, the majority of the respondents 50.2percent have had landholding sizes between 0.5(1/2)-2hectares, about 32.1percent respondents have had landholding sizes between 2-4 hectare, about 5.4percent have had landholding sizes between 4- 6hectare, about 4.8 respondents have had landholding size below 0.5(1/2) hectare and also landless. The least 2.9percent respondents have had landholding size above 6hectare. Findings of table 4.7 revealed that there was a strong relationship between marital status and landholding size of the respondents with (χ2= 28.716, p= 0.017).
This study shows that marriage has its own impact on women‘s access to land rights. Information obtained from the focus group discussion further reveal that most women get access rights to land through marriage. Divorcees‘ women are accessed to land through shareholder from husbands and widowed women who get access to their deceased husbands‘ land. Literatures
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revealed that women‘s access to their husbands‘ land offers them secondary rights and this right is seriously constrained in reality because women‘s rights to their husbands‘ land is secured as long as the marriage lasts (Crummy, 2000 cited in Mintewab, 2012).
Qualitative information obtained from focus group discussions with rural women in the three kebeles responded that, the means of landholding for unmarried/single women is through inheritance or government redistribution of abandoned or unoccupied land. Findings reflect single/unmarried women‘s access to abandoned or unoccupied land is not realized and none of them accessed land through inheritance in the study area. In confirmation to literatures assessed for this study, the patrilineal inheritance system disfavored women in terms of land acquisition through inheritance because women are not considered as custodians of family property in community practices. The tradition in the study area gives inheritance right to male descents (grandsons) denying inheritance right to daughters of their deceased parents‘ land.
4.3. Farmers perception and knowledge to land certification
Women generally lack legal awareness regarding their right to land within the households. The customary law limits women‘s rights on land and this law underpins patriarchal system of traditional authority to reinforce patriarchal values which disadvantage women and place them to subordinate position in society (Woldetensay, 2007 cited in Hussein, 2014). At the study area, initially, there were mixed responses to knowledge of land registration and certification program. Some of the respondents had uncertain response at early land certification stage, because, they expect it as land registration and certification imposes us to pay more taxes than what we are paying now. But, currently they seemed to understand that land registration and certification lead to more tenure security.
Table 4. 8: Farmers perception and knowledge to land certification
Response to processes and procedures Frequency Percent to land certification Disagree for a time 79 25.1 Agree after time 177 56.2
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Land certification can bring nothing 59 18.7 Total 315 100.0 Know land certification proclamation Yes 110 34.9 Some of it 146 46.3 No 59 18.7 Total 315 100.0 Aware to Land rule and regulation Yes 116 36.8 No 199 63.2 Total 315 100.0
Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
Surveyed data in the (table 4.8) display; the majority of the respondent‘s responses to the processes and procedures of land certification is clear to them over a time; about 177(56.2%), 79(25.1%) and 59(18.7%) respectively responded as they agree after a time to the certification of land, disagree for a time to take land certification and some of them beliefs that whether they take or not cannot bring any change to land certification. Rights to land helps women to use the land as mortgage to get loan and the loan helps the women in order to engage in small enterprises which brings a positive changes in the livelihood status of the women (Deininger, 2003).
In line with the knowledge of land proclamation, about 146(46.3%) of the respondents know some about the proclamation, 110(34.9%) of them responded they know to the proclamation and 59(18.8%) of them do not know the proclamation. In addition to this, 199(63.2%) of the respondents do not have an awareness to land rule and regulations and about 116(36.8%) respondents have knowledge (awareness) to land rule and regulations. Land ownership rights to land, having access right to land gives economic empowerment to women as well as social and political power (Agarwal 1994:39). Being empowered means it will give them the ability to struggle for their freedom and to reduce the gender disparity in the household and the society (Ibid).
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But, as the focus group discussants and key informant interviewee explained, land certification is aimed to formalize (secure) the use rights of both female and male; define land boundary, size and potentials; assure member of peasant association landholders; exclude others who have no rights to use; minimize land disputes and to identify income tax payers.
The key informants and the kebele land administration and use committees in the three kebeles also agreed as there was suspicion (feeling of dishonesty) within the community. As the key informants stated:
“At first we were not clear about the intention of the government. The fear of expropriation of our land, and the increment of tax were some of the questions in our mind. Later on and through repeated meetings, the purpose of the registration became somewhat clear”.
Table 4. 9: Relationship between Land certificate and Marital status.
Land Marital status Certification Single Married Divorced Widow Total % χ2 p-value Certified 4 96 44 28 172 54.6 2.197 .901 Not certified 2 67 37 22 128 40.6 Landless 0 9 5 1 15 4.8 Total 6 172 86 51 315 100.0 % 1.9 54.6 27.3 16.2 100.0
Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
Surveyed data in the (table 4.9) shows that, about 172(54.6%) of the female respondents are certified, about 128 (40.6%) female respondents are not certified and they are under the process to get holding certificates and 15(4.8%) respondents are landless (have no agricultural land).
As of the focus group discussants and key informant interviewee, respondents especially the landless are using land by any means; by renting land or entering in to sharecropping with those who have accessed to agricultural lands. They are expecting land redistribution by the
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government for the landless from the communal lands available in their area, in that women‘s are also hoping to access land equally with men.
4.4. Perceptions of landownership
The issuance of land use certificate is assumed to increase the sense of ownership and security over their possession (Holden, et al., 2007). As it is expressed in the below table, around fifty seven percent of respondents believe that land belongs to both themselves and the state. This view is expressed in Afan Oromo as follows: ―lafeen lafaa kan mootummaati foon lafaa immoo kan kooti‖. This means that the bone (land) belongs to government while the flesh (soil) is mine‘. This expressive saying is to mean that households have the rights to use, transfer, lease out, acquire property produced by working on the land, sale and exchange and bequeath. Despite of land is state/public ownership in Ethiopian Constitution (Article 40:3). In line with the findings of (Van Den Brink et al., 2006, as cited by Gadisa, 2012) who studied about selected land reform issues in Sub-Saharan Africa, they noted that secure property rights should not be confused with full private-ownership.
Table 4. 10: Household views on current landownership
Land Households Total % p- ownership Certified Not Landless value
certified Individual 68 51 6 125 39.7 .242 .993 Government 27 20 3 50 15.9 Individual and 77 57 6 140 44.4 government Total 172 128 15 315 100.0
Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
Surveyed data in the (table 4.10) display that, about 140(44.4%) respondents responded the ownership of land is both an individual and the government. About 125(39.7%) and 50(15.9% respectively responded that, land is for an individual user‘s and the government.
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As of the focus group discussants and key informant interviewee, respondents confirmed that land is the government, but the owner of that land is those who are secured with the certification rights. Some of the respondents did not know as land is the government. Hence they are using the land for different socio-economic activities, they assume surely the ownership of the land is individual (themselves).
4.5. The Implementation of Land Registration and Certification
Land registration and certification is used by many countries as a tool to enhance tenure security, facilitate land market transactions, and enable better land administration, taxation and land-use planning (Deininger 2003;2009). Ethiopia is one of the few African countries to successfully implement a cost-effective and transparent land certification process (Deininger et al., 2007). The land registration and certification practice has been introduced in Ethiopia with a view to insuring tenure security. The Ethiopian land certification scheme is noteworthy because land administration committees at the kebele level (the smallest administrative unit in Ethiopia) were required to have at least one female member and land certificates were issued after public registration for transparency (Ibid). The law also underlines the importance of preparation of landholding certificates jointly in the names of both husband and wife.
The Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development has been given the responsibility to implement the Rural Land Proclamation by providing professional support and coordinating the competent authorities. The ministry should also link the work at federal level with that at regional level and provide inputs for policy making. Each regional council is responsible for developing regional land proclamations and additional regulations or implementation rules that will guide the competent organs at regional, district (woreda) and community (kebele) levels.
4.5.1. Land Registration and Certification Processes
Ethiopia has developed an innovative approach to securing land rights, which is massive in scale, pace and cost effectiveness. Land registration and certification started in 1998 (Amdissa, 2006) and covered the states of Amhara, Oromia, SNNP and Tigray. The registration of farmland is systematic and takes place at the lowest levels of local government (woreda and kebele). The registration of user rights and confirmation of the field boundaries is done in public and
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neighbors‘ are to be present. The work is done by the so- called Land Administration Committee (LAC). The members of a LAC are from the community and work as volunteers. They are selected in consultation with the community and women are to be included, according to the instructions.
The land certificates included maps and, in some regions, photos of the husband and wife. (Holden, Deininger, and Ghebru, 2007) argue that land certification had a greater impact on women‘s participation in the land market because land certificates may be more valuable to women, whose tenure rights were previously less secure than those of men. Nevertheless, gaps remained in awareness and information about the process. A related study (Holden and Tefera, 2008 cited by Gadisa, 2012) found that, on average, women‘s knowledge and participation in the land registration processes was lower than that of men in Oromia and SNNPR (Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People‘s Region). The regions are also responsible for developing competent land administrations and providing the necessary resources for their activity.
Adjudication is the first stage in the registration of title to land in areas where the ownership of the land is not officially known (Yigremew, 2007:7 cited by Berhanu, 2009). Adjudication needs determining ―who‖ owns ―what‖, that is, the rights and ownership must be ascertained as well as the extent of the land affected. The latter means that the boundaries of each parcel must be agreed between the adjoining parties.
4.5.2. Land Certification processes and Systems of Oromia Region Based on (Zevenbergen, 2005), the researcher was describing the procedure of land registration and certification in Oromia region as follows: - Woreda staff is trained by regional experts. - Woreda staff train some of the LAC members. - Trained LAC members train the rest, as well as the whole community. - Registration starts by demarcation of the kebele and sub-kebele boundaries. - Demarcation of land of public institutions and communal land. - Demarcation of individual plots by filling in form 1 in the field. - processing per household by filling in form 2 at kebele level.
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- Legal procedures of complaints are dealt with (first at social court, then at woreda court if necessary). - Woreda staff should make their books of register (and certificates), kebele only retains the forms. - Household heads provide photos (cost is 10 Eth.birr) for their land certificates (compulsory) before certificates are issued. - LACs deliver photos at woreda level and collect certificates and bring back to their kebele.
- Certificates can be collected at kebele level by land holders at a price of 5 Eth.birr. At farm level, plot information was recorded on field data collection form. The information include holder‗s name, gender, age, spouse/s, family members and relation, the way(s) and year of accusation, specific locality, code, number and area of parcels, date of registration, and the name and signature of surveyors and registrant.
4.6. The Effect of Land Registration and Certification on Women’s Land Rights
Land certification is assumed to be important for the security of land tenure of the poor, particularly for women. However, in the past many land registration programs ended up eroding women‘s land rights, because women‘s secondary rights were often not recorded in the register. And the same registration process may affect men and women differently, due to gender differentiation in language skills, access to information, contacts and resources, time availability and more too cultural factors (Nazneen et al., 2005, cited in Berhanu, 2009).
Table 4. 11: Effects of land registration and certification on women‘s land rights
Empower women’s Frequency Percentage Yes 211 67 No 104 33 Total 315 100.0 Protect Women’s land Frequency Percentage from encroachment Yes 224 71.1 No 91 28.9 Total 315 100:0 Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
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Surveyed data in the (table 4.11) showed that, the main effect of land certification is to empower women. As of the respondents about 211(67%) responded that land certification resulted in women‘s empowerment, which enhances women to have equal land right holder with men in practical manner. Less number of respondents 104(33%) responded that land certification cannot empower women. But as per of (Deininger et al., 2006) lack of clear and independent land title has become a main problem regarding tenure security and it causes many problems to the women, for example at a time of divorce and dispute with neighbors, and related social and cultural issues.
Concerning to land encroachment, the majority 224(71.1%) of the respondents replied that as a result of certification, their land is protected from being encroached by the neighbors‘. Less proportion 91(28.9%) of the respondents responded that as a result of land certification, land cannot be protected from being encroachment. The benefits of certification includes among other things, enhanced gender equality and bargaining power by women. The research in Amhara region shows that the promotion of women‘s land rights such as the joint titling provision has provided and improved context for women to secure greater land rights (Askale, 2005 cited in Almaz, 2007).
As of the focus group discussants and key informant interviewee, as a result of land certification, the fact that women are more beneficiary from the certification in that they are able to give decision concerning to land equally with men more at a time now than the past time. As a result of their equal access to land rights; women to be economically strong, be less affected by shock or less susceptible to poverty, able to send their children to school and faces fewer problems in relation to income. Women are more confident that the land is their own and they can claim the land any time. The most fascinating story is expressed by a woman as follows:
“As I married, I had access to land that I got it through my husband’s family. For some times I thought the land was ours and I realized I would get my share when I want it. But I saw many women did not get the land during disputes with their husbands because their right was limited, only use rights upon marriage. I realize it now I own land and I am very confident I can get my land any time. In addition, my husband knows that the
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land I have is mine and I can take it with me when I don’t want not to be with”. (A women from Kama Chandi Kebele)
4.7. Women’s Control of Land and other Resources
Women‘s discrimination against plowing and the lack of accessible resources affects the effective use of rights to land (Agarwal 2003). (Bashaw, 2005 cited in Mebrat, 2011) study revealed those households who have limited or no actual control over the produce of their land are found to be the poorest of the poor and women comprises the most. Lack of resources mainly labor, oxen, and cultural taboos that restricts against women plowing are causing too many problems within the households. Specially, female headed households are obliged to rent out their land which makes them not enjoying the benefit of rights to land.
The finding of this study showed that the percentage of women who go for sharecropping is high in female headed household. As finding of (Howard & Smith, 2006 cited in Mebrat, 2011) showed the reasons for sharecropping out the land of female headed households is mainly lack of oxen and lack of labor (inability of women to plough or lack of men labor).
Table 4. 12: Relationship between Sharecropping and survey respondents‘ income
Do you give Average annual Income of respondents (Eth.Birr) your land as Below Birr Birr Over birr Total sharecropping? Birr2000 7000 p-value 2000-5000 5000-7000 Yes 45 53 24 0 122 19.327 .000
No 96 56 30 11 193 Total 141 109 54 11 315
Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
Surveyed data in the (table 4.12) showed that, about 122(38.7%) of respondents are giving their plot of land as share cropping, and the rest 193(61.3%) of the respondents did not gave their plot of land as sharecropping. (Bashaw, 2005 as cited in Mebrat, 2011) study revealed that women who have access to land are not able to use their land efficiently and effectively. Findings of
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table 4.12 revealed that there was a strong relationship between average annual income and sharecropping of the respondents with (χ2= 19.327, p= 0.000).
As of the focus group discussants and interviewee, females are enforced to give sharecropping is because of lack of input, oxen and labor for the farm lands. It is expect that contributing input to the sharecropper would help the households to increase the share of the product they get from their land. As (Teklu, 2005 cited in Mebrat, 2011) found out those contributing inputs such as fertilizer and seed increases the share of harvest that the household get with the sharecropper.
4.8. Land Certification in Tenure Security
It is emphasized that the objective of the land administration development is to improve tenure security of through land registration and certification in order to promote better management and more investments. Land certification is expected to help in reducing conflicts over land boundaries and user rights when competing claims arose among landholders (Adenew and Abdi, 2005). As also, land certification has significant impacts on tenure security variables in women‘s economic productivities.
Table 4. 13: Shows land certification in tenure security.
Did land certification feel tenure security? Frequency Percent Yes 214 68.0 No 88 27.9 Non respondent 13 4.1 Total 315 100.0
Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
Surveyed data in the (table 4.13) display that, the majority of respondents 214(68%) were completely agreed, land certification has positive impact on tenure security variables, about 88(27.9%) respondents disagree that land certification did not feel tenure security and about 13(4.1%) of respondents did not responded to the question. According to (Agarwal, 1994) women with secures land rights can send their children to school, get better facility to health center, and faces fewer problems in relation to income.
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Surveyed data of (table 4.14) of Pearson‘s correlation below showed that, tenure security has strong positive correlation with women‘s empowerment, gender equality, bring sustainable development, improves women‘s position and improves women‘s tenure security, (r=0.176, 0.174, 0.163, 0.147 and 0.131; at alpha=0.01) (table 4.14). But, numerically its impacts on these tenure security variables were at different significant levels. For example: improves women‘s position (p=009), gender equality and sustainable development (p=0.004), reducing land disputes (p=0.045), increases women‘s power over land (p=0.013), empower women (p=002) at 0.01level. Table 4. 14: Pearson correlations of land tenure security variables
Variables
Tenure Tenure security Reduces land disputes Gender equality Improves women‘s position Improves women‘s tenure security Empower Women Reduces Pearson .113* 1 land Correlation disputes Sig. (2-tailed) .045
Gender Pearson .174** .013 1 Correlation equality Sig. (2-tailed) .004 .824
Improves Pearson -.147** -.009 .644** 1 women‘s Correlation position Sig. (2-tailed) .009 .868 .000
Improves Pearson .131* .095 -.056 .041 1 women‘s Correlation tenure Sig. (2-tailed) .020 .094 .325 .465 security Pearson -.176** -.047 .020 .029 .064 1 Empower Correlation women Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .401 .724 .604 .254 Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
Pearson correlation was applied to investigate, if there was statistically significant association among; solve land disputes, gender equality, improves women‘s position within households, improves women‘s tenure security, bring sustainable development, increases women‘s power over land, empower women.
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This result indicated that land certification in the study area was slightly significant impacts on gender equality, reducing land dispute (birthrights) and transferring rights. It is in a line with (Almaz, 2007 cited in Gadisa, 2012), whose evidence from Ada‗a woreda of Oromia region, indicated that rural land reform policies affirming women‗s equal rights to land hardly bring intended changes in reality and bring about women‗s empowerment, because women‗s direct access to land is often limited in traditional societies. And also (Holden and Tefera, 2008) evidences from Oromia and SNNP Regions was reported on early impacts of land certification on women in Ethiopia, they indicated that it is uncertain to what extent the land reform has affected traditions and changed the position and decision-making power of women, because traditionally they have a weaker position than men within households as well as in society overall.
As the key informant interviewees‘ confirms that, border disputes were reduced after the tenure security of land certification. But, according to the experts indicated, disputes over land rights (inheritance) have typically been some of the most intractable problems throughout time in this study area.
In the focus group discussion and key formal interview participants in the group agreed that the major problem in the previous regimes was lack of tenure security which was caused by continuous, frequent, or persistent redistribution of land. During group discussion women replied that their husbands are reluctant to recognize their land rights. Furthermore, survey data revealed that male households in polygamous marriage have not in whole heartedly welcomed and accepted women‘s equal land rights. When wives raised their land rights, their husband consider it as a challenge to their traditional power in the family.
As the finding of Agarwal explanations showed that women rights to inherit land have to be in practice since it is placed in paper and the legal rights should also get recognition by the society (Agarwal, 1994; 2002). In most cases, laws‘ regarding women‘s right to land is written and documented by government officials but the challenge is to implement what is already enacted as law and to replace the customary law which has been used mostly while the statutory law also exists.
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During the pilot survey, the researcher observed that women farmers were unaware of the motive of the government behind the land certification and registration program and they are unable to explain their legal land rights.
A study conducted in four regions of Ethiopia (Oromia, Amhara, SNNPR and Tigray) revealed that the land registration and certification program implemented on these regions did not seem to have overcome the preexisting gender bias practices (Deininger et al., 2007). According to (Tesfaye, 2003 cited in Assefa, 2010), rural female household heads do not have equitable access to land and agricultural resources. Their labor contribution to agricultural sector is invisible because of the gender division of labor in communities.
4.9. The Effects of the Land Certification on Reducing Land Related Disputes
Studies done by (Menan, 2007 cited in Mebrat, 2011) showed the implementation of certificates to farmers has reduced the conflicts between farmers. Thus, land certification is often associated with reduction of land disputes. The process of registration rights and certification prevent disputes arising in the future, since at the time of first registration formal procedures should be followed that will resolve uncertainties. In other words, the main aim of land registration and certification is to protect the land rights of individuals through laws, to define the rights and responsibilities of institutions, ensure that the ‗rule of law‘ is applied when land rights are extinguished or land is sequestered by the state and to adjudicate in cases of conflict (ECA, 2004 cited in Assefa, 2010).
Table 4. 15 : Indicates the effects of land certification for respondents.
Effects of land registration and certification Frequency Percent on border disputes Less disputes 228 72.4 No difference 84 26.6 More disputes 3 1.0 Total 315 100.0
Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
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As it is indicated in the (table 4.15), 228 (72.4%) respondents belief that after land certification is provided for them, it resulted in less border disputes, about 84(26.6%) respondents belief that, whether they took or not having land certification can brings no difference (nothing) for them, and 3 (1%) respondents beliefs that land certification may causes more dispute. As (Menan, 2007 cited in Mebrat, 2011) found out that conflicts with neighbors‘ after implementation of the certificate have minimized.
Table 4. 16: Land registration reduces border and inheritance disputes.
Land Registrations can reduces border Frequency Percent disputes Yes 221 70.2 No 94 29.8 Total 315 100.0 Land certification effects on inheritance disputes More inheritance disputes 44 14.0 No change 77 24.4 Less inheritance disputes 194 61.6 Total 315 100.0
Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
As indicated in the (table 4.16), disputes over land can be manifested in many basic ways. Land disputes may be occurred when the land law is week to protect the rights of individual land holders, the feeling of insecurity on single and combined rights and also scarcity of land because of the high rate of population growth. As of the respondents, about 221(70.2%) said yes concerning to land registration can reduce border disputes (conflicts) among farmers. Studies done by (Menan, 2007 cited in Mebrat, 2011) showed the implementation of certificates to farmers has reduced the conflicts between farmers, and 94(29.8%) said no in that land registration cannot reduce border disputes. With regards to inheritance disputes, about 194(61.6%) respondents responded that land certification resulted in less inheritance disputes, about 77(24.4%) respondents responded that land certification cannot bring any change weather
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they took the certificate or not, and about 44(14.0%) respondents responded that land certification resulted in more inheritance disputes.
4.10. Women’s Role in Land Administration
It is argued that the more secure systems provide the necessary incentives for farmers to better management of their land and invest on land improvement measures. Resources controlled by women are more likely to benefit a wider swath of household members, particularly children (Quisumbing and Maluccio, 2003).
Table 4. 17 : Shows women‘s role in economic development.
Women can bring sustainable economic Frequency Percent development if land is accessed for them. Yes 214 67.9 No 32 10.2 Do not know 69 21.9 Total 315 100.0
Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
As shown in the (table 4.17), about 214(67.9%) respondents beliefs that, women can bring sustainable economic development if they are accessed to land; about 69(21.9%) responded they do not know whether women‘s can bring sustainable economic development or not and about 32(10.2%) responded no, in that women cannot bring sustainable economic development if they are accessed to land. (Agarwal, 1994) identified welfare, efficiency, equity and empowerment as major reasons for women‘s need in gaining access and control over land. With respects to welfare she stated that women‘s control over land improve their households‘ livelihood and thus, improves household food security. In terms of efficiency, women‘s control over land increases agricultural productivity.
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4.11. The Socio-Cultural Constraints impeding Women’s Land Rights
Though Federal constitution (Art.35:4) explicitly prohibits regulations and customary practices that discriminate land use right against women; in the study area women are not beneficiaries of the rules. This is due to their economic dependence, low level of education and social position and above all socio cultural, customary practices and institutional constraints.
Table 4. 18: The socio-cultural and customary practices that impede women‘s land rights.
Socio-cultural constraints in HHs Frequency Percent Discriminatory cultural practices 111 35.2 Women's less awareness on their land rights 55 17.5 Women‘s reluctance to claim their rights 23 7.3 Low women‘s position within the household/society 32 10.2 Socio-cultural and customary factors 70 22.2 Low women's participation in decision making 17 5.4 concerning to land Lack of support by local government 7 2.2 Total 315 100.0
Source: Respondents survey data, 2017
Survey findings of (table 4.18) shows that, about 111(35.2%) the discrimination application of land law by village elders during inheritance and partition of property during divorce, and enforcement challenges by kebele administration are considered as the most rated constrain in the area. Unmarried women have little access to land because they have no property right to inherit in most patriarchal societies (Nizoki, 2002 cited in Assefa, 2010). Where customary law is in force, it directly discriminates against women and provides them with few rights of control over land. Here due to their low social exposure and engagement in tiresome farm and household duties women have low know how about their land rights.
The study data revealed that about 55(17.5%) of the respondents at the overall level felt that low level of women‘s awareness to their legal land right have contributed the female households to
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be disadvantaged in all aspects of their livelihood. Women‘s ability to assert their land rights and to benefit from land certification depends on women‘s awareness of their land right, their ability to invoke such rights.
As the study data in (table 4.18) revealed that about 70(22.2%) of the respondents faces the socio-cultural and customary practices that are hindering (limiting) women‘s land rights, and it is the third most factors that impede their land rights. The customary law limits women‘s rights on land and this law underpins patriarchal system of traditional authority to reinforce patriarchal values which disadvantage women and place them to subordinate position in society (Woldetensay, 2007 cited in Hussein, 2014).
As indicated in (table 4.18), respondents responded 32(10.2%) women‘s position within the household or society especially in the traditional communities like the study population plays a significant role in hindering their rights and benefits from the land resource. As a result it was rated by respondents as the fourth most influential variable affecting women‘s land right.
In the study area, women reluctance to claim their legal land rights could be rated as the fifth most rated constraint as reported by 23(7.3%) the respondents. Due to cultural influences women themselves may be reluctant to become publicly involved in political activities and community organizations. Even women knew that they have rights in front of law they don‘t claim their rights due to their preference to have long-term social bondage with their brothers and other male family members. As of (table 4.18), about 17(5.4%) respondents responded that women‘s show low participation as that of their counter sex(male) in giving decision concerning to agricultural land. The least important socio-cultural constraint as of (table 4.18) is lack of governmental support at local levels accounting about 7(2.2%).
Qualitative data from the focus group discussants and key informal interviewee confirmed that, high illiteracy rate often preclude women from exercising their rights. In addition due to their inferior social recognition, women are not well treated in front of village elders and in some instances even in front of village land administration council. The presence of female members in decision making processes can benefit women for fair resource allocation.
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Table 4. 19: Parameter Estimates to the practices of women‘s land certification in Beghi Woreda.
Independent Practices of women‘s land certification Β S.E Wald Df Sig. Exp(β) Variables . Income .970 .376 6.639 1 .010 2.637 sources Family size .636 .173 13.570 1 .000 1.889
Marital status -.285 .145 3.878 1 .049 .752
Landholding -.210 .102 4.222 1 .040 .811 size Type of .293 .144 4.130 1 .042 1.340 marriage Constant -.375 .357 1.105 1 .293 .687 Omnibus Chi- square χ2 = 40.316, p = 0.000
Nagelkerke R-square 0.161 a. Variable(s) entered on step 1: Income sources of households, family size of households, marital status of the households, landholding size in hectare, type of marriage.
Family size of household heads: As shown in Table 4.19 there was a statistically significant association between family size and access to have landholding among women within a family. That is households with higher family size tend to have less amount of landholding sizes than with those small household sizes. The degree of association between these variables is found to be strongly significant actually at (β=0.636, p=0.000). From this one can conclude that with increasing numbers of family sizes, the chances of women‘s landholding rights (inheritance) is too low.
Income sources of household heads: There is a significant association (β =0.970, p= 0.010). If the income of the households was limited to farm land, they know the values of farm land and as result; they actively participate in the land certification processes more highly.
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Land holding sizes of household heads: Land holding size is a socioeconomic factor that determines women‘s access to land certification rights. In this case, women‘s right to land is affected by large family size with scarce agricultural land; hence women‘s direct access to land is often limited in traditional societies. Table 4.19 showed that land holding size was statistically significant at (β =-.210, p= 0.040). As indicated in table 4.7 the average land holding size of respondents is too low. Therefore, the researcher concluded that the need to have large family size limits average landholding of women.
Marital status of household head: Majority of the respondents were married. Table 4.19 displayed that there was statistically significant association between overall marriage status and access to land at (β=0.-285, p=0.049).
Type marriage of household heads: Majority of the respondents were monogamous. Table 4.19 displayed that there was statistically significant association between overall marriage types and access to have landholding rights at (β=0.293, p=0.042). Assessment on the regional land policy makes evident existence of policy gaps on land access rights of women in polygamous marriages. There is discrepancy between the regional rural land use and administration proclamation (Proclamation 56/2002) and the implementation regulation (Proclamation 39/2003) on land rights of women in polygamous marriages.
The study results showed that, source of income, family size, marital status, landholding size, and type of marriage were statistically significant at (p<0.05) for the dependent variable. The overall model significance for the binary logistic regression was examined using the χ2 omnibus test of model coefficients. The overall significance and fitness of the logistic model was determined by its chi-square test at (χ2 = 40.316, p=0.000). Thus, the explanatory variables can significantly predict the dependent variable. The model fitness of the analysis was determined by R-square coefficient with 0.161 which showed the explanatory variables explained the dependent variable by 16%.
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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion
Land is a life blood of rural population, main source of livelihood for men and women in Ethiopia as well as to the agrarian nations. In the past Ethiopian leaders, the land tenure system was characterized by inequality and insecurity for the majority of the Ethiopian between male and female, richest and poorest, as well as among the nations, nationalities and peoples of the country. The majority of the Ethiopian people were turned into tenants, land was concentrated in the hands of a few absentee landlords, tenure insecurity by frequent re-distribution and alienation that negatively affected good land management and arbitrary evictions posed a serious threat to agricultural productivity and investment in land. In this manner, women are the most marginalized and disadvantaged group of society in relation to accessing and controlling land in rural Ethiopia.
Land certification has been implemented in Ethiopia since 1998 and over 5 million certificates have been delivered. Land is one of the most fundamental resources to women‘s living conditions, economic empowerment and, to some extent, their struggle for equity and equality. However, due to economic, legal, social and cultural factors their rights to access, control and transfer land are weaker compared to those of men. Land registration and certification has been perceived as a precondition for securing property rights and empower women. This study understood that land holding certificate has enhanced tenure security, gender equality and voice for the voiceless discriminated women‘s in the Ethiopian history. The main challenge of to women‘s right to and control over rural land is the pessimistic attitude of the community towards women.
Taking the importance of land into account, Ethiopia has afforded a legal protection for a woman‘s right to equality with men and equal protection before the law under its Federal Constitution of 1995, State constitutions, family laws and land laws. Oromia Region issued proclamation on rural land use and administration and regulation (ONRS, 2002, ONRS, 2003), based on mandate provided by FDRE Rural Land Administration and Use Proclamation (FDRE, 1997).
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Oromia National Regional State issued rural land use and administration proclamation in 2002. The policy entails elimination of gender discrimination with regards to land use rights in terms of ensuring rural women‘s land holding rights and control they have over land in accordance of the FDRE Rural Land Administration and Use Proclamation. The proclamation affirmed free access to land to any resident of the region 18 years or above who wants to live by farming without distinction on basis of sex. Oromia Rural Land Proclamation is not discriminatory on basis of sex.
This study result indicated that land certification has strong positive correlation with women‘s empowerment, gender equality, reduce land disputes, improves women‘s tenure security, increases women‘s power over land and bring sustainable development (r=0.176, 0.174, 0.113, 0.131 and 0.140; significant at the =0.01). But, it has slightly significant impacts on women‘s empowerment (p=002), gender equality (p=0.004), improves women‘s position (p=009) and bring sustainable development (p=0.009). A result from the binary logistics indicates that, significantly women‘s within the larger family sizes are less accessed to land rights. Their land holding practices are strongly associated with the significance value at (β=0.636, p=0.000). The overall significance and fitness of the logistic model was determined by its chi-square test at (χ2 = 40.316, p=0.000). As this study result shown, currently, the majority of the respondents seemed to understand that land registration and certification objectives were lead to maintain gender equality and above all provide tenure security as it formalize land use rights for both male and female, it define land boundary, size and potentials, it assures member of peasant association landholders, to minimize land disputes.
Moreover, larger percentages of the respondents also believe that landownership was belongs to both of themselves and the state as they have secured their property use rights through land certification. When women have secure land rights, women‘s empowerment increases. Secure access to land acts as a source of empowerment by increasing women‘s economic security and increasing their control over household income and it paves the way for women to equally participate in land related decisions.
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5.2 Recommendations
Further in-depth assessments are necessary to ascertain the long term impact and analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the land certification process. Based on the study, the following recommendations should be put into consideration to empower women.
. Lack of clear and independent land title has become a main problem regarding tenure security and it causes many problems to the women at a time of divorce and dispute with neighbors. As a result, independent land certification rights should be delivered to both spouses by the government; . The rural land law has a gap with respect to women in polygamous marriage. It does not specify how they can get their share from the matrimonial property. This legal gap could be filled by amending the relevant law; . Conduct continuous and coordinated awareness campaigns on the socioeconomic barriers impeding women‘s land rights and the public benefits of women‘s land tenure security using a gender-sensitive approach; . Prioritize the training of women, land administration staff, and community members on the need for and benefit of women‘s involvement in the land certification process. . Women‘s participation in public meetings, their awareness of the law and the process of certification, and their representation in the LAC should be encouraged; . Expanding legal protections for women‘s rights to land, protection from gender based discrimination in customary and statutory land systems; . Only land titling (certifying) is not enough to enhance tenure security and empower women‘s, but also governmental and non-governmental institution should create public meeting for women in order to increase their low awareness on different activities. . To foster the meaningful participation of women in the titling process, assess the causes and consequences of women‘s lack of participation;. . Develop gender implementation guidelines for the titling of the remaining agricultural lands, pastoralist lands, and possibly house plots with a view toward strategically and comprehensively addressing gender issues in implementation.
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. Research the extent to which women are able to enforce their rights, placing particular emphasis on the institutional and socio-economic constraints impeding women from exercising their rights; . Evaluate the legal support available to women, the accessibility of these services, and the extent to which disputes result in positive outcomes for women in accordance with the law;
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Benschop M. (2002). Rights and Reality: Are Women‘s Equal Rights to Land, Housing and Property Implemented in East Africa? UN - Habitat, Nairobi. Berhanu Adugna. (2009). The Effect of Rural Land Certification on Land Tenure Security: A Case Study in Libo-kemkem Woreda, Amhara Region. Besley T., Burgess, R. (2000). Land Reform, Poverty Reduction and Growth: Evidence from India. Quarterly Journal of Economics 115(2): 389–430. Cresswell, J.W. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approach (3rd.),London:SAGE publications. CSA. (2015). Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia .Annual Statistical Report: Addis Ababa. Daniel Ayalew Ali, Stein Holden and Jaap Zevenbergen. (2007). Recertification in Ethiopia: Process, initial impact, and implications for other African countries. Deininger, K. (2003). Land policies for growth and poverty reduction Washington: The World Bank. Deininger, K., Ali, D. A., Holden, S. T., Zevenbergen, J. (2008). Rural land certification in Ethiopia: Process, initial impact and implications for other African countries. World Development 36(10): 1786–1812. Deininger, K., Ayalew Daniel , Holden, S. and Zevenbergen, J. (2007). Rural land certification in Ethiopia: Process, initial impact, and implications for other African countries. Policy Research Working Paper 4218, Washington DC: World Bank. Deininger, K., Ayalew Daniel and Alemu Tekie. (2009). Impacts of Land Certification on Tenure Security, Investment and Land Markets: Evidence from Ethiopia. Environment for Development, Discussion Paper Series, 1-36. Deininger, K., Zevenbergenb, J. & Alic, D. A. (2006). Assessing the Certification Process of Ethiopia‘s rural Lands. Montpellier, the Netherlands: At the frontier of land issues. Doss Chery. (2006). ―The effect of interschool property ownership on expenditure patterns in Ghana.‖ Journal of African Economist. 15 (1). 149-180. ELRP . (1975). Ethiopia Land Reform proclamation, Negarit gazeta, 1975. FAO. (2002). Gender and land rights database. World Census of Agriculture 2001-2002, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. FAO. (2011). State of Food and Agriculture 2010–2011:Women in Agriculture—Closing the Gender Gap for Development. Rome: FAO.
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FDRE. (1995). Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Proclamation No. 1/1995. Proclamation of the Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. FDRE. (1997). Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Rural Land Administration and Use Proclamation. Proclamation No. 89/1997, Federal Negarit Gazeta, Addis Ababa. FDRE. (2000). Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Family Law of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Proclamation No. 213/2000, Federal Negarit Gazeta 1/1992, Addis Ababa. FDRE. (2005). Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Rural Land Administration and Use Proclamation No.456/2005. The Federal Negarit Gazeta 11th year No.44. Addis Ababa. Gadisa Chimdessa. (2012). The Impacts of Land Certification on Adoption of Long-term Soil and Water Conservation Measures: The Case of Dadaba Watershed, West Arsi Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia Gaur, S. A., & Gaur, S. S. (2007). Statistical Methods for Practice and Research: A Guide to Data Analysis Using SPSS. (2nd ed). London: SAGE Publications Inc. Gebreselassie, M., (2005). Women and Land Rights in Ethiopia. Photocopy. Mekelle, Ethiopia: Relief Society of Tigray and the Development Fund. Holden S. and TeferaTewodros. (2008). ―From Being Property of Men to Becoming Equal Owners? Early Impact of Land Registration and Certification on Women in Southern Ethiopia.‖ Nairobi: UNHABITAT. Holden, S. Deininger, K., Hosaena Ghebru. (2011). Tenure insecurity, gender, low-cost land certification and land rental market participation in Ethiopia. Journal of Development Studies 47(1): 31-47. Holden, S., Deininger, K. and Hosaena Ghebru. (2009). Impacts of Low-Cost Land Certification on Investment and Productivity. Agricultural Economics, 91, (2), 359-373. Holden, S., Shiferaw B, Pender J. (2001). Market Imperfections and Land Productivity in the Ethiopian Highlands. Journal of Agricultural Economics 52(3): 53–70. Hussein Ahmed. (2014). A Woman‘s Right to and Control over Rural Land in Ethiopia: The Law and the Practice. Published by American Research Institute for Policy Development.
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Lastarria-Cornhiel, S. (1997). Impact of Privatization on Gender and Property Rights in Africa. World Development, 25, No. 8, (pp 1317-1333). Lastarria-Cornhiel, S. (1995). Policy Guidelines for Incorporating Gender in Natural Resource. Wisconsin: Land Tenure Centre. Mahlet Teferi. (2013). The Impacts of climatic Variability (mainly rainfall and temperature) on crop production in Kuyu Woreda, Central Ethiopia. Mebrat Gebreslassie. (2011). Breaking the norms: Gender and Land Rights in Tigray, Ethiopia: Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of International Environment and Development Studies, NORAGRIC Mintewab Bezabih., Holden, S., Mannberg, A. (2012). The role of land certification in reducing gender gaps in productivity in rural Ethiopia. Centre for Land Tenure Studies Working Paper 01/12, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway. MOFED. (2006). The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper 2003/04 Annual Progress Report Ethiopia: Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Program (SDPRP) Annual Progress Report (2003/04) Development Planning and Research Department (DPRD). MOFED, Addis Ababa. Mutimba, J., Bekele, E. (2002). Searching for a Methodological Approach for Reaching Women Farmers. Proceedings of the 18th Annual Conference of the Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education, Durban, South Africa, May 26–30, 2002. Narayan, D. (2005). Measuring empowerment: Cross-disciplinary perspectives. The World Bank, Washington DC. OAU. (2003). Organization of African Union. Human and Peoples‘ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa. African Commission on Human and Peoples‘ Rights Protocol to the African Charter. The 2nd Ordinary Session of the Assembly of the Union, 2003, Maputo. Retrieved on May 5, 2007 from http://www.africa-union.org ONRS. (2002). Oromia National Regional State Oromia Rural Land Use and Administration Proclamation. Proclamation No 56/2002. Megalata Oromia, Finfine. ONRS. (2003). Oromia National Regional State. Oromia Rural Land Administration and Use Regulation No.39 /2003. Megalata Oromia, Finfine.
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ONRS. (2007). Proclamation No. 130/2007 to amend the proclamation No. 56/2002, 70/2003, 103/2005 of Oromia Rural Land Use and Administration. Pankhurst R. (1966). State and Land in Ethiopian History. Institute of Ethiopian Studies in association with Oxford University Press, Addis Ababa. Place, F., and Migot-Adholla, S. (1998). The Economic Effects of Land Registration on Smallholder Farms in Kenya: Evidence from Nyeri and Kakamega Districts. Land Economics 74(3): 360–73. Quisumbing, A. R., Maluccio, J. A. (2003). Resources at marriage and intra household allocation: Evidence from Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Indonesia, and South Africa. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 65(3): 283–327. Quisumbing, A., (1996). Male-Female Differences in Agricultural Productivity: Methodological Issues and Empirical Evidence. World Development 24(10): 1579– 95. Tesfaye Teklu. (2003). Rural Lands and Evolving Tenure Arrangements in Ethiopia: Issues, Evidence and Policies, FSS Discussion Paper No 10, FSS, Addis Ababa. Tripp, A. (2004). Women‘s Movements, Customary Law, and Land Rights in Africa: The Case of Uganda. Africa Studies Quarterly 7(4): 1–19. UDHR. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights. General Assembly resolution 217 A (III), retrieved on February 10, 2007, from, http://www.un.org /Overview /rights. UN. (1980). UN Action for Women Press information. Women Aid international. Retrieved on April 6, 2007 from http: www.highbeam.com UN+1980 html. UNDP. (2000). Tracking funds for gender equality and empowerment of women. Case study of Sub- Saharan African countries. Ms, Blerta Cela, Gender team, UNDP UNHCR. (2003). United Nations Higher Commission on Human Rights Commission on Human Rights Resolution 2003/22, Retrieved on April 12, 2007, from, http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGIOR410042004?open&of=ENG-373. Vaus, D. (2001). Research design in social research. London:The Good research guide for small scale social research projects .(3rd Ed).Berkshire: Open unvirsitypress. World Bank. (2001). Engendering Development through Gender Equality in Rights, Resources and Voice. World Bank, Oxford University Press, Washington. World Bank. (2011). World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development. Washington DC.
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Yilma Muluken. (2005). Measuring rural Household Food Security Status and its Determinants in Benishangul Gumuz Region in Ethiopia: The case of Asossa wereda. An MSc thesis presented to the school of graduates of Alamaya University,Alaamaya.147pp Yngstrom, I. (2002). Women, wives and land rights in Africa: Situating gender beyond the household in the debate over land policy and changing tenure systems. Oxford Development Studies 30(1): 21-40. Zevenbergen, J. (2005). Implementing new land legislation in Africa. Tenure security and certification in rural Ethiopia.
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ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND LAW DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES THESIS TITLE: PROCESSES AND PRACTICES OF WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN LAND CERTIFICATION IN BEGHI WOREDA, WESTERN ETHIOPIA. Appendices
Direction Dear Respondents: This questionnaire is designed for two reasons:- To explore the Processes and Practices of Women‘s Empowerment in land Certification in Beghi Woreda of three purposely selected kebeles, perception to tenure security and gender equality in land administration. To enable the researcher to write thesis on the issues for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for Master of Art in Geography and Environmental Studies. The information gathered through this questionnaire was used by the researcher strictly for academic purpose. The respondents‘ careful and honest responses determine the success of the study and the researcher as well. Thus, respondents are kindly requested to complete the questionnaire carefully and honestly. The respondents‘ response was kept confidential. Those who are able to read and write questionnaire under different instruction were carefully responded and to those who are unable to read and write (illiterate)were filled with assistance of the researcher itself. Note Name of the respondents are not written. Each question has its own instruction. After the respondents are completed to this questionnaire, they have returned the questionnaire to the person for which they have received. Taking the above objectives into consideration, respondents are kindly asked to provide the appropriate answer for the following questions.
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Annex I. Questionnaires for Households/respondents Region: Oromia Zone: West Wollega Woreda: Beghi Kebele______1. Household Information
1.1. Sex: 0) Female 1) Male 1.2. Age: ______year 0) between 20-35 years old 1) between 36-50 years old 2) between 51-65 years old 3) above 66 years old 1.3. Family size______0) below 3 family 1) between 3-6 family 2) between 6-9 family 3) above 9 family 1.4. Occupation ______0) farmers 1) others 1.5. Religion:______0) Muslim 1) orthodox Christian 2) protestant 3) other 1.6. Educational Levels 0) Illiterate 1) Read and write 2) Grade 1-4 3) Grades 5-8 4) Grade 9-10 5) greater than grade 10 1.7. Marital Status: 0) Single 1) Married 2) Divorced 3) Widow 1.8. Type of marriage: 0) monogamous 1) polygamous 2) single, divorce or widow 3) non respondent 1.9. Yearly income: 0) below 3000birr 1) 3000-5000birr 2) 5000-7000birr 3) 7000- 9000birr 4) over 9000birr 1.10. Type and sources of income: 0) on farm activity 1) Nonfarm activity 2) Off farm activity 3) if others, specify______. 1.11. Family composition No Age group (year) Male Female Total 1 <18 2 18-65 3 >65
Part II. Women’s Awareness about the Objectives and Advantages of the Implementation of the Land Registration and Certification Program 2.1. Do you know the objectives and issues of land certification? 0) Yes 1) No 2.2. Is there any given community awareness about the objectives of the land registration and certification? 0) yes 1) no
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2.3. If your plot of land is known by to governmental bodies (registered), did it have its own advantage for the farmers? 0) Yes 1) No 2) others ______2.4. How you responses on the processes and procedures at the time implementing land certification program? 0) I disagreed for a time 1) I agree after a time 2) it cannot bring any change whether I take or not 3) If any other reasons, specify______2.5. Are you aware of the rule and regulation of land registration and certification processes before it were given to you? 0) Yes 1) No 2.6. Are you familiar with the new land proclamation for your region and its content? 0) Yes 1) Some of it, 2) No 2.7. Was there community consultations and discussions about the land laws, regulations, and procedures drafts? 0) yes 1) no 2) other (specify)______2.8 Was there a meeting and discussions about land registration before implementation? 0) yes 1) no 2) If other (specify) ______2.9. Do you feel tenure security because you have land entitlement or certificate? 0) Yes 1) No 2) other______2.10. Do you even know constitutional rights that women can share their share of land during divorce? 0) Yes 1) No 2.11. As constitutional right, shall women can inherit their land to their daughter (weather Girl or boy)? 0) Yes 1) No 2.12. Have you ever inherited your land to your children? 0) Yes 1) No 2.13. If you have a smaller hectare of land and children, for whom could you inherit your land? 0) to your boy 1) to your girl 2) Both 3) Why? ______3. Questionnaires on land registration and certification. 3.1. Did you have your own land? 0) Yes B) No 3.2. For whom do you think that the land belongs? 0) to myself 1) to the Government 2) both 3.3. Did you certified for your plot of land? 0) Certified 1) Not certified 2) Land less (have no land) 3.4. If you don‘t have a certificate, would you want to get a certificate? 0) Yes, 1) No 2) If other, specify______
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3.5. If you refused to receive for a certificate, what were the reasons? 0) Certificate has no value for me 1) Certificate does not provide tenure security, 2) Certificate may cause me to have to pay more tax, 3) non respondent 3.6. If you have been certified, when did you get the certificate of land use? 0) from 1995-2000E.C 1) from 2001-2005E.C 2) from 2006 until now 3.7. Is the land you have own registered by your name in the certificate? 0) Yes 1) No 3.8. Was the land of your household registered and measured properly during land registration and certification? 0) Yes 1) No 2) Do not know 3.9. Do you think the certificate can help to solve problems during land dispute? 0) Yes 1) No 2) No comment 3.10. Did land registration and certification have any effect on the amount of inheritance disputes in your community? 0) more inheritance disputes, 1) No change, 2) Less inheritance disputes 3) If others, specify______3.11. What are the main mechanisms of the acquisition of your land holdings? 0) As inheritance 1) land redistribution 2) As a gift (3) Shareholder during divorce (4) other______3.12. If you have land, what is the total size of your land in hectare_____? 0) 0.5hect 1) 0.5- 2hect 2) 2-4hect 3) 4-6hect 4) >6hect 5) Have no land 3.13. Has the land registration had any effect on border disputes related to your land after the registration and certification process was completed? 0) Less disputes, 1) No difference, 2) More disputes 3.14. Did land registration reduce the number of border disputes after the process was completed? 0) Yes 1) No 2) others______3.15. Does receiving a certificate with your family names can affect your land renting decisions? 0) Yes, 1) No 2) If you have other reasons ______3.16. Did having a certificate rights of women can protects against encroachment of their land by neighbors? 0) Yes 1) No 2) others ______3.17. For what purpose is your land use for (%)? 0) for crop 1) for grazing 2) for plantation 3) for natural forest 4) for homestead 5) for others from the total size. 3.18. Do you have other source of income other than on farm activities? 0) Yes 1) No 3.19. Do you give your land for sharecropping? 0) yes 1) No
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3.20. If your answer for question 2.20 is yes, what are the reasons behind for sharecropping? 0) Remoteness 1) Lack of oxen 2) Lack of labor 3) Lack of input 4) others (specify) ______4. Questionnaires provided for female households/respondents 4.1. Do you think that the rights to land that you have now maintain gender equality within/among the household? 0) Yes 1) No 4.2. As you are a landholder together with your husband, do you decide together with your husband what to do to your land? 0) Yes 1) No 4.3. Do you believe that women land holdings are secured more after certification? 0) Yes 1) No 2) unable to decide. 4.4. Do you believe land certification rights of women can empower them? 0) yes 1) No 4.5. Shall having land certification improve the position of women? 0) Yes 1) No 4.6. Do you believe that having a land certificate improves the tenure security of women? 0) Yes, 1) No, 2) Not sure 4.7. If land certification is given to women, did it have any economic advantage for women‘s? 0) It brings equality between husband and wife 1) It helps women in order make decision on their plot of land 2) It paves the way for women‘s sound to be heard 3) It makes women‘s work is not limited only within home works, but also on agricultural lands. 4.8. Do you think women‘s have ability to rule agricultural land? 0) Yes 1) No 2) I‘m not sure 4.9. Do you perceive customary landholding practices would have an impact on women‘s ability to administer land? 0) Yes 1) No 2) If others, specify ______4.10. Do you think socio-cultural and customary practice would have an impact on women‘s decision-making power towards to their plot of land out of their home? 0) Yes 1) No 2) Not sure 4.11. Do you think if land is accessed to women can bring sustainable economic development? 0) Yes 1) No 2) I don‘t know 4.12. Does wife‘s name on certificate affect their power over the land? 0) Has no effect 1) has a stronger position in case of divorce or husband death 2) It involves them more in land-related decisions with marriage 3) It involves them in land renting decision
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5. What is your most perception on the socio-cultural & institutional constraints that impede women‘s land certification (right) for the following activities? For your response please use (―√‖) mark Questions Answer 5.1 Discriminatory cultural practices assuming gender unequally. 5.2 Women's have less awareness on their land rights 5.3 Women‘s reluctances to claim their rights 5.4 Low women‘s position within the household/society 5.5 The socio-cultural and customary practices affect women‘s role outside home. 5.6 Low women‘s participation in decision making concerning to land. 5.7 There is lack of support by local government.
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YUUNIVARSIITII SAAYINSII FI TEKNOOLOJII ADAMAA KUTAA BARNOOTA SEERAA FI SAAYINSII HAWAASAA MUUMMEE JI’OGIRAAFII FI BARNOOTA NAANNOO Mata Duree Qorannichaa:- HAALA ADEEMSII FI YAALIIN WARAQAA ABBAA QABEENYUMMAA (SARTIFIKEETA) LAFAA DUBARTOOTA FAYYADUU KEESSATTI QABU; AANAA BEGII LIXA ITIYOOPHIYAA. MAXXANNEE (APPENDIX) KALLATTII Kabajamoo gaafatamtootaa:- Gaafannoon kun sababoota lamaaf (2) kan qophaa‘e dha. . Gandoota aanaa Begii sadii qorannichi filatee keessatti, Haala adeemsaa fi yaalii waraqaan abbaa qabeenyummaa lafaa dubartoota fayyaduu keessatti qabu xinxaluuf kan kaayyeffatedha. . Qo‘atichi, qo‘annoo barnoota Digirii lammaffaa (2ffaa) isaa Muummee Ji‘ogiraafii fi barnoota naannoo irratti hojjetuuf kan gargaaru dha. Odeeffannoon walitti qabamuuf yaadamee marti xiyyeeffannoon isaa barnoota akkadamii irratti kan bu‘uureffameedha. Odeeffannoon isin itti amantanii fi iftoominaan kennitan immoo fixa bahinsa qo‘annichaaf gahee guddaa kan taphatu dha. Kanaaf, fedha keessaniin gaafannoo isiniif kenname kana of eeggannoof iftoominaan akka guuttan jecha, iccitiin yaada keessaniis kan eegamu ta‘uu isaa qo‘atichi kabajaan isin hubachiisuu barbaada. Dursa osoo yaada isaanii hin barreessiin, qajeelfamawwan tokkon tokkoon gaafannoo garaagaraa jalatti barreeffaman ibsameeraaf. Yoo yaada dursa barreessan jijjiruu yoo fedhan, isa dursanii barreessan sana sirnaan akka haqan taasifameera. Hubachiisa:- Maqaa isaanii barreessuun barbaachisaa miti. Tokkon tokkoon gaafannoo qo’annicha qajeelfamoota mataa mataa isaanii ni qabu. Akkuma yaada keessan ibsitanii (barreessitanii) xumurtaniin booda, gaafannicha nama isantti kenne sanaaf deebisaniiru.
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Maxxannee (Appendix) I: GAAFANNOOWWAN 1. ODEEFFANNOO WALII GALAA Naannoo: OROMIYAA Godiina: W/LIXAA Aanaa: BEGII Ganda ______1.1. Saala: 0) Dhalaa______1) Dhiira______1.2. Umurii: waggaa______0) waggaa 20-35 1) 36-50 gidduu 2) 51-65 gidduu 3) 66 ol 1.3. Baay‘ina maatii______0) Maatii 3 gadi 1) baay‘ina 3-6 2) baay‘ina 6-9 3) baay‘ina 9 ol 1.4. Gahee hojii ______0) Qonnaan bulaa 1) dalagaa kan biraa 1.5. Amantii:______0) Musliima 1) Ortoodoksii 2) pirotestantii 3) kan biraa 1.6. Sadarkaa barnootaa 0) Hin barannee 1) Dubbisuu fi barreessuu nan danda‘a 2) Kutaa 1-4 3) Kutaa 5-8 4) Kutaa 9-10 5) Kutaa 10 ol 1.7. Sadarkaa gaa‘elaa: 0) hinfuune (hin heerumne) 1) fuudheera (heerumeera) 2) wal-hiikneerra 3) kan abbaan manaa irraa du‘e______1.8. Gosa fuudhaa ykn heerumaa: 0) altokko qofa kan heerumte/fuudhe 1) Si‘a lamaaf isaa ol Kan heerumte/fuudhe 2) hin heerumne/wal-hiikneerra/abbaan manaa kan irraa du‘e 1.9. Galii waggaan: 0) #5000 1) #5000-10000 2) #10000-15000 3) #15000-20000 4) #20000 ol. 1.10. Maddoota galii: 0) qonnarraa 1) qonna cinatti kan bira 2) qonnarraa bilisa 1.11. Maatiin kan of keessatti haammate:- Lakk. Safartuu umurii (bara) Dhiira Dhalaa Walii gala
1 <15 2 18-65 3 >65
2. Gaafannoo Hubannoo Dubartootni Kaayyoo fi Faayidaa Galmeen/Sartifikeeti Lafaa qaburratti qophaa’e 2.1. Kaayyoon waraqaa abbaa qabeenyumma lafaa maal akka ta‘e isiniif hubatameeraa ( isiniif galeeraa)? 0) Eeyyee 1) lakki 2.2. Kaayyoon isaa maal akka ta‘e sirna galmee fi beekamtii (sartifikeeta) lafarratti hubannoon dursaa isiniif kennameeraa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2.3. Lafti qonnaa keessanii/kee qaama mootummaa biratti beekamuun (galma‘uun) isaa qonnaan bulaaf faayidaa addaa ni qabaa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2) kan biraa______
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2.4. Sagantaa fi adeemsa sirna kenninsa waraqaa abbaa qabeenyumma lafaa wayita yeroo calqabaaf taasifame akkamitti ilaaltan (fudhattan)? 0) Yeroo calqabaaf mormeen ture, 1) Yeroo booda faayidaan isaa anaaf galeera 2) Lafa koo irratti waraqaa abbummaa yoon fudhadhees fudhachuu baadhuus jijjirama addaa anaaf hin qabaatu. 2.5. Osoo galmeen lafaa fi waraqaan abbaa qabeenyummaa lafaa isiniif hin kennamiin fuldura hubannoo haala adeemsa kenninsaarratti hubannoo ni qabduu? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2.6. Qabiyyee fi labsiin lafa qonnaa haaraa kan naannoo Oromiyaa sirritti siif hubatameeraa? 0) Eeyyee 1) hanga tokko hubadheera, 2) Lakki 2.7. Hawaasa waliin walgahii fi ibsi waa‘ee seeraa lafaa, ittiin bulmaata fi adeemsa itti fayyadama isaa ibsu isiniif kennameeraa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2) Kan biraa______2.8. Osoo galmeen lafaa hin taasifamiin dursa, haala raawwiisaarratti mariin isiniif laatame (kenname) jiraa) 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2) kan biraa ______2.9. Sartifikeeta lafaa qabachuun kee/keessan yeroo turtii itti fayyadama lafaa ni mirkaneessaa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2.10. Seera cinatti, dubartootni wayita abbaa manaa waliin wal-hiikan mirga lafa qooddachuu/ fudhachuu qaban ni beekta/tuu? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2.11. Akka seeraatti, dubartootni lafa dhuunfaa isaanii ijoollee dhiiraas ta‘e dhalaa dhaalchisuu (kennuufii) ni danda‘uu? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2.12. Lafa qonnaa kee/keessan ijoollee ykn maatii keessaniif qooddanii ni beektuu? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2.13. Lafa hektaara xiqqoo qabdu yoo taatan, lafa sana eenyuuf kennuu feetu? 0) Isa dhiiraaf 1) Isheedubaraaf 2) lamaan isaaniif 3. Haala Galmee fi Sartifikeeta Lafarratti Gaafannoo waliigalaa 3.1. Lafa qonnaa dhuunfaa keessaanii/kee ni qabdaa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 3.2. Lafti kan eenyuuti jettee tilmaamta? 0) kan dhuunfaa kooti 1) kan mootummaati 2) kan lamaan keenyaati 3.3. Waraqaa eenyummaa lafaa fudhattettaa? : 0) fudhadheera 1) hin fudhannee 2) Lafa hin qabu, garuu karaa kamiinuu lafatti faayadamaan jira ( fakk. kireeffachuun) 3.4. Sartifikeeta lafaa hin fudhanne yoo taate, fudhachuuf fedha ni qabdaa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2) kan biraa ______
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3.5. Waraqaa abbaa qabeenyummaa lafa keessanii/kee ibsu fudhachuu yoo hin feene ta‘e sababni isaa maali? 0) Sartifikeetichi faayidaa addaa waan hin qabneefi 1) Sartifikeetichi yeroo turtii lafaakoo hin ibsu waan ta‘eefi 2) Sartifikeetichi gibira olaanaa akkan kanfalu waan na taasisuufi. 3) Yaadi biraan yoo jiraate, ______3.6. Waraqaa itti fayyadama abbaa qabeenyumma lafaa fudhatteetta yoo ta‘e, yoom fudhatte/ttan? 0) 1995- 2000A.L.I 1) 2001-2005A.L.I 2) 2006 irraa eegalee hanga ammaatti 3.7. Lafa keerratti sartifikeeti lafaa maqaa keen/keessaniin galmeeffamee jiraa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 3.8. Lafti maatii keessanii/kee wayita galmee fi safarri lafaa taasifame sirnaan galmaa‘ee sartifikeeti itti kennameeraa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2) Hin beekuu; Maal sababni isaa jettee yaaddaa? ______3.9. Sartifikeeta lafaa qabaachuun waldhibdee daangaa irratti isin/si qunnamuuf furmaata ta‘a jettee ni yaaddaa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2) Yaada hin qabu 3.10. Galmeeffamuu fi waraqaa abbummaa lafaa qabachuun faayidaa addaa walitti bu‘insa sababa dhaalaan hawaasa keessatti mudatu danda‘uuf fala ta‘uu ni malaa? 0) waldhibdee ni guddisa, 1) Jijjirama hin qabu, 2) waldhibdee xiqqeessaa 3) Kan biraan yoo jiraate______3.11. Lafa qonnaa dhuunfaa kee akkamiin argachuu dandeesse/ssan? 0) karaa dhaalaan 1) irra deebiin lafti rabsamuun 2) kennaadhaan 3) qooddiidhaan 4) kan biraa______3.12. Bal‘inni lafa keessanii/keetii walii galaan hektaara hagami? 0) hekt. Walakkaa (1/2) 1) hek. 0.5-2 ni ta‘a 2) hekt. 2-4 ni ta‘a 3) 4-6hekt 4) >6hekt 5) lafa hin qabu 3.13. Erga lafa ofiirratti beekamtii (waraqaa abbummaa) qabaattaniin booda, waldhibdee daangaa irratti isin/si qunnamuuf faayidaa ni qabaataa? 0) waldhibdee xiqqeessaa, 1) garaagarummaa hin qabu, 2) waldhibdee ni guddisa 3.14. Erga adeemsi kenninsa sartifikeeta lafaa taasifamee (kennamee) asitti, galmeen lafaa waldhibdee daangaarratti qonnaan bulaa mudatuuf fala taa‘eeraa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakkii 2) kan biraa______3.15. Waraqaa sartifikeeta lafaa keessaan/kee maqaa maatii kee waliin yoo fudhatte/ttan, lafa sana kireessuu keessatti miidhaa fidu ni qabaa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2) Yaadi addaa yoo jiraate ______
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3.16. Sartifikeeta lafa ofii qabaachuun akka lafti ofii qonnaan bulaa biraan hin weeraramneef (hin fudhatamnee) furmaata ni ta‘aa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2) kan biraa ______3.17. Lafti keessan/kee faayidaa maaliif oolaatti jira (%)? 0) Oomisha midhaan caallaaf 1) Dheedicha horiif 2) Biqiltootaaf 3) Bosona uumamaaf 4) Bakka mana jireenyaaf 5) Faayidaa kan biraaf. 3.18. Lafa qonnaan cinatti madda galii adda ta‘e ni argattuu/ttaa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 3.19. Lafa qonnaa keessan nama kan biraaf qixxee ni laattuu? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 3.20. Gaaffii 3.19‘f deebiin keessan eeyyee yoo ta‘e, sababni maal? 0) fageenyaa? 1) Sangaa qotisaa dhabuudhaa? 2) Humna dhabuudhaa 3) Galtee/ hanqina xaa‘oo 4) Kan biraan yoo jiraate______4. Gaafannoo Mirga Laftii dubartootaaf jedhuu ilaalchisee qophaa’e 4.1. Mirgi abbaa qabeenyummaa lafaa walqixxummaa saalaa ni eegsisaa jettanii/jettee ni yaaddaa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 4.2. Lafarratti mirga walqixa abbaa manaa waliin erga qabaattanii, yaada wal-wajjiniin lafarratti ni laattuu/taa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2) Yaada hin qabu 4.3. Mirgi itti fayyadama dubartootaa lafaa erga sartifikeeti kennameef eegumsa argate jettee ni timaamtaa? 0) Eeyyee 1)Lakki 2) Murteessuun ulfaataadha. 4.4. Mirgi abbummaa lafaa (sartifikeetaa) dubartoota ni fayyada jettee ni yaaddaa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 4.5. Sartifikeeta lafaa qabaachuun dubartootaa, sadarkaa jireenya isaanii ni fooyyessaa jettee ni yaaddaa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 4.6. Sartifikeeta lafaa qabaachuun dubartootaa umurii yeroo turtii eegumsa lafa isaaniif ta‘uu maluuf fayyidaa ni qabaataafi? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 4.7. Dubartoota fayyaduu keessatti faayidaan kenninsa waraqaa abbaa qabeenyummaa (sartifikeeta) lafaa qabu akkamiin fudhattan? 0) walqixxummaa haadha ykn abbaa mana ni eegsisa 1) akka dubartootni lafa qonnaa isaaniiratti murtoo barbaachisu murteessan ni taasisa. 2) addatti akka sagaleen dubartoota dhaga‘amuuf daandii ni bana. 3) akka dubartootni hojii mana keessaa qofaarratti hin daangeffamnee fi carraa hojii lafa qonnaarratti bobba‘aniif daandii bana.
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4.8. Hooggansa lafaarratti dubartootni dandeettii ni qabu jettee yaaddaa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2) itti hin amanu 4.9. Ilaalchi hawaaasni dubartootaaf qaban akka isaan lafa hin hoogganneef (kunuunsineef) dhiibbaa irratti ni fidaa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2) hin beeku 4.10. Hojii Mana keessaan alatti, ilaalchi aadaa- hawaasummaa fi amaleeffannaan jiru akka dubartootni hooggansa lafaarratti murtoo waa murteessuuf qaban miidheera jettee ni yaaddaa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2) Hin beeku 4.11. Dubartootni lafa argachuun isaanii dinagdee biyyaa guddisuu keessatti gahee mataasaa ni qabaataa? 0) Eeyyee 1) Lakki 2) Hin beekuu 4.12. Sartifikeeta (waraqaa abbummaa) lafaarratti maqaan haadha manaa jiraachuun isaa dhiibbaa fidu ni qabaa? 0) miidhaa fidu hin qabu 1) Abbaan manaa waliin yoo wal-hiikan ykn irraa du‘e gahee akka isheen qabbaattu ni taasisa 2) Akka isaan murtoo lafaarratti abbaa mana qixa hirmaatan isaan godha 3) Lafa qacaruu ykn kireessuu irratti akka murteessan isaan ni fayyada 5. Irra caalaatti qabxiiwwan armaan gadii ilaalchisee, ilaalchi ati waraqaan abbummaa (sartifikeeta) lafaa dubartootaaf jedhu irratti filannoon (yaadi) kee maali? Bakka Deebii yookan Yaada keessanitti mallattoo (―√‖) kana fayyadamaa. T.L Gaaffiwwan Deebii 5.1 Qoqqoddaanii fi dhiibbaan ija walqixaan saala ( dhiira/dhalaa) ilaaluu dhabuun rakkoo mul‘atu dha. Hawaasa keessatti, hirmaannaan dubartotaa lafarratti murtoo murteessuuf qaban laafaa dha. 5.2 Dubartootni hubannoo gahaa ta‘e faayida sartifikeeti (mirga abbummaa) lafaa qabu beekanii jiru 5.3 Dubartootni mirga waraqaa abbummaa/sartifikeeta lafaa isaanii kabachiifachuudhaaf hagas mara fedha qabachuu dhabuu 5.4 Hawaasa cinatti gaheen (hirmaannaan) dubartootni calaqqisiisan gad-aanaa ta‘uu 5.5 Hojii mana keessaan alatti dalagamuuf, ilaalchii fi aadaan /amaleeffannaan hawaasni dubartoota irratti qabu, dubartoota miidheera. 5.6 Lafarratti dubartootni yaadi isaan kennan gad-aanaa ta‘ee argamuu 5.7 Deeggarsi akka gandaatti qaama mootummaan qonnaaan bultoota dubartootaaf taasifamu gadi aanaa ta‘uu.
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Annex II: Key Informants Interview Checklists This interview is made on a research for fulfillment of Masters of Art in Geography and Environmental Studies. The researcher was explore the Processes and Practices of Women‘s Empowerment in Land Certification in Beghi Woreda of three purposely selected kebeles, perception to tenure security and gender equality in land administration. The interview was taken a few minutes and the answers were completely kept confidentially and used only for academic purpose. A. Interview Questions to be answered by Woreda Land Administration and Agricultural Expert Officials, Local Kebele Leaders/Kebele Land Administration Committee and Development Agents (DA’s). Personal information of Interviewee Age _____ Sex _____ your responsibility or position at woreda level ______Years of experience ______Date of interview______1. Was there consultations and discussions about the land laws, regulations, and procedures drafts with farmers?______Was there a meeting and a discussion about land registration before the implementation started? ______2. What is the effectiveness of land certification on farmers‘ perception to tenure security; gender equality; land dispute and empowering women? ______3. What were the objectives and procedures followed the issue of land certificates by the government and how the farmers response at the time? ______4. During registration, how was the participation of the community? Have you faced any resistance from the community?______Why?______5. During the registration and certification process, are there exceptional efforts made by you to secure the holdings of vulnerable groups particularly females?______6. How was the participation of females in the land administration committees in the woreda?______7. Do you think that women‘s land tenures are secured by the registration?______Why?______8. What are the major customary practice that constrains/limits rural women to administer agricultural land and other resources? ______
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9. What are the advantage and disadvantage of the current land tenure system in the region or the country? Please (specify):______10. Do you believe if land certification given to women can empower them in order to make decision? ______Why? ______11. Do you encourage land certification to women? ______Why?______B. Interview Questions to be answered by kebele elders and Women’s Respondents (farmers) Personal information of Interviewee Age _____ Sex _____ responsibility or position at kebele level ______Years of experience on agricultural land administration ______Date of interview______1. Do you know the contents and procedures followed the issue of land certification by the government?______How you response at the time?______2. What do you think the main objectives of rural land certification if given to you? ______3. Are you belief women‘s position within the household and the socio-cultural practices available within the society retarded women decision on their agricultural land outside their home?______Please specify ______4. What type of socio-economic advantages that land tenure certification possesses women?______5. Do you think women‘s have an awareness concerning to the values of land certification?______If you do not know, what do you think the behind factors______7. Would you belief having land certification overcome boundary land disputes occurred among farmers and how?______8. Do you encourage land certification to women?______what advantage it empower women and how?______9. Would you believe, Land certification brings solution for farmers in order to protect their plot of land from being captured (occupied) by other farmers (bodies)? ______
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10. What are the major customary practice that constrains/limits rural women to administer agricultural land and other resources?______Annex III: Focus Group Discussion Checklists provided only for female farmers. This FGD was made on a research for fulfillment of Masters of Art in Geography and Environmental Studies. The researcher have been assess the Processes and Practices of Women‘s Empowerment in Land Certification in Beghi Woreda of three purposely selected kebeles, on the purposes and effectiveness of landholding tenure security and gender equality in land administration. The discussion was taken a few minutes and their points of view were kept confidential and used only for academic purpose. Date of the FGD______Place and kebele ______1. Is there any consultation given to you at kebele level on the objectives and values of land certification?______2. Have you an awareness on the Federal and Regional rural land proclamation rule and regulation?______3. Was there any community consultations and discussions about the land laws, regulations, and procedures drafts, specifically for women exclusion of men? ______4. Was there any meeting and discussions given to you on land registration before its implementation?______5. What is the effectiveness of land certification to you in tenure security; gender equality; land dispute and empowering women? ______6. Do you know what are the socio-economic values and objectives of land certification, especially to women?______Please specify______7. What are the socio-cultural and customary practices that restrict you in order to make decision towards you plot of land out of home? ______
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