A Literature Review of the Effects of Helicopter Disturbance and Noise on Selected Wildlife Species

Final

Prepared for U.S. Army Alaska Fort Wainwright, Alaska and CH2M HILL, Inc. Anchorage, Alaska

July 2007

Prepared by Betty A. Anderson

ABR, Inc.—Environmental Research & Services Fairbanks, Alaska

Final

A Literature Review of the Effects of Helicopter Disturbance and Noise on Selected Wildlife Species

Submitted to U.S. Army Alaska Fort Wainwright, Alaska and CH2M HILL, Inc. Anchorage, Alaska

July 2007

Prepared by Betty A. Anderson

ABR, Inc.—Environmental Research & Services Fairbanks, Alaska

Contents

Section Page Acronym List ...... v 1 Introduction...... 1-1 2 Methods...... 2-1 3 Results ...... 3-1 3.1 Effects of Helicopter Disturbance and Noise on Selected Species...... 3-1 3.1.1 Caribou...... 3-1 3.1.2 Bison ...... 3-2 3.1.3 Moose ...... 3-3 3.1.4 Beluga Whale...... 3-3 3.1.5 Other Mammals ...... 3-3 3.1.6 Birds...... 3-4 4 Annotated Bibliography...... 4-1 5 Bibliography...... 5-1 6 References...... 6-1 7 Indexes to Annotated Bibliography...... 7-1 7.1 Taxonomic Index to Annotated References...... 7-1 7.2 Topic Index to Annotated References...... 7-5

List of Tables 3-1 Sound Levels for Military Helicopter Types Currently Operating in the Alaska Aviation Brigade...... 3-2 3-2 Reactions of Selected and Other Wildlife Species to Helicopters and Aircraft Overflights Reported in Some Unpublished and Published Literature ...... 3-5

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iv BOI072060003.DOC

Acronym List

µs/dB microseconds per decibel ABR ABR, Inc.—Environmental Research & Services ABRs auditory brainstem responses AERTA U.S. Army Environmental Requirement and Technology Assessment AGL above ground level ANM Animal Noise Monitor ANWR Arctic National Wildlife Refuge APG Aberdeen Proving Ground ASEL A-weighted sound exposure level asl above sea level BACI Before–After- Control-Impact [type of statistical analysis] BANWR Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge BMGR Barry M. Goldwater Range c. circa CART classification and regression tree models COMNAP Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programmes CWS Canadian Wildlife Service d/cm2 dynes per square centimeter dB or db decibel dBA decibels, A-scale dBC decibles, C-scale dBO decibels, owl-weighting [the decibel scale is weighted based on hearing frequency of owls, as measured experimentally] dBP decibel peak dBW decibels, woodpecker weighting [the decibel scale is weighted based on hearing frequency of a Downy Woodpecker, as measured experimentally] DCH or DH Delta Caribou Herd

BOI072060003.DOC v ACRONYM LIST

DoD Department of Defense ECG electrocardiogram ed. editor EIS Environmental Impact Statement ETAC East Tactical Range FCH Fortymile Caribou Herd ft foot FWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service GCNP Grand Canyon National Park HIR Hazard Index Rank HMM Habitat Management Model hr hour HR heart rate Hz hertz IEMR Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research kc kilocycles kHz kilohertz kj/day kilojoules per day km kilometer km/h kilometers per hour km2 square kilometer kts knots LARS Large Animal Research Station

Leq or LEQ equivalent noise level over a specified period of time LLF low-level flight LLTF low-level training flights

Lmax maximum sound pressure level LNF Lincoln National Forest m meter

vi BOI072060003.DOC ACRONYM LIST

MERAF military ecological risk assessment framework mi mile min minute MOA Military Operations Area MTA Military Training Area MTR Military Training Route MWLAP Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection NA not available NERC National Ecology Research Center nm nautical mile NOTAM Notice to Airmen NSBIT Noise and Sonic Boom Impact Technology Office NTAC North Tactical Range NTIS National Technical Information Service

Ntot total number N.W.T. Northwest Territories ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory pe peak equivalent pp. pages RCW Red-cockaded Woodpecker SCAR Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research sd or SD standard deviation sec second SEL sound exposure level; a measure of the cumulative acoustic energy of a sound during a specified time period SELa sound exposure level, A-scale weighting sp. or spp. species SPL sound pressure level STAC South Tactical Range TES Threatened and Endangered Species

BOI072060003.DOC vii ACRONYM LIST

TLSA Teshekpuk Lake Special Area USAF U.S. Air Force USARAK U.S. Army Alaska USARAK Environmental Impact Statement for Stationing and Training of Increased Aviation EIS Aviation Assets within U.S. Army Alaska USFS U.S. Forest Service WAH Western Arctic Herd yd yard YPG Yuma Proving Ground, Arizona

viii BOI072060003.DOC

CHAPTER 1 Introduction

As part of the supporting documentation for the Environmental Impact Statement for Stationing and Training of Increased Aviation Assets within U.S. Army Alaska (USARAK Aviation EIS), ABR, Inc.—Environmental Research & Services (ABR) conducted an extensive literature review to evaluate the effects of noise, primarily from helicopters, on large mammals and migratory birds. This literature review focused on the large mammals most commonly found in Interior Alaska: caribou (Rangifer tarandus), bison (Bison bison), and moose (Alces alces). The beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas) was also added to this list because it occurs at Fort Richardson near Anchorage and has recently been proposed for listing as an Endangered Species in upper Cook Inlet. The review also included literature on other large mammal species that may be used as surrogates for these selected species, because the studies on helicopter disturbance for these mammal species are probably limited. The review addresses impacts of helicopter overflights and noise on migratory birds, such as trumpeter and tundra swans (Cygnus buccinator and C. columbianus), geese, ducks, sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis), and raptors that commonly migrate through the Tanana Valley (including the Fort Greely area). Some species also breed in the area and impacts on those species are also addressed. Other species have been included that are regionally important in Alaska, including in training areas used by the U. S. Army. These species include brown bear (Ursus arctos), black bear (U. americanus), Dall sheep (Ovis dalli), and mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus). The evaluation of impacts discussed in the literature encompasses not only direct disturbance of individual animals but also potential direct and indirect effects on breeding success, migratory pathways, and any population-level impacts. This literature review builds on previous literature summaries, such as Effects of Military Noise on Wildlife: A Literature Review by Ronald P. Larkin, Center for Wildlife Ecology, Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign, IL (1996). This annotated bibliography is available online at http://nhsbig.inhs.uiuc.edu/bioacoustics/noise_and_wildlife.txt.

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CHAPTER 2 Methods

ABR maintains bibliographic databases (ProCite) on wildlife impact issues, including noise. We conducted an in-house search for pertinent literature, focused primarily on studies published since Larkin’s 1996 review. Some references that were included in Larkin’s review are also annotated in this report. A more detailed annotation of these references was deemed appropriate either because they were not annotated in Larkin or, in the earlier annotation, their significance in addressing the helicopter disturbance issues was not clear. We accessed the University of Alaska library system for the initial literature search and used Internet searches to locate other pertinent published and unpublished literature on helicopter disturbance and noise. All potential published and unpublished literature located during our database and library searches that we were able to acquire within our time constraints were reviewed for relevance. An annotation was prepared if the following criteria were met:

• The reference was relevant to either the selected or similar surrogate species or to the topic of helicopter disturbance effects on wildlife or

• The reference provided insights on the responses of the selected species to aircraft (other than helicopter) disturbances. If an author’s abstract was available, it was included (without modifications from the original report or published article), along with the annotation. For terminology found in the original abstract, we followed the following conventions:

• Scientific and common names are presented as they appear in the original references, including capitalization of common names (often the standard for birds but not for mammals).

• Some scientific names may have changed with recent taxonomic revisions (e.g., Canada goose has been split into cackling goose and Canada goose). Names are left as the author presented them, but reference to geographic locations may be necessary to determine the newer species names.

• The terms “sound” and “noise” are often used interchangeably in the literature. No effort was made to standardize their usage in the author’s abstracts or in this review (generally, noise is equated as human-derived, or unwanted sounds).

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CHAPTER 3 Results

A brief description of sound-level measurements, frequently used metrics, and their applicability to wildlife disturbance studies can be found in Larkin (1996). Therefore, that topic is not discussed here. The noise (defined for our purposes as human-derived sound) levels associated with the principal helicopter types in use in Alaska range from the 98 decibels, A-scale (dBA) generated at 200 feet (ft) by the large Chinook (CH-47D) helicopters used to transport troops and equipment to the 93 dBA generated by the Blackhawk (OH-58D) attack helicopter (Table 3-1). Much of the literature on wildlife responses to helicopters is based on primarily civilian helicopter types, including Bell 206 (Jet Ranger), Bell 212 (similar to U.S. Army OH-1), Bell 412, Hughes 500D, A-Star models, and Sikorsky. Little information was found on reactions of wildlife to the smaller Robinson R-44 helicopter, which is now in use for many wildlife surveys in Alaska. Much of the recent focus of studies of effects of aircraft noise and disturbance on wildlife has been on military jet aircraft using training areas in eastern Canada (Labrador-Goose Bay), the southwestern U.S. (southern Arizona, California), and Alaska (Military Operations Areas [MOAs] in Interior and Eastern Alaska). For completeness, many of these studies are included in this review because they pertain to the species of interest, contain incidental information on helicopter disturbance, or provide a contrasting view of disturbance/noise associated with fixed-wing aircraft.

3.1 Effects of Helicopter Disturbance and Noise on Selected Species Using the annotated literature, we have summarized for each of the selected or similar species the helicopter (or other aircraft) types, relevant flight altitudes and distances, noise levels (if available), and reactions. (See Table 3-2 at the end of the chapter.) This table also provides the relevant references that are included in Chapter 4, Annotated Bibliography, of this report. Chapter 5 contains a complete bibliography of all literature located. In that chapter, a bolded asterisk (*) designates references that are annotated. The other references in the bibliography were not annotated because they were only peripherally of interest, were not about the selected or similar species, or were not reviewed because of time constraints. Chapter 7 provides both taxonomic and topic indexes to the annotated bibliography.

3.1.1 Caribou In terms of the effects of aircraft disturbance and noise, the caribou is the best studied of the selected species (Table 3-2). Concerns about the effects of human disturbance on this species date back to the mid-to-late 1960s and early 1970s, when oil exploration began to increase in the Arctic. The incursion of humans and their aircraft into arctic regions was considered to be problematic for the large herds of caribou found in northern Canada and Alaska. Based

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TABLE 3-1 Sound Levels for Military Helicopter Types Currently Operating in the Alaska Aviation Brigade Sound Levels (dBA)

UH-60/ HH-60 Distance CH-47D Chinook Blackhawk OH-58D Kiowa

Flight Altitude (AGL; 70 kts airspeed; SEL at ground)a

50 ft 107 101 101

100 ft 103 98 97

200 ft 98 94 93

500 ft 92 88 87

Slant Distance (100 kts airspeed; Max. noise level on ground)b

200 ft 98 89 91

500 ft 89 81 83

1000 ft 83 74 76

2000 ft 77 67 69

5000 ft 67 56 58 a Source: Moxlety, T. T. Memorandum on Operational Noise Consultation 52-EN-05KCb-07, Operational Noise Contours for U.S. Army Alaska, February 2007 (Table 3). b Source: U.S. Army Alaska (USARAK). 2006. Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Construction and Operation of a Battle Area Complex and Combined Arms Collective Training Facility within U.S. Army Training Lands in Alaska. U.S. Army Alaska, Fort Richardson, AK (Table 3.2.4.e). on the literature, the reactions of caribou to helicopters are highly variable, and depend on a variety of factors:

• Altitude and distance of the aircraft to the herd • Time of year (e.g., calving, post-calving, rut, winter) • Size and composition of the herd (e.g., cow-calf groups, bulls only, mixed herds) • The herd’s previous exposure to frequent aircraft overflights Caribou do appear to be relatively sensitive to low-level overflights and to close approaches by helicopters (Table 3-2). However, they are not as strongly affected by low-level military jet aircraft, perhaps because of the short duration of the encounters (several seconds to a few minutes). Both the noise and visual stimuli of helicopters appear to contribute to the reactions of caribou to helicopter overflights.

3.1.2 Bison Few references were located that discussed the effects of aircraft disturbance on bison. This lack of studies could be because only a few free-ranging herds of this large ungulate still occur in the United States. The Delta bison herd in Alaska, which ranges across the military lands of Fort Greely, has been exposed to civilian and military aircraft since its introduction and appears to be habituated to most aircraft commonly using the area (Table 3-2). Only one reference (Fancy 1982) was found that discussed responses of bison in Alaska to aircraft

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(small fixed-wing airplanes). Fancy (1982) found little evidence of disturbance of bison by low-flying fixed-wing aircraft and suggested that bison at Delta were habituated to aircraft overflights.

3.1.3 Moose The moose is also a species for which information is limited on the effects of aircraft noise and disturbance (Table 3-2). Several life-history attributes of this species contribute to the lack of data about their reactions to aircraft: 1. Moose generally are solitary or in small groups (cow-calves) for most of the year, making acquisition of sufficient data problematic and expensive 2. They are widely scattered across the landscape 3. They often occur in areas of heavy vegetative cover that restricts observations Much of the information on the effects of aircraft on moose is from a study of military- training activities in Norway (Andersen et al. 1996) that followed moose exposed to military helicopters, jets, and live-fire exercises. Some short-distance movements and heart rate increases were noted during low-level helicopter overflights, but few long-term impacts on populations or changes in range use were apparent.

3.1.4 Beluga Whale The beluga whale is found not only in Cook Inlet in Southcentral Alaska, but also in the waters of the Bering and Chukchi seas off northwestern Alaska and in the Beaufort Sea off northern Alaska and Canada. Much of the information on reactions of belugas to aircraft disturbance is presented as anecdotal observations in reports on other topics. (See aircraft disturbance section in Richardson et al. 1995.) However, one recent paper (Partenaude et al. 2002) discussed reactions of belugas to aircraft in the Beaufort Sea (Table 3-2). The reactions of belugas to aircraft disturbance and noise are compounded by the differential transfer of noise underwater (e.g., noise is often amplified within the upper layer of the ocean) and the difficulty in determining if whales are reacting to sound alone or to the visual stimulus of the overflying aircraft. (See Richardson et al. 1995 for a discussion of transmission of sound underwater.) The limited literature does suggest that belugas are somewhat sensitive to low-flying helicopters (Table 3-2).

3.1.5 Other Mammals Effects of helicopter disturbance and noise on Dall sheep, mountain (bighorn) sheep (Ovis canadensis), and mountain goats have been well studied (Table 3-2). These species have been studied primarily because biologists noted adverse reactions by some animals to the helicopters used in aerial surveys. In addition to disturbance, the animals are usually found in restricted habitats (cliffs and steep terrain), which prompted concerns about habitat loss from displacement by repeated aircraft overflights and possible mortality or injuries to individual animals. Muskox (Ovibos moschatus) was also a species for which abundant early studies were conducted on the effects of aircraft disturbance. These studies were conducted primarily for the same reasons that caribou were studied (see Subsection 3.1.1).

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Information on the effects of helicopters on deer is somewhat less available. Both white- tailed and mule deer have been evaluated in a few studies (primarily in the western states) (Table 3-2). Recent studies on mule deer in the southwestern U.S. have focused on the effects of low-flying military aircraft, but one study (Efroymson et al. 2001a) did attempt to evaluate the effects of Apache helicopters. Bears (grizzly/brown and polar [Ursus maritimus]) have been found to be relatively sensitive to helicopter overflights, particularly on Alaska’s North Slope (Table 3-2). Severe reactions (running) and den abandonment were noted in several studies (McCourt et al. 1974a, 1974b; Quimby 1974; McLellan and Shackleton 1989; Amstrup 1993).

3.1.6 Birds Reactions of birds to helicopter disturbance and noise are highly variable among the species reviewed. Some waterfowl species seem to be highly sensitive to helicopters (e.g., brant [Branta bernicla]), while others are relatively tolerant (swans) (Table 3-2). Sandhill cranes occur in large numbers during spring and fall migration near Fort Greely, Alaska, where they are likely to encounter military aircraft using the nearby training areas. Sandhill cranes do appear to be somewhat tolerant of flying aircraft, including helicopters, while flocks are actively migrating, but they are more sensitive to overflights while roosting on the ground (Kessel 1979). Other species, including raptors, will flush when overflown by helicopters at low altitudes. Apparently, they are more sensitive while nesting than during other times of the year (Table 3-2). Recent studies in Alaska of peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) subjected to low- level jet overflights and noise have found this species to be surprisingly tolerant of these short-duration noise events (Table 3-2). A study of the reactions of peregrine falcons to experimental helicopter flights on the Alaska North Slope also found limited reactions, except to the closest overflights (Ritchie 1987). Bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) appear to be sensitive to low-level flights of helicopters both during winter and when nesting (Table 3-2). Only a few studies have evaluated the effects of aircraft disturbance on smaller birds (passerines [Rozell 2003], woodpeckers [Delaney et al. 2002, Doresky et al. 2001]). These studies generally have found that these birds have high tolerance for disturbance and noise (Table 3-2).

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TABLE 3-2 Reactions of Selected and Other Wildlife Species to Helicopters and Aircraft Overflights Reported in Some Unpublished and Published Literature Helicopter or Altitude Location of Study Species Airplane Typea Distance (AGL) Sound Level Reaction /Source

MAMMALS

Caribou Helicopter (type <500 m 60–500 m NA 10–25% of animals responded Canada (Rangifer tarandus) unknown) with escape or panic reactions; reacted less than to fixed-wing Calef et al. 1976 aircraft

Bell 206B 240–370 m 240–370 m NA Helicopter simulated slinging Canada, Prince of loads over caribou; calves Wales Island responded when cows did but also were alert sooner, locomotion Gunn and Miller 1980 occurred about 1/3 of overflights

Bell 206B 300–2000 m 300 m NA Helicopter overflew groups then Canada landed at various distances; caribou generally walked away Gunn et al. 1983, 1985 from helicopter and were often out of sight by the time the helicopter took off (~20 min later)

Military jets (F-4, 30 m – ? 30 m 115 dB mean Startle response most common, Canada, Labrador F-5, F-16, F-18, level; 131 dB but some caribou did run; all Tornado) max responses occurred when jet Harrington and Veitch overhead 1991

Bell 206, A-Star 30–150 m 30–150 m NA Caribou (70%) responded before Canada, Labrador 300D helicopter visible, bulls stood, walked then ran when overflown, Harrington and Veitch stopped when helicopter passed 1991

Military jets (F-4, 30 m – ? 30 m NA Calf survival negatively correlated Canada, Labrador F-16, F-18, with cows exposure to jet Tornado) overflights Harrington and Veitch 1992

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MAMMALS (cont.)

Caribou (cont.) Military jets Variable <100 m AGL 114 dBA Greater disturbance occurred at Alaska, Interior (F-16, F-15, (F-16); 113 slant distances <1000 ft (305 m) A-10) dBA (F-15); 99 Lawler et al. 2005 dBA (A-10)

Military jets Variable <100 m AGL NA A-10 jets caused less reactions Alaska, Fortymile area (F-16, F-15, than F-15 and F-16s; greater A-10) disturbance occurred as slant Magoun et al. 2003 distances decreased

Military jets Variable; Variable; A-10 Mean = 95 Female with calves most sensitive Alaska, Delta area (F-16, F-15, mean = at <33 m dBA (A-10); 96 to aircraft disturbance; strongest A-10) 457 m (A-10); dBA (F-16); reactions during post-calving Maier et al. 1998, 1197 m (F-15); 103 dBA (F- 2001 1647 m (F-16) 15)

Bell 206; Overhead ~300 ft NA Caribou reacted more strongly to Alaska/Yukon, North Cessna 185 helicopter than to fixed-wing Slope (C-185) particularly at <300 ft (94% fleeing) McCourt et al. 1974a

Bell 206B Variable <200–400 m NA 64% of caribou responded to Canada, NWT helicopters with 12% showing extreme reactions; 28% of caribou Miller and Gunn 1979 responded with extreme behaviors to helicopters landing nearby; greater responses occurred as distance to helicopter decreased

Bell 206B Variable <200–400 m NA Calves responded more to Canada, NWT helicopters than adults, which led to higher levels of play behavior Miller and Gunn 1981

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MAMMALS (cont.)

Caribou (cont.) Cessna 185; Overhead < 60 m NA Caribou ran from fixed-wing Canada, Yukon DeHavilland aircraft at <60 m AGL; most Beaver; Jet sensitive during calving and rut; in Surrendi and DeBock helicopter (type winter, a jet helicopter at 75 m 1976 unknown) AGL caused a group of caribou to run 3 km; in milder weather helicopters still caused panic responses at 60 m AGL

Bison Cessna 61–150 m 61–150 m NA Only 2 of 59 groups responded to Delta Junction, Alaska (Bison bison) 185/Helio Super aircraft; habituation was inferred Courier Fancy 1982

Moose Military 400–800 m Not given NA No heart rate increase or Norway (Alces alces) helicopter movement; 4 events Andersen et al. 1996

Military 40 m Not given NA Moved 1500 m, heart rate helicopter increased and returned to normal in 8 min

Military 50 m Not given NA Moved 1000 m, heart rate helicopter returned to normal in 11 min

F-16 jet 150 m 150 m NA No heart rate increase or movement

Cessna 185 Overhead ~300–600 ft NA Moose reacted at altitudes <200 Alaska/Yukon, North ft; no reaction at >600 ft Slope

McCourt et al. 1974a, 1974b

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MAMMALS (cont.)

Beluga Whale Fixed-wing Varied Varied NA Non-feeding animals responded Arctic regions (Delphinapterus aircraft and more than feeding animals; few leucas) helicopter reactions at altitudes >500 m; Dietz 1992 single passes less disruptive than circling

Bell 212 and Varied <150 m to ? Underwater Most (86%) reactions to Alaska, Beaufort Sea Twin Otter fixed- (<250 m to ?) sound levels helicopters <150 m AGL and wing (at 3 m) for lateral distance <250 m; helicopter Partenaude et al. 2002 helicopter at idling on ice caused reactions by 75 m AGL belugas 320 m away (110–125 dB) and 610 m AGL (102–110 dB)

Dall Sheep ”Military jet Categorized Usually above Ranged from Little reaction noted to military Alaska (Ovis dalli) aircraft” as close, 1500 m AGL ~60–90 dBA aircraft overflights; sheep likely medium, far habituated to 20 years of use of Lawler et al. 2004; training area Griffith et al. 2006

Helicopter 7 close (<1.6 Close at Mean Leq No reactions of sheep to Alaska (types not km) <1500 m; far (2 min) = 23– helicopters were provided by specified) at >1500 m 51 dBA authors Lawler et al. 2004 1 far (>3.2 km)

Bell 206B 0.2–2.1 km 120–180 m NA Sheep responded by alert Yukon, Kluane Lake (above or behaviors, walking, or running; below sheep) most resumed activity 6–10 min Frid 1999, 2001, 2003 later

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MAMMALS (cont.)

Dall Sheep (cont.) Military jets <1500 m to 100–5000 ft >80 dBA (jets); Sheep behavior relatively Alaska, Interior (F-15, A-10); >3.2 km AGL 51–78 dBA for unaffected by overflights, helicopters helicopters increased feeding following Lawler et al. 2004 (type unknown) overflights; no reactions to helicopters provided

Fairchild Hiller 300–500 ft Varied 81 dBA (500 ft Reactions varied from strong Alaska/Yukon, North (FH-1100) AGL); 95 dBA (36%) to none (36%); slant Slope (100 ft AGL) distance was independent of published reactions; ewes reacted more Lenarz 1974 values

Fairchild Hiller 150 yd Varied FH-1100: 78– Dall sheep reacted (ran) tost Alaska, Brooks Range (FH-1100), 81 dBC (75 yd helicopters at <150 yd at low Bell 206 lateral altitudes; they did approach a Reynolds 1974 distance, 50 ft FH-1100 idling on the ground, but AGL) ran when it took off

Muskoxen Bell 206, 0–2000 km 100–200 m NA Running occurred for directly Greenland (Ovibos moschatus) Hughes 500D overhead flights and at lateral distance of 1 km (Hughes 500D); Jingfors and Lassen moderate responses at 400 m 1984 lateral distance

Bell 206B Variable <200–400 m NA 40% of muskoxen responded to Canada, NWT helicopters with 21% showing extreme reactions; 12% of Miller and Gunn 1979 muskoxen responded with extreme behaviors to helicopters landing nearby; greater responses occurred as distance to helicopter decreased

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MAMMALS (cont.)

Muskoxen (cont.) Bell 206B Overhead 114–400 m NA One herd of muskoxen ran and Canada, NWT (simulating cargo formed defensive formations to all slinging) overflights, distance moved Miller and Gunn 1980, decreased with subsequent flights; 1984; Miller et al. 1988 second herd less responsive (60% bedded or foraged); some increased frequency of nursing by calves following overflights

Bell 206B Varied Mean = 82 m; NA More than 36% of helicopters Alaska, Arctic National up to 600 m caused muskox to run; no Wildlife Refuge AGL response to 24% of overflights; (ANWR) even at 300–600 m AGL, muskoxen responded more to Reynolds 1987 helicopter than fixed-wing aircraft

Bighorn Sheep Bell 206B-III ~100 m ~100 m NA Abandonment of salt licks, moving California (Ovis canadensis) longer distances (3–4 km) than undisturbed sheep (1–2 km) Bleich et al. 1994

Helicopter (type Variable <150 m NA Sheep fled from helicopters <150 Canada, Calgary unknown) m altitude Jorgenson 1988

Cessna 172/182 30–300 m 30–300 m NA Extreme responses at <50 m Arizona AGL, with movements >1 km; a 50–100 m AGL responses mixed Krausman and Hervert (13% extreme, 60% no reaction); 1983 at >100 m AGL mostly (70%) no reaction

F-16, military jets 125 m 125 m 91–112 dB Some increase in heart rate, Nevada (overhead) relatively little other responses, no changes in habitat use (animals in Krausman et al. 1993, large enclosure) 1998

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MAMMALS (cont.)

Bighorn Sheep (cont.) Bell 206; Overhead 90–250 m NA Ewes heart rates increased 2.5– Canada, Alberta Hughes 500 3x, recovery 20–65 sec; sheep ran for 2–15 sec MacArthur et al. 1982

Mountain Goat Bell 206; 500 to Varied NA Flights within 500 m caused 85% Canada, Alberta (Oreamnos Bell 212 >1500 m of goats to move >100 m; 9% of americanus) flights at >1500 m caused reaction Côté 1996

A-Star AS-350 250–2000 m NA NA Most (65%) overflights did not Alaska disturb goats; only 9% of flights caused fleeing behavior Goldstein et al. 2005

Chinook Varied Varied NA Goats responded at up to 1500 m Canada, BC distances, helicopter was yarding logs Gordon and Wilson 2005

Bell 212 500–2000 m Low levels NA No reactions at >1000 m; at Canada, British <1000 mild reactions; some alarm Columbia and a few flight reactions at <500 m Matheson et al. 2005

Mule Deer Apache Varied 150–400 ft 89 dBA (SEL); Evaluation of model to assess risk Arizona (Odocoileus Longbow 102 dBA (Lmax) to mule deer from hemionus) (AH-64D) helicopter/missile firing training; Efroymson et al. 2001 limited success due to insufficient data for some parameters

Pronghorn Antelope OH-58 500–3000 ft 150–400 ft 60 dBA at 400 Pronghorns began running at 150 New Mexico (Antilocapra ft, 77 dBA at ft AGL and 500 ft slant distance; americana) 150 ft slant no reactions at 400 ft AGL, 3000 ft Luz and Smith 1979 distance slant distance

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MAMMALS (cont.)

Brown Bear “Large turbine NA “Overhead” NA Anecdotal account of grizzly Yukon, Canada type helicopter” running from “helicopter overhead” (Ursus arctos) Barry and Spencer 1976

Cessna 185 Overhead ~300–600 ft NA Bears showed no consistent trend Alaska/Yukon, North of decreasing sensitivity with Slope increasing altitude; bears more sensitive than moose or caribou McCourt et al. 1974a, 1974b

Unknown types <150 to Variable NA Helicopter: 1 bear ran, 1 walked, 5 Montana and British of fixed-wing and >150 m had no reaction at <150 m; only 1 Columbia helicopter ran and rest (6) had no reaction at aircraft >150 m McLelllan and Shackleton 1989

FH-1100 Variable Variable NA Bears ran (71% ) most often in Alaska, Canning River response to helicopters; bears ran from 0.5–1 mi before aircraft Quimby 1974 arrived overhead, indicating sound was a strong stimulus; 50% of bears abandoned dens which were hovered over by helicopter or overflown

Polar Bear Helicopter (type 100 m 100 m NA Abandoned den, moved 64 km to Alaska (Ursus maritimus) unknown) new den site Amstrup 1993

50–100 m 50–100 m NA Alert behavior at den

100 m 100 m Ran, moved 20 km to new den

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MAMMALS (cont.)

Polar Bear (cont.) Helicopter (type 10 m Landed NA Female with cub ran away, Alaska unknown) returned in 3 days Amstrup 1993

Bell UH-1B 3 m Taking off 76–78 dB Noise measurements inside and Alaska (inside); 114– outside a polar bear den 116 dB Blix and Lentfer 1992 (outside)

Ringed Seal Bell 206 III <400 m 150 m 86 dBA 50% seals exhibited escape Greenland (Phoca hispida) behaviors; initial responses to helicopter at 1.5 km Born et al. 1999

BIRDS

Trumpeter Swan Helicopter NA <615 m NA Most reactions (19 of 21 Alaska, Copper River (Cygnus buccinator) (unknown type), overflights; 5 were helicopters) Delta fixed-wing were short “alert” behaviors; aircraft, reaction first to sound; no Henson and Grant commercial jets difference between helicopter or 1991 fixed-wing

Tundra Swan “Large turbine 20 m 20 m NA Tundra Swan on nest did not flush Yukon, Canada (Cygnus tundrius) type helicopter” descending to until helicopter descended to 10 m 10 m from nest Barry and Spencer 1976

Bell 206 >1.5 km 30–50 m NA Nesting pairs not affected by Alaska, Colville River frequent helicopter Delta flights/landings/takeoffs Johnson et al. 2001

Helicopter 100 m 50 m NA No reaction of a single adult to Alaska, Prudhoe Bay (unknown type; overflight likely Bell 206 or Murphy et al. 1989 Bell 212)

BOI072060003.DOC 3-13 RESULTS

BIRDS (cont.)

Whooper Swan Helicopters Mean = Variable NA Swans responded (32% alerted) Scotland, Glasgow (Cygnus cygnus) (types unknown) 1355 m to helicopters at slightly farther distances than fixed-wing aircraft; Rees et al. 2005 mean recovery time following disturbance was 1.7 min

Snow Goose “Large turbine 800–2400 m 90 m NA Left nests, returned when Yukon, Canada (Chen caerulescens) type helicopter” helicopter had moved >800 m away Barry and Spencer 1976

Bell 206B Variable 500 ft NA More (41%) flew in response to Alaska/Yukon helicopter at <2 mi than at >2 mi (9%); geese flushed at horizontal Davis and Wisely 1974 distance of 1.7 mi

Helicopter a) 400 m a) 50 m NA a) flew 1200 m Alaska, Prudhoe Bay (unknown type; b) 1400 m b) Unknown b) alert behaviors only likely Bell 206 or Murphy et al. 1989 Bell 212)

Helicopter 100 m 200 m NA Brood (2 adults w 2 young) Alaska, Prudhoe Bay (unknown type; showed no reaction. likely Bell 206 or Murphy et al. 1990 Bell 212)

Greater White-fronted Bell 206 119 m 30–50 m 102–106 dBA Nest overflown during incubation, Alaska, Colville River Goose female fled on first overflight, did Delta (Anser albifrons) not flee on subsequent days, hatched successfully Johnson et al. 2001

Helicopter 500–1000 m Varied NA 38% run/fly, 18% alert at <500 m; Alaska, Prudhoe Bay (unknown type; 40% alert at 501–1000 m; 20% likely Bell 206 or alert at 1001–1500 m; no reaction Murphy et al. 1989 Bell 212) at >1500 m

3-14 BOI072060003.DOC RESULTS

BIRDS (cont.)

Greater White-fronted Helicopter Near (<200 m) 0–20+ m NA Slinging barrels near active nest Alaska, Prudhoe Bay Goose (cont.) (unknown type; caused female to fly 250 m; nest likely Bell 206 or failed; second nest nearby Murphy et al. 1989 Bell 212) successful, that female did not respond

Helicopter <500 to Variable NA No reactions recorded even to a Alaska, Prudhoe Bay (unknown type; 5000 m helicopter at <500 m from a likely Bell 206 or brood-rearing group Murphy et al. 1990 Bell 212)

Brant Bell 206, 0–0.4 mi 500–5000 ft Variable (412 Flights >1070 m did not disturb Alaska, North Slope (Brant bernicla) Bell 412 was 6 dBA geese; disturbance decreased at noisier than lateral distances >4 km; >90% of Derksen et al. 1992, 206) flocks reacted to aircraft noise >62 Ward et al. 1990b dBA

Bell 206 Variable 20–3000 ft NA Flushed from nests at distances of Canada, Yukon <500 ft AGL Gollop et al. 1974

Bell 206 Variable Mean = 330 m; NA Large flocks reacted longer than Alaska, Teshekpuk range = 150– small flocks, response decreased Lake 1525 m with increasing lateral distance to helicopter; brant exposed to Jensen 1990 helicopters moved 5x rate of undisturbed brant

Helicopter a) 500– a) 10–30 m NA Helicopter slinging barrels; a) alert Alaska, Prudhoe Bay (unknown type; 2000 m behaviors common, running at likely Bell 206 or b) 15–30 m 200–300 m distance; b) Brant Murphy et al. 1988 Bell 212) b) 100–700 m moved 1.4 km away

BOI072060003.DOC 3-15 RESULTS

BIRDS (cont.)

Brant (cont.) Helicopter <1500 m <50 m (?) NA Nearly all reacted to overflights Alaska, Prudhoe Bay (unknown type; within 1500 m lateral distance likely Bell 206 or Murphy et al. 1989 Bell 212)

Helicopter <500 to Variable NA All reactions (alert or locomotion) Alaska, Prudhoe Bay (unknown type; 5000 m were to helicopters at <500 m likely Bell 206 or lateral distance. Murphy et al. 1990 Bell 212)

Bell 205, 206B; Overhead to 0–610 m 75–85 dBA; Brant responded at close and far Alaska, Izembek Hughes 500-D, >2 km varied by distances (presumably to noise Lagoon Aerospatiale helicopter type alone), often up to 1800 m AGL; Puma, Sikorsky (see often Brant flew >1 km; responses Ward and Stehn 1989; HH-3F annotations) were greater to helicopters than Ward et al. 1990a, fixed-wing aircraft 1994, 1999, 2001

Canada Goose Helicopter 500–1000 m Varied NA 50% reacted (alert, walk, run) at Alaska, Prudhoe Bay (Branta canadensis) (unknown type; <500 m; 25% at 501–1000 m; no Murphy et al. 1989 likely Bell 206 or response at >1000 m Bell 212)

Bell 206 Overhead 50 m NA Six geese flew 1000 m in Alaska, Prudhoe Bay response to overflight; most other Murphy et al. 1990 reactions were mild to helicopters at <500 m horizontal distance

Military jets Overhead Low-level (30– >75 dB Breeding populations unaffected Canada, Labrador/ (F-18, Tornado) 300 m) by frequent overflights Quebec

Turner and Hicks 2003

3-16 BOI072060003.DOC RESULTS

BIRDS (cont.)

Canada Goose (cont.) Bell 205, 206B; Overhead to 0–610 m 75–85 dBA; Canada Geese showed limited Alaska, Izembek Hughes 500-D, >2 km varied by responses to helicopters (11% of Lagoon Aerospatiale helicopter type flocks); lateral distance was the Puma, Sikorsky (see greatest predictor of response Ward and Stehn 1989; HH-3F annotations) Ward et al. 1999, 2001

Pink-footed and Bell 206B, Bell <1 km to >120 m NA Geese reacted to Bell 212 at ~10 Greenland Barnacle geese 212 >10 km km and to Bell 206 at ~5 km; time (Anser budgets of Pink-footed Geese Mosbech and Glahder brachyrhynchus; affected by disturbance; less 1991 Branta leucopsis) effect for Barnacle Geese

Dabbling Ducks Harrier jets; 152 m Mean = 85.1 Few (<2%) of ducks reacted; North Carolina helicopters dBA; habituation apparent (type unknown) Conomy et al. 1998 Range 80–109 dBA

Black Duck Military jets Overhead Low-level (30– >75 dB Heart rates increases were short Canada, Labrador/ (Anas rubripes) (F-18, Tornado) 300 m) in duration during overflights Quebec (several sec to 1 min) Trimper et al. 2003, Turner and Hicks 2003

Ducks Alouette Overhead (0) 80–600 m 75 dBA Stressed behaviors seen in 82% Switzerland (Pochard [Aythya SA-316B, (Alouette)–78 (Ecureuil) and 89% (Alouette) ferina], Tufted Duck [A. Ecureuil dBA (Ecureuil) overflights Komenda-Zehnder et fuligula], coots) AS-350B2 at 150 m AGL al. 2003

Long-tailed Duck Helicopter 300–1200 ft 100–750 ft NA Escape reactions acute at low Canada, Yukon, (Clangula hyemalis) (unknown; likely flight altitudes; birds aware of Herschel Island Bell 206) helicopter at 0.5–1 mi Gollop et al. 1974b

BOI072060003.DOC 3-17 RESULTS

BIRDS (cont.)

Harlequin Duck Military jets Varied 30–100 m >100 dBA Ducks responded with alert Canada, Labrador (Histrionicus behaviors, residual effects lasted histrionicus) 1–1.5 hr after overflights Goudie 2003, 2006; Goudie and Jones 2004

Common Eider Bell 212, MB 300 m 0–30 m NA Eiders nested within 300 m of Alaska, North Slope (Somateria mollisima) BO-105CBS (landing/take helipad, no responses to Johnson et al. 1987 offs) overflights

Sandhill Crane Bell 205 1.6–2.1 km NA NA Cranes flushed at 1.6–2.1 km on Alaska, Copper River (Grus canadensis) two occasions and flew 800 m Delta during each event; helicopters caused responses at greater Herter 1982 distances and were more severe than for fixed-wing aircraft

Cobra 1 mi 0 (taking off) NA Flock of 20 cranes broke Alaska, Fort Greely, helicopter formation and changed direction Tanana River Valley

Kessel 1979

Helicopter 1500–2500 ft Unknown NA Flock turned 180 degrees when (unknown type) approached by helicopter at same altitude

Helicopter 300 ft 1000 ft NA Flock did not respond to helicopter Alaska, Fort Greely, (unknown type) flying below them and slightly to Tanana River Valley one side; a flock did not respond to helicopter taking off >1000 ft Kessel 1979 from flight path

3-18 BOI072060003.DOC RESULTS

BIRDS (cont.)

Sandhill Crane (cont.) Helicopter 0.5 mi 1000 ft NA Flock did not respond to helicopter Alaska, Fort Greely, (unknown type) flying 1000 ft below them Tanana River Valley

Kessel 1979

Piasecki H-21 0 500 ft NA Cranes (25% of flock) roosting on ground flushed

Helicopter 1300 ft 250–300 ft NA Cranes roosting on ground flushed (unknown type)

Bell 206 2000 ft 800 ft NA Cranes roosting on ground did not flush

Red-tailed Hawk UH-1 500 m initially; 30–45 m NA Response varied by area (8% and Colorado (Buteo jamaicensis) approach to 53% of birds at nests flushed); Andersen et al. 1989 30 m flushing distance varied from 10– 100 m

Osprey Bell 47G-3B-1 >50 m >50 m NA Adults flushed from nests if Idaho (Pandion haliaetus) helicopter approached within 50 m Carrier and Melquist 1976

Military jets 0–2.5 nm Low-level, 52–101 dB Jet overflights had little effect on Canada, Labrador/ (F-18, Tornado) base at 30 m productivity of nesting osprey, or Quebec behaviors Trimper et al. 1998, Trimper and Thomas 2001

BOI072060003.DOC 3-19 RESULTS

BIRDS (cont.)

Mexican Spotted Owl Sikorksky, 15 m; 60 m; 15 m; 60 m; Varied with Owls flushed with increasing noise New Mexico (Strix occidentalis HH-60G, Pave 30 m horizon- distance/type levels, but did not flush if lucida) Hawk tal & 30 m 30 m horizon- helicopters was >105 m and noise Delaney et al. 1999 vertical tal & 30 m <92 dBA (SEL) vertical

F-16 Varied 460 m 78–95 dB Few responses by roosting owls, Colorado other than a head turn Johnson and Reynolds 2002

Peregrine Falcon Military jets Variable <100 m Mean = 100 Nesting success and productivity Alaska, Interior (Falco peregrinus) (F-15, F-16, dBA (SEL) not affected by overflights/noise; A-10) no population level effects Murphy et al. 2001, 2002

Military jets <1000 m slant <100 m Event defined Minimal (78%) responses by Alaska, Interior (F-15, F-16, as >85 dBA adults, 17% alert, 2% intense; no A-10) reactions at >300 m AGL and Nordmeyer Elmore et >550 m slant distance; males al. 2002a more responsive than females

Helicopter (type <1000 m slant NA NA Helicopters rare events; one flight Alaska, Interior unknown) response of male falcon to helicopter recorded Nordmeyer Elmore et al. 2002c

Military jets <1000 m slant <100 m Event defined Nest attendance not affected by Alaska, Interior (F-15, F-16, as >85 dBA overflights; parental behavior not A-10) affected; some differences Palmer et al. 2002, between males and females in 2003 ledge attendance; nestling provisioning also unaffected

3-20 BOI072060003.DOC RESULTS

BIRDS (cont.)

Peregrine Falcon Bell 206-L Mean = 2358 ft 200–1500 ft NA Of 195 reactions to helicopters, Alaska, North Slope (cont.) 85% were none/mild, 13% moderate; only 3 severe reactions Ritchie 1987 all for helicopters <2000 ft distance

Gyrfalcon Bell 206 60 m 150–600 m NA Nesting falcons disturbed more by Canada, Yukon North (Falco rusticolus) 150 m AGL than 300 m AGL Slope overflights; no disturbance at 600 m AGL Platt and Tull 1977

Bald Eagle Military jets, light Varied Varied NA Helicopters elicited most Arizona, Michigan (Haliaeetus airplanes, responses (47%); jets (31%), leucocephalus) helicopters small planes (26%) Grubb and Bowerman (types not given) 1997

Helicopters Varied Varied NA Of 718 helicopters, 337 elicited a Arizona (types not given) responses; responses lasted average 1 min; few (11%) Grubb and King 1991 responses involved more than alert behavior

UH-1, OH-58 Overhead 60–120 m NA Most (47%) eagles flushed to Washington, Fort helicopters <300 m AGL; Lewis subadults more responsive than adults Stalmaster and Kaiser 1997

Hiller/Soloy Overhead 30–50 m NA Overflights of nests; most (48%) Washington, Puget UH-12E, eagles did not respond, 36% Sound Bell 206-B-III flushed, 16% were alert; greater disturbance when no young in Watson 1993 nest

BOI072060003.DOC 3-21 RESULTS

BIRDS (cont.)

Raptors (Eagles, Military jets Varied; within <60 to >300 m Modeled Few (<10%) adult raptors Arizona Peregrine Falcons, 60 m values used responded to overflights at >150 etc.) m Ellis et al. 1991

Glaucous Gull Bell 206 Variable 20–3000 ft NA Disturbed at <500 ft AGL Canada, Yukon (Larus hyperboreus) Gollop et al. 1974a

Arctic Tern Bell 206 Variable 20–3000 ft NA Disturbed at <1000 ft AGL Canada, Yukon (Sterna paradisea) Gollop et al. 1974a

Red-cockaded USA military Varied Varied 103–110 dBA Nesting woodpeckers did not flush SE United States Woodpecker helicopters at 30–50 m; to 83 helicopter passes; >30 m (Picoides borealis) 73–85 dBA at from nest Delaney et al. 2002 301–500 m

Neotropical songbirds Military jets 500–1000 m 0 to >1000 ft 65–66 dBA No changes in stress hormone Alaska, Eielson AFB (A-10, F-16, etc.) (Leq, average levels for most birds; no effects on daily) nest productivity Rozell 2003 a Helicopters are designated in boldfaced type.

NA = not available.

? = indicates upper altitude limit not provided or that altitude is not clearly evident from text.

3-22 BOI072060003.DOC

CHAPTER 4 Annotated Bibliography

AMEC Americas Limited. 2005. Effects of noise on wildlife. Mackenzie Gas Project. Unpublished report to Imperial Oil Resources Ventures Limited. 74 pages (pp.)

Abstract: [Excerpts from Objectives.] The objectives of this report are to (1) provide an overview of the existing knowledge available on the effects of noise on wildlife that might result from constructing and operating the project, including a description of the factors that cause noise effects on wildlife, and the responses to noise by wildlife; (2) compile and summarize the direct evidence for the effects of noise on each wildlife species. Direct evidence came from studies that followed experimental protocols, such as use of a control group, and included some measure of noise levels, either as decibels or as distance from the source. In some studies, distance from the source is used as a surrogate for noise level (see Section 1.3.1). Direct evidence was specific to the wildlife species itself, not to any related species. Studies that examined the effects of aircraft overflights and snowmobiles were included as direct evidence if some indication of noise level was provided, and if the intent was not just to test the effects of harassment. These studies did not typically address the separation of the visual and noise components of these types of disturbance (see Section 1.3 for further discussion); (3) compile and summarize the indirect evidence for the effects of noise on each wildlife species examined. Indirect evidence came from studies on the avoidance of features that might be a source of noise disturbance, such as roads. Under such indirect evidence, there was no specific assessment of noise level. Indirect evidence also includes direct evidence for noise effects obtained for closely-related species. Annotation: The report provides an excellent literature review and summary of the effects of noise on wildlife species found in the arctic regions of Alaska and Canada. Helicopter disturbances are summarized for caribou, muskoxen, bears (polar, grizzly), marine mammals, and other wildlife species.

Amstrup, S. C. 1993. Human disturbances of denning polar bears in Alaska. Arctic 46: 246– 250.

Abstract: Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) give birth in dens of snow and ice. The altricial neonates cannot leave the den for >2 months post-partum and are potentially vulnerable to disturbances near the dens. The coastal plain (1002) area of Alaska’s Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) lies in a region of known polar bear denning and also may contain >9 billion barrels of recoverable oil. Polar bears in dens could be affected in many ways by hydrocarbon development, but neither the distribution of dens nor the sensitivity of bears in dens has been known. I documented the distribution of dens on ANWR between 1981 and 1992 and

BOI072060003.DOC 4-1 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

observed responses of bears in dens to various anthropogenic disturbances. Of 44 dens located by radiotelemetry on the mainland coast of Alaska and Canada, 20 (45%) were on ANWR and 15 (34%) were within the 1002 area. Thus, development of ANWR will increase the potential that denning polar bears are disturbed by human activities. However, perturbations resulting from capture, marking, and radiotracking maternal bears did not affect litter sizes or stature of cubs produced. Likewise, 10 of 12 denned polar bears tolerated exposure to exceptional levels of activity. This tolerance and the fact that investment in the denning effort increases through the winter indicated that spatial and temporal restrictions on developments could prevent the potential for many disruptions of denned bears from being realized. Annotation: The effects of human disturbances (fixed-wing airplanes, helicopters, snowmachines, seismic vehicles, and oilfield disturbances) on denning polar bears on the coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge were examined. Four bears at dens were exposed to helicopter disturbances.

• A bear abandoned one den after a helicopter (type not indicated, but likely a Bell 206) overflight at 100 m and subsequent capture of the bear. The bear moved 64 kilometers (km) to a new den site.

• A bear came to the entrance of her den and watched a helicopter that hovered at 100 m above the den. This bear was observed three additional times, including a slow overflight at 50 m above the den.

• After a helicopter hovered at 100 m above ground level (AGL) and 100 m in front of the den, a bear ran. This bear was captured and eventually dug a new den 20 km from the old site.

• A female with one cub ran from a den after a helicopter approached and landed at the den site. The bears returned to the den within 3 days. Responses of bears to helicopters seemed to vary seasonally, with more bears abandoning dens in fall than spring (when cubs may be present). The relative effects of the helicopter disturbance and the capture of the bears are not discussed for the two instances of abandonment described by the author, but the relative impacts of the capture and handling probably were greater than the initial overflight of the helicopter. No sound-level data are provided for disturbance types.

Andersen, D. E., O. J. Rongstad, and W. R. Mytton. 1989. Response of nesting Red-tailed Hawks to helicopter overflights. Condor 91: 296–299.

Abstract: Low-level helicopter overflights of 35 Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) nests were conducted at two study areas in southeastern and east-central Colorado in 1984 and 1985. Red-tailed Hawks nesting where low-level air traffic was nonexistent prior to 1983 exhibited stronger avoidance behavior than did hawks

4-2 BOI072060003.DOC ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

nesting where helicopter activity had occurred since the late 1950s. Nine (53%) of 17 birds in the first study area flushed from the nest while only one (8%) of 12 birds in the second study area flushed. Age of nestlings at the time an overflight occurred did not influence avoidance behavior, and overflights did not appear to influence nesting success at either study area. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that Red-tailed Hawks habituate to low-level air traffic during the nesting period. However, naive birds may respond negatively to low-level helicopter activity prior to habituation and other species of raptors may respond differently than Red-tailed Hawks.

Annotation: The responses of Red-tailed Hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) to a low-level helicopter overflight were observed at two military sites in Colorado. Controlled flights were conducted at nests in 1984 (17 nests) and 1985 (18 nests). The test helicopter was an Army UH-1 that flew at nests from distances of at least 500 m and airspeeds of 45–65 kilometers per hour (km/h) (altitude was 30–45 m AGL). The helicopter passed directly over or to one side of the nests. If birds did not flush, they were approached as close as 30 m. Responses of hawks differed between the two areas studied: 53% (9 of 17) versus 8% (1 of 12 nests) showed strong avoidance behavior, but behaviors did not differ between years within a study area. The mean distance from the helicopter when birds flushed varied from 17 m (1985, 7 nests) to 100 m (1984, 6 nests) at the first site and 10 m (1 nest) at the second site. Nesting success was high at both sites and no effect of helicopters on fledging success was found at either site. The authors concluded that habituation of hawks to low-level air traffic accounted for the behavioral differences noted between the study areas, with the hawks in the area where air traffic was less common (second site) responding more strongly to helicopters. No noise data were collected for overflights.

Andersen, R., J. D. C. Linnell, and R. Langvatn. 1996. Short term behavioural and physiological response of moose Alces alces to military disturbance in Norway. Biological Conservation 77: 169–176.

Abstract: The response of moose Alces alces to military disturbance in a multi-use landscape was studied. Four individual free-ranging moose, fitted with heart-rate transmitters, were subjected to specific stimuli in controlled disturbance trials, and 12 radio-collared moose were followed for 3-week-long periods, before, during, and after large-scale military maneuvers. In the disturbance trials the moose showed much shorter flush distances (the distance from the disturber at which flight began) and normal heart rate returned sooner after being disturbed by mechanical stimuli than after human stimuli. There was no significant difference in flight distance or maximum heart rate for these two categories of disturbance. There was a significant, inverse relationship between flushing distance and both flight distance and the time required for heart rate to return to normal. During maneuvers the home range size increased, but only one moose within the disturbed area made a significant home

BOI072060003.DOC 4-3 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

range shift. We hypothesized that the greater fear of humans than of vehicles is due to the strict ban on hunting from vehicles, and to the familiarity with unthreatening, all-terrain, timber-cutting vehicles. We concluded that military activity of the type studied here is not especially detrimental to moose, and that the effects of their activity should not differ from comparable civilian harassment. Annotation: In this study in central Norway, moose were captured and fitted with heart rate transmitters to monitor effects of military operations. The moose were exposed in experiments to various types of “human” (people visible) and “mechanical” (vehicles, helicopter, jet aircraft) disturbance. Responses of moose to jet aircraft were mild. For example, no heart rate increase or movements were noted for moose exposed to an F-16 overflight at 150 m AGL. In contrast, skiers and walkers flushed moose at distances of 200–400 m. Responses of moose to helicopters (type not given, but a military aircraft) were recorded on six occasions. During four of these experiments, the helicopter had a minimum approach distance of 400–800 m, and moose showed no response (no heart rate change or movements noted). During the other two experiments, moose did respond to close approaches by helicopters in the following ways: 1) The moose began moving when the helicopter was at a distance of 40 m, moved 1500 m (flight distance), and it took 8 minutes (min) for its heart rate to return to normal. (The heart rate increased from 80 beats/min to 205 beats/min during the overflight.) 2) The moose began moving when the helicopter was at 50 m, moved 1000 m, and it took 11 min for its heart rate to return to normal. (The heart rate increased from 80 beats/min to 205 beats/min.) Observations of moose home ranges during military training did show expansion of home ranges when moose were subjected to these types of disturbances (which included overflights by attack and transport helicopters), but ranges decreased (although not to pre-disturbance size) after activities ceased.

Andrus, K. 2005. Development of a heli-skiing and mountain goat habitat management model. Paper presented at 1st BC Mountain Goat Workshop, 1–2 March 2005, Prince George, British Columbia.

Abstract: [Project Summary.] A Habitat Management Model (HMM) was prepared to evaluate the existing management strategies for heli-skiing operations located in the vicinity of confirmed and unconfirmed mountain goat habitat in northwestern British Columbia. The model is a three dimensional analysis which incorporated a predictive habitat model, a viewshed analysis and a noise model simulation. The results of the predictive habitat model were utilized to define the confirmed and unconfirmed habitat polygons from which the visual and audio analysis could occur. The HMM analyzed the visual and audio impact of helicopter overflights on mountain goats within 500 m, 1000 m, 1500 m and 2000 m from confirmed and unconfirmed mountain goat habitat. The HMM for 1000 m and 1500 m found there

4-4 BOI072060003.DOC ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

was no change with the West flight path and minimal change (0.37 % in area) for the East flight path to disturbance levels HMM 1 and HMM 2. The HMM 1 and HMM 2 disturbance levels accounts for the potential visibility and non-visibility of a helicopter to mountain goats and for helicopter audio levels greater than 70 dB. Existing management strategies developed by the Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection Skeena Region (MWLAP Skeena Region) and Last Frontier Heliskiing were analyzed within the context of the HMM. Annotation: The paper discusses a noise model and habitat management model used to reduce the disturbance to mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) related to helicopter-supported skiing activities in northern British Columbia. The habitat model identified core goat wintering habitats and evaluated flight corridors for helicopters to ensure they maintained the distance guidelines (2000 m separation between goats and helicopters). The noise model simulation was based on input data (flight path, speed, power, altitude [AGL], humidity, temperature, and impedance/ground cover) and noise levels associated with the helicopter used (A- Star 350). Sound levels were measured as sound exposure level (SEL) and maximum sound pressure level (Lmax). Graphical depictions of noise contours were developed for the various flight routes. The viewshed and noise analyses were integrated to provided rankings (six levels) that were combinations of both visibility of helicopters to goats (visible in known goat area, visible in unconfirmed goat area, and not visible) and modeled noise levels (>70 dBA, 55–70 dBA, <55 dBA). Greater weight was given to noise than to visibility in these weightings. No direct measurements were made of helicopter noise.

Baker, M., and G. Belliveau (eds.). 2001. Effects of noise on wildlife conference. Conference Proceedings, 22–23 August 2000, Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Labrador. Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research, Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Newfoundland. Terra Borealis Vol. 2. 81 pp.

Annotation: Proceedings for a conference on the effects of noise (mostly jet and other aircraft overflights) on wildlife. Papers dealing with waterfowl, large mammals, raptors, measurement techniques, and management topics. Some individual papers are annotated in this report:

• Brown, L. 2001. The response of sea birds to simulated acoustic and visual aircraft stimuli.

• Fleming, W. J., J. A. Dubovsky, J. A. Collazo, Jr. E. R. Temple, and J. T. Conomy. 2001. An overview of studies to assess the effects of military aircraft training activities on waterfowl at Piney Island, North Carolina.

• Hunsaker II, D. 2001. The effects of aircraft operations on passerine reproduction.

• Jung, T. S., and C. C. Jones. 2001. Movements and site fidelity of woodland caribou of the Red Wine Mountains Herd in relation to low-level aircraft training in Labrador.

BOI072060003.DOC 4-5 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Maier, J. A. K., R. G. White, S. M. Murphy, and M. D. Smith. 2001. Effects of overflights by jet aircraft on activity, movements, habitat, and terrain use of caribou.

• Murphy, S. M., R. J. Ritchie, A.G. Palmer, D.L. Nordmeyer, D. D. Roby, and M. D. Smith. 2001. Responses of Peregrine Falcons to military jet aircraft.

• Trimper, P. G., and P. Thomas. 2001. Summary of Osprey research relating to the low-level flying program in Labrador and Quebec.

• Ward, D. H., R. A. Stehn, and D. V. Derksen. 2001. Response of geese to aircraft disturbances.

Barry, T. W., and R. Spencer. 1976. Wildlife response to oil well drilling. Canadian Wildlife Service Program Notes, No. 67. 15 pp.

Annotation: The effects of oil drilling on wildlife in the Mackenzie River Delta were studied during one summer. Aerial survey data of waterfowl within 30 square kilometers (km2) were compared with a previous year’s data, and numbers and species of birds in plots within 2.5 km2 of the drill site were compared with a similar number of plots in a control area 8 km away. Tests were made with different modes of transport (helicopters, fixed-winged planes, and boats) to observe responses. Low- level helicopter flights apparently were the most disturbing factor at the site, directly affecting the area within a 2.5-km radius. The helicopter was flown over nesting birds and concentrations of Snow and White-fronted geese at an altitude of 90 m (helicopter type not specified other than that it was a “large turbine-powered type”). Anecdotal descriptions of bird responses to helicopters are provided, including hovering within 20 m of a nesting Tundra Swan, which only left the nest when the helicopter lowered to 10 m. General responses of birds to helicopters were to flush or move away from the helicopter flying or hovering at 90 m. Molting birds often did not move until the helicopter hovered <20 m overhead. Snow Geese, however, left their nests when the helicopter was at a distance of 0.8–2.4 km flying at 90 m AGL and 150 km/h. These geese returned to the nests once the helicopter had passed and was at a distance of about 0.8 km. Non-nesting geese flushed from the helicopter at distances of 3 km. One observation was reported of a grizzly bear running when the helicopter was overhead (no altitude given). No noise data were reported for the helicopter.

4-6 BOI072060003.DOC ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bateman, M. C., A. H. Hicks, and S. M. Bowes. 1999. Waterfowl behaviour in response to jet overflights at Snegamook Lake, Labrador. Unpublished report to Goose Bay Office, National Defence Headquarters, Ottawa, Canada. 139 pp.

Abstract: In 1995, the Canadian Wildlife Service and the Department of National Defence initiated a two part study to examine the effects of low-level jet flight training on waterfowl in Labrador. This report pertains to the effects of low-level jets on the behaviour of moulting and staging waterfowl. Scan sampling (15 minute time periods) was used to quantitatively document the behaviour of waterfowl at Snegamook Lake before, during, and after jet overflights. Black Ducks and Canada Geese were the most abundant species present at Snegamook Lake. Totals of 28,202 Canada Goose and 15,972 Black Duck observations were recorded in 1995 during two trips to the study area. An observation is one bird recorded on one 15 minute scan. In 1996 three visits were made to the study area with a total of 29,467 Black Duck and 54,909 Canada Goose observations. One successful trip was made to the site in 1997, with a total of 4,279 Black Duck and 3,697 Canada Goose observations. There were annual, seasonal and time of day effects on the behaviours of Canada Geese and Black Ducks. A total of eight jet aircraft events occurred over Snegamook Lake during the observation periods in 1995; 58, in 1996 and 62, in 1997. Over 50 percent of the flights occurred at or below 75 meters (250 feet) above ground level. Waterfowl were present during 110 (85.9 percent) of the aircraft events. An observable change in behaviour in response to jets was recorded in two incidences. There were few significant differences in the proportions of Black Ducks and Canada Geese exhibiting selected behaviours before and after disturbance by jet overflights. Our results suggest that the current low-level jet training program on the Quebec- Labrador peninsula has negligible effects on behaviour of moulting and staging waterfowl. Annotation: The study focused primarily on the effects of military jet aircraft. Noise data were collected for aircraft. The maximum SEL for jet overflights was 115.6 dBA. Only 2 of 110 aircraft events resulted in responses from waterfowl (changes to observed behavior). The authors conclude that:

• Waterfowl do not perceive the jets to be a threat because of the lack of visual cues from the fast-moving aircraft

• Waterfowl may have habituated to the noise associated with the jet overflights The authors also found that slow-moving transport planes were more likely to elicit an overt response from waterfowl, which suggests that helicopters may have a similar effect.

Belanger, L., and J. Bedard. 1989. Responses of staging Greater Snow Geese to human disturbance. Journal of Wildlife Management 53: 713–719.

Abstract: We studied the effects of human disturbance on staging in greater snow geese (Chen caerulescens atlantica) spring and fall in the Montmagny bird sanctuary,

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Quebec, 1985-87. We recorded 652 disturbances (any event causing all or a part of the goose flock to take flight) in 471 hours of observation. Rate of disturbance was higher in fall (1.46/hr) than in spring (1.02/hr) (P < 0.001). The entire flock was disturbed in 20% of all cases. Mean time in flight was 56 and 76 seconds in fall and spring, respectively (P = 0.049). Transport-related activities particularly low-flying aircraft, caused >45% of all disturbances in spring and fall. In 40% of all cases (P > 0.05) geese stopped their feeding activities following a disturbance. Mean time to resume feeding was then 726 seconds in fall compared to 122 seconds in spring (P < 0.001). The level of disturbance that prevailed on a given day in fall (mean hourly rate) influenced goose use of the sanctuary on the following day (P < 0.01). When disturbance exceeded 2.0/hour, it produced a 50% drop in the mean number of geese present in the sanctuary the next day. Low-level aircraft flights over goose sanctuaries should be strictly regulated. Annotation: The authors compared the rates of disturbance for staging snow geese during the spring and fall at marshes in Quebec, Canada. Disturbances, which were defined as any event causing all or part of a flock to take flight, included those from aircraft (both airplanes and helicopters), boats, pedestrians, vehicles, and hunting activity. Fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters were lumped into the “transport activities” category for analyses. These transport-related disturbances accounted for >45% of human disturbances in both spring and fall, and resulted in the greatest amount of time the geese spent flying during both periods. The relative responses to helicopters versus fixed-wing aircraft are not presented, but the authors suggest that sounds of approaching aircraft induce disturbance before the aircraft are visible (likely a greater effect for helicopters than fixed-wing aircraft). The authors recommend flight altitudes of >500 m above all goose feeding and staging areas. No noise data are provided.

Bleich, V. C., R. T. Bowyer, A. M. Pauli, M. C. Nicholson, and R. W. Anthes. 1994. Mountain sheep Ovis canadensis and helicopter surveys: Ramifications for the conservation of large mammals. Biological Conservation 70: 1–7.

Abstract: Mountain sheep Ovis canadensis respond dramatically to helicopter disturbance. Significantly more animals abandoned sampling blocks and moved farther during helicopter surveys than on nonsurvey days throughout the year. Likewise, mountain sheep changed the vegetation type they occurred in more often than before helicopter surveys; however, this difference was only significant during spring. Mountain sheep did not habituate or become sensitized to repeated helicopter overflights: time since capture was not related to movements. The negative influence of the helicopter was extreme and may override variables that might otherwise be correlated with movement patterns of mountain sheep: this outcome also may hold for other ungulates. Further, sampling with helicopters may result in the violation of fundamental assumptions of population estimators

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routinely employed in conservation efforts for large mammals. The consequences of disturbing mountain sheep, such as alterning use of habitat, increasing susceptibility to predation, or increasing nutritional stress, need additional study. These factors all have ramifications for the conservation of mountain sheep and other large mammals disturbed by helicopter sampling. Annotation: The movements and habitat use of male and female mountain sheep exposed to low-altitude helicopter overflights (a Bell 206B-III helicopter flying at ~100 m AGL) were quantified. The 2-year study observed sheep during the winter, spring, summer, and fall. Sheep moved significantly greater distances (~3–5 km) following helicopter disturbance than prior to disturbance (~1.5–2 km). The author indicates that downdrafts and severe noise (no actual noise data provided) were the primary stimulus. Noise alone did not seem to have a large effect, however, because sheep in areas adjacent to those surveyed (which were exposed only to noise) did not show severe responses. Sheep were also displaced from foraging habitats, which could have detrimental energetic effects, particularly for females with young. Sheep did not seem to habituate to helicopters and the authors discuss possible adverse effects on sheep populations and suggest caution related to the use of helicopters in habitat studies.

Blix, A. S., and J. W. Lentfer. 1992. Noise and vibration levels in artificial polar bear dens as related to selected petroleum exploration and development activities. Arctic 45: 20– 24.

Abstract: The noise and vibration levels resulting from seismic testing, drilling and transport were measured in artificial polar bear dens at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. It was concluded that the dry and wind-beaten arctic snow muffles sound and vibrations extremely well and it seems unlikely that polar bears in their dens will be disturbed by the type of petroleum-related activities measured here, providing those activities do not take place within 100 m of the den. Annotation: Sound levels were measured inside an artificial polar bear den for a helicopter (Bell UH-1B) taking off 3 m from the den (sound levels were also measured at 3 m from the helicopter outside the den). Noise levels during the helicopter takeoff were 76–78 dB inside the den and 114–116 dB outside the den. Ambient sound levels inside the den varied depending on wind conditions, but ranged from 15–45 dB. The authors indicate that snow dens efficiently muffle most disturbances from oilfield activities except those close (<100 m) to dens.

Born, E. W., F. F. Riget, R. Dietz, and D. Andriashek. 1999. Escape responses of hauled out ringed seals (Phoca hispida) to aircraft disturbance. Polar Biology 21: 171–178.

Abstract: Arctic marine mammals may be subject to human-induced disturbance from various air traffic, mostly in connection with exploration and exploitation of

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non-renewable resources. The escape responses (i.e. leaving the ice) of hauled out ringed seals (Phoca hispida) to a low-flying (150 m) fixed-wing twin-engine aircraft (Partenavia PN68 Observer) during strip censuses in eastern Greenland (June 1984) and to a low-flying (150 m) helicopter (Bell 206 III) during reconnaissance in northwestern Greenland (May 1992) were recorded. Overall, 6.0% of the seals (Ntot = 5040) escaped as a reaction to the fixed-wing aircraft. Seals escaped less than about 600 m in front of the aircraft. The overall probability of escaping was 0.21 within a 200-m-wide centre zone, 0.06 on the side of the aircraft (100-300 m from the flight track), and 0.02 between 300 and 500 m from the track. The probability of escaping was found to be influenced by the time of day, relative wind direction and wind chill. Overall, about 49% of all seals (Ntot = 227 cases) escaped as a response to the helicopter. Seals entered the water a maximum of about 1250 m in front of the aircraft. At wind chill values below 1100 kcal/m2 h, the probability of escaping was 0.79 in the 200-m-wide centre zone. On the sides the probability of escaping decreased up to about 500 m from the flight track whereafter it remained constant at about 0.30 up to about 1450 m. During the helicopter surveys wind chill was the only environmental factor found to have an additional effect on the probability of escaping. The study indicated that the risk of scaring ringed seals into the water can be substantially reduced if small-type helicopters do not approach them closer than about 1500 m, and small fixed-winged aircraft not closer than about 500 m. Annotation: The proportions of ringed seals entering the water in response to fixed- wing aircraft and a helicopter are reported relative to aircraft type, distance from aircraft, time of day, ice type (or habitat), wind chill and speed, temperature, cloud cover, and wind direction. Surveys were flown at 150 m AGL (~500 ft) and they quantified the noise spectrum of each aircraft flying at this altitude. The Partenavia PN68 Observer (fixed-wing, twin-engine) generated sound levels at ground level of 82 dBA, whereas the Bell 206 III helicopter generated slightly louder sound levels at ground level (86 dBA). The number of responses was greater when the disturbing aircraft was the Bell 206 III helicopter, with 50% of the ringed seals escaping at distances within 400 m of the aircraft. Sound, rather than visual stimuli, was considered the important factor initiating the responses of seals to helicopters because seals were seen diving about 1.5 km away.

Bowles, A. E. 1995. Responses of wildlife to noise. Pages 109–156 in R. L. Knight, and K. J. Gutzwiller, eds. Wildlife and recreationists: Coexistence through management and research. Island Press, Washington, D.C.

Annotation: The chapter provides a general discussion of characteristics of noise and its transmission and potential effects on both humans and wildlife. The current literature available on noise and wildlife disturbance is reviewed, including the effects of aircraft (fixed-wing and helicopter) disturbance and noise. Good discussions of the effects of noise on physiology, behavior, and habitat use are provided, as well as sections dealing with management options, mitigation, and knowledge gaps.

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Bowles, A. E., F. T. Awbrey, and R. Kull. 1990. A model for the effects of aircraft overflight noise on the reproductive success of raptorial birds. Pages 1129–1132 in Noise and Sonic Boom Impact Technology, Inter-Noise, 1990. Wright Patterson AFB, OH.

Annotation: The authors outline a model on the effects of overflight noise on the reproductive success of raptors to demonstrate future research needs. These research needs included defining the habituation function of wild birds, determining the naive responsiveness at various stages of the breeding season, and obtaining actual measurements of per-incidental loss rates under a variety of conditions. The model does not differentiate the types of aircraft causing disturbance. The authors suggest using a presumption of a 10% loss of total productivity for approaches of <150 m or sound levels >95 dB. Actual studies are reviewed in Awbrey and Bowles (1990).

Bowles, A. E., J. K. McClenaghan, F. S. Wisely, R. Golightly, and R. Kull. 1993. Effects of aircraft noise on the predator-prey ecology of the kit fox (Vulpes macrotis) and its small mammal prey. Pages 462–469 in Michel Vallet, ed. Proceedings of the 6th Annual International Congress on Noise as a Public Health Problem. Nice, France. INRETS, Arcueil Cedex, France.

Abstract: We present the initial results of a three year study of the effects of heavy low-altitude aircraft traffic on the predator-prey ecology of two species, the kit fox (Vulpes macrotis) and the kangaroo rate (Dipodomys spp.). The study is being conducted on the Barry M. Goldwater Range (BMCR) in Arizona, USA, where these species are exposed to low-altitude overflights of F-15, F-16, and A-10 aircraft. Rates of exposure on the training racetracks of this range can exceed 160 overflights/day and sound levels often exceed 100 dB(A). Potential effects on the animals in the area include hearing damage, sleep interference, masking of predator and prey sounds, and, ultimately, effects on populations. Small mammal density, age/sex composition, species diversity, recruitment, and survivorship are being measured on 6 1.4 ha study plots, 3 in an area heavily exposed to aircraft and 3 in a matched control area. Fox abundance and home range usage are also being compared. During the 1992 and 1993 field seasons, populations of small mammals and foxes were high in both exposed and unexposed sites (p > 0.05). Merriam’s kangaroo rats (D. merriami) were less common on the exposed study plots in 1992, but there were significant differences in vegetation diversity between control and exposed plots as well. Study plots in 1993 were better matched in vegetation diversity, and preliminary evidence suggests that the difference in density of Merriam’s kangaroo rats was an artifact of method. Foxes were common on the exposed site based on several biased measures in 1992, but were found in similar densities with greater tracking effort in 1993. Seven individuals radio-tracked in the exposed area and 9 tracked in the control area had home range sizes averaging 4.44 (se = 0.52) km2 and 3.89 (se = 0.46) km2, respectively; these home range sizes did not differ significantly

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(T-test, P >> 0.05). Several successful pairs had home ranges completely within the area most heavily used by aircraft. Annotation: The initial results of a 3-year study to document the effects of low- altitude military jet aircraft on the predator-prey ecology of the kit fox and kangaroo rat on the BMGR in southern Arizona are presented. Several demographic factors of small mammals, including species density, age/sex composition, species diversity, recruitment, and survivorship, were quantified in relation to noise exposure. The effects of noise on fox demography, home range usage, and prey preferences were also studied. Ambient noise levels in this desert environment were 20–40 dBA. Animals were exposed to aircraft noise from F-15, F-16, and A-10 aircraft during both day and night. During the daytime, animals are in burrows, where noise attenuation was not great (3–10 dB); most foraging occurs at night. Noise levels associated with overflights included SELs of 100 dBA, and mean hourly equivalent noise levels (Leq) of 58–67 dBA (day) and 43–46 dBA (night). Overall noise exposure was relatively limited, however, with only 2–3% of total time when aircraft were in the area (1–6 overflights/day). Preliminary analyses suggest that small mammal populations were not affected by aircraft noise and suggest similar findings for kit foxes. The authors suggest that more subtle differences may exist, but cannot be addressed at this preliminary stage.

Brackney, A. W. 1986. Effects of aircraft disturbance on the energetics of staging Lesser Snow Geese: a model. Pages 1109–1139 in G. W. Garner, and P. E. Reynolds, eds. 1985 Update Report Baseline Study of the Fish, Wildlife, and Their Habitats. ANWR Progress Report No. FY86-6-Impacts. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska.

Abstract: Energetics of fall staging snow geese (Anser caerulescens caerulescens) on the coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) were examined in 1984- 1985 with special emphasis on the effects of aircraft disturbance. A comprehensive mode of energy intake and expenditure predicted a daily energy expenditure of 1623.5±19.9 kj/day (mean ± sd) by adult females and 1759.8±21.4 kj/day by adult males. In juveniles, 1302.4±15.5 kj/day and 1361.4±16.2 kj/day were expended by males and females, respectively. While adult females expended 1156±215.7 kj/day and males 1220±167.7 kj/day on tissue gain, juvenile males and females expended only 570.8±156.5 and 627.9±148.5 kj/day, respectively. Simulated aircraft disturbance had little effect on daily energy expenditure or activity cost under the base model which assumed limited nonflight habituation. Without the inclusion of behavioral substitution for lost feeding time (compensation), the model predicted a 50% reduction in true metabolizable energy intake and fat gain at aircraft overflights of 25 and 38 per day in juveniles and adults, respectively. Within the base model, the loss of feeding time and reduced energy intake, rather than increased energy expenditure, was relatively more important in regard to the detrimental effects of aircraft disturbance. The ameliorating effects of high levels of compensation indicated that the behavior of the geese when they are not being disturbed may be the most critical determinant of impacts from aircraft overflights.

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Annotation: The study objectives were to develop a model of energy expenditure and intake by snow geese and predict the consequences of varying levels of disturbance by aircraft. Energy costs (kilojoules [kj]) of daily activities, tissue production, thermoregulation, basal metabolic rate, metabolic fecal energy, endogenous urinary energy, and heat increment of feeding were used to estimate gross energy intake by undisturbed staging geese. The author used data from a previous study to estimate the total reaction and flying time of snow geese disturbed by aircraft. The total fat gain/day was estimated under varying numbers of aircraft overflights/day. The author indicates disturbances causing loss of feeding time and reduced energy intake were more important than the increased energy expenditure (i.e., flying or walking) resulting from the aircraft disturbance. As long as geese had sufficient compensation time (i.e., time after disturbance to increase feeding activities), the number of overflights that could be tolerated was relatively high. However, as compensation decreased, the overall energetic effects became more problematic. Specific aircraft types were not modeled. No noise data were presented in the model.

Brown, A. L. 1990. Measuring the effect of aircraft noise on sea birds. Environment International 16: 587–592.

Abstract: This paper reports on a procedure which exposes sea birds to acoustic stimuli simulating aircraft overflights, and is one of the first experiments to attempt to quantify the responses of birds in the wild to noise. The experiment, conducted on Australia's Great Barrier Reef, involved presentation of pre-recorded aircraft noise, with peak overflight levels of 65 dB(A) to 95 dB(A), to nesting sea bird colonies. Sea bird responses were videotaped and these tapes were subsequently analyzed by scoring the behavioural response of each bird in the colony. Results of a trial of this experimental procedure for one species, the Crested Tern (Sterna bergii), indicate that the maximum responses observed, preparing to fly or flying off, were restricted to exposures greater than 85 dB(A). A scanning behaviour involving head-turning was the minimum response, and this, or a more intense response, was observed in nearly all birds at all levels of exposure. However an intermediate response, an alert behaviour, demonstrated a strong positive relationship with increasing exposure. While the experiment has provided good control on simulated aircraft noise levels, preliminary observations of response of the colonies to balloon overflights suggests that visual stimulus is likely to be an important component of aircraft noise disturbance. Annotation: : Crested Terns were exposed to recorded noise from a DeHavilland Beaver floatplane. Recordings were made of the airplane at altitudes ranging from 250–1000 ft and a cruise speed of 100 knots. Ambient noise levels in the nesting colony were 55–75 dBA. As the author indicates, visual stimuli may be as important as noise levels. In addition, colonially nesting birds may tend to be more sensitive to many disturbances because of the “contagious” transmission of alert behaviors within a large colony (i.e., one bird’s response can cascade throughout the colony).

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Brown, B. T., G. S. Mills, C. Powels, W. A. Russell, G. D. Therres, and J. J. Pottie. 1999. The influence of weapons-testing noise on Bald Eagle behavior. Journal of Raptor Research 33: 227–232.

Abstract: We studied the influence of weapons-testing noise on bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) behavior at the Aberdeen Proving Ground (APG); Maryland, in 1995. Our objectives were to document and compare eagle behavior at times with and without weapons-testing noise, determine if the frequency of behavior after noise increased with increasing sound levels and compare nest success and productivity on APG with that of adjacent areas of Maryland. Most roosting (72.7%) and nesting (92.7%) eagles showed no activity (i.e., perched motionless) in the 2-sec interval following weapons-testing noise. The most frequent activity following noise was a head turn, exhibited by 18.2% of roosting and 0.7% of nesting eagles; other eagle activities following noise (e.g., body movement, vocalization and flight) were rare at both roosts (9.1%) and nests (6.6%). Frequency of activity after noise differed between adults and juveniles at nests, but did not differ between adults and immatures at roosts. Activity after noise occurred significantly more in roosting than nesting eagles. For roosting eagles, frequency of activity after noise was similar to activity at times without noise. Frequency of no activity versus activity after noise did not vary at sound intensity levels ≥110 and <110 dBP for either nesting or roosting eagles. Nest success and productivity on APG did not differ from nest success and productivity in adjacent counties of Maryland from 1990-95, suggesting that weapons-testing noise did not influence eagle reproduction at the population level. Annotation: Most activities recorded were for weapons fire and explosions. The authors found that eagles had habituated to weapons-testing noise levels in excess of 120 dBP. In comparison, normal thunder is in the 82–103 dBP range. No data are presented for helicopters, but the article may be useful for assessing weapons firing from helicopters on the ranges in Alaska, where Bald Eagles are present.

Brown, L. 2001. The response of sea birds to simulated acoustic and visual aircraft stimuli. Pages 56–59 in M. Baker and G. Belliveau, eds. Effects of Noise on Wildlife Conference. 22–23 August 2000, Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Labrador. Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research. Terra Borealis. Vol. 2.

Annotation: The paper describes the responses of nesting Crested Terns on the Great Barrier Reef in Australia to simulated helicopter flights (audio recordings and visual models) typically encountered in the tourism trade. The helicopter type used for the experiments was a Kiowa (the military equivalent of a Jet Ranger). Experiments simulated an approach, landing, brief idling on the ground, takeoff, and departure— what might be expected from helicopter tourism in the vicinity of this colony. Noise

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levels used in the experiments ranged from 70–95 dBA in five 5-dBA increments. A visual stimulus was also simulated by towing a target on a fixed wire towards and over the colony (12 m above ground and first appearing 40–50 m from the colony. The proportion of birds responding to the simulated helicopter noise increased with increasing noise levels and greater than three-quarters of all birds responded to the noise with scanning (or more severe) behavior at all noise levels. The visual experiments found that only the largest target (1-m wing span) caused behavioral responses by the terns. The author suggests that the predictable sound pattern of a fixed-wing aircraft (Beaver float plane) is less disturbing than the variable sound pattern of a helicopter dropping off crews.

Calef, G. W., E. A. DeBock, and G. M. Lortie. 1976. The reaction of barren-ground caribou to aircraft. Arctic 29: 201–212.

Abstract: The responses of barren-round caribou to fixed-wing aircraft and to helicopters were observed in the northern Yukon and Alaska. Effects of aircraft altitude, type of aircraft, season and terrain were determined together with the activity and size of group of the caribou. Panic reactions or strong escape reactions were observed in a high percentage of all groups when aircraft flew at altitudes of less than 60 metres. Flying at a minimum aircraft altitude of 150 metres during spring and fall migrations, and 300 metres at other periods, would prevent the caribou reacting in the ways most immediately injurious to them. Annotation: The reactions of Porcupine Herd caribou (Rangifer tarandus) to aircraft were studied during spring and fall migration, calving, and winter. Reactions of caribou to aircraft were more severe during calving and winter, when a greater percentage of groups reacted, and reacted to aircraft at higher altitudes, than during spring and fall migration. Reactions to helicopters were only tested on the calving grounds and were less disturbing than fixed-wing aircraft:

• 65–75% of all groups had escape or strong panic reactions to fixed-wing aircraft • Only 10–25% had similar reactions to helicopters (up to 500 m AGL for both aircraft types) The authors conclude that helicopters do not cause greater disturbance than fixed- wing aircraft, except in cases where helicopters followed groups. Flight guidelines in areas near caribou are discussed. No sound measurements of aircraft were made.

Carrier, W. D., and W. E. Melquist. 1976. The use of rotor-winged aircraft in conducting nesting surveys of Ospreys in northern Idaho. Raptor Research 10: 77–83.

Abstract: Use of a helicopter to collect data on active nests, clutch sizes, hatching successes, and nestling counts of Ospreys nesting in northern Idaho are described.

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This method is economically practical, allows for the collection of nesting data over a large area in a short period of time, and enables researchers to collect data impossible to obtain by other methods. No adverse effects to the nesting success of this population were noted. Productivity levels were essentially equivalent to those of past years. Disturbance, reaction of adults, visibility of eggs and nestlings, costs, and validity of data are discussed. Recommendations are offered for future aerial surveys of nesting Ospreys. Annotation: A Bell 47G-3B-1 helicopter was used to survey for nesting Ospreys in two watersheds in Idaho. Ospreys are apparently relatively tolerant of human disturbance. Because of their nesting habitats, Ospreys usually see approaching helicopters well before they reach the nest, which reduces sudden startle responses that might cause egg loss. Adult Ospreys usually flushed when the helicopter had approached within 50 m of the nest and they would typically circle above or to the side of the helicopter. Most birds returned to the nest immediately after the helicopter departed.

Claridge, G. 1997. Chapter 5.5.7 Impact Sources and control/mitigation measures. Pages 45– 47 in Guidelines for Managing visitation to seabird breeding islands. Prepared for Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority and Environment Australia-Biodiversity Group. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. 87 pp.

Annotation: The paper briefly reviews some literature pertinent to the disturbance of seabirds by fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters at breeding colonies on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. The author concludes that responses to aircraft may vary according to species, location, history of exposure, aircraft type, and aircraft activity. Information on helicopter effects included: 1) Desertion of a nesting colony by Sooty Terns after a helicopter landed nearby (no distance given) 2) Helicopter landings on an island with seabirds that nest in underground burrows had no apparent effect 3) Helicopter landings regularly near a nesting colony of noddies and shearwaters with little apparent effect Recommendations for flying or landing helicopters near seabird colonies included: 1) Landing at burrow-nesting colony sites only during daylight 2) Landing on nesting islands only along shorelines with seaward approaches and maintaining distances of 300 m from nesting colonies 3) No landings on islands with tree- or surface-nesting seabirds other than noddies

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4) Using existing vegetation or terrain to shield nesting colonies from helicopter approaches (reducing the visual element of disturbance) No noise data on helicopters are provided.

Conomy, J. T., J. A. Collazo, J. A. Dubovsky, and W. J. Fleming. 1998. Dabbling duck behavior and aircraft activity in coastal North Carolina. Journal of Wildlife Management 62: 1127–1134.

Abstract: Requests to increase military aircraft activity in some training facilities in the United States have prompted the need to determine if waterfowl and other wildlife are adversely affected by aircraft disturbance. We quantified behavioral responses of wintering American black ducks (Anas rubripes), American wigeon (A. americana), gadwall (A. strepera), and American green-winged teal (A. crecca carolinensis) exposed to low-level flying military aircrafts at Piney and Cedar Islands, North Carolina, in 1991 and 1992. Waterfowl spent ≤1.4% of their time responding to aircraft, which included flying, swimming, and alert behaviors. Mean duration of responses by species ranged from 10 to 40 sec. Costs to each species were deemed low because disruptions represented a low percentage of their time-activity budgets, only a small proportion of birds reacted to disturbance (13/672; 2%), and the likelihood of resuming the activity disrupted by an aircraft disturbance event was high (64%). Recorded levels of aircraft disturbance (i.e., average = 85.1 dBA) were not adversely affecting the time-activity budgets of selected waterfowl species wintering at Piney and Cedar islands. Annotation: The authors studied the effects of military aircraft on the behavior and daily activity budgets of wintering ducks during two winters. The aircraft were primarily fixed-wing jets (Harrier jets [AV-8B]), but also some helicopters (type not specified). The minimum flight altitude in the range was 152 m AGL. The activity budgets of ducks are presented as well as the number of individuals that responded to aircraft overflights, but the type of aircraft was not distinguished. Sound levels ranged from 80–109 dBA during overflights (only exceedances of at least 80 dBA were considered to be aircraft-related). The authors concluded that waterfowl could tolerate some levels of aircraft noise. Habituation to aircraft overflights was likely the cause of the low number of bird reactions to aircraft, particularly for Black Ducks. (See the following Conomy et al. 1998 reference.)

Conomy, J. T., J. A. Dubovsky, J. A. Collazo, and W. J. Fleming 1998. Do black ducks and wood ducks habituate to aircraft disturbance? Journal of Wildlife Management 62: 1135–1142.

Abstract: Requests to increase military aircraft activity in some training facilities in the United States have raised the need to determine if waterfowl and other wildlife

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are adversely affected by aircraft disturbance. We hypothesized that habituation was a possible proximate factor influencing the low proportion of free-ranging ducks reacting to military aircraft activities in a training range in coastal North Carolina during winters 1991 and 1992. To test this hypothesis, we subjected captive, wild- strain American black ducks (Anas rubripes) and wood ducks (Aix sponsa) to actual and simulated activities of jet aircraft. In the first experiment, we placed black ducks in an enclosure near the center of aircraft activities on Piney Island, a military aircraft target range in coastal North Carolina. The proportion of times black ducks reacted (e.g., alert posture, fleeing response) to visual and auditory aircraft activity decreased from 38 to 6% during the first 17 days of confinement. Response rates remained stable at 5.8% thereafter. In the second experiment, black ducks and wood ducks were exposed to 6 different recordings of jet noise. The proportion of times black ducks reacted to noise decreased (P < 0.05) from first day of exposure (25%) to last (i.e., day 4; 8%). Except for a 2% difference in comfort, we detected no differences (P > 0.05) in time-activity budgets of black ducks between pre-exposure to noise and 24 hr after first exposure. Unlike black ducks, wood duck responses to jet noise did not decrease uniformly among experimental groups following initial exposure to noise (P = 0.01). We conclude that initial exposure to aircraft noise elicits behavioral responses from black ducks and wood ducks. With continued exposure of aircraft noise, black ducks may become habituated. However, wood ducks did not exhibit the same pattern of response, suggesting that the ability of waterfowl to habituate to aircraft noise may be species specific. Annotation: Captive, wintering black ducks and wood ducks were used to determine if, and how quickly, ducks might habituate to low-altitude military aircraft overflights. In one experiment, primarily Harrier jets (AV-8B) flying no lower than 152 m AGL were used. The second experiment used simulated aircraft noise (36 events/day, each at 84.8 dBA).

• Black ducks appeared to habituate to actual overflights, as demonstrated by a decline in the number of aircraft overflights causing reactions. That is, birds reacted to 39% of overflights on the initial exposure day versus reacting to about 6% of overflights after 2 weeks.

• The simulated noise experiments yielded different results for the two duck species. Black ducks showed continued habituation to the simulated noise events after the first 24-hour (hr) period, whereas wood ducks did not appear to habituate to the noise over time.

Côté, S. D. 1996. Mountain goat responses to helicopter disturbance. Wildlife Society Bulletin 24: 681–685.

Abstract: Mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) responses to helicopter traffic were investigated at Caw Ridge (Alberta) from June to August 12995. A population of 109 marked individuals inhabited the ridge during the study. As measured by their overt response, mountain goats were disturbed by 58% of the flights and were more

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adversely affected when helicopters flew within 500 m. Eighty-five percent of flights within 500 m caused the goats to move >100 m; 9% of the flights >1500 m away caused the goats to move similar distances. Helicopter visibility and height above ground, number of goats in the group, group type (bachelor or nursery), and behavior of groups just prior to helicopter flights did not appear to influence reactions of goats to helicopters. Helicopter flights caused the disintegration of social groups on ≥5 occasions and resulted in one case of severe injury to an adult female. Based on these observations, restriction of helicopter flights within 2 km of alpine areas and cliffs that support mountain goat populations is recommended. Annotation: The behavioral responses of goats to helicopters were evaluated during one season (June to August) in west-central Alberta. Variables studied included distance from helicopter, sighting of helicopter, helicopter height above ground, group size, group type, and preflight activity of goats. Helicopters included the Bell 206B with turbo engines and the Bell 212 with twin engines. The distance from the helicopter to the animals was the most important factor in the type of behavior observed. Closer flights (<500 m) caused more disturbances to goats (85% of flights caused severe disturbance, all flights caused at least a moderate disturbance) than flights at >1500 m, which had low disturbance (9% of flights caused severe disturbance; 63% caused light or no disturbance). Sound levels were not measured. Management guidelines to reduce disturbance to goats are provided. These include:

• Maintaining >2 km distance from goat herds

• Placing no-fly buffers of 2-km radius around alpine areas or cliffs with known goat habitats

• In areas where helicopters must fly, maintaining a minimum altitude of at least 300 m AGL

• Not landing on treeless ridges

Craig, T. H., and E. H. Craig. 1984. Results of a helicopter survey of cliff nesting raptors in a deep canyon in southern Idaho. Journal of Raptor Research 18: 20–25.

Abstract: In 1980 a helicopter survey of cliff nesting raptors was conducted along Salmon Falls Creek, a deep canyon in southern Idaho. The most numerous species recorded was the Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamacensis) followed by the Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), Prairie Falcon (Falco mexicanus), and Common Raven (Corvus corax). Great Horned Owls (Bubo virginianus), Barn Owls (Tyto alba), and Turkey Vultures (Cathartes aura) were recorded when they flushed from cliff faces. Numbers of Prairie Falcon nests and Barn Owls flushed may have been related to land use practices near the canyon. Inter-nest distances, productivity, nest exposure and the behavioral response of nesting adults are presented for the 4 principle nesting raptors. A comparison of the results of a simultaneous boat survey revealed that the helicopter survey was faster and more accurate in determining total active and inactive nests.

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Annotation: A helicopter (Hiller 12E) was used to survey for nesting raptors. During the survey, reactions of raptors to the helicopter were recorded at 29 Golden Eagle, Red-tailed Hawk, and Prairie Falcon nests. No distances from nests to helicopter were provided.

• Golden Eagles were perched near nests during six helicopter passes; no reactions were observed to the visual or noise disturbance.

• Prairie Falcons flew and vocalized during nine passes, and flushed and flew away from cliffs on six passes.

• Red-tailed Hawks showed the greatest behavioral variability in responding to the helicopters: circling and calling (one pass), perching and watching the helicopter (four passes), and sitting tight on the nest (three passes). No noise data were reported.

D’Angelo, G. J., A. R. De Chicchis, D. A. Osborn, G. R. Gallagher, R. J. Warren, and K. V. Miller. 2007. Hearing range of white-tailed deer as determined by auditory brainstem response. Journal of Wildlife Management 71: 1238–1242.

Abstract: Basic knowledge of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) hearing can improve understanding of deer behavior and may assist in the development of effective deterrent strategies. Using auditory brainstem response testing, we determined that white-tailed deer hear within the range of frequencies we tested, between 0.25–30 kilohertz (kHz), with best sensitivity between 4–8 kHz. The upper limit of human hearing lies at about 20 kHz, whereas we demonstrated that white- tailed deer detected frequencies to at least 30 kHz. This difference suggests that research on the use of ultrasonic (frequencies >20 kHz) auditory deterrents is justified as a possible means of reducing deer–human conflicts. Annotation: The report also contains information on the hearing thresholds for bighorn sheep (related to Dall sheep), which are similar to those for white-tailed deer (see subsequent DeYoung et al. 1993 annotation). The authors also report on a study of young reindeer (domesticated caribou) that were found to hear in the range of 0.07 to 38 kHz, with best sensitivity at 8 kHz. These young reindeer could detect sounds at a lower threshold than white-tailed deer (Flydal et al. 2001).

Dahlgren, R. B., and C. E. Korschgen. 1992. Human disturbances of waterfowl: an annotated bibliography. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Resource Publication 188. 62 pp.

Annotation: The bibliography provides annotations of more than 200 references that evaluate human disturbance effects on waterfowl. Included in the bibliography are older references to effects of aircraft (including helicopters) on ducks, geese, and

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swans. Ten references have information relevant to helicopter disturbance. Two of these references (Davis and Wisely 1974, Ward and Stehn 1989) are annotated in this report. The other eight references are listed in Chapter 5.

Davis, R. A., and A. N. Wisely. 1974. Normal behavior of snow geese on the Yukon-Alaska north slope and the effects of aircraft-induced disturbance on this behaviour, September 1973. Chapter 2 in W. W. H. Gunn, W. J. Richardson, R. E. Schweinsburg, and T. D. Wright, eds. Studies on snow geese and waterfowl in the Northwest Territories, Yukon Territory and Alaska, 1973. Arctic Gas Biological Report 27. Canadian Arctic Gas Study, Limited and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study, 85 pp.

• Describe the daily activity budgets for undisturbed fall-staging snow geese on the North Slope

• Assess the effects of aircraft overflights on snow goose behavior

• Compare the disturbances causes by different aircraft types and at different horizontal distances

• Determine whether geese may habituate to frequent overflights The aircraft included fixed-wing aircraft (Cessna 185) and a helicopter (Bell 206B). The authors also estimated the bioenergetic impacts of these disturbances on juvenile staging snow geese and included an appendix detailing their energetic calculations. Experimental overflights were at 500 ft AGL and variable horizontal distances. More Snow Geese flew (41% of flocks) in response to helicopters within 2 miles (mi) than at >2 mi (9% of flocks). Geese reacted (flushed) to helicopters at 1.7 mi and to fixed- wing aircraft at 1 mi. Snow Geese consistently reacted or flew at greater distances from helicopters than from other aircraft types.

Delaney, D. K. 2002. Prioritization of threatened and endangered species sound research on army installations. Final Report, by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Champaign, IL. ERDC/CERL TR-02-30. 78 pp.

Abstract: [Excerpted from Executive Summary.] This report represents the first year of a continuing study addressing the effects of military training sound on Threatened and Endangered Species (TES). The purpose of this study was to prioritize specific TES of concern from the U.S. Army Environmental Requirement and Technology Assessment (AERTA) species list. The primary objective for this project was to develop a prioritized list of TES for future sound research relative to military training sound effects. From these recommendations, future sound research

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could be developed, initiated, and established with the goal of protecting TES, while also allowing Department of Defense (DoD) installations to train to standard and maintain operational readiness. The primary research objective for future sound research will be to determine the impact of certain types of military training sound on TES. This will require the development of a dose-response threshold relationship for quantifying animal response to sound levels and stimulus distances, and relate these to reproductive fitness parameters. Annotation: The report looks at the priority and needs for research on sound and its impacts on various threatened and endangered species in the continental United States. Species listed as priorities for future research on Army lands include two species of tortoise, three species of bats, and two passerine bird species. The author provides minimal data on helicopter disturbance. The report has an appendix on hearing sensitivities for several species (turtles, woodpeckers, bats, owls) and sound spectra (SEL) of military activities.

Delaney, D. K., T. G. Grubb, P. Beier, L. L. Pater, and M. H. Reiser. 1999. Effects of helicopter noise on Mexican spotted owls. Journal of Wildlife Management 63: 60–76.

Abstract: Military helicopter training over the Lincoln National Forest (LNF) in southcentral New Mexico has been severely limited to protect nesting Mexican spotted owls (Strix occidentalis lucida). To evaluate nesting and nonnesting spotted owl response to helicopter noise, we measured flush frequency, flush distance, alert behavior, response duration, prey delivery rates, female trips from the nest, and nest attentiveness during manipulated and nonmanipulate periods, 1995-96. Chain saws were included in our manipulations to increase experimental options and to facilitate comparative results. We analyzed stimulus events by measuring noise levels as unweighted one-third-octave band levels, applying frequency weighting to the resultant spectra, and calculating the sound exposure level for total sound energy (SEL) and the 0.5-sec equivalent maximum energy level (LEQ max 0.5 sec) for helicopters, and the 10-sec equivalent average energy level (LEQ avg. 10 sec) for chain saws. An owl-weighting (dBO) curve was estimated to emphasize the middle frequency range where strigiform owls have the highest hearing sensitivity. Manipulated and nonmanipulated nest sites did not differ in reproductive success (P = 0.59) or the number of young fledged (P = 0.12). As stimulus distance decreased, spotted owl flush frequency increased, regardless of stimulus type or season. We recorded no spotted owl flushes when noise stimuli were >105 m away. Spotted owls returned to predisturbance behavior within 10-15 min after a stimulus event. All adult flushes during the nesting season occurred after juveniles had left the nest. Spotted owl flush rates in response to helicopters did not differ between nonnesting (13.3%) and nesting (13.6%; P = 0.34). Spotted owls did not flush when the SEL noise level for helicopters was <102 dBO (92 dBA) and the LEQ level for chain saws was <59 dBO (46 dBA). Chain saws were more disturbing to spotted owls than helicopter flights at comparable distances. Our data indicate a 105-m buffer zone for helicopter overflights on the LNF would minimize spotted owl flush response and any potential effects on nesting activity.

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Annotation: The authors experimentally manipulated the noise exposure of nesting and non-nesting Mexican spotted owls (a federally listed endangered species) from helicopters and chainsaws (operator not visible to the owls) to quantify behavioral responses. The helicopter types used in the study were those being used by the military in the area for training (Sikorsky, HH-60G, Pave Hawk, twin-jet helicopters). Overflights were conducted for three profiles: 15-m vertical, 30-m vertical and 30-m lateral distance, and 60-m vertical distance. The latter two profiles corresponded to the typical daylight flight profile and the maximum diurnal-minimum nocturnal flight profile, respectively. The authors also developed an owl-weighted decibel measurement (dBO) that was weighted towards the owl’s hearing frequency range. The authors emphasize the importance of obtaining an audiogram on which a frequency weighting algorithm can be based to describe a species’ hearing sensitivity. Spotted owls flew from nests in response to helicopter noise during nonnesting and post-nesting periods, but not during nesting. As noted in the Abstract, the flush response of owls increased with increasing sound levels. Owls did not flush when noise stimuli were >105 m away and helicopter noise levels were less than 92 dBA (SEL). Reproductive success and productivity did not differ between control nests and those exposed to helicopter noise. The authors indicate that the study only evaluated single, direct overflights and, thus, did not address issues of the effects of multiple passes or hovering flights. The authors do suggest that some habituation to overflight may be occurring. However, the authors still recommend that training be spaced at least 7 days apart to reduce disturbance.

Delaney, D. K., L. L. Pater, R. J. Dooling, B. Lohr, B. F. Brittan-Powell, L. L. Swindell, T. A. Beaty, L. D. Carlile, E. W. Spadgenske, B. A. MacAllister, and R. H. Melton. 2002. Assessment of training noise impacts on the Red-cockaded Woodpecker: 1998–2000. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Champaign, IL. Report ERDC/CERL TR-02-03. 101 pp.

Abstract: It is estimated that nearly a quarter of the remaining Red-cockaded Woodpecker (RCW) population resides on 16 military installations in the southeastern United States. Such a close association has led to increased conflicts between TES conservation requirements and the military’s mission of maintaining a high degree of combat readiness. Increased importance has been placed on determining how noise affects these species. The primary research objective of this multiyear study is to determine the impact of certain types of training noise on the endangered RCW. A second objective is to develop and disseminate cost-effective techniques for documenting the effects of training noise on TES populations. During this study the research team observed and documented experimental training noise events and the resulting RCW responses under realistic conditions. Both proximate response behavior and nesting success were measured. The team also observed RCW behavior and nesting success for groups where noise stimuli were absent or minimal (near or below ambient sound levels), to provide an undisturbed behavior baseline to judge response and impact against. No significant differences in nesting success or productivity were found between experimentally disturbed and relatively

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undisturbed RCW groups. [excerpts from Executive Summary] This research tested RCW response in 1999 and 2000 (during the breeding season) to controlled military training noise events under realistic conditions, namely .50-caliber blank fire and artillery simulators. From 1998-2000, we passively (i.e., no control over the noise source) monitored RCW response to various military training noise events. We measured both proximate response behavior and nesting success, while continuing to measure baseline behavioral data from undisturbed RCW groups. Measured levels of experimental noise did not affect RCW nesting success or productivity. RCW flush response increased as stimulus distance decreased, regardless of stimulus type. Woodpeckers returned relatively quickly after flushing from the nest, with return times being comparable between 1999 and 2000 rates. Unweighted noise levels within RCW nest cavities were substantially louder than levels recorded at the base of the tree. When noise data were examined using woodpecker weighting (dBW), noise levels inside nest cavities were not significantly different compared with levels recorded outside the nest cavity. Annotation: The study focused on the effects of military training on an endangered species, the Red-cockaded Woodpecker (Picoides borealis), which is found on military bases in the southern United States. Most of the study focused on experimental noise disturbance by the firing of military ordnance, but incidental measurements of noise from military helicopters were also collected and responses of woodpeckers to these disturbances were recorded. Previous studies found that the woodpeckers did not flush from nests at distances of >60 m and noise levels of <85 dBA (SEL) for military helicopters (type not given). No flushing or other responses were recorded for woodpeckers during 83 helicopter passes. Red-cockaded Woodpeckers did not flush from the nest during incubation or early brooding when military helicopters were >30 m from nests (102 dBA, SEL). The Downy Woodpecker (Picoides pubescens) (a common species in Alaska) was used as the surrogate to develop a “woodpecker- weighted” audiogram to analyze noise effects for the study. Noise measurements found that unweighted noise levels inside the woodpecker’s nest cavity were actually higher than noise recorded at the base of the tree, which indicated that cavity nests act as sound resonators, emphasizing the 125–250 hertz (Hz) frequencies (when compared using “woodpecker-weighted” sound levels, this difference was no longer apparent). The nesting success and productivity of woodpeckers was not affected by military training activities. Ambient noise levels in the study area were 23–37 dBA, and noise levels from helicopters (types not specified) ranged from 103– 110 dBA (SEL) (at 30–50 m) to 73–85 dBA (at 301–500 m).

Derksen, D. V., K. S. Bollinger, D. Esler, K. C. Jensen, E. J. Taylor, M. W. Miller, and M. W. Weller. 1992. Effects of aircraft on behavior and ecology of molting Black Brant near Teshekpuk Lake, Alaska. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Alaska Fish and Wildlife Research Center, Anchorage, AK, and Dep. Wildlife and Fisheries Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX. 227 pp.

Annotation: The document is the final report for a 5-year study of the effects of helicopters on Pacific black brant at Teshekpuk Lake, Alaska (a large molting area on

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Alaska’s northern arctic coast). Experimental overflights were conducted during 2 years. The authors examined the responses of brant to helicopters (sight, sound, lateral distance, and altitude). Most helicopter overflights were by Bell 206 helicopters. Overflights at mid-level altitudes were found to be more disturbing to brant than flights at higher or lower altitudes. Flights above 1070 m generally did not disturb brant, and disturbance decreased at greater lateral distances (>4 km). The size of the goose flock did influence response levels (i.e., response durations increased with flock size in a logistic manner), and no habituation to helicopter disturbance was noted. Movement rates of brant also increased after helicopter overflights, which potentially could affect habitat use and increase energetic costs if disturbances extended over a long time period. Noise data were not collected for overflights.

DeYoung, D. W., P. R. Krausman, L. E. Weiland, and R. C. Etchberger. 1993. Baseline ABRs in mountain sheep and mule deer. Pages 251–254 in M. Vallet, ed. Noise & Man ‘93, Noise as a Public Health Problem. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference. Nice, France. INRETS, Arcueil Cedex, France.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to develop baseline data reflecting mid-to- high frequency hearing sensitivity of young adult desert mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus crooki) and mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis). Baseline auditory brainstem responses (ABRs) were recorded from 4 desert mule deer and 5 mountain sheep. Click stimuli and tonebursts were used to elicit ABRs. Animals were sedated and transported from the Wildlife Research Center to the University Health Sciences Center, and were light anesthetized with halothane during data collection. Thresholds for the various stimuli were determined. Thresholds were best for the click stimulus. The click-evoked wave IV-V complex was reliably present down to 45 dB peak equivalent (pe) SPL in sheep and 55 dB peSPL in deer. Mean latency- intensity functions and the 95% and 99% confidence intervals were calculated and plotted. The mean slopes of the latency-intensity functions were 20 µs/dB and 32 µs/dB for the sheep and deer, respectively. These are important in understanding the auditory sensitivity of these animals and may serve as a guideline for investigators examining the effects of noise on the mid-to-high frequency hearing sensitivity of these animals. Annotation: The sensitivity of animals to noise varies among species and this study attempts to determine in a quantitative manner the frequency levels where noise causes effects for mule deer and mountain sheep. The study suggests that deer and sheep have a hearing sensitivity similar to humans in the 4000 Hz region. In humans, this is the range at which the cochlea are most vulnerable to damage from noise exposure. The authors were unable to conclude whether this was also the case for deer and sheep.

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Dietz, R. 1992. Effects of mineral resource activity on arctic marine mammals. A literature review. Technical Report. Greenland Environmental Research Institute. 83 pp.

Annotation: The report reviews literature on the effects of mineral extraction activities (oil and contaminant spills, ice-breaking ships, aircraft, humans) on marine mammals. Section 3.1 of the review looks at marine mammal reactions to aircraft (fixed-wing and helicopters). Seals appear to be disturbed more by helicopters than by fixed-wing aircraft. Literature on toothed whale reactions to aircraft were primarily for belugas. The responses of belugas were greater for non-feeding animals than for feeding animals, and few reactions were noted at altitudes >500 m and occasionally as low as 150–200 m. Single passes by aircraft over belugas were less disruptive than multiple passes or circling by aircraft.

Dolbeer, R. A. 2006. Height distribution of birds recorded by collisions with civil aircraft. Journal of Wildlife Management 70: 1345–1350.

Abstract: The National Wildlife Strike Database for Civil Aviation in the United States contained 38,961 reports of aircraft collisions with birds (bird strikes) from 1990-2004 in which the report indicated the height above ground level (AGL). I analyzed these strike reports to determine the distribution of all strikes and those strikes causing substantial damage to aircraft by height. For the 26% of strikes above 500 feet (152 m) AGL (n = 10,143), a simple negative exponential model, with height as the independent variable, explained 99% of the variation in number of bird strikes per 1,000-foot (305-m) interval. Strikes declined consistently by 32% every 1,000 feet from 501-20,500 feet (153-6,248 m). For strikes at <500 feet, passerines, gulls and terns, pigeons and doves, and raptors were the identified species groups most frequently struck. For strikes at >500 feet, waterfowl, gulls and terns, passerines, and vultures were the species groups most frequently struck. For strikes that resulted in substantial damage to the aircraft, 66% occurred at ≤500 feet, 29% between 501-3,500 feet (153-1,067 m), and 5% above 3,500 feet. A higher (P < 0.001) proportion of strikes between 501-3,500 feet caused substantial damage to the aircraft (6.0%) than did strikes at <500 feet (3.6%) or at >3,500 feet (3.2%). For strikes at <500 feet, July- October were the months with the greatest proportion of strikes relative to aircraft movements. For strikes at >500 feet, September-November and April-May had more strikes than expected. About 61% of the reported strikes above 500 feet occurred at night, compared to only 18% of civil aircraft movements. Thus, about 7 times more strikes occurred per aircraft movement at night compared to day above 500 feet. This analysis confirmed that management programs to reduce strikes should focus on the airport environment because 74% of all strikes and 66% of strikes causing substantial damage occur at ≤500 feet. To minimize significant strike events occurring outside the airport (>500 feet), efforts to predict or monitor bird movements using bird avoidance models and bird-detecting radar need to focus on heights between 500 and 3,500 feet AGL, with special emphasis on night movements of birds during April-May and September-November.

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Annotation: Although not specifically about helicopters or noise, the paper is relevant because it indicates that collisions of birds with aircraft are most common at lower altitudes (below 500 ft), where helicopters are likely to be operating. For Interior Alaska, the likelihood of strikes with migrating waterfowl (geese, swans, ducks) and Sandhill Cranes are higher during migration periods, as was found in this study for similar birds.

Doresky, J., K. Morgan, L. Ragsdale, and H. Townsend. 2001. Effects of military activity on reproductive success of Red-cockaded Woodpeckers. Journal of Field Ornithology 72: 305–311.

Abstract: Although significant numbers of the federally endangered Red-cockaded Woodpecker (Picoides borealis) occur at military installations, little research has been initiated to determine what effects military activities have on the birds. From 1994- 1996 we collected data at Fort Benning Military Installation, Georgia, to assess the effects of selected military activities on reproductive success of the birds. Noise and vibration levels were recorded at or directly adjacent to active woodpecker clusters that received significant use by the military on a regular basis (i.e., firing of small arms and artillery). Identical data were collected at active clusters that were not normally used by military personnel and that we perceived to be relatively free of such disturbances. Surprisingly, we found no significant differences in noise or vibration levels between treatments and controls. There also were no significant differences between treatment and control sites with regard to the numbers of eggs, nestlings, adults, return rates of adults feeding young or masses of nestlings and adults. Habitat assessments revealed no differences in basal area or midstory density; however, understory was significantly more pronounced at treatment sites. Annotation: Training activities at Fort Benning included aircraft overflights. However, the overflights were not broken out to separately analyze their effects on nesting woodpeckers. The authors treated all training as a single source of disturbance. Maximum and average decibel levels were measured at nesting trees for a 2-hr period during training. Similar data were recorded at the control nests. The authors attributed the lack of difference in noise levels between their experimental and control sites to a combination of factors:

• The relatively long distances of experimental nests from the firing ranges

• The short-term duration of actual training (i.e., during only a small portion of the 2-hr sample period was any actual noise being generated by training) No actual noise data were presented. For a similar study, with noise-level data, see the annotation for Delaney et al. (2002).

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Dunnet, G. M. 1977. Observations on the effects of low-flying aircraft at seabird colonies on the coast of Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Biological Conservation 12: 55–63.

Abstract: The greatly increased use of helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft to support the exploration and exploitation of oilfields in the North Sea gives rise to concern about possible disturbance to seabirds breeding in the flight paths. The observations reported in this paper were made at a mixed colony of fulmars (Fulmaris glacialis), shags (Phalacrocorax aristotelis), herring gulls (Larus agentatus), kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla), guillemots (Uria aalge), razorbills (Alca torda), and puffins (Fratercula arctica), breeding on the Buchan cliffs about 40 km north of Aberdeen, on two days during egg-laying and early nestling stages of the breeding season. The number of birds in attendance at nests or nesting ledges were counted before and after the passage of aircraft, and general observations were made when the planes were overhead. The number of identifiable nests with 0, 1 or 2 adults was noted since disturbance might be most sensitively detected by the departure of non- incubating/brooding adults. No evidence was found to suggest that aircraft flying at heights of about 100 m above the cliff-top affected the attendance of incubating and brooding birds, and there was only a slight indication that a few of the ‘second adults’ at kittwake nests may have flown off. Groups of kittiwakes resting on nearby cliffs or on the sea did take to the air in response to the planes, but they also did so frequently in the course of the day with no obvious cause. It is stressed that these findings cannot be extrapolated to other species of seabirds or to different conditions. Annotation: Aircraft overflights were mainly by a twin-engine fixed-wing airplane (Piper Aztec), but also included helicopters (Sikorsky S61), primarily flying at approximately 150 m AGL. One helicopter pass (at 150 m above sea level [asl], 100 m above the cliff top) that was statistically evaluated found no significant differences in either the number of birds incubating or the number of birds on the cliff before and after the overflight. The author does report that some kittiwakes flew away from the colony during the helicopter event and that there were “…more kittiwakes than ‘normal’ flying around just after the helicopter passes—probably twice as many….” Several other helicopter flights elicited either no response (at >1 km lateral distance) or an ambiguous response. The response was considered to be ambiguous because, before a helicopter passing at about 1 km from the cliff was in view (but could be heard), many kittiwakes were flying and, because other similar responses had occurred that day that were not in response to overflights, it was uncertain whether the birds were reacting to the helicopter. One helicopter flight at 150 m AGL and about 0.5 km inland from the nesting colony elicited no response from the birds.

Efroymson, R. A., and G. W. Suter II. 2001. Ecological risk assessment framework for low- altitude aircraft overflights: II. Estimating effects on wildlife. Risk Analysis 21: 263– 274.

Abstract: An ecological risk assessment framework for aircraft overflights has been developed, with special emphasis on military applications. This article presents the

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analysis of effects and risk characterization phases; the problem formulation and exposure analysis phases are presented in a companion article. The framework addresses the effects of sound, visual stressors, and collision on the abundance and production of wildlife populations. Profiles of effects, including thresholds, are highlighted for two groups of endpoint species: ungulates (hoofed mammals) and pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, walruses). Several factors complicate the analysis of effects for aircraft overflights. Studies of the effects of aircraft overflights previously have not been associated with a quantitative assessment framework; therefore no consistent relations between exposure and population-level response have been developed. Information on behavioral effects of overflights by military aircraft (or component stressors) on most wildlife species is sparse. Moreover, models that relate behavioral changes to abundance or reproduction, and those that relate behavioral or hearing effects thresholds from one population to another are generally not available. The aggregation of sound frequencies, durations, and the view of the aircraft into the single exposure metric of slant distance is not always the best predictor of effects, but effects associated with more specific exposure metrics (e.g., narrow sound spectra) may not be easily determined or added. The weight of evidence and uncertainty analyses of the risk characterization for overflights are also discussed in this article. Annotation: The article presents an analysis of the effects and risk characterization phase for estimating the effects of aircraft overflights on wildlife. Although a large research gap exists in relating short-term effects to productivity and distribution, the authors stress that qualitative statements should be included in risk assessments. The study provides a good summary of the available literature on helicopter disturbance studies, including examples using ungulates (caribou, muskoxen) and pinnipeds. In addition, sources of variability and uncertainty are discussed. Stressors and mechanisms are identified for fixed-wing and rotary aircraft (low-altitude).

• Sound is one primary stressor, with mechanisms of action that include alarm, avoidance, and several speculative effects (e.g., impaired hearing, masking of wildlife vocalizations, interference with echolocation [bats]).

• The visual image of the aircraft is the second stressor, which may also result in alarm and avoidance by wildlife, as well as attack behavior.

• The final stressor is the actual aircraft, which might be involved in a collision or direct impact. In addition, the flight of birds might be disrupted by wing-tip vortices from fast moving fixed-wing aircraft.

Efroymson, R. A., W. H. Rose, S. Nemeth, and G. W. Suter II. 2000. Ecological risk assessment framework for low altitude overflights by fixed-wing and rotary-wing military aircraft. Report No. ORNL/TM-2000/289. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. 112 pp.

Abstract: [Summarized from Introduction.] The report provides guidelines for conducting ecological risk assessments for low-altitude overflights of military

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aircraft. The report is structured according to the EPA ecological risk assessment framework. The problem formulation (planning) process is emphasized, so that the assessment will ultimately be useful to decision makers. Susceptible ecological receptors, which are likely to be valued on or near military installations, are listed. Relevant scientific literature related to exposure and ecological responses to low- altitude overflights is reviewed. The use of particular models is recommended to minimize the necessity for the assessor to acquire original data sources. Data gaps are identified so that decision makers may be aware of how solid the technical bases for their decisions are. The report constitutes detailed risk assessment guidance that should greatly reduce the time and funds required to conduct an environmental assessment of low-altitude overflights of military aircraft. It is recommended that the user of this guidance also read the generic risk assessment framework for military training and testing activities (Suter et al. 1998). Annotation: The purpose of the report is to provide detailed guidance for risk assessment to reduce the time and funds required to conduct an environmental assessment of low-altitude overflights of military aircraft. The document includes reference to non-military aircraft and models of noise and air thrust of aircraft. Useful information is provided on types of impacts to be expected from various military activities, stressors, and effects likely in wildlife species. It also identifies possible endpoints for risk assessments. Tables and figures provide a summary of the available literature related to studies of overflights and aircraft noise on a variety of wildlife species. The report provides a good discussion of the selection of endpoints, thresholds, direct and indirect effects, and lines of evidence. See the Efroymson et al. 2001 report on Apache Longbow-Hellfire missile testing (provided in a subsequent annotation) for a practical application of this risk assessment framework. Published versions of the report were printed in the journal Risk Analysis (Efroymson and Suter 2001, Efroymson et al. 2001).

Efroymson, R. A., W. W. Hargrove, M. J. Peterson, D. S. Jones, W. H. Rose, L. L. Pater, G. W. Suter II, and K. A. Reinbold. 2001a. Demonstration of the military ecological risk assessment framework (MERAF): Apache Longbow-Hellfire missile test at Yuma Proving Ground. Report No. ORNL/TM-2001/211. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. 119 pp.

Abstract: [Excerpts from Executive Summary.] This ecological risk assessment for a testing program at Yuma Proving Ground, Arizona, is a demonstration of the Military Ecological Risk Assessment Framework (MERAF; Suter et al. 2001). The demonstration is intended to illustrate how risk assessment guidance concerning generic military training and testing activities and guidance concerning a specific type of activity (e.g., low-altitude aircraft overflights) may be implemented at a military installation. Novel aspects of MERAF include: (1) the assessment of risks from physical stressors using an ecological risk assessment framework, (2) the consideration of contingent or indirect effects of stressors (e.g., population-level effects that are derived from habitat or hydrological changes), (3) the integration of risks associated with different component activities or stressors, (4) the emphasis on

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quantitative risk estimates and estimates of uncertainty, and (5) the modularity of design, permitting components of the framework to be used in various military risk assessments that include similar activities. The particular subject of this report is the assessment of ecological risks associated with a testing program at Cibola Range of Yuma Proving Ground, Arizona. The program involves an Apache Longbow helicopter firing Hellfire missiles at moving targets, i.e., M60-A1 tanks. Thus, the three component activities of the Apache-Hellfire test were: (1) helicopter overflight, (2) missile firing, and (3) tracked vehicle movement. The demonstration was limited to two ecological endpoint entities (i.e., potentially susceptible and valued populations or communities): woody desert wash communities and mule deer populations. Assessment goals included the demonstration of the use of MERAF for the Apache Longbow–Hellfire test and the quantification of risks to woody vegetation communities of desert washes and mule deer populations. Key environmental features of the study area at YPG include barren desert pavement and tree-lined desert washes. An activity-specific risk assessment framework was available to provide guidance for assessing risks associated with aircraft overflights. The primary stressors associated with helicopter overflights were sound and the view of the aircraft (visual stressor). The exposure to mule deer was quantified using Air Force sound contour programs NOISEMAP and MR_NMAP, as well as slant distances from helicopters to deer. The slant distance measure of exposure integrates risk from sound and view of the aircraft. Exposure-response models for the characterization of effects consisted of behavioral thresholds in units of A-weighted decibels (sound exposure level or maximum sound level) or slant distance. Limited sound thresholds were available for desert mule deer, and a distribution of slant distance thresholds was available for ungulates. The risk characterization used a weight of evidence approach and concluded that risk to mule deer behavior from the Apache overflight is uncertain, but that no risk to mule deer abundance and reproduction is expected. An activity-specific risk assessment framework was not available to provide guidance for assessing risks associated with missile firing. The primary stressor associated with Hellfire missile firing is sound. Other minor stressors that are discussed include the detonation impact, shrapnel and fire. Exposure to mule deer was quantified using the Army sound contour program BNOISE2, as well as distances from the explosion to deer. Exposure-response models for the characterization of effects consisted of human “disturbance” and hearing damage thresholds in units of C-weighted decibels (sound exposure level) and a distance-based No Observed Adverse Effects Level for moose and cannonfire. The risk characterization used a weight of evidence approach and concluded that risk to mule deer behavior from the Hellfire missile firing was likely for a negligible number of deer, but that no risk to mule deer abundance and reproduction is expected. A process for integrating risks is presented. However, a formal integration of risks from the Apache overflight, the Hellfire missile firing, and the tracked vehicle movement was not necessary because there were no risks to be integrated. That is, a positive assessment of risk to wash vegetation or the mule deer population was not the conclusion of any of the activity-specific risk assessments. Based on the low confidence and (sometimes arbitrary selection) of many of the assumptions and model parameters, we do not recommend that the quantitative results of this demonstration be used for management purposes at YPG. [Note: ground effects on

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ground surfaces and vegetation from tank movements are discussed but not provided here.] Annotation: The report provides a first attempt to use the risk assessment program developed for military training activities (see previously annotated Efroymson et al. 2000). Helicopter overflights (noise and visual) were evaluated for their effects on mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus crooki) on the YPG. The helicopter (Apache Longbow [AH-64D]) activities included firing of Hellfire (AGM-114L) missiles at moving tanks (M60-A1). The flight altitude of the helicopter was 150–400 ft AGL during the test program. During the missile firing, the helicopter moved to one of five launch points, hovered at ~300 ft AGL, acquired the target (tank), and then fired the missile. After firing, the helicopter moved towards the target, usually hovering within a 500-m lateral distance from the target to view the effects of the missile. The helicopter then left the range (flight speed of 100 knots). The overall speed for the mission was an average of 20 knots because missiles were fired at hover. The endpoints for the assessment were the effects on mule deer abundance and production. The authors note that a major challenge is to predict these population parameters (for which no data were available) from the estimated behavioral effects. Stressors identified for helicopter overflights included:

• Sound • Sounds at a particular frequency (interference with animal communication) • Visual image or shadow • Air movement (rotor wash) The primary measures of effects on mule deer were behavioral responses to noise (SEL, Lmax; slant distance) and heart rate changes. These parameters are not direct measures of the deer endpoints (abundance and reproduction), however. The highest noise levels associated with the helicopter overflights were 89 dBA SEL and 102 dBA Lmax. Modeled noise levels (NOISEMAP derived), rather than actual measurements, were used in the assessment. A conservative estimate for a behavioral-effects threshold noise level was 92.5 dBA Lmax. Slant distances thresholds associated for percent probability of effects were determined for a random combination of deer, helicopters, and environmental conditions to be:

• 445 m (10% probability of effects) • 400 m (20% probability of effects) • 175 m (50% probability of effects). Thus, a deer at 400 m would have a 20% chance of being affected by the Apache overflight. By estimating the number of deer in the firing range area, using the probability of effects for the various slant distances, the authors determined that 2–5 deer would alter their behavior due to the Apache-Hellfire test. However, because the helicopter

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does not operate below 50 m AGL (the altitude threshold estimated for deer responses), the test would not affect any deer. The Hellfire missile explosion was estimated to generate a mean of 91 decibels, C-scale (dBC) (SEL) at a distance of 2.4 km and 116 dBC within 350 m of the detonation. Using the risk model, no deer were likely to be affected by the missile detonations because of the small area affected at the noise thresholds derived from other studies. Although this risk assessment framework provides a method to determine probable effects on the selected wildlife species, the certainty of conclusions of these risk assessments is suspect for several reasons:

• The need to model some parameters (rather than measure them)

• Limited available data on actual noise exposures or responding behaviors of the species

• Uncertainties in the noise models (such as effects of site-specific terrain features)

• The need to estimate from modeled responses to population-level effects The authors conclude that research is needed to verify the accuracy of this risk assessment program.

Efroymson, R. A., G. W. Suter II, W. H. Rose, and S. Nerneth. 2001b. Ecological risk assessment framework for low-altitude aircraft overflights: I. Planning the analysis and estimating exposure. Risk Analysis 21: 251–262.

Abstract: An ecological risk assessment framework for low-altitude aircraft overflights was developed, with special emphasis on military applications. This problem formulation and exposure analysis phases are presented in this article: an analysis of effects and risk characterization is presented in a companion article. The intent of this article is threefold: (1) to illustrate the development of a generic framework for the ecological risk assessment of an activity, (2) to show how the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s ecological risk assessment paradigm can be applied to an activity other than the release of a chemical, and (3) to provide guidance for the assessment of ecological risks from low-altitude aircraft overflights. The key stressor for low-altitude aircraft overflights is usually sound, although visual and physical (collision) stressors may also be significant. Susceptible and regulated wildlife populations are the major assessment endpoint entities, although plant communities may be impact by takeoffs and landings. The exposure analysis utilizes measurements of wildlife locations, measurements of sound levels at the wildlife locations, measurements of slant distances from aircraft to wildlife, models that extrapolate sound from the source aircraft to the ground, and bird-strike probability models. Some of the challenges to conducting a risk assessment for aircraft overflights include prioritizing potential stressors and endpoints, choosing

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exposure metrics that relate to wildlife responses, obtaining good estimates of sound or distance, and estimating wildlife locations. Annotation: The article illustrates the development of a framework for the ecological risk assessment for low-altitude aircraft overflights. It provides a good review of potential sources of stress to wildlife species from overflights, including sound (noise) and visual stimuli. It describes the NOISEMAP models used by the military to develop noise contours for training areas and potential uses in evaluating impacts on wildlife. The authors suggest use of SEL or Lmax for assessing impacts to wildlife and A-weighted decibels (dBA) as the appropriate sound measurement. They identify slant distance as the major measure of exposure to sound and the visual image of the aircraft, but slant distance is important only if the aircraft is within view of the animal. See also Efroymson and Suter (2001), which was annotated previously in this report.

Ellis, D. H. 1980. Responses of raptorial birds to low level military jets and sonic booms. Joint U.S. Air Force-U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Study. Annual Report prepared for U.S. Air Force by Institute for Raptor Studies, Oracle, AZ. 18 pp.

Abstract: During the 1980 field season data were gathered at 24 breeding sites of 10 species of raptorial birds in an effort to record responses to low level jets and sonic booms (or simulations). Severe negative responses were occasionally observed. Most often adults and large young were merely alerted or alarmed by the stimuli. Young falcons tend to flee deep into the eyrie in response to nearby jets. No eyrie abandonments or reproductive failures were attributed to the jets or booms during this first year of study. Annotation: The final report for this study is summarized in the next annotation (Ellis et al. 1991). However, the report does have an extensive appendix with reactions of raptors to various military jet aircraft (A-10, A-7, F-4, F-104, A-4) and sonic booms. The field study was conducted in Arizona. Relevant species for Alaska included Red-tailed Hawk, Golden Eagle, Great Horned Owl, and Peregrine Falcon.

• Red-tailed Hawks responded with alarm to one simulated sonic boom and a female flushed from a nest in response to a second simulated sonic boom. Jet overflights caused less reaction, with birds mainly displaying alert behavior to 22 overflights (some at 50 m).

• No overflight data were collected for the Golden Eagle.

• Peregrine Falcon nestlings fled into the nest when jets flew overhead and adults typically were alert.

• A Great Horned Owl at a nest was alarmed by a simulated sonic boom, but did not flush. The appendix in the report provides data on all overflights (distance, bird reaction).

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Ellis, D. H., C. H. Ellis, and D. P. Mindell. 1991. Raptor responses to low-level jet aircraft and sonic booms. Environmental Pollution 74: 53–83.

Abstract: We estimated effects of low-level military jet aircraft and mid- to high- altitude sonic booms (actual and simulated) on nesting peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) and seven other raptors by observing their responses to test stimuli, determining nesting success for the test year, and evaluating site re-occupancy rates for the year following the tests. Frequent and nearby jet aircraft passes: (1) sometimes noticeably alarmed birds, (2) occasionally caused birds to fly from perches or eyries, (3) most often evoked only minimal responses, and (4) were never associated with reproductive failure. Similarly, responses to real and simulated mid- to high-altitude sonic booms were often minimal and never appeared productivity limiting. Eighteen (95%) of 19 nest sites subjected to low-level jet flights and/or simulated sonic booms in 1980 fledged young during that year. Eighteen (95%) of 19 sites disturbed in 1980 were reoccupied by pairs or lone birds of the same species in 1981. We subjected four pairs of prairie falcons (Falco mexicanus) to low-level aircraft at ad libitum levels during the courtship and incubation phases when adults were most likely to abandon: all four eyries fledged young. From heart rate (HR) data taken via a telemetering egg at another prairie falcon eyrie, we determined that stimulus-induced HR alterations were comparable to rate changes for birds settling to incubate following flight. While encouraging, our findings cannot be taken as conclusive evidence that jet flights and/or sonic booms will have no long-term negative effects for other raptor species or for other areas. In addition, we did not experiment with totally naive wild adults, rotary-winged aircraft, or low-level sonic booms. Annotation: The article discusses an experimental study of raptor (Peregrine Falcons, Golden Eagles, and other species of raptors) response to military jet (F-4, A-10, A-7, F-104) overflights and sonic booms. All passes at <60 m from nesting cliffs were made by A-10 or A-7 jets. Overflights by F-104 and A-4 jets were primarily opportunistic, and F-4 jets were used only during the first year of the study. Noise levels (dBA) at three altitudes (61, 152, and 305 m) were described for each aircraft type (published values, not levels recorded in the field). In addition to aircraft overflights, mortars, a 12-gauge shotgun, and propane cannons were used to simulate sonic booms. The authors noted that Golden Eagles were more disturbed by the researchers’ presence than by jet noise. Nesting productivity did not appear to be affected by jet overflights or sonic booms. Only 23 of 279 adult responses to jet overflights (within 150 m AGL) were considered significant (primarily crouching or, more rarely, flushing from the perch site, some adults also protest called). Similar to adult responses, only 29 of 214 nestlings displayed significant responses to overflights (cowered or fled deeper into eyrie); significant reactions occurred only in nestlings older than 2 weeks. Reaction levels were somewhat stronger to sonic booms (19 of

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84 adult responses were significant and 5 of 29 nestling responses were significant [however, 3 of these nestlings were also exposed to possible observer disturbance]).

Fancy, S. G. 1982. Reaction of bison to aerial surveys in interior Alaska. Canadian Field- Naturalist 96: 91.

Annotation: Reactions of bison in the Delta herd near Delta Junction and Fort Greely, Alaska, were noted during overflights of small fixed-wing aircraft (Cessna 185 or Helio Super Courier) at altitudes ranging from 61 to 150 m AGL. Of 59 bison groups exposed to overflights, only two groups showed any visible reactions to the aircraft. One group (15 adults and yearlings) ran about 5 m when circled at 30 m AGL (lateral distance of 61 m). The second group (20 adults and yearlings) stood and ran for about 1 minute after the survey aircraft increased throttle in a climb from the survey altitude of 91 m AGL. The author suggests this herd is habituated to aircraft overflights, as well as other disturbances, because of repeated exposure to military training activities (range firing and overflights) and harassment by local farmers to exclude bison from nearby barley fields. No noise data were presented.

Fischer, C. A., D. C. Thompson, R. L. Wooley, and P. S. Thompson. 1977. Ecological studies of caribou on the Boothia Peninsula and in the district of Keewatin, NWT, 1976. With observations on the reaction of caribou and muskoxen to aircraft disturbance, 1974- 1976. Polargas. 239 pp.

Abstract: Studies to determine distribution, numbers, and habitat use of caribou in the south-central Canadian Arctic were conducted during 1976. Aerial surveys of Boothia Peninsula confirmed the presence of a migratory population of caribou; numbers were estimated at 1,120 in March. Densities of caribou observed during surveys of the study area between Spence Bay and the Hayes River, and between the Hayes River and Baker Lake were 3.0/100 km2 and 20.8/100 km2 in March and 0.59/100 km2 and 2.1/100 km2 in June and July. The high density of caribou between the Hayes River and Baker Lake in March was ascribed to the presence of a large segment (>20,000 animals) of the Kaminuriak caribou herd in the area immediately north and east of Baker Lake. A post-calving survey of the Kaminuriak caribou herd resulted in a total population estimate of 42,376 adults. Studies of habitat use by caribou on Boothia Peninsula and in the north-central District of Keewatin were carried out during the period from June to August. Counts of pellet groups indicated that, in winter, caribou were most heavily using the mesic to xeric upland lichen or evergreen shrub dominated communities. The use of willow-sedge meadows in winter was also high in the southern portion of the study area. Histological analysis of plant fragments in winter fecal material showed a high frequency of occurrence pf mosses and lichens. The use of winter green feed (e.g. sedges, willows) increased toward the southern portion of the study area. In summer, orthophyll shrub and forb

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dominated communities received the greatest use by caribou. In the southern portion of the study area, lichen-heath communities also received high use; this may be related to the relief from insect pests afforded by drier, windswept areas. The summer diet was marked by a high frequency of occurrence of lichens and substantial increases in the use of willows, forbs, and sedges. Mean group sizes of caribou varied from 2.6 during the calving period between Baker Lake and the Hayes River to 76.4 during the post calving period between Baker Lake and the Tha- Anne River. Mean group sizes were consistently larger in the southern portion of the study area than in the north, and were largest during the post calving period and smallest during the calving period. Group size, presence or absence of calves, prior activity, and phenological season all affected the response of caribou to aircraft overflights, but had no significant effect on the responses of muskoxen. Distance of the aircraft from the animal was the most important variable affecting the response level. For vertical distances between 61 m and 121 m, the percentage of strong responses exhibited by caribou were 29%, 17%, and 14% for horizontal distances of ≤365 m, 366 to 730 m, and ≤731 m, respectively. Within these same distance categories, muskoxen exhibited 55%, 38%, and 25% strong responses. Annotation: Group size, presence or absence of calves, animal activity prior to disturbance, and phenological season all affected the response of caribou to fixed- wing aircraft (Dornier DO 28, Cessna 337 and 185) overflights, but had no significant effect on the response of muskoxen. The distance of the aircraft from the animal was the most important variable affecting responses. Larger caribou groups and groups with calves tended to exhibit a greater proportion of strong responses than smaller groups or groups without calves. Response factors included vertical and horizontal distances.

Fleming, W. J., J. A. Dubovsky, J. A. Collazo, Jr. E. R. Temple, and J. T. Conomy. 2001. An overview of studies to assess the effects of military aircraft training activities on waterfowl at Piney Island, North Carolina. Pages 50–51 in M. Baker and G. Belliveau, eds. Effects of Noise on Wildlife Conference, 22–23 August 2000, Happy Valley- Goose Bay, Labrador. Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research. Terra Borealis. Vol. 2.

Annotation: The paper briefly describes field, captive, and experimental studies to examine potential effects of jet aircraft activities on wintering waterfowl in coastal North Carolina. Noise levels caused by the aircraft frequently exceeded 80 dBA. Long-term population trends, species diversity, activity budgets, and heart rates of waterfowl were examined. No data are included in the overview, but the authors concluded that waterfowl time-activity budgets demonstrated minimal responses to individual noise events and typical activity budgets did not differ from published data.

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Fortin, D., and M. Andruskiw. 2003. Behavioral response of free-ranging bison to human disturbance. Wildlife Society Bulletin 31: 804–813.

Abstract: Although anthropogenic disturbance can have a significant impact on wildlife populations, little information exists on the behavioral response of free- ranging bison (Bos bison) to human activity. From 1996-1998, we identified factors influencing the immediate response of free-ranging plains bison (B. b. bison) to human presence, evaluated whether human disturbance increased their daily movements, and determined whether this influenced resource use in Prince Albert National Park, Saskatchewan. We conducted 299 bison surveys while traveling by foot, snowmobile, or pickup truck. When bison were encountered, we recorded herd size and composition, reaction of bison to our presence, and our distance from the herd. Following the detection of human presence, bison reacted by either approaching the observer (3% of 384 observations), looking in our direction while remaining in place (46%), or fleeing the area (51%). Bison were more likely to flee from a truck than a hiker and as likely to flee from a person traveling by snowmobile as from one on foot. The probability of flight by herds that included young bison (<1 year old) increased as the snowmobile got closer, reaching 50% at 257 m. The average daily radius (i.e., straight-line displacement over 24 hours) of female bison equipped with GPS collars increased 27-30% when they responded to human presence by fleeing compared to when there was no disturbance. There was no evidence, however, that the frequency of disturbance imposed on this population had an important impact on resource use. Variation in bison density among meadows was not related to the number of human disturbances. Instead, bison density was related to environmental factors such as snow depth in winter and water availability during the snow-free season. Additionally, human disturbance was not more frequent in the meadows where bison were observed relatively less than expected based on the abundance of their preferred plant species. Our observations indicated that humans can minimize their impact on bison by remaining farther than 260 m from herds and by being discreet when near large herds containing young bison. Annotation: Although the paper does not provide data on helicopter disturbance, it is one of the few discussions of the reactions of bison to human disturbances. The responses of bison to snowmachines may be somewhat applicable to helicopter disturbance (at least where noise is the primary stimulus). Responses of bison to snowmobiles indicated that remaining >260 m from herds reduced disturbance. See also the previous annotation for Fancy (1982).

Foster, B. R., and E. Y. Rahs. 1983. Mountain goat response to hydroelectric exploration in northwestern British Columbia. Environmental Management 7: 189–197.

Abstract: The behavioral responses of more than 800 mountain goats, comprised of 195 social groups, were recorded during hydroelectric exploration activities (primarily aircraft) in northwestern British Columbia. Four categories of overt response were recorded during case tests, ranging from maintenance activity to

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severe flight. More than 80 percent (n = 667) of the observed goats elicited some form of behavioral stress response, with 33 percent (n = 265) displaying a severe flight response to local rock or plant cover. Multiple regression analysis inferred goat response to statistically independent of time of year, type, and vertical orientation of disturbance and group size. As expected, significant correlations (p < 0.05) existed between distance of disturbance, geographic area, cover availability, and degree of awareness. Responses were stimulated primarily by auditory and secondarily by visual cues. Repeated aerial and ground follow-up surveys documented temporary range abandonment and changing observability indices (habitat use and activity patterns) associated with areas of intense exploration activity. The assessed data offer mitigation possibilities and enable formulation of management guidelines to lessen project impacts during future exploration, construction, and operation phases. Annotation: The study (conducted in 1979–1980) along the Stikine River in British Columbia evaluated disturbances to mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) associated with exploration for a hydroelectric facility. Aircraft (helicopter and fixed- wing) were a major form of disturbance to resident mountain goats. Details of reactions to helicopter overflights (including helicopter type, altitude, and noise levels) were not provided, however. The statistical approach taken by the authors (multiple regression) precluded detailed analyses of individual disturbance types. The authors concluded that the mountain goat population in this area, which was previously undisturbed, became sensitive to many types of disturbances (including helicopters). They also found that the mountain goats did not habituate to disturbance.

Foster, B. R., and E. Y. Rahs. 1985. A study of canyon-dwelling mountain goats in relation to proposed hydroelectric development in northwestern British Columbia. Biological Conservation 33: 209–228.

Abstract: Preliminary ecological relationships between a resident mountain goat Oreamnos americanus population and a proposed hydroelectric development were investigated in 1979 and 1980 along the Stikine river, in northwestern British Columbia. Population size was estimated at 316 animals, distributed along 54 km of the canyon. Step canyon walls were utilized predominantly during summer. Adjacent forested areas became increasingly important during winter when icy conditions prevailed within the canyon. Spatial relationships of kidding and rutting areas, location of mineral licks, and utilization of plant life formations are also summarized. Localized goat mortality and possible temporary range abandonment observed in the proposed Site Z dam area may have resulted from 1978 and 1979 hydroelectric exploration activities. Proposed construction activities could similarly affect up to 56 goats. Proposed Tanzilla and site Z reservoirs could reduce the 1979 study area population by about 17%, or 55 goats with the greatest flooding impact occurring in the Site Z reservoir. Major mitigation measures involve design and control of land and aerial access, and reduction of noise and related disturbances during critical biological periods. Examples are given for possible compensation measures including range enhancement, establishment of goats in vacant habitat,

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and development of viewing facilities. Resultant land and water access can provide long-term opportunities for increased hunter harvest and other non-consumptive uses of the animal resource, if properly regulated. Annotation: The paper is the companion to Foster and Rahs (1983), which was annotated previously in this report. Aircraft (helicopter and fixed-wing) were a major form of disturbance to resident mountain goats. As in their previous paper, the authors did not provide details on helicopter types. Stress responses of mountain goats to close-flying helicopters (no definition of what “close” meant) were increased if the helicopter was flying above or at the same level as the goats and if the goats were in steep escape terrain. Responses of goats to human disturbances were observed at up to 1600 m. The authors suggest a minimum buffer zone for aircraft operations of 2-km lateral distance from goats to prevent overt reactions. They also suggest that all aircraft flights be at >600 m AGL.

Frid, A. 1999. Short-term effects of helicopter overflights on activity budgets of Dall’s sheep. Unpublished report to Department of Renewable Resources, Yukon Fish and Wildlife Branch, Whitehorse, YT, by Boreal Research Associates, Whitehorse, YT. 15 pp.

Abstract: I assessed how helicopter disturbance disrupts activity budgets of Dall’s sheep (Ovis dalli dalli) after overflights end. Overflights lasted <5 min, and were defined as the time the helicopter was in direct line of sight and within 4 km of sheep. Relative to the 15-min period preceding overflights, the mean proportion of bedded sheep was 48 % lower 6-10 min after overflights and, though not significantly, a third lower 11-20 min after overflights. Most sheep became vigilant during overflights, and 6-10 min afterwards the mean proportion of vigilant sheep was three times higher than prior to disturbance. Activity disruptions were short- term. Proportions of vigilant sheep returned to pre-disturbance levels 11-20 min after overflights, and 21-45 min after overflights the proportion of bedded animals was not significantly different from predisturbance levels. Furthermore, the mean proportion of sheep bedded during early afternoon did not differ between undisturbed groups and groups that were disturbed earlier that morning. Data represented sheep that moved in response to disturbance for a median distance of only 60 m. Thus, results indicate that even if the energetic costs of locomotion caused by disturbance are small or negligible, helicopter overflights can still disrupt energy assimilating activities. As determined by other studies, disruptions of bedding affect rumination, and increased vigilance reduces foraging efficiency. Short-term disruptions of activity budgets may not affect sheep productivity if disturbance rates are low, but potentially could lead to reduced reproductive success when disturbance rates are high, particularly in years of poor range quality. Annotation: The study was conducted during June–August 1997 in Kluane National Park, Yukon Territory, Canada. Experimental overflights were by a Bell 206B helicopter flying at an airspeed of 165 ± 31 km/h (mean ± SD), horizontal distances of 0.2–2.1 km (median = 0.75 km) to sheep, and elevations of 120 m above to 180 m

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below sheep (median = 30 m above sheep). Sample size was 14 overflights (10 of female-young groups and 4 of all male groups; these were pooled for analyses). Almost all the sheep responded to the helicopter overflights by interrupting their bedding or feeding activities with either vigilant behavior and/or running or walking. (All ran/walked during eight overflights; 6–49% of sheep remained bedded during six overflights.) Activity budgets were affected for 6–10 min after overflights had ended. Most animals that were bedded prior to disturbance switched to feeding following the helicopter overflight. The author suggests that effects on energy- assimilating activities by sheep can be disrupted by overflights, at least in the short term. (See also subsequent annotations for Frid 2001 and Frid 2003.) No noise data were collected.

Frid, A. 2001. Behavioral responses by Dall’s sheep to overflights by fixed-wing aircraft. Biennial Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council 12: 170–185.

Abstract: Are behavioural responses by Dall’s sheep (Ovis dalli dalli) exposed to overflights by a light fixed-wing aircraft consistent with economic models of antipredator behaviour? Agreeing with such models, the probability of active sheep fleeing and bedded sheep un-bedding increased as aircraft approached more directly. Un-bedding probability was affected by the vertical and horizontal components of angle of approach, as indexed by the sheep’s minimum distance from the aircraft’s trajectory and relative elevation, respectively. Fleeing probability was affected only by the horizontal angle of approach, possibly because trials in which the aircraft was very high above sheep were few. When active sheep fled during overflights, the time they neither fed nor bedded increased as angle of approach decreased. Active sheep did not feed less or move more within 10 min after overflights than prior to disturbance. Almost all bedded sheep that interrupted resting bouts, however, were active for 44-100% of the post-overflight period, suggesting that the energetic costs of interrupting rumination were greater than those of decreased foraging and increased locomotion. Sheep would increase fitness if they learn that aircraft overflights are not a lethal threat and do not warrant costly antipredator responses, but there was no evidence of habituation. This study provides parameters for models predicting energetic and fitness costs incurred as a function of overflight rates, and logistic regression models of fleeing and un-bedding probability that could be used to create pilot guidelines to mitigate disturbance. Results support that fixed-wing aircraft are substantially less disturbing to sheep than helicopters. Annotation: The study was conducted during June–July 1999 in Kluane National Park, Yukon Territory, Canada. Of the 81 observations of sheep recorded, 41% were of females without young. Experimental overflights (n = 32) were by one fixed-wing aircraft (Cessna 206 at a flight speed of 197 km/h) at a rate of 1–3 flights/day and more than 8 hr between flights.

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Distance to escape habitat, trajectory of flight, sex, reproductive status, and resting (ruminating) were examined. For groups with sheep active before the overflight (n = 51), 37% fled (walking or running) during the overflight. For sheep that were bedded before the overflight (n = 30), 47% stood up during the overflight, with 57% (8 of 14) of those animals walking or running (the remainder stood or were vigilant). Sheep interrupted by overflights spent less time bedded than undisturbed sheep. The flight trajectories of aircraft appeared to affect response levels, with those aircraft flying toward sheep causing more reactions than aircraft passing at a distance or away from sheep. In general, fixed-wing aircraft were less disturbing to Dall sheep than helicopters (see also the previous annotation for Frid 1999 and the subsequent annotation for Frid 2003).

Frid, A. 2001. Fleeing decisions by Dall sheep exposed to helicopter overflight. Biennial Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council 12: 153–169.

Abstract: I asked whether Dall’s sheep (Ovis dalli dalli) disturbed by helicopter overflights made fleeing decisions that were consistent with economic models of prey fleeing from predators. Agreeing with these models, fleeing probability decreased as helicopter’s approach became less direct, but the rate of decrease was greatest when sheep were on rocky slopes, which are a refuge from cursorial predators. Furthermore, sheep >20 m from rocky slopes always, which are a refuge from cursorial predators. Furthermore, sheep >20 m from rocky slopes always fled, even during indirect approaches, and distance fled increased with distance to rocky slopes. Approach directness affected fleeing probability only on a horizontal plane possibly because trials in which the helicopter was far above or below sheep were few. Contrary to predictions, flight initiation distance decreased with the horizontal component of approach directness. The latter, however, is geometrically correlated with the sheep’s minimum horizontal distance from the helicopter trajectory, and flight initiation distance was largely determined by animals fleeing when the helicopter reached its nearest point to them. Flight initiation distance also increased with group size and distance to obstructive cover, suggesting lower perceptual constraints in groups of greater size or farther from obstructive cover. While sheep would increase fitness if they learn that aircraft overflights are not a lethal threat and do not warrant the energetic costs of antipredator behavior, I found no evidence of habituation. Results provide preliminary parameters for models predicting energetic and fitness costs incurred as a function of overflight rates. Guidelines to mitigate disturbance could be created using logistic regression models of fleeing probability predicting the minimum distance from trajectory (a geometric correlate of approach directness that is controllable by pilots) causing acceptably low disturbance rates. Annotation: Data from the conference paper are also presented in Frid (2003) (see subsequent annotation for details). In Kluane Park, Yukon, Frid examined Dall’s sheep responses to helicopter disturbance and recorded movement or fleeing of sheep >10 m, flight initiation distance, distance fled, minimum distance from trajectory, distance to rocky slopes, group size, and distance to obstructive cover.

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Frid, A. 2003. Dall sheep responses to overflights by helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft. Biological Conservation 110: 387–399.

Abstract: High rates of behavioural disruption caused by human activities could jeopardize the body condition and reproductive success of wildlife. I exposed Dall sheep (Ovis dalli dalli) of the Yukon Territory to experimental overflights by a fixed- wing aircraft and a helicopter. Aircraft approaches that were more direct (as determined by the aircraft's elevation and horizontal distance from sheep) were more likely to elicit fleeing or to disrupt resting. Latency to resume feeding or resting after fixed-wing overflights was longer during more direct approaches. During indirect approaches by helicopters, sheep far from rocky slopes were much more likely to flee than sheep on rocky slopes. Sheep did not flee while nearby helicopters flew along the opposite side of a ridge, presumably because the obstructive cover buffered disturbing stimuli. Results provide preliminary parameters for predicting energetic and fitness costs incurred as a function of overflight rates, and can help mitigate disturbance by guiding temporal and spatial restrictions to aircraft. Annotation: The study was conducted during mid-June to early August in an area receiving little low-flying air traffic. The author defined an overflight as a flight within 4 km of a herd because sheep become vigilant towards aircraft at that distance. Dall sheep groups fled during 77% of the helicopter (Bell 206B) overflights and 37% of fixed-wing aircraft (Cessna 206) overflights. Distance to escape habitat, trajectory of flight, sex, reproductive status, and resting (ruminating) were examined. Sheep farther from rocky slopes (i.e., escape habitat) were more sensitive to helicopters than those closer to rocky slopes. The horizontal distance to the helicopter’s transect was more important in determining reactions than the helicopter’s altitude. The author concludes that fixed-wing aircraft are less disturbing to sheep than helicopters. During the 3–4 week study, sheep did not habituate to repeated overflights. No sound measurements were collected for either aircraft type.

Frid, A., and L. Dill. 2002. Human-caused disturbance stimuli as a form of predation risk. Conservation Ecology 6: 11. http://www.consecol.org/vol6/iss1/art11.

Abstract: A growing number of studies quantify the impact of nonlethal human disturbance on the behavior and reproductive success of animals. Although many are well designed and analytically sophisticated, most lack a theoretical framework for making predictions and for understanding why particular responses occur. Behavioral ecologists have recently begun to fill this theoretical vacuum by applying economic models of antipredator behavior to disturbance studies. In this emerging paradigm, predation and nonlethal disturbance stimuli create similar trade-offs between avoiding perceived risk and other fitness-enhancing activities, such as feeding, parental care, or mating. A vast literature supports the hypothesis that

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antipredator behavior has a cost to other activities, and that this trade-off is optimized when investment in antipredator behavior tracks short-term changes in predation risk. Prey have evolved antipredator responses to generalized threatening stimuli, such as loud noises and rapidly approaching objects. Thus, when encountering disturbance stimuli ranging from the dramatic, lowflying helicopter to the quiet wildlife photographer, animal responses are likely to follow the same economic principles used by prey encountering predators. Some authors have argued that, similar to predation risk, disturbance stimuli can indirectly affect fitness and population dynamics via the energetic and lost opportunity costs of risk avoidance. We elaborate on this argument by discussing why, from an evolutionary perspective, disturbance stimuli should be analogous to predation risk. We then consider disturbance effects on the behavior of individuals—vigilance, fleeing, habitat selection, mating displays, and parental investment—as well as indirect effects on populations and communities. A wider application of predation risk theory to disturbance studies should increase the generality of predictions and make mitigation more effective without over-regulating human activities. Annotation: The article provides a literature review of many disturbance studies, including those on helicopter disturbance, and discusses how well those studies support the predictions of the theory that many of the responses by wildlife are in the context of antipredator behaviors. The article discusses the various components of aircraft disturbance relevant to these responses, including the effects of vertical versus slant distances and noise effects on the disturbance response. Although no new data were presented, the paper provides a good review of the theoretical underpinnings of analyses of disturbance effects on individual animals and population-level impacts.

Giese, M., and M. Riddle. 1999. Disturbance of emperor penguin Aptenodytes forsteri chicks by helicopters. Polar Biology 22: 366–371.

Abstract: Creching emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) chicks were exposed to two overflights by a Sikorsky S-76, twin engine helicopter at 1000 m (3300 ft), a current operational guideline of the Australian Antarctic Division for helicopter activity in Antarctica. The flights were conducted on the same day but under different wind conditions: a morning flight with a 10-knot (18 km/h) katabatic wind blowing perpendicular to the direction of helicopter travel, and an afternoon flight with virtually no wind. Background noise levels recorded in the morning before the helicopter flight were significantly higher than in the afternoon, but these differences were not detectable when the helicopter was overhead. There were also no significant differences in the way chicks responded to helicopters between the morning and afternoon flight. All chicks became more vigilant when the helicopter approached and 69% either walked or ran, generally moving less than 10 m toward other chicks (i.e. not scattering). Most chicks (83%) displayed flipper-flapping, probably indicating nervous apprehension. This behaviour was seldom displayed in the absence of disturbance. Although all effects were relatively transitory, the results support the introduction of a more conservative guideline of 1500 m (5000 ft)

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minimum overflight altitude for helicopter operations around breeding localities of this species. Annotation: Noise levels (dBA) were recorded before and during experimental helicopter overflights (one overflight in the morning, one in the afternoon). The maximum noise level during an overflight was 68.2 dBA, and ambient noise levels at the penguin colony varied from 35–40 dBA (no wind) to 50–60 dBA (with an 18 km/h katabatic wind). Exposure of penguins to helicopter noise was reduced in duration somewhat by the crosswind masking or dispersing sound from the vicinity of the colony. The authors suggest a more conservative guideline of a minimum of 1500 m AGL for overflights in breeding localities of this species.

Giroux, J.-F., J. Bédard, and A. Nadeau. 2003. Review and analysis of studies conducted between 1974 and 2000 on the topic of waterfowl and low-level flights in Labrador and northeastern Quebec. Pages 37 in M. Baker and G. Belliveau, eds. Waterfowl Conference. 17–18 September 2002. Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Labrador. Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research. Terra Borealis. Vol. 3.

Abstract: We critically reviewed 14 technical documents pertaining to the presumed impact of low-level training flights (LLTF) on waterfowl distribution and abundance. Half of the reports were summaries of aerial surveys conducted in connection with hydroelectric development or designed to understand continental demographic trends of selected species such as Black Duck and Canada Geese. Five other reports were specific studies including three that had been designed to test the effects of LLTF. All of the reviewed studies had either inherent weakness (e.g. questionable correction factors), had been poorly designed (e.g. lack of randomization of transects/plots, plot size and shape variation within studies), or did not apply proper statistical treatments. The complexity of the problem is extreme and as LLTF have already taken place throughout the area and may already have influenced waterfowl abundance and distribution, a truly experimental approach is probably no longer possible. The ultimate study would be to evaluate the effects of LLTF on recruitment and to determine if the areas affected by LLTF are acting as a source or a sink for waterfowl populations. This would be nearly impossible to do. Establishing avoidance areas based on threshold density is not acceptable because 1) aerial surveys are affected by many factors and 2) subjective selection of plots with potential habitats could result in higher mean values that would set the threshold for exclusion of LLTF at a higher level, thus releasing more areas for LLTF. We therefore recommended an alternative for mitigating potential impacts of LLTF. Key waterfowl habitats should be mapped throughout the range in combination with information on general ecological knowledge about the various components of the waterfowl community. In a precautionary approach, these habitats could be excluded from LLTF once an appropriate ranking of the various species has been established in terms of vulnerability. The ecoregion concept used in some of the reviewed reports does not reflect the capacity of the habitat to support populations of waterfowl.

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Annotation: Only the abstract was presented in the conference proceedings. These authors are well-respected scientists with a great deal of experience evaluating potential effects of disturbance on waterfowl populations in Canada. Their evaluation suggests flaws in many of the studies conducted for the low-level training in Labrador.

Goldstein, M. I., A. J. Poe, E. Cooper, D. Youkey, B.A. Brown, and T. L. McDonald. 2005. Mountain goat response to helicopter overflights in Alaska. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33: 688–699.

Abstract: The number of helicopter flights used to gain access to backcountry has increased in recent years. Biologists, land managers, and the public have expressed concern about disturbance impacts to mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) resulting from helicopter activity. We recorded behavioral responses of 122 groups of mountain goats from 347 helicopter overflights at 4 geographic areas in Alaska and analyzed responses in relation to distance and angle from helicopters to mountain goats, reproductive class, season, and area of study. We used multinomial logistic regression modeling combined with a bootstrap randomization procedure to identify factors associated with increased probability of mountain goats being in 1 of the 4 behavioral response categories during helicopter overflights. The probability of a goat group being disturbed was inversely related to distance of the helicopter from the group. Odds of disturbance increased by a factor of 1.25 for every 100-m reduction in approach distance. Approach distances resulting in >90% probability of maintenance were significantly larger where mountain goats had received less prior exposure to helicopters. When mountain goats were disturbed during overflights, a second analysis (i.e., gamma regression model with inverse link function) estimated elapsed time until mountain goats returned to maintenance behavior. The length of time that a goat remained in a disturbed state following overflight did not depend upon any of the covariates; mountain goats remained in a disturbed state for an average of 30.7 seconds (95% CI, 25.7–35.9 seconds). The results offer land managers an opportunity to evaluate risk for permitting helicopter activity. Annotation: Experimental flights with an A-Star AS-350 helicopter near mountain goat groups were conducted at three locations (eastern Prince William Sound, Kenai Peninsula, and Chilkat Mountain Range). At the Juneau Icefield, data were gathered from regularly scheduled helicopter sightseeing flights with the same helicopter type. Distances to mountain goat groups (range = 250–2000 m) and behavior reactions of groups and individuals were recorded during experimental flights. Responses of both groups of goats and individuals were recorded. Most flights (65%) did not disturb groups of goats (disturbance categorized based on one individual in the group displaying the behavior—alert, vigilance, or fleeing). Of the 35% of helicopter flights that did cause disturbance to groups, 10% of the groups were alert, 15% were vigilant, and 9% fled. Responses of the 773 individual goats observed in these groups were similar, with 194 (25%) showing an overt response. Of those overt responses, 128 (16%) were alert or vigilant and 66 (8%) fled. Habituation of goats to helicopter disturbance was unclear. The authors recommended that helicopters

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maintain distances from mountain goats of 500 m (at Juneau Icefield) to 1234 m (at eastern Price William Sound) to reduce the risk of disturbance to below 25% of goat groups. No noise data were collected.

Gollop, M. A., J. E. Black, B. E. Felske, and R. A. Davis. 1974a. Disturbance studies of breeding black brant, common eiders, glaucous gulls, and arctic terns at Nunaluk Spit and Phillips Bay, Yukon Territory, July, 1972. Pages 153–201 in W. W. H. Gunn, and J. A. Livingston, eds. Disturbance to birds by gas compressor noise simulators, aircraft and human activity in the Mackenzie Valley and the North Slope, 1972. Arctic Gas Biological Report 14. Canadian Arctic Gas Study, Limited and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study, 304 pp.

Annotation: The study was part of the baseline studies evaluating potential effects of a proposed natural gas line between Alaska and Canada along the arctic coastal plain. The objectives of the study were to evaluate the effects of helicopter, fixed- wing aircraft, and human disturbances on the incubating behavior and reproductive success of Brant, Common Eiders, Glaucous Gulls, and Arctic Terns, near Firth River, Yukon Territory, Canada. Helicopter (Bell 206) overflights ranged from 20– 3000 ft and fixed-wing aircraft (Cessna 185) overflights ranged from 125–1000 ft above ground. Human disturbance was primarily by investigators. Behavioral reactions for each species during different overflight scenarios are described and management implications are given. Helicopters were more disturbing than fixed- wing aircraft, but responses varied among species:

• Brant flushed from nests when helicopters flew at ≤500 ft altitude • Glaucous Gulls were also disturbed at flights ≤500 ft • Arctic Terns flew at altitudes ≤1000 ft No noise (sound) data were recorded.

Gollop, M. A., R.A. Davis, J. P. Prevett, and B. E. Felske. 1972. Disturbance studies of terrestrial breeding bird populations: Firth River, Yukon Territory, June, 1972. Pages 97–152 in W. W. H. Gunn, and J. A. Livingston, eds. Disturbance to birds by gas compressor noise simulators, aircraft and human activity in the Mackenzie Valley and the North Slope, 1972. Arctic Gas Biological Report 14. Canadian Arctic Gas Study, Limited and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study, 304 pp.

Annotation: The study was part of the baseline studies evaluating potential effects of a proposed natural gas line between Alaska and Canada along the arctic coastal plain. The objective of the one-summer study was to determine the possible impacts of human disturbance related to camps and associated aircraft disturbance on terrestrial birds breeding on the tundra near Firth River, Yukon Territory, Canada. Camp disturbances included generator noise, pedestrians, Jet Ranger (Bell 206)

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helicopter traffic, and a dog. In addition to helicopter arrivals and departures associated with the camp, overflights at 50 m AGL were conducted on experimental plots twice a day. Bird nests (primarily Lapland Longspur) on experimental and control plots were monitored. Nesting density, clutch size, and hatching success were compared between plots. Helicopter disturbance did not affect population density, but may have decreased breeding productivity on disturbance plots. (Weather events complicated analyses and the interpretation of results.) Disturbance reactions (flushing) to helicopters were noted for Rock Ptarmigan. No sound (noise) data were recorded.

Gollop, M. A., J. R. Goldsberry, and R. A. Davis. 1974b. Aircraft disturbance moulting sea ducks, Herschel Island, Yukon Territory, August, 1972. Pages 202–231 in W. W. H. Gunn, and J. A. Livingston, eds. Disturbance to birds by gas compressor noise simulators, aircraft and human activity in the Mackenzie Valley and the North Slope, 1972. Arctic Gas Biological Report 14. Canadian Arctic Gas Study, Limited and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study, 301 pp.

Annotation: The study was part of the baseline studies evaluating potential effects of a proposed natural gas line between Alaska and Canada along the arctic coastal plain. The study was conducted at Herschel Island, Yukon Territory. The study objectives were to determine whether helicopter overflights affect the normal behavior of molting (i.e., flightless) sea ducks, the effects of aircraft flying at various altitudes, and whether intensive aircraft activity would drive sea ducks from sheltered areas. Although many species are mentioned, Long-tailed Ducks (formerly Oldsquaw) and Surf Scoters were species of primary interest. Data were collected during 1 day of undisturbed conditions and during 2 days of hourly overflights. Surprisingly, the authors did not disclose the type of helicopter used. Presumably, it was a Bell Jet Ranger, because that was the helicopter type used in other studies conducted for the project. Flight altitudes varied from 100–750 ft AGL, with variable horizontal distances (ranging from 300–1200 ft) from the shoreline where birds were located. The ducks’ escape reactions (moving into water) were more acute at lower altitudes of helicopter overflights, but normal behavior was resumed shortly after disturbance. Birds were aware of the helicopter well before it was visible to observers (0.5–1.0 mi away), presumably because of the sound of the approaching helicopter. No noise (sound) data were collected.

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Gordon, S. M., and S. F. Wilson. 2005. Effect of helicopter logging on mountain goat behavior in coastal British Columbia. Paper presented at 1st BC Mountain Goat Workshop, 1–2 March 2005, Prince George, British Columbia.

Abstract: [Project Summary.] We examined the effect of helicopter activity associated with industrial forestry on the behaviour of coastal mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) during spring, summer and autumn 2001 and 2002. We collected 959 hours of instantaneous scan data on 2 herds over 95 field days in the upper Powell River watershed in south-western BC. The proportion of time adult females and kids spent engaged in different behaviours differed among disturbance phases and year. No obvious pattern was observed in 2001 but both age-sex classes spent less time bedded during phases associated with helicopter activity than during other phases in 2002. Overt changes in behaviour were also observed anecdotally during helicopter yarding activities in both 2001 and 2002. Annotation: The paper discusses the effects of helicopter-supported logging on mountain goats in an area just northwest of Vancouver, British Columbia. A large helicopter (Chinook) was used to yard logs in a coastal forest area in mountain goat habitat. Observations of responses of goats to helicopters indicated that overt responses occurred at distances up to 1500 m. Behavioral and sightability analyses showed disturbance effects from helicopters in both years of the study. No evidence of habituation to disturbance was found, however, behavioral results were not consistent between years.

Goudie, R. I. 2003. The effects of noise generated from low-level military jet over-flights on behaviors of Harlequin Ducks Breeding at Fig River, Central Labrador. Pages 61–68 in M. Baker and G. Belliveau, eds. Waterfowl Conference. 17–18 September 2002. Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Labrador. Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research. Terra Borealis. Vol. 3.

Abstract: The response of individually marked pairs of Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) to noise generated from low-level military jet over-flights was studied as part of a multi-year research at Fig River, a tributary of the Lower Churchill River in central Labrador. As part of the research on behavioral ecology and demography of Harlequin Ducks breeding in central Labrador, I applied a Before After Control Impact (BACI) study design to substantiate impacts on behaviours of individual birds in the 130,000 km2 Military Training Area. Noise generated from low-level (30– 100 m agl) military jets was sudden onset and loud (>100 dBA), and substantially above the background sound levels at Fig Lake outlet (40–50 dBA) and utilized rapids and riffles sections of Fig River (60–70 dBA). Harlequin Ducks responded to jet noise with alert behaviours, and there was a positive dose-response relationship. Residual effects were linked with decreased courtship and increased agonistic behaviours that were evident up to 1.5 h and 1 h after the military jet over-flights, respectively. In successive over-flight treatments, i.e., <60 s apart, initial startle responses frequently waned, and in most cases there were no detectable responses by the third or fourth successive over-flights, suggesting short-term habituation.

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Direct behavioural responses to military jet over-flights were of short duration and generally lasted less than 1 minute, and unlikely to affect critical behaviours, such as feeding and resting, in the overall time-activity budgets of breeding pairs. Implications of residual effects are potentially more serious, and may require further study. Annotation: The response of Harlequin Duck pairs to noise generated from low-level military aircraft overflights was studied during the early part of the breeding season. Harlequin Ducks are considered to be endangered in Canada. Jets followed river valleys during low-level flights (30–150 m AGL) at speeds of 780–890 km/h; noise levels frequently exceeded 100 dBA. Background (ambient) sound levels along the rapids and riffles of the river habitats used by Harlequin Ducks were 60–70 dBA. The author indicates that the dose-response relationship between alert behaviors and noise levels could be mitigated by using specific altitudes that reduce noise exposure in critical habitats for Harlequin Ducks.

Goudie, R. I. 2006. Multivariate behavioural response of harlequin ducks to aircraft disturbance in Labrador. Environmental Conservation 33: 28–35.

Abstract: The effects of low-level aircraft over-flights on behaviour of harlequin ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) breeding in central Labrador were quantified during 2000–2002. The Canadian Department of National Defence supports a low-level training programme in the 130 000 km2 Military Training Area of Labrador involving military jets. The Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research (IEMR) undertakes scientific research into environmental impacts of low-level military jet over-flights. A suite of 17 behavioural categories of paired male and female harlequin ducks was modelled, and a canonical variable representing alert behaviour, inactivity on the water and decreased inactivity out of water in response to over-flights represented 73.1% of the variance in the data cluster and provided marked separation of disturbed and undisturbed groups. Behavioural responses of harlequin ducks to military jets were 23 times stronger than their responses to floatplanes, helicopters and military cargo planes, and the significant interaction of aircraft type and noise indicated that noise may be the primary stressor affecting behaviour. A quadratic response of the canonical variable to noise generated from aircraft during standardized 30-minute observation periods was defined. The multivariate analyses were more robust because they indicated covariance in behavioural categories associated with disturbance that was not originally detected in univariate analyses, suggesting the importance of integrating behaviours other than overt responses. The significant effects of military jet over-flights on harlequin duck behaviour emphasize the need to evaluate potential population consequences of aircraft disturbance. Annotation: The paper summarizes results from a study conducted for the larger Goose Bay military overflight assessment (see annotations in this report from Baker and Belliveau 2001) to determine impacts of military jet overflights in eastern

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Canada. This behavioral analysis identified jet aircraft as more disturbing than other aircraft types, including helicopters (military types). Noise data on jet overflights were collected. See previous Goudie (2003) annotation for information on flight speeds and noise levels.

Goudie, R. I., and I. L. Jones. 2004. Dose-response relationships of harlequin duck behaviour to noise from low-level military jet over-flights in central Labrador. Environmental Conservation 31: 289–298.

Abstract: Concern for the lack of field studies on the effects of low-level military jet over-flights on wildlife resulted in directed research in the Military Training Area of Labrador, 1999-2002. At Fig River, a tributary of the Lower Churchill River, a before- after-control-impact (BACI) study design quantified effects of aircraft over-flights on behaviour of individual harlequin ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) in the 130 000 km2 Military Training Area of central Labrador. Noise generated from low-level passes (30-100 m above ground level) by military jets was sudden in onset and high in amplitude (>100 dBA), substantially above background sound levels both at Fig Lake outlet (40-50 dBA) and rapid sections of Fig River (60-70 dBA). Harlequin ducks reacted to noise from military jets with alert behaviour, showing a positive dose-response that especially intensified when noise exceeded 80 dBA. Residual effects, in other words, deviations from normal behaviour patterns after initial responses, were decreased courtship behaviour for up to 1.5 h after, and increased agonistic behaviour for up to 2 h after military jet over-flights. Direct behavioural responses to military jet over-flights were of short duration (generally <1 min), and were unlikely to affect critical behaviours such as feeding and resting in the overall time-activity budgets of breeding pairs. However, the presence of residual effects on behaviour implied whole-body stress responses that were potentially more serious; these require further study because they are potentially more detrimental than immediate responses, and may not be detected in studies that focus on readily observed overt responses. A dose-response curve relating particular behaviours of harlequin ducks to associated noise of over-flights could be a valuable conservation tool for the research and mitigation of environmental impacts of aircraft and other noise. Annotation: : The paper summarizes the results of a study on reactions of Harlequin Ducks to military jet overflights in eastern Canada. Other studies dealt with other species (see other annotations in this report on Goose Bay/Labrador studies; see also the companion article [Goudie 2006], which was previously annotated). The author suggests that simply looking at immediate behavioral responses of ducks to overflights may miss longer term impacts that were more significant. The noise data in the Abstract for the study provided not only noise levels for associated jet overflights, but also ambient sound levels in the birds’ riverine habitats (where significant water noise may mask some human disturbances). See also previous Goudie (2003) annotation.

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Griffith, B, J. P. Lawler, and D. Johnson. 2006. Dall’s sheep response to military overflights in interior Alaska. Paper presented at The Wildlife Society 13th Annual Conference, 23– 27 September 2006, Anchorage, AK. [Abstract only.]

Abstract: We investigated the potential effects of military jet aircraft on Dall’s sheep (Ovis dalli) in Alaska at multiple scales using: 1) observations of local behavior in relation to military overflight activity; and 2) home range size, habitat use and daily movements in relation to military aircraft activity. Twenty sheep were equipped with Global Position System (GPS) radiocollars during March-October of 1999-2002 and ground crews recorded sheep behavior during military training exercises. Daily flights over Dall’s sheep did not substantially influence their local behavior. Further, we observed no significant effects of the number of military aircraft sorties launched on 2-week within-home-range scale: 1) total distance moved; 2) home range size: or 3) habitat use. We conclude that the levels of military over-flight activity that we observed in this study generally did not cause significant effects on local sheep behavior or within-home-range habitat use. Few of the overflights were low or loud. We emphasize, however, that 1) the studied sheep population has had opportunity to acclimate to military overflights for over 20 years, 2) we made no comparisons to areas that were free of military overflights and thus cannot draw conclusions regarding the effect of the background level of 20 sorties per day on sheep behavior and populations, 3) the power of our statistical tests were sometimes limited, and 4) if the nature, intensity, or frequency of military flights in interior Alaska changes substantially compared to the conditions observed in this study, then sheep may respond differently. Annotation: Little actual data are provided in this abstract, but the conclusion of the study appeared to be that habituation by Dall sheep to military aircraft overflights had already occurred in the area studied.

Grubb, T. G., and W. W. Bowerman. 1997. Variations in breeding Bald Eagle responses to jets, light planes and helicopters. Journal of Raptor Research 31: 213–222.

Abstract: We analyzed 3122 observations of military jets, light planes and helicopters for three levels of response (none, alert, flight) by breeding Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) at 13 occupied nests in Arizona and six in Michigan, 1983–85 and 1989– 90, respectively. Helicopters elicited the greatest frequency of response (47%) followed by jets (31%) and light planes (26%). Frequency of response (23–61%) and frequency of flight (2–13%) both increased through the nesting season from February to June. Distance from eagle to aircraft, duration of overflight and number of aircraft and/or passes were the most important characteristics influencing eagle response to pooled an individual aircraft types. Classification tree (CART) models for individual aircraft types provided dichotomous leys of distance and secondary variables affecting associated response rates, and should facilitate evaluating aircraft-specific

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impacts. Our analyses indicate a categorical exclusion of aircraft within 600 m of nest sites would limit Bald Eagle response frequency to 19%. Annotation: Research focused on the differences in reactions of breeding Bald Eagles to military jets, single-engine fixed-wing aircraft, and helicopters. (Information about specific aircraft models was not provided.) The authors used a classification and regression tree (CART) model to assess the importance of aircraft type, distance from disturbance, duration, number, and visibility in influencing eagle responses. Helicopters caused reactions at greater distances than jets and light planes. Distance from the aircraft appeared to be the most important factor in responses, followed by duration and number of events. The authors indicate that their study supports the conclusion that helicopters are the most disturbing type of aircraft. No sound measurements were recorded. Management guidelines for flying near Bald Eagle nests are given.

Grubb, T. G., and R. M. King. 1991. Assessing human disturbance of breeding Bald Eagles with classification tree models. Journal of Wildlife Management 55: 500–511.

Abstract: We recorded 4,188 events of human activity and associated bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) response in the vicinity of 13 central Arizona nest sites during 1983-85. A hierarchical classification of 9 dependent and 3 independent parameters was developed to quantify pedestrian, aquatic, vehicle, noise (gunshot/sonic boom), an aircraft disturbance groups. Type and frequency of response varied inversely with the distance from an eagle to the disturbance. Bald eagles were more often flushed from perches than nests and were most easily disturbed when foraging. Pedestrian was the most disturbing human activity, whereas aircraft was the least. We developed classification tree (CART) models for pooled and group disturbances to evaluate response severity and to formulate disturbance-specific management criteria. Response frequencies and critical distances for pooled disturbance were 64% at <215 m, 45% between 216 and 583 m, and 24% at >583 m. Frequencies, distances, and the influence of secondary characteristics varied among disturbance groups. The CART models ranked distance to disturbance as the most important classifier of eagle response, followed in decreasing order of discriminatory value by duration of disturbance, visibility, number of units per event, position relative to affected eagle, and sound. This procedure offers improved specificity in human disturbance assessment. Annotation: The authors recorded the behavior of nesting bald eagles and the frequency of their reactions to five disturbance groups:

• Pedestrian • Aquatic • Vehicle • Noise (gunshot/sonic boom) • Aircraft (jets, small airplanes, helicopters)

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The authors also quantified secondary characteristics (i.e., distance to disturbance, duration of disturbance, visibility) of each disturbance group. Helicopter types were not provided.

• Of 718 helicopter disturbances, 337 (47%) elicited a response from bald eagles.

• The average duration of the response was 1 min and the response type included none (53%), alert (36%), flight (9%), and departure (2%).

• The response frequency (alert or greater response) to helicopters (47%) was higher than for either small airplanes (26% showing some response) or jets (30%).

• Pedestrians were the greatest disturbance type, both in the frequency of events disturbing eagles and in the duration of the response. The authors suggest a primary 600-m-radius buffer zone around breeding bald eagles and a 1200-m secondary zone for aircraft, vehicle, and noise disturbances. Note: at the time of the study, bald eagles were still listed as endangered in Arizona. No noise data were collected.

Gunn, A., and F. L. Miller. 1980. Responses of Peary caribou cow-calf pairs to helicopter harassment in the Canadian High Arctic. Pages 497–507 in E. Reimers, E. Gaare, and S. Skjenneberg, eds. Proceedings of the Second International Reindeer/Caribou Symposium, 1979. Roros, Norway. Direktoratet for vilt og ferskannsfisk, Trondheim.

Abstract: We simulated the slinging of loads by helicopter by flying sets of six passes at 240-370 metres above ground level over groups of Peary caribou on Prince of Wales Island, Northwest Territories. We were especially interested in the responses of cow-calf pairs as we had previously noted their high responsiveness relative to other group types during helicopter harassment. Ground observers continuously recorded the behavior of 20 cow-calf pairs before, during and after sets of 6 passes in July-August, 1977. We obtained 368 responses or activities from cow-calf pairs from each of four phases of the 92 passes. Calves responded to 86.7% of the 91 phases during which cows responded, and calves also responded during 28 phases when their cow was foraging or bedded. Of the 123 locomotary responses 19.5% and 20.3% were attributable to regrouping of the cow-calf pair and the pair rejoining their group, respectively. Only 2.2% of the cow-calf pairs were trotting as the helicopter departed, and within 1-min the pair still in sight had stopped trotting and was foraging. Calves tended to alert more and respond sooner than their maternal cows. The calves were also more likely to rejoin their maternal cows than the cows to seek out their calves. Annotation: The authors recorded the behavioral reactions of caribou cows and calves to experimental overflights of cargo slinging by a Bell 206B Jet Ranger helicopter. Behavioral categories included feeding, resting, alert posture, and cow-calf movements toward each other. No noise data were collected.

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Gunn, A., R. Glaholt, F. L. Miller, and K. Jingfors. 1983. Caribou behaviour, range use patterns and short term responses to helicopter landings on the Beverly Calving Ground, N.W.T. 1982. Report No. 30. NWT Wildlife Service, Yellowknife, Canada. 126 pp.

Abstract: The exploration for minerals on the tundra ranges of migratory barren- ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) raised concerns about the potential effects of these activities on the well-being of caribou, especially on cows and calves. As a result, the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development implemented the Caribou Protection Measures which limit land use activities just before and during the calving and post-calving periods of the Beverly and Kaminuriak herds (15 May-31 July). As an initial step to evaluating the Caribou Protection Measures and to develop appropriate methodology for measuring some behavioural responses to man's activities, we field-tested a sampling design for recording undisturbed behaviour of cow-calf pairs on the Beverly calving ground in 1981 and 1982. Additionally, we recorded the responses of cow-calf pairs to 16 helicopter landings. We landed 950 ± 650 m, SD from the caribou, and shut down the helicopter for about 20 min before flying away. Observations of the same caribou after the helicopter landings indicated greater proportions of cows and calves were walking, trotting or galloping during post-disturbance than pre-disturbance. The frequency and duration of nursing was slightly less during the landing than before and after, but sample sizes were small as seven groups were totally and six groups were partially out of sight during the landing. We cannot evaluate the consequences of displacing all or some of the caribou during 13 of the 16 landings. Any measurement of the short-term consequences to the population exposed to human activities is beyond the objectives and scope of this study. Annotation: An experimental approach was used to describe the behavioral changes in caribou before and after exposure to helicopter (Bell 206B) landings. See the Gunn et al. (1985) annotation for a discussion of the results. No noise data were collected.

Gunn, A., F. L. Miller, R. Glahot, and K. Jingfors. 1985. Behavioral responses of barren- ground caribou cows and calves to helicopters on the Beverly calving grounds, Northwest Territories. Pages 10–14 in A. M. Martell, and D. E. Russell, eds. Proceedings of the 1st North American Caribou Workshop. Whitehorse, Yukon. Canadian Wildlife Service Special Publication, Ottawa.

Abstract: In June 1982, 16 post-calving aggregations of mainly cow-calf pairs of barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) were exposed on the Beverly Herd calving ground to helicopter overpass and landing nearby. We describe the responses of these caribou to helicopter landings preceded by an overpass at 300 m above ground level. The helicopter landed between 300 and 2200 m from a group of

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caribou already under observation and shut-down for 20 min before taking off. No statistical differences were found between pre- and post-landing behaviours or activity patterns of the exposed caribou. Observed responses of the caribou in the 16 aggregations suggested that walking by cows and walking, trotting, and galloping by calves were greater after the departure of the helicopter. The frequency and duration of nursing bouts was slightly less during landing than before or after the landing; however, the frequency of attempted nursing did not change. Caribou that resumed foraging tended to orient their foraging away from the helicopter landing point and to drift perceptibly away. The caribou in 13 of 16 aggregations exposed to helicopter landings were displaced 1-3 km by the time they were out of sight. Annotation: The effects of experimental helicopter (Bell 206B) overflights and landings on the activity budgets of 16 post-calving aggregations, mainly cow-calf pairs, were studied. The authors quantified the pre- and post-disturbance activity budgets of cows and calves. Several potential biases in the study are identified, and detailed suggestions regarding future study design are discussed. The study is referred to as preliminary. Helicopter flights were flown at 300 m AGL (120–130 km/h). Helicopters approached over caribou groups then landed at distances ranging from 300–2200 m away. The helicopters shut-down and waited 20 minutes before restarting and flying away from the caribou groups. Most caribou groups moved away from the helicopter approach and landing. Often, the caribou groups were out of sight by the time the helicopter restarted. No severe responses were observed. However, the general pattern of movements was an indication of avoidance behaviors, often initiated by cow-calf pairs. No noise data were collected for helicopter flights.

Harms, C. A., W. J. Fleming, and M. K. Stoskopf. 1997. A technique for dorsal subcutaneous implantation of heart rate biotelemetry transmitters in Black Ducks: Application in an aircraft noise response study. Condor 99: 231–237.

Abstract: A technique for heart rate biotelemetry transmitter implantation was developed to monitor heart rate fluctuations of Black Ducks (Anas rubripes) in response to simulated aircraft noise in a large outdoor enclosure. A dorsal subcutaneous approach, with subcutaneous tunneling of lead wires, was employed for placement of the 32 g transmitters. A base-apex lead configuration, with leads anchored at the dorsal cervico-thoracic junction and the caudal keel, yielded the maximal ECG wave-form deflection for triggering the transmitter. Heart rates of six Black Ducks (three in each of two separate trials) were monitored for 3 days pre- noise to establish a baseline, and then for 4 days of simulated aircraft noise. The noise stimulus replicated an FB-111 military jet, and was played 48 times per day at a peak volume of 110 dB. Daily mean heart rates, used as indicators of metabolic rates, did not increase in response to noise. Recognizable acute heart rate increases corresponding with a noise event occurred with increased frequency during the first

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day of noise presentation, but on subsequent days the responses did not differ significantly from baseline. Acute hear rate responses to aircraft noise diminished rapidly, indicating the ability of Black Ducks to habituate to the auditory component of low altitude aircraft overflights. Annotation: The article describes in detail a method for the subcutaneous implantation of a heart rate biotelemetry transmitter suitable for ducks. Using this technology, the authors quantified the effects of simulated jet aircraft noise (F-111) on the heart rates of six captive Black Ducks. The ducks were exposed to noise levels of 110 dB (recording of an overflight at 79 m AGL) for several days in succession. The ducks responded with increased heart rates for a short duration during the first day of exposure, but not during subsequent days, which suggests that habituation to the noise occurred relatively rapidly. The authors also suggest that the lack of variance in the recording and the lack of a visual stimulus may have affected the rate of habituation.

Harper, W. L., and D. S. Eastman. 2000. Wildlife and commercial backcountry recreation in British Columbia: Assessment of impacts and interim guidelines for mitigation. Discussion paper by Osiris Wildlife Consulting for Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Wildlife Branch, Victoria, BC. 80 pp.

Annotation: The report reviews the potential impacts (risks) of various commercial recreational activities on lands and wildlife in British Columbia and provides interim guidelines to reduce or mitigate these impacts. Helicopter travel is associated with several commercial recreational activities (such as heli-skiing, access to remote areas, remote camp servicing). The report provides a good literature review of potential risks to the major wildlife species in the area.

• The authors recommend for mountain and Dall’s sheep that helicopter flight altitudes be a minimum of 500 m over sheep habitats and a minimum of 1000 m horizontal distance. In natal areas, the authors indicate that the horizontal distance should increase to 2000 m. Helicopter landing areas should be 2000 m from sheep habitats.

• For bison, the recommended helicopter flight altitude was 500 m over bison habitats.

• An altitude recommendation similar to that for bison is made for mountain caribou, but the authors also recommend that seasonally sensitive areas be closed to overflights (no-fly zones over critical habitats).

• Mountain goats also had recommended no-fly zones during certain seasons (kidding, wintering) and minimum horizontal and vertical distances of 2000 m, unless goats are separated by a vertical barrier (i.e., mountain range).

• The recommended flight altitude for grizzly bears was 300 m AGL above bear habitats.

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• The authors suggest avoiding helicopter overflights and preventing landings in areas with active wolverine dens.

• For other mammals (e.g., marmots) and waterbirds (herons, white pelicans), the authors recommend helicopter overflight altitudes of 500 m to reduce disturbance. The authors recommend avoidance of waterbird nesting colonies. No noise data are presented.

Harrington, F. H. 2003. Caribou, military jets and noise: the interplay of behavioural ecology and evolutionary psychology. Rangifer Special Issue 14: 73–80.

Abstract: Whether a human activity is likely to have a negative impact on a species depends largely on how stimuli from that activity are interpreted and acted upon by individuals, within the context of the behavioural ecology. The interpretations and decisions made by individuals in response to these stimuli are largely governed by neural systems evolved by species as adaptations to common and recurrent selective pressures. In this paper I will review previous findings concerning the responses of caribou to overflights by military jet aircraft in Labrador/Quebec and Alaska, casting them in an evolutionary psychological framework. One prediction from such an exercise is that identical stimuli (noise from jet overflights) that elicits similar response (short-distance avoidance) can have quite different population consequences for sedentary (woodland) and migratory (barren-ground) ecotypes. For a female woodland caribou, which shares her calving range with a resident predator population, an increase in movements following disturbance may significantly increase her calf’s exposure to predators. Similar movements by a female barren-ground caribou, which has fewer predators to contend with, may have only a negligible impact on her calf’s predation risk. Thus woodland caribou may be more vulnerable to negative impacts of military jet noise during calving periods, dependent on predator density. Annotation: Primarily a review paper, the document discusses caribou reactions to jet disturbance. Differences in responses of caribou to helicopter versus jet disturbances are briefly mentioned. Caribou usually do not see or hear the approaching jet and have strong startle reactions to the overflight, followed by a relatively rapid recovery to normal behavior. In contrast, caribou usually hear helicopters before they are seen, and the reactions last longer, primarily because the disturbing noise/visual stimuli last longer with a slower moving aircraft.

Harrington, F. H., and A. M. Veitch. 1991. Short-term impacts of low-level jet fighter training on caribou in Labrador. Arctic 44: 318–327.

Abstract: The short-term impacts on caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) of low-level jet fighter training at Canadian Forces Goose Bay (Labrador) were investigated during the 1986-88 training seasons (April-October). Visual observations of low-level (30 m

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agl) jet overpasses indicated an initial startle response but otherwise brief overt reaction by woodland caribou on late-winter alpine tundra habitat. Between 1986 and 1988, daily effects of jet overflights were monitored on 10 caribou equipped with satellite-tracked radiocollars, which provided daily indices of activity and movement. Half of the animals were exposed to jet overflights; the other 5 caribou were avoided during training exercises and therefore served as control animals. In 1988, the control caribou were from a population that had never been overflown. Level of exposure to low-level flying within the exposed population did not significantly affect daily activity levels or distance traveled, although comparison with the unexposed population did suggest potential effects. The results indicate that significant impacts of low-level overflights can be minimized through a program of avoidance. Annotation: Woodland caribou were experimentally exposed to low-level military jet (F-4, F-5, F-16, F-18, and Tornado) overflights. The behavior and energy expenditures of caribou exposed to varying levels of overflights are described. A comparison is made between overflights of fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters (Bell 206 and A-Star 300D). Helicopter overflights were at 30–150 m AGL and airspeed of 150 km/h. Noise levels (dB) of jet aircraft are quantified, allowing a zone of disturbance to be described. At the Red Wine study site, eight caribou bulls responded to the helicopter prior to its arrival by standing and walking away from the approaching helicopter, breaking into a hard run as the helicopter passed overhead, then slowing to a walk after the helicopter passed. The caribou overflown on the same day by jets and the helicopter responded “...significantly sooner to the helicopter and ran significantly longer and farther than it did in response to the jets…” (p. 322). Responses were similar at the George River site, with caribou responding to five overflights of an A-Star 300D helicopter prior to overflights, running or walking when overhead, then slowing movements after the helicopter passed. Caribou ran for a longer duration and moved farther in response to helicopters than to jet overflights. The timing of the response also differed, with 70% of response by caribou occurring before the helicopter arrived, whereas almost all the response to jets was after the overflight. The maximum noise level recorded for jet (F-4 and Tornado) overflights was 131 dB and mean levels of 115±8 dB were recorded for a direct overflight at 30 m AGL. Attenuation of noise was 6.9 dB for every 100 m away from the flight path and 5.9 dB for each increase of 100 m in altitude. Jets were usually audible 10–20 sec before overpass on calm days, but often only for 1–2 sec on windy days or when in forested habitats. The authors conclude that caribou respond to the sound of the jet passing, not to its visual occurrence, and have strong initial “startle” responses that do not last long, although they can have detrimental long-term consequences under some conditions (parturient females). In contrast, helicopters are perceived by caribou well before arrival and are visually watched upon approach, which, although it reduced the

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startle response, resulted in caribou moving sooner, running farther, and having an extended response period to the disturbance. No noise data were provided for the helicopter overflights.

Harrington, F. H., and A. M. Veitch. 1992. Calving success of woodland caribou exposed to low-level jet fighter overflights. Arctic 45: 213–218.

Abstract: Effects on woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) of low-level military jet training at Canadian Forces Base - Goose Bay (Labrador) were studied during the 1986-88 training seasons. Calf survival was periodically monitored during 1987 and 1988 in a sample of 15 females wearing satellite-tracked radiocollars. During 1987, each female's exposure to low-level overflights was experimentally manipulated on a daily basis. In 1988, daily exposure was determined by analyzing jet flight tracks following the low-level flying season. Calf survival was monitored by survey flights every 3-4 weeks. A calf survival index, the number of survey periods (maximum = 4) that a cow was accompanied by a calf, was negatively correlated with the female's exposure to low-level jet overflights during the calving and immediate post-calving period and again during the period of insect harassment during summer. No significant relationship between calf survival and exposure to low-level flying was seen during the pre-calving period, during the late post-calving period prior to insect harassment, and during fall. Annotation: : The effects of low-altitude jet overflights on calf survival from 23 May– 3 July were studied. Periods when caribou were most sensitive to overflights were identified. The authors discuss short-term behavioral responses and population level impacts and provide guidelines for flying jet aircraft near caribou. Military jet aircraft included in the study are F-4, F-16, F-18, and Tornado. Overflights were defined as a jet passing within 1 km of a caribou. The authors found a significant negative correlation between a female caribou’s exposure to jet overflights (low-level altitudes) and the subsequent survival of her calf (42% of variance in calf survival during calving was explained by exposure level to jet overflights and 48% of variance in survival during insect season). The authors recommend that overflights not occur below 300 ft AGL during the last week of May and the first 3 weeks of June (primarily the calving to early post-calving period). No noise-level data were collected during overflights.

Harris, C. M. 2001. Guidelines for the operation of aircraft near concentrations of birds, Final Report to United Kingdom Antarctic Protected Areas Management Plan Review by Environmental Research and Assessment, Cambridgeshire, UK. 10 pp.

Annotation: The document provides guidelines for operating fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters in the vicinity of colonies of seabirds (primarily penguins) in Antarctica.

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Studies and observations of reactions of seabirds to helicopter overflights and landings near nesting colonies are summarized. Previous guidelines for helicopter vertical and horizontal operating distances are summarized and the author presents new guidelines. Minimum horizontal and vertical distances (AGL) suggested ranged from 750 m to 1000 m for single- and twin-engine helicopters, respectively. No noise data are provided.

Harris, C. M. 2005. Aircraft operations near concentrations of birds in Antarctica: The development of practical guidelines. Biological Conservation 125: 309–322.

Abstract: Aircraft operations have the potential to disturb and to impact negatively on bird life. A gradient of increasing behavioural response is evident in birds when exposed to increasing aircraft stimulus. The most major disturbance is likely to lead to impacts on the health, breeding performance and survival of individual birds, and perhaps bird colonies. A process of revision to policies on aircraft operations contained in management plans for a number of specially protected areas in Antarctica by the United Kingdom, accompanied by consultations made within the scientific community through the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) and with operational interests through the Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programmes (COMNAP) resulted in new guidelines being adopted by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties in June 2004. The principal recommendations of the guidelines are that bird colonies should not be overflown below 2000 ft (~610 m) above ground level and landings within 1/2 nautical mile (~930 m) of bird colonies should be avoided wherever possible. These guidelines are less stringent and less specific than those that were recommended by the SCAR specialist group on birds, and represent a compromise to accommodate operational needs. While the adoption of clear and consistent guidelines for the operation of aircraft in Antarctica is welcome in that this provides practical advice that is likely to reduce incidences of close aircraft/bird encounters, there remains insufficient knowledge of the interactions between aircraft and birds in Antarctica, and the consequent impacts on individual birds and on bird populations. It is important, therefore, that the guidelines adopted are considered interim, and should be kept under scrutiny with revisions made as new and improved research results appear. Annotation: The paper is the published version of Harris (2001) (annotated previously). It provides guidelines for operating fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters in the vicinity of colonies of seabirds (primarily penguins) in Antarctica. A historical summary of aircraft operations and previous guidelines in place in Antarctica is provided, along with their consequences for reducing disturbance at bird colonies. A table is presented with vertical and horizontal distances at which “disturbance” behaviors were recorded for helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft. Guidelines to reduce disturbance to wildlife (seabirds and marine mammals) are provided for both horizontal and vertical distances, as well as recommendations for locating landing zones, flight operations, and seasonal timing. Minimum horizontal and vertical

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distances (AGL) suggested ranged from 750 m to 1000 m for single- and twin-engine helicopters, respectively.

Henson, P., and T. A. Grant. 1991. The effects of human disturbance on trumpeter swan breeding behavior. Wildlife Society Bulletin 19: 248-257.

Abstract: We studied the response of breeding trumpeter swans to human disturbance occurring along the Copper River Highway, near Cordova, Alaska. Except for incidental disturbance caused by researchers, disturbances were normally occurring and were not experimentally applied or controlled. Regular aircraft overflights and passing road traffic alerted birds but did not cause incubating females to leave the nest. Swans were more sensitive to the noise and visible presence of stopped vehicles, pedestrians, and researchers. Such disturbances led to frequent recesses by incubating females, to uncharacteristic brood movements, and to significant behavioral changes. Undisturbed swans always covered eggs with nesting material prior to recessing, whereas disturbed females failed to do so on 26 of 28 occasions. Females took longer recesses when disturbed and spent less time feeding and preening. These responses may lead to a decrease in productivity due to increases in egg and hatchling mortality and additional stress on an already energetically stressed female. Annotation: The researchers describe the behavior of breeding Trumpeter Swans on the Copper River Delta in reaction to aircraft overflights (below 615 m AGL), vehicular road traffic, pedestrian activity, and researcher presence. Aircraft included helicopters (type not given), single-engine planes, and large commercial jets, and vehicles ranged from large gravel trucks to motorcycles. Nesting swans reacted to 19 of 21 overflights (4 commercial airliners, 10 smaller fixed-wing aircraft, 5 helicopters). The typical response for both males and females was a “head-up” posture that lasted from several seconds up to 1 minute. Birds appeared to react first to the sound of the aircraft then went into alert posture when the aircraft was visible; no differences were observed between reactions to helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft. No noise-level data are provided.

Herter, D. R. 1982. Habitat use and harassment of Sandhill Cranes staging on the eastern Copper River Delta, Alaska. Unpublished M.S. Thesis, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK. 170 pp.

Abstract: Migration and staging activities of lesser sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis canadensis) were studied in spring 1979 and 1980, and fall 1979, 1980, and 1981 on the eastern Copper River Delta, Alaska. Migration peaked in late April and early May, and from mid- to late September. All resightings of 43 lesser sandhill cranes color- marked during winter 1980 in California have come from Pacific Flyway states,

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including 6 resightings on the Copper River Delta. Age ratio observations of crane flocks indicated 7% juveniles in fall 1979 and 1980, and 11% in 1981. Staging cranes fed almost exclusively on the bulbs of arrow-grass (Triglochin palustris) in habitats dominated by Carex ramenskii and several moss substrates. Aircraft caused greater disturbance of cranes than did humans or eagles, but planes remaining 150 m or higher over feeding crane flocks should result in minor disruption of staging cranes. Annotation: Although the study deals with staging Sandhill Cranes in coastal Alaska rather than in Interior Alaska and primarily with fixed-wing aircraft rather than helicopters, it does provide some insights into the responses of cranes to aircraft overflights. Two observations were made of reactions of cranes to Bell 205 helicopters. Birds flushed at distances of 1.6 and 2.1 km from these helicopters. Cranes flew about 800 m on both occasions. The author indicates that responses to helicopters occurred at greater distances and responses were stronger than those recorded for other aircraft types, perhaps because helicopters were an uncommon type of disturbance on the delta.

Holthuijzen, A. M. A., W. G. Eastland, A. R. Ansell, M. N. Kochert, R. D. Williams, and L. S. Young. 1990. Effects of blasting on behavior and productivity of nesting prairie falcons. Wildlife Society Bulletin 18: 270–281.

Abstract: [Authors’ Summary.] Four pairs of nesting prairie falcons were exposed to 24 explosions as part of construction activities in southwestern Idaho. Four other pairs were subjected to an average of 90 experimental blasts during incubation and brood-rearing. Falcons behaviorally reacted to blasting in 137 of 254 blasting events (54%). Incubating and brooding falcons flushed from aeries in 25 of 112 instances (22%), but returned to their nests within 3.4 minutes (SE = 0.7). Falcons that showed a behavioral reaction to blasting resumed pre-blast behavior after an additional 2.5 minutes (range = 0-27 minutes). The behavioral repertoire of falcons exposed to experimental blasting was similar to that of control pairs. All pairs exposed to experimental blasting and 2 of 4 pairs exposed to construction blasting fledged young during the blasting year. All nesting territories exposed to experimental blasting were occupied the year following blasting. In the second year following blasting, 3 of 4 nesting territories in the experimental study location were vacant. We suggest that blasting associated with limited human activities does not need to be restricted at distances >125 m from occupied prairie falcon aeries, provided that peak noise levels do not exceed 140 dB at the aerie and no more than 3 blasts occur on a given day or 90 blasts during the nesting season. Annotation: The study compared the effects on Prairie Falcon nests of construction blasting at a dam area, with experimental blasting and little human activity at another location, and a control area with minimal human activities. Falcons reacted behaviorally to blasting over 50% of the time. Flushes by nesting or brood-rearing falcons were recorded during 22% of the events, but birds returned to their nests within 3.4 minutes. Most nests fledged young, and all territories exposed to blasting were reoccupied the next year.

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Noise levels were measured during blasting, with peak noise levels measured at the entrance to two aeries of 136 dB (range = 129–141 dB; n = 5) and 139 dB (range = 139– 140 dB; n = 5). The authors recommend no blasting within 500 m of nests.

Hunsaker II, D. 2001. The effects of aircraft operations on passerine reproduction. Pages 41– 49 in M. Baker and G. Belliveau, eds. Effects of Noise on Wildlife Conference. 22–23 August 2000. Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Labrador. Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research. Terra Borealis. Vol. 2.

Annotation: The author presents results from several studies assessing the effects of aircraft noise on the reproductive success of passerines near military bases in California. Other variables that may affect reproductive success other than noise levels were measured, such as habitat quality, climate, topography, and predation. The aircraft types evaluated included fixed-wing jets (F-18, SA-3B) and a variety of helicopters (UH-1, CH-46E, CH-53E, AH-1, and AH-64). Noise data (dBA, using Larson-Davis Model 720 monitors) were collected from a grid system (for Least Bell’s Vireo) and near nests (California Gnatcatcher). Bird calls and aircraft sounds were recorded and analyzed to determine the potential of masking bird acoustic communication signals. Although no statistically significant correlations between noise levels and reproductive effort or success were found at the population level, some noise events did mask bird calls, which may affect individuals.

Il’ichev, V. D., O. L. Silaeva, and A. D. Smirnov. 1998. Dynamics of aircraft noise in the Malinki wildlife protection area in spring and summer. Russian Journal of Ecology 29: 226–229.

Abstract: The noise level at the Malinki Biological Station (Russian Academy of Sciences) near Moscow was studied in spring and summer by the method of point estimates and ecological and acoustic analyses. Up to 200 airplanes cross its airspace every day; sometimes they fly as often as 30 airplanes per hour. Flights at low altitudes accounted for a noise level of 75-90 dB during 6 h per day. The noise level was unstable due to meteorological, ecological, and social conditions. To further clarify this issue, ecological studies, as well as the additional analysis of noise level and sources, are required. Annotation: The dynamics of aircraft noise in the Malinki wildlife protection area from May to July were estimated by point estimates and ecological and acoustical analysis. The number of plane flights over the area, the azimuth of their flights, the duration of noise, aircraft types, and altitudes were recorded. The authors discuss temporal characteristics of flights, daily and seasonal variations in aircraft noise, and the effects of aircraft noise on ecosystems and humans. Although they report using

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an SL noise meter, no quantification of noise levels was given. A graphical depiction indicates that ambient levels are about 40 dB and that noise levels reached about 85 dB as a jet aircraft (Tu-154 airliner) passed directly overhead at flight altitudes of approximately 350 m.

Jacques Whitford Environment Limited. 1999. Military flying activity and the reproductive success of Osprey in Labrador and Northeastern Quebec. Report No. 1158-1478. Goose Bay Office, National Defence Headquarters, Ottawa, Canada.

Abstract: The 1997 and 1998 program examined the effectiveness of exclusion zones by examining the nesting activity and reproductive output of osprey nests subjected to different LLF treatments within the Military Training Area (MTA) and control areas. Following initial surveys to determine nest activity, a power analysis was conducted to determine the sampling effort required for the reproductive success surveys to detect significant change in the population. Of the 168 and 276 active and occupied nests in 1997 and 1998 respectively, no relationship of nesting success or reproductive output was detected in relation to LLF. The cases examined in reaching this conclusion included nests exposed to LLF for the first time, nests protected by 2.5 nm radius or larger exclusion zones, and nests in isolated control areas compared to the MTA. Based on these findings and those of the behavioural investigations (Trimper et al. 1998a and b), the maintenance of 2.5 nm exclusion zones as a mitigation measure is no longer recommended. Nests on transmission poles exhibited a significantly greater nesting success (p=0.03 in 1997, p=0.48 in 1998) and greater number of young fledged per occupied and active nest (p=0.01 in 1997, p=0.08 in 1998) compared to natural tree nests. A display of the active and occupied nest density, and productivity values by ecoregion indicated an R2 = 0.82 in 1997 with no relationship evident in 1998. Annotation: This report deals with low-level flight (LLF) of military aircraft in military training areas in eastern Canada. Helicopter disturbance to nesting osprey is not discussed, although the researchers used helicopters to conduct the nesting surveys. The authors suggest that habitat differences among their study areas and weather affect osprey reproduction more than aircraft disturbance levels. No noise data from jet overflights at osprey nests are presented.

Jakimchuk, R. D. 1980. Disturbance to barren-ground caribou: a review of the effects and implications of human developments and activities. In Analyses of the characteristics and behavior of barren-ground caribou in Canada, Report to Polar Gas Project by Rangifer Associates Environmental Consultants and R. D. Jakimchuk Mgmt. Associates, Sidney, B.C. 281 pp.

Abstract: A review of the effects of various types of human disturbance and developments to caribou has been carried out. Caribou are a highly resilient and

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adaptive species but are vulnerable to hunting. They are as adaptive as other members of the family Cervidae in habitats used, the geographic extent of ranges and in adaptation to variable environments. Noise elicits variable responses in caribou; less intensive responses are generally elicited by steady state noise. Both habituation and learned avoidance to threatening noise have been documented. Aircraft disturbance is primarily a function of distance from the aircraft. Overflight elevations of 300 m minimize most overt disturbance responses. Habitat constraints are more severe to Peary caribou populations than mainland populations of barren- ground caribou in North America and potential displacement from habitats is more significant. Cows with young calves are the groups most sensitive to human disturbance. Human activity, particularly vehicular motion is avoided by caribou and other ungulates. Avoidance of the Trans Alaska Pipeline haul road and the Prudhoe Bay complex by cow-calf groups of the Central Arctic herd during summer has been documented. To date the population has remained stable or has increased slightly. Traditional behavioral response to wolf predation is postulated as the factor influencing flight from vehicles and humans. Bull caribou readily habituate to human activity and structures on summer range and are often attracted to structures for relief from thermal stress and/or insect harassment. Annotation: Pages 17–21 of the report pertain specifically to noise. The author notes that considerable variations in response of caribou and reindeer to noise are reported in the literature, depending on the time of year, associated activity, distance to noise, and nature of the noise emission. Responses range from flight behavior to habituation, depending on the stimuli.

Jalkotzy, M. G., P. I. Ross, and M. D. Nasserden. 1997. The effects of linear developments on wildlife: A review of selected scientific literature. Report prepared for Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers, Calgary, AB, by Arc Wildlife Services Ltd., Calgary, AB. 115 pp.

Annotation: Although the literature review focuses primarily on the effects of linear developments (such as roads) on wildlife, it does have a good discussion of the effects of helicopter disturbance on mountain goats and bighorn sheep. An extensive bibliography is presented.

Jensen, K. C. 1990. Responses of molting Pacific Black Brant to experimental aircraft disturbance in the Teshekpuk Lake Special Area, Alaska. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Texas A&M University, College Station. 72 pp.

Abstract: Responses of Pacific black brant (Branta bernicla nigricans) to experimental aircraft disturbances were studied in the Teshekpuk Lake Special Area (TLSA), Alaska, 1987-89. Up to 25% of the population of Pacific black brant annually use the TLSA as a molting area. During molt brant spent 88.6% of the time in feeding, resting, or maintenance behaviors. Behavioral patterns were distributed bimodally

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on a daily basis, with resting peaking between 0000 and 0400 hours and feeding peaking between 0400 and 0800 hours. Data suggest that the amount of time that brant can feed may be restricted by a variety of factors including gut capacity and forage digestibility. Telemetry locations of radio-marked brant indicated that there were no differences in the rates of movement between sex and age classes. However, brant at East Long Lake (ELL) moved at over twice the rate of birds at Island Lake (IL). Possible explanations for differential movement rates between lakes included the relative position and distribution of favored habitats around each lake; and the difference in the size of molting populations at each lake which would affect interspecific competition for forage. Radioed brant exhibited 100% survival during the molt period. Low mortality of brant in the TLSA during the molting period was suggested as a mechanism for the traditional use of molting areas. Analysis of the vegetative characteristics of habitats used by radio-marked brant indicated that they selected areas dominated by hydrophytic graminoids and forms. Diversity indices indicated that habitats used by brant were floristically simpler than nonuse areas. The use areas were low-relief shorelines offering maximum visibility, abundant forage, and an avenue of quick escape to water or ice floes. Responses of brant to experimental overflight disturbances by Bell 206 helicopters indicated that aircraft would have to fly above 1,070 m to have no significant (P > 0.05) affect on the behavior of the birds. The average altitude of helicopters incidentally flying through the study area was 330 m. The response duration of brant varied also with the lateral distance from the aircraft to the flock. Large flocks (>100) of brant tended to react longer to disturbance that small flocks. Molting brant did not habituate to repeated aircraft disturbances on either a daily or yearly basis. Comparisons of movement rates of radioed brant between the experimental (ELL) and control (IL) study sites revealed that brant exposed to helicopter disturbances moved at over 5 times the rate of undisturbed birds.

Annotation: The Ph.D. project included an experimental study of helicopter overflights of molting brant flocks on Alaska’s North Slope. The helicopter models were primarily Bell 206, although a few Bell 412 overflights occurred, as well as incidental helicopters. The primary objectives of the project were to determine behavioral reactions to helicopters and determine how helicopters affected movement rates of Brant. Overflights were at altitudes ranging from 150–1525 m AGL at airspeeds of 100 knots. The duration of behavioral responses of Brant increased as altitude decreased, with disturbance decreasing significantly at altitudes >1070 m AGL. Lateral distance also was important, as a statistical linear relationship was apparent between lateral distance and the duration of the response. Increased lateral distance resulted in decreased duration of response by Brant to helicopter overflights at 460 m AGL and at all altitudes between 300 m and 760 m. Disturbance tended to decline at lateral distances >4 km. Larger flocks showed longer durations of response than did smaller flocks, probably due to social facilitation of disturbed behaviors in the larger flocks. Brant did not habituate to helicopter traffic either on a daily or seasonal basis. Movement rates of Brant disturbed by helicopters were greater than those of undisturbed Brant. In addition, movements continued well after the

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disturbance had ceased, which indicated that increased energetic costs, and possibly habitat displacement, may be impacts of helicopter disturbance. No noise data were collected.

Jingfors, K., and P. Lassen. 1984. Muskox responses to seismic test operations: preliminary observations. Pages 127 in D. R. Klein, R. G. White, and S. Keller, eds. Proceedings of the First International Muskox Symposium. Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK.

Annotation: Muskoxen were exposed to an oil exploration program on Jameson Land, Greenland, in 1982. Reactions of muskoxen to 11 helicopter (Bell 206, Hughes 500) overflights were recorded at varying distances and at altitudes of 100–200 m AGL. Responses were defined as extreme (running), moderate (grouping, alert), and none (no observed change).

• Two cases of extreme responses occurred for the Hughes 500, once during a direct overflight of a herd and once at a lateral distance of 1 km.

• Moderate responses were recorded on three occasions, all when herds were within 400 m of the passing helicopter.

• No responses were recorded during the remaining six overflights, which were made at distances of 0.8–2.0 km from muskoxen. No sound level data were collected.

Jingfors, K., A. Gunn, and F. L. Miller. 1982. Behaviour and range use patterns of caribou on the Beverly Calving Ground, N.W.T. Report No. 22. N.W.T. Wildlife Service, Yellowknife, N.W.T. 118 pp.

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relation to snow melt and plant phenology were recorded. We emphasized rigorous definitions of behaviour categories and readily detectable classification of range types under field conditions to reduce observer errors and to ensure repeatability. To be able to recognize behavioural responses to disturbance and to evaluate some of the short-term effects of human activities of cows and calves on the calving grounds, it is necessary to use the same study design during sampling periods involving exposure to foreign stimuli (helicopter landings and human activity on the ground). Findings and interpretations are preliminary and subject to change upon further analyses and evaluations. Annotation: The report describes in detail the daily activity budgets of cow-calf pairs during June in an attempt to gather baseline data for future studies to measure caribou response to man-induced disturbance. The authors describe the reactions of two groups of caribou to a helicopter, but the study mostly focused on documenting the behavior of undisturbed caribou.

Johnson, C. B., R. M. Burgess, B. E. Lawhead, J. A. Neville, J. P. Parrett, A. K. Prichard, J. R. Rose, A. A. Stickney, and A. M. Wildman. 2003. Alpine avian monitoring program, 2001, Fourth annual and synthesis report. ABR, Inc.–Environmental Research & Services, Fairbanks, AK. 194 pp.

Abstract: The Alpine avian monitoring study was designed to identify potential effects of noise and disturbance from aircraft on all birds (including shorebirds and passerines) during the nesting season and on large waterbirds during the brood- rearing season, when disturbance likely would have the greatest impacts on productivity. Disturbance, in the forms of aircraft, vehicles, pedestrians, noise, predators, and other birds, was monitored and related to bird and nest abundance, distribution, habitat use, nesting success, and nesting behavior. This report includes an annual synopsis of conditions in 2001 and a synthesis of multi-year data and analyses that evaluate the effects of aircraft and other sources of disturbance on the avian community during the breeding season. Annotation: The effects on waterbirds (primarily Greater White-fronted Geese and Tundra Swans) were evaluated for disturbances associated with a new oilfield airstrip (Alpine Oilfield) on the Colville River Delta, northern Alaska. These disturbances included vehicular noise, aircraft (including helicopters [Bell 206]), and pedestrians.

Some noise-level data were collected at several nests (Leq and Lmax). When the numbers of helicopters and aircraft were high, geese spent more time off their nests. However, when noise levels were high, they spent more time on their nests, indicating that reactions to aircraft were not primarily from noise effects. Most nests were >1000 m from the helipad location and were not overflown by helicopters. One nest, located 119 m from the helipad, was subjected to repeated helicopter overflights during incubation. The goose did flee the nest on several occasions on the first day it was monitored, including during one overflight at 30–

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50 m AGL (estimated LMAX = 102–106 dBA). The goose at this nest did not flee during subsequent days, however, and the nest was successful. Some evidence of habituation over the 4 years of the study was apparent, but definitive conclusions were uncertain because the nesting distribution of the geese changed in later years (nesting farther from the airstrip). The effects of helicopters on nesting Tundra Swans were relatively small because most nests were >1.5 km from the helipad and the numbers of nests were low each year (1–2 nests).

Johnson, C. L., and R. T. Reynolds. 2002. Responses of Mexican Spotted Owls to low-flying military jet aircraft. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boulder, CO. Research Note RMRS-RN-12. 4 pp.

Abstract: To investigate the effects of military fixed-wing aircraft training on the behavior of the endangered Mexican spotted owl (Strix occidentalis lucida), we subjected four adults and one juvenile owl to low-altitude, fixed-wing, jet aircraft overflight trials in Colorado in 1996 and 1997. Trials consisted of three sequential fly- bys, each at a greater aircraft speed and noise level, over owl territories in narrow and steep-walled canyons. All overflights were about 460 m above canyon rims, the lowest altitude allowed during training flights. Maximum noise levels, measured at one owl site, were 78, 92, and 95 dB (sound volume) for the first, second, and third fly-bys, respectively. Behaviors of owls during 25-second fly-by periods ranged from “no response” (no body movements) to “intermediate response” (sudden turning of head). The 25-second fly-by responses did not exceed behaviors (“no movement” to “change of roost”) exhibited by the owls during 10-minute pre- and postflight observation periods before and after each fly-by. Annotation: Responses of day-roosting Mexican spotted owls to overflights by F-16 military jets were recorded in Colorado. During the three separate (same day) overflights, the flight speed increased sequentially from 300 knots (enroute cruise) to 425 knots (2nd power setting), to 520 knots (higher power setting). (The resulting noise levels are reported in the Abstract for the study.) Mean ambient noise levels in the canyons were 61.2 dBA (range = 56.4–69.1 dBA; n = 4). The authors conclude that some owl habituation to overflights in the area (in an MOA) had occurred. They also note that responses to naturally occurring events were often greater than responses to overflights.

Johnson, S. R., D. R. Herter, and M. S. W. Bradstreet. 1987. Habitat use and reproductive success of Pacific Eiders Somateria mollissima v-nigra during a period of industrial activity. Biological Conservation 41: 77–89.

Abstract: This study documents the effects of industrial activities on nesting Pacific eiders at Thetis and Spy islands in the central Alaskan Beaufort Sea during 1983.

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Eider nests were more numerous on Thesis and Spy islands in 1983 (112 and 30 nests for the two islands, respectively) than had been recorded in any previous year. Censuses of other important eider nesting islands along the central Alaskan Beaufort coast suggested that the increase was widespread. Nesting eiders showed a stronger affinity for high-density driftwood nesting habitat, than for medium- or low-density habitats. The density of driftwood at the nest site (within 0.5 m) was a better indicator of habitat preferences than was density of driftwood in island segments. Industrial activities and associated disturbance on Thetis Island during 1983 did not have the expected extreme negative effects on the number of eider nesting in the area. The success of eider nests on Thetis Island was remarkably high compared with almost all other investigations of this species. The mitigation programme, which precluded most low-level aircraft overflights and other human intrusions, probably was at least partly responsible for this high success. Annotation: The mitigative measures associated with the development included:

• Restricting helicopter overflights of the two barrier islands by establishing a flight corridor and buffer zone 1.8 km (1 nm) from each island

• Restricting helicopter landings to the gravel stockpile site on Thetis Island Helicopter types operating from Thetis Island were a Bell 212 (89% of all flights; 12/day) and a Messerschmitt Bolkow BO-105CBS (10% of flights; 1.4/day). Several eiders nested within 300 m of the helicopter landing pad on Thetis Island. No eiders responded to helicopter flights to and from Thetis Island outside the buffer zone (n = 23 flights). No noise data were recorded.

Jorgenson, J. T. 1988. Environmental impact of the 1988 Winter Olympics on bighorn sheep of Mt. Allan. Biennial Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council 6: 121–134.

Abstract: For 2 years prior to the 1988 Winter Olympics at Mount Allan, data were collected on distribution, productivity, survival, lungworm output and activity budgets of bighorn sheep, (Ovis c. canadensis). During 1986/87, the ski area was first opened for public skiing and 2 pre-Olympic downhill races were held. From 1986 to 1987 the population declined by 18% due in part to an intentional increase in the non-trophy sheep hunting permits. Lower lamb survival also contributed to the decline. Lamb production in 1986 was higher (48 lambs per 100 ewes) than in 1985 (29 lambs per 100 ewes). Production in 1987 was 37 lambs per 100 ewes. Range abandonment occurred in 1986/87 on a small portion of the winter range immediately below “the ladies downhill start area”. This abandonment was due to human activities on the ridge top, snowmaking, helicopter flights, and avalanche blasting. Numbers of lungworm larvae in sheep feces increase significantly in 1986/87, but they also increased at the control area and at Sheep River. During 1987- 88, larval outputs had returned to pre-1986-87 levels. Steps were taken to control

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helicopter activity and sheep-human interaction above the ladies downhill start for the 1988 Olympics. Co-existence of this sheep population and skiers can probably be maintained provided that no further encroachment on sheep winter range occurs. Annotation: Data were collected on bighorn sheep 2 years prior to the 1988 Winter Olympics at Calgary, Canada, but after a ski area had been extended into the sheep winter range. While lamb survival and parasite load could not be directly attributable to human use of the ski area, abandonment of a specific ridge was attributed to the presence of humans, avalanche blasting snow making (noise), and helicopter flights (types not given, but likely Bell 206 or similar). During the pre-Olympic races, helicopter traffic was high at one ridge over a 2-week period. Sheep were observed fleeing from helicopters that were at altitudes <150 m. Stricter flight corridors and altitudes via a “Notice to Airmen” (NOTAM) implemented during the Olympics eliminated most helicopter disturbance to sheep. Adherence to the NOTAM was probably enhanced by its emphasis on safety and security reasons for the restrictions, rather than simply wildlife protection. No noise-level data are provided.

Jung, T. S., and C. C. Jones. 2001. Movements and site fidelity of woodland caribou of the Red Wine Mountains Herd in relation to low-level aircraft training in Labrador. Pages 62–63 in M. Baker and G. Belliveau, eds. Effects of Noise on Wildlife Conference. 22–23 August 2000. Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Labrador. Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research. Terra Borealis. Vol. 2.

Annotation: The conference paper provides only a brief summary of research. The authors investigated the effect of increasing the overlap of the Military Training Area (MTA) with the Red Wine Mount Herd range from 45% to 100%. Before 1996, 45% of the range was exposed to overflights (primarily low-level, military jets). Home range size, movement rates, distance traveled, path tortuosity, and site fidelity for 25 collared caribou during four biological seasons, were calculated from 1993–1998. The study design must assume disturbance is constant throughout the range and that all other environmental conditions remained constant through the years. Increased exposure to low-level overflights did not differentially affect the movements of woodland caribou relative to the seasons of the year. However, changes in site fidelity during late summer were noted after the increase in the MTA.

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Keim, J. 2005. Mountain goats in the Skeena Region. Paper presented at 1st BC Mountain Goat Workshop, 1–2 March 2005, Prince George, British Columbia.

Abstract: [Excerpts from Project Description.] Many studies have commented on wildlife movements in response to helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft over-flights. However, research orientated aerial telemetry has never been investigated as a disturbance variable. The potentially deleterious effects of displacing an animal are relatively unknown and are therefore rarely discussed or considered when proposing new telemetry research. We draw on the opportunity of 16 GPS collared mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) that recorded location data over a 4 month winter period where regular telemetry flights were conducted. We evaluate two models using Akaike’s Information Criteria to discriminate between distributions of step lengths during telemetry flights and at times other than during telemetry flights. In 5 of 16 individuals there was evidence for different distributions of step length during periods of disturbance. Two behavioral responses, short and long movements, occurred more often on days of aerial telemetry events than expected. The implications for studies that use aerial telemetry and GPS collar locations to track animal movement are discussed. A significant increase in recreational activity (helicopter skiing) has occurred in the Bell II area of northwest British Columbia, and a process for mitigating detrimental impacts to local mountain goat populations is required. The late-winter distribution of mountain goats in the Bell II area was assessed using helicopter survey observations to validate and verify a winter mountain goat habitat suitability index model. During this survey, 314 mountain goats were observed in the area. A habitat suitability index algorithm applied to the study area predicted 9.8% of the study area as suitable winter mountain goat habitat. The algorithm correctly predicted 93% of the mountain goat habitat use observations recorded during the inventory, given a 63% area based commission error. In sum 14,063 ha of winter mountain goat habitat, or 3.6% of the study area, is confirmed as suitable winter habitat identified to have winter mountain goat habitat use. There remains no method to track changes in the mountain goat population or winter habitat use over a temporal scale as no previous mountain goat data is available for the study area. A preliminary analysis of proximity found that 35% to 60% of 559 commercial helicopter ski runs were located within 500 m to 2000 m of confirmed winter habitats in the study area. A management approach that integrates the findings of this study with mountain goat conservation and commercial backcountry recreation in the area should be evaluated. Annotation: Only the abstract for the study was available for review. The discussion in the abstract indicates that mountain goats do show greater movements following helicopter captures (which is obviously a major disturbance).

Kempf, N., and O. Hüppop. 1996. [The effects of aircraft noise on wildlife: a review and comment.] Journal fur Ornithologie 137: 101–113. [In German with English abstract.]

Abstract: The discussion of noise effects involves physical, physiological, and psychological aspects making an evaluation quite difficult. In humans, the effects of

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noise range from discomfort to severe, irreversible damage. In laboratory animals only strong and long lasting noise causes physiological changes that can affect health. These findings are only partly applicable to wild animals. Field studies have to deal carefully with (1) methodological difficulties in measure sound pressure levels, (2) interspecific differences in auditory sensitivity, and (3) problems in interpreting behavioural reactions in the field. Non-standardized methods of observations and analysis make a comparison of the results found in the literature almost impossible. Especially the noise of aircraft can scarcely be assessed separately from its optical appearance. Optical or acoustical stimuli taken separately have only minor effects with the optical stimulus evoking the stronger reaction; even soundless paragliders can cause panic flights. In general, noise plays a minor role as a disturbance factor, but in combination with optical stimuli can trigger a reaction. Sonic booms and jet aircraft noise sometimes cause startle responses, which mostly do not result in severe consequences. Apparently, animals can adapt to high noise exposures. When animals react to aircraft noise, it is often due to previous experience associating the noise with an aircraft. Aside from a few accidents caused by panic flights, negative consequences of aircraft noise per se in individuals and populations are not proven. In contrast aircraft traffic in general can cause a variety of damages. Concerning the effects of noise on wildlife, many questions remain. Annotation: The authors indicate that visual (optical) observations of the aircraft are more important factors in disturbing wildlife than noise alone. Helicopter disturbance is not mentioned in the abstract, but does appear to be discussed to some degree within the text of the article (in German).

Kessel, B. 1979. Migration of Sandhill Cranes, upper Tanana River Valley, Alaska. Final report to Northwest Alaskan Pipeline Company by University of Alaska Museum, Fairbanks, AK. 55 pp.

Abstract: Studies of migrating Sandhill Cranes were conducted in the upper Tanana River Valley region of eastern Alaska from fall 1976 to spring 1979 to determine the timing and characteristics of the passage as they might relate to the construction of the Northwest Alaskan Gas Pipeline. More than 150,000 to 200,000 cranes migrate through the region, primarily from the last week of August to the first week of October and from the last week of April to the middle of May. During the peak of migration, as many as 10,000 to 50,000 cranes per day may pass through the region. Ground utilization is confined primarily to overnight roosting and feeding and to periods of bad weather; open areas are selected for roost sites, with a preference shown for the alluvial islands of wide, braided riverbeds. Timing and routes of migration are affected by weather conditions, especially strong winds and poor visibility. Cranes are primarily daylight, fair-weather migrants, but sometimes migrate at night and during inclement weather. Most migration occurs between 1000 and 3000 ft AGL. Cranes are relatively tolerant of potential environmental disturbances, with 500 ft a frequent minimum threshold distance at which most cranes will tolerate a wide range of human activities. They react at greater distances under more stressful stimuli. If damage to roosting sites is prevented and if the

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timing of potentially disturbing construction activities can be adjusted to avoid direct conflict with migrating cranes (i.e., near occupied roosts or feeding sites or near flying flocks), Sandhill Cranes will not pose serious problems to pipeline construction. Annotation: Cranes reacted more often to aircraft approaching them at the same altitude from a head-on direction than to flights off to the sides, below, or well above the flocks. Descriptions of reactions of cranes to fixed-wing aircraft at various altitudes and approach distances and directions are described. Encounters with helicopters occurred less frequently, but the reactions of cranes were stronger than to fixed-wing aircraft, and they responded at greater distances to helicopters.

• A flying flock of 20 cranes broke formation and changed flight direction within 1 mi of two Cobra helicopters preparing for takeoff (at Fort Greely).

• Another flock made a 180-degree turn when approached within 1500–2500 ft by a helicopter (type not given).

• A flock flying at 1000 ft AGL showed no response to a helicopter 700 ft below and slightly to one side, but veered away when approached by a helicopter taking off.

• In contrast, a flock flying at 1000 ft AGL did not respond to a helicopter taking off >1000 ft from their flight path.

• Two other observations of helicopters flying underneath flocks of flying cranes also resulted in no visible reactions:

− One flock “kettling” (i.e., swirling in a group gaining altitude) at 2000 ft AGL that had a helicopter fly past at 1000 ft and 0.5 mi horizontal distance

− Second flock flying at 1500 ft did not respond to a helicopter approaching to land underneath their flight path Roosting cranes are relatively tolerant of fixed-wing aircraft overflights of at least 500 ft AGL, but are more sensitive to helicopters.

• Several hundred cranes (25% of the roosting flock) flushed in response to an overflight by a noisy, Piasecki H-21 helicopter at 500 ft AGL.

• A second helicopter (type not given) flushed a roosting flock from 1300 ft distance and 250–300 ft AGL, but a quieter Bell 206 helicopter had little effect on the same flock (horizontal distance 2000 ft, 800 ft AGL). The author recommends a minimum flight altitude of 1500 ft for helicopters over roosts and maintaining at least a 0.5 mi distance in all directions from flying cranes.

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Klein, D. R. 1974. The reaction of some northern mammals to aircraft disturbance. Pages 377–383 in XI International Congress of Game Biologists. Stockholm, Sweden. National Swedish Environment Protection Board, Sweden: Volume 11.

Abstract: The increasing use of low-flying fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters in remote areas occupied by ungulate populations has focused attention on the possible detrimental effects of aircraft disturbance on wildlife. Such disturbance is most important in treeless terrain, such as grasslands and tundra areas, where animals are visible for long distances and escape cover is lacking. A study was initiated in arctic Alaska during 1973 to determine the specific reactions of caribou (Rangifer tarandus), and to a lesser extent, other species, to controlled aircraft disturbances. Observations of flight distances and other behavior of the tested animals were recorded in relation to altitude and angle of approach of the aircraft, intensity and frequency of the sound generated, and the external factors, such as weather conditions and terrain characteristics. Analysis of the recorded data permits a definition of the aircraft flight conditions which lead to disturbance of the tested species and therefore provides a basis for prescribing regulations to govern the low level flight of aircraft over critical ungulate habitat. Annotation: : The author suggests guidelines for flying fixed-wing aircraft near caribou based on his observations of reactions to overflights of light aircraft (Piper Supercub, Cessna 185) and helicopters (Fairchild-Hiller H1100). Sound pressure levels were measured for each aircraft type and for ambient background levels (20–30 dB). The FH-1100 helicopter had sound levels ranging from 85 dB at 500 ft AGL to 103 dB at 100 ft AGL (normal cruising speed of 95 mph, 274 hp engine). Helicopter data were not reported other than an observation that “…at low altitudes, animals showed a stronger reaction to the helicopter than to a fixed-wing aircraft.” Observations of other mammals’ reactions to aircraft (type not specified) indicated that:

• Moose were not as disturbed by aircraft as caribou

• Grizzly bears were greatly disturbed and often ran well in advance of the arrival of the aircraft

• Wolves were the least disturbed (although Klein speculates that wolves in this area may be already habituated to aircraft)

Komenda-Zehnder, S., M. Cevallos, and B. Bruderer. 2003. Effects of disturbance by aircraft overflight on waterbirds—an experimental approach. Pages 1–12 in International Bird Strike Committee Meeting. Warsaw, Poland. Report No. IBSC26/WP-LE2.

Abstract: The hazards of bird strikes are not the only conflict between aircraft and birds. From the point of view of the birds, aircraft overflights can be an important

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source of disturbance. Such disturbances are especially problematic in nature protection areas. Negative effects are loss of usable habitat, increased energy consumption, lower food intake and resting time and in consequence an impaired body condition. Reliable data about minimum flight altitudes that would guarantee a negligible influence on aircraft are largely lacking. Therefore, we were commissioned by the Swiss Federal Office for Civil Aviation and the Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forest and Landscapes to investigate the behaviour of birds in relation to the overflight altitude of helicopters and aeroplanes. During winter 2001/02 we performed 326 experimental overflights at lakes situated in three different areas of the Swiss lowlands. The behaviour of waterbirds was observed before, during and after the overflights. We analysed the influence of type of aircraft and crossing altitude on the proportion of waterbirds showing a stressed behaviour (resting, preening, feeding) within 5 min after the overflights. No short-term habituation or sensitization was observed. The disturbance effect of helicopters was higher than of aeroplanes and increased with decreasing flight altitude. The behaviour of the birds was not significantly influenced if the aeroplanes flew at 300 m above ground level (AGL) and if the helicopter flew at 450 m AGL or higher. Our study indicates that disturbance by aircraft can be reduced significantly if minimum flight altitudes of 450 m AGL are implemented. Furthermore, the probability of aircraft provoking a take off of waterbirds is minimized, which decreases bird strike hazard over lakes. Annotation: The goal of the experimental study was to determine the minimum flight altitude at which the negative influence of aircraft on wintering ducks is negligible. The authors studied waterbirds (tufted duck, pochard, and coot were the most frequent species) in groups of 50 to 1000 individuals and in areas commonly exposed to air traffic and other disturbances. Although a base level of habituation to disturbance must be assumed for birds wintering in Switzerland, no short-term habituation to a series of four aircraft overflights was observed. Flight altitudes of 450 m and 300 m were recommended for helicopters (Alouette 3 [SA-316B], Ecureuil [AS-350B2]) and fixed-wing aircraft (Bonanza, Robin), respectively. Sound levels were taken at one site and 147 helicopter overflights were conducted for three series:

• Decreasing altitude, 600 m to 80 m • Constant altitude, 150 m or 80 m • Varying altitude, 80–450 m Average noise levels at 150 m AGL were 78.9 dBA and 75.1 dBA for the Alouette and Ecureuil helicopters, respectively. The Alouette flew at about twice the speed of the Ecureuil helicopter (115 km/h and 62 km/h, respectively). The proportion of birds showing stressed behaviors was similar for the two helicopters, however, at 0.89 (Alouette) and 0.82 (Ecureuil). The confounding effects of speed and noise level for the two helicopters precluded the authors from concluding which stimulus was more important in inducing stressed behaviors.

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As mentioned in the Abstract, the authors recommend a minimum flight altitude of 450 m for helicopters flying over habitats containing flocks of waterbirds.

Krausman, P. R., and J. J. Hervert. 1983. Mountain sheep responses to aerial surveys. Wildlife Society Bulletin 11: 372–375.

Annotation: The authors evaluated the effects of aerial surveys by small fixed-wing aircraft (Cessna 172 or C-182) on the behavior and movements of mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis mexicana) in Arizona in 1980 and 1982. Flight altitudes over sheep ranged from 30 to 300 m AGL, with up to 10 passes over groups of sheep. Flights were categorized by flight altitude (<50 m, 50–100 m, and >100 m) and behaviors were recorded for sheep groups. Low-flying aircraft caused movements of >100 m during 19% of overflights and responses varied with altitude:

• At <50 m AGL, all responses were extreme, with movements of >1 km

• At 50–100 m, the responses of sheep were mixed (13% extreme, 27% mild, and 60% no reaction)

• At >100 m, most sheep (77%) showed no reaction and the remainder (23%) had mild responses The authors found that different sex- and age-classes reacted similarly to low-flying fixed-wing airplanes. They recommend that surveys occur above 100 m to minimize disturbance. Helicopters were not discussed.

Krausman, P. R., L. K. Harris, C. L. Blasch, K. K. G. Koenen, and J. Francine. 2004. Effects of military operations on behavior and hearing of endangered Sonoran pronghorn. Wildlife Monographs 157: 1–41.

Abstract: Our objectives in this study were to determine whether military activities (e.g., overflight noise, noise from ordnance delivery, ground-based human activity) on the Barry M. Goldwater Range (BMGR) affect the behavior and hearing of Sonoran pronghorn (Antilocapra americana sonoriensis). We contrasted the behavior of pronghorn on BMGR with the closest population of pronghorn in the United States that was not subjected to routine military activity (i.e., on the Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge [BANWR], Arizona). Forty percent of the landscape used by the endangered Sonoran pronghorn in the United States is within the 5,739 km2 BMGR, a bombing and gunnery facility in southwestern Arizona. The range of Sonoran pronghorn covers about 88% of BMGR. The 179 Sonoran pronghorn that lived in the United States in December 1992 declined to 99 by December 2000. The Sonoran pronghorn has been listed as endangered for >30 years, but population limiting factors are unknown. Because Sonoran pronghorn use BMGR, land and wildlife

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managers raised concerns about the potential effects of military activities on the population. Possible indirect effects of military activities on Sonoran pronghorn, aside from direct mortality or injury, from ordnance delivery, chaff, flares, live ammunition, aircraft mishaps, interference from ground vehicles and personnel, include alteration of behavior or physiology. We conducted the study on the North and South Tactical Ranges (NTAC and STAC), BMGR, from February 1998 to June 2000. Hearing exams were conducted in Camp Verde, Arizona, the University of Arizona, and on the East Tactical Range (ETAC), BMGR. Interactions between pronghorn and military activity were restricted to 4 observation points that provided viewing areas from which pronghorn and military activity could be observed from <10 km. We systematically located pronghorn with spotting scopes and telemetry. When located, we described their behavior and military activity using scan sampling. We tested hearing using auditory brainstem responses (ABR). We could not test the hearing of Sonoran pronghorn because of their endangered status, so we contrasted hearing of pronghorn near Camp Verde, Arizona, and desert mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus eremicus) that were and were not exposed to sound pressure levels from military activity. We recorded behavior observations of Sonoran pronghorn on 172 days (44,375 observation events [i.e., 1 observation/30 second]) over 373 hours. These data were compared with 93 days of behavioral data (24,297 observation events) over 202 hours for pronghorn not regularly influenced by military aircraft. Overall, we did not detect behavioral differences (i.e., time spent bedding, standing, foraging, traveling) between males and females. Pronghorn exposed to military activity, and those that were not, bedded the same amount of time. Pronghorn at BMGR foraged less and stood and traveled more than pronghorn not exposed to military activity. These trends were the same with and without anthropogenic activity. Only 7.3% of behavioral events occurred with identifiable stimuli. Military overflights occurred 363 times (0.8%) and non-military overflights occurred 77 times (<0.2%). Pronghorn rarely responded to military aircraft, but often moved >10 m when ground stimuli were present. Ambient noise levels ranged up to 123.1 decibels (dB). The average sound pressure level on days with military activity was 65.3 dB compared to 35.0 dB without military activity. Because we obtained hearing tests from deer and pronghorn, we were able to develop an ungulate weighting filter on the noise generated from overflights of A-10 and F-16 aircraft. Desert ungulates do not hear sound pressure levels generated from these aircraft as well as humans do (i.e., 14-19 dB lower). The military activity we examined had only marginal influence on Sonoran pronghorn. Pronghorn used the ranges shared with the military throughout the year and behavioral patterns of pronghorn were similar with and without the presence of military stimuli. Furthermore, pronghorn behavior exposed to military activity was similar to behaviors of pronghorn not exposed to regular military activity. The auditory characteristics of pronghorn were similar for those that have and have not been exposed to military activity. The population of Sonoran pronghorn in the United States continues to decline and is in serious danger of extirpation. Clearly, additional work needs to be done, but military activity as measured herein is not a limiting factor. Annotation: The study’s objectives were to determine whether military activities (e.g., overflight noise, ordinance delivery, and ground-based human activity) affected the

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behavior and hearing of Sonoran pronghorn. Most of the pertinent results of the study are summarized in the Abstract. The authors did find that ungulates under study, particularly bighorn sheep, differed from humans in their ability to hear frequencies below 8 Hz. An “ungulate” filter was used on the sound data before analyses to account for this difference. Aircraft overflights are broken into military and non-military types, but not by aircraft type (i.e., jets versus helicopters). The authors compared activity budgets (by sex and age), responses to overflight and ground stimuli (people, vehicles), ambient noise levels, and hearing of ungulates between disturbed and control areas. Pronghorn rarely responded to military aircraft but often moved >10 m when ground stimuli were present. Use of military ordnance (e.g., flares, bombs, smoke) rarely elicited a strong response (1% of 592 events) from pronghorns. Other topics discussed included light aircraft (Cessna) and habituation.

Krausman, P. R., L. K. Harris, S. K. Haas, K. K. G. Koenen, P. Devers, D. Bunting, and M. Barb. 2005. Sonoran pronghorn habitat use on landscapes disturbed by military activities. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33: 16–23.

Abstract: The Sonoran pronghorn (Antilocapra americana sonoriensis) population in the United States declined to ≤33 animals in January 2003. Low population numbers and unstable recruitment are concerns for biologists managing this subspecies. We examined habitat use by pronghorn from 1999 to 2002 on a portion of the Barry M. Goldwater Range (BMGR) used for military exercises. We overlaid locations of pronghorn (n=1,203) on 377 1-km2 blocks within the North (NTAC) and South Tactical Ranges (STAC), BMGR; we classified vegetation associations and disturbance status (e.g., airfields, targets, roads) for each block. Locations of pronghorn were distributed in proportion to vegetation associations on NTAC and STAC. Sightings of pronghorns were biased toward disturbed blocks, with 73% of locations of pronghorn occurring in proximity to mock airfields, high-explosive hills (e.g., targets for live high-explosive bombs and rockets), other targets, and roads. Disturbed landscapes on the BMGR may attract Sonoran pronghorn by creating favorable forage. Habitat manipulations simulating the effects of military disturbances on the landscape (e.g., improved forage) may improve remaining Sonoran pronghorn habitat. Annotation: Concerns regarding this endangered subspecies have resulted in research on the reactions of pronghorns to military activities (primarily jets and gunnery range operations) in southern Arizona (see annotations of other Krausman papers). The paper discusses the use of areas disturbed by explosives (e.g., bomb craters) and other military activities (airfields) within the range. Neither helicopter disturbance nor noise are discussed, but use of disturbed areas may be pertinent to some species in Alaska, such as moose, which may use willow regrowth following small-scale burns started by ordnance use or flares.

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Krausman, P. R., B. D. Leopold, and D. L. Scarbrough. 1986. Desert mule deer response to aircraft. Wildlife Society Bulletin 14: 68–70.

Annotation: The reliability of habitat use data was determined by using aerial surveys (by small fixed-wing aircraft) to record locations of radio-collared mule deer in southcentral Arizona (near Tucson). Ground observers watched collared animals before and after the flights and recorded whether the deer moved to a different habitat during the overflights. Habitat types were approximately 450 m apart. Light aircraft (Cessna 172, 182, or Maule) flew between 50 and 150 m AGL, and up to five passes were made over the animal. Habituation and small group size may influence species reaction. No noise data were collected from the overflights.

Krausman, P. R., M. C. Wallace, D. W. DeYoung, M. E. Weisenberger, and C. L. Hayes. 1993. The effects of low-altitude aircraft on desert ungulates. Pages 471–478 in Michel Vallet, ed. Proceedings of the 6th International Congress on Noise as a Public Health Problem. Nice, France. INRETS, Arcueil Cedex, France.

Abstract: We evaluated the effects of simulated low-altitude jet aircraft noise on the heart rate (HR) of 6 captive desert mule deer (Odocolieus hemionus crooki) and 5 mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis mexicana). Following this experiment we monitored the HR of 5 mountain sheep in a 3.2 km2 enclosure as F-16 jet aircraft flew over the enclosure. In the first study, conducted at the University of Arizona, Tucson, from May 1991 to April 1992, penned animals were exposed to simulated noise from jet aircraft (range = 92-112 decibels [dB]) during 3 seasons (n = 112 overflights/season). We compared HRs during simulated overflights to HRs obtained prior to and after treatments. We documented differences among HRs for animals, noise level, and number of overflights among seasons. All animals became habituated to sounds of low-altitude aircraft. Although HRs increased during overflights, HRs returned to normal in <2 minutes. Results were similar for the second part of the study when we monitored the HR of 5 mountain sheep from May 1991 to March 1992 in a 3.2 km2 enclosure in Nevada. We established 3 1-month periods when F-16 aircraft flew over the enclosure. We recorded HR 15 minutes prior to, during, and after overflights. Heart rate increased above normal in 21 of 242 overflights, however, they returned to normal within 2 minutes. We concluded that F-16 aircraft flying over mountain sheep do not create increases in HR that are detrimental to mountain sheep. Annotation: Two studies evaluated the effects of low-flying military aircraft on the heart rates of ungulates.

• First, they exposed captive-born mule deer and mountain sheep fitted with heart monitors to simulated jet aircraft (B-1B and F-4D aircraft) noise. Captive animals were held in pens with ambient sound levels of 45 dB. Exposure levels for

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simulations ranged from 92.5 dB to 112.2 dB and the number of simulated overflights increased from 1/day to 7/day over the experimental period.

• Second, they placed wild mountain sheep (four with heart monitors) in an enclosure and exposed them to actual F-16 overflights (at 125 m AGL and 90% power). Exposure rates (overflights/day) were similar to those for the captive deer. Heart rates were quantified before, during, and after the disturbance. Captive deer responded with increased heart rates during the overflights, but rates returned to normal within 2 minutes. The noisier F-4D (89.2–107.3 dBA) simulations caused greater responses than the B1-B simulation (83–106 dBA). The enclosure where mountain sheep were exposed to F-16 overflights had five noise zones based on the flight route of the aircraft, with a small patch at the ridge top exposed to the highest noise level (106–110 dB) and the remainder of the ridge at 100–105 dB. Lower levels of the enclosure experienced lower noise levels, ranging from zones of 95–100 dB, 90–95 dB, and the desert flats at 85–90 dB. The ambient sound level in the enclosure was 65 dB before overflights. Mountain sheep showed little response to jet overflights, with heart rates increasing during only 16.9% of the overflights (rates returned to normal within 1 min). No changes in habitat use of the enclosure were noted that appeared to be in response to aircraft noise.

Krausman, P. R., M. C. Wallace, C. L. Hayes, and D. W. DeYoung. 1998. Effects of jet aircraft on mountain sheep. Journal of Wildlife Management 62: 1246–1254.

Abstract: Military-designated air spaces have been established above national parks and monuments, wildlife refuges, wilderness areas, and Department of Defense lands. Each of these landscapes is managed differently, which has led to questions of compatibility between military aircraft and wildlife. We determined the influence of F-16 aircraft overflights on mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis nelsoni) from January 1990 to May 1992 in the Desert National Wildlife Refuge, Nevada. We constructed a 320-ha enclosure and calibrated the area for sound pressure levels (i.e., noise) created by F-16 aircraft flying along the ridgeline of the mountains in the enclosure, approximately 125 m above ground level. In May 1990, we placed 12 mountain sheep from the surrounding area in the enclosure and monitored their behavior and use of habitats for 1 year to ensure they were familiar with the area before they were subjected to aircraft overflights. The habitat use and activity of the sheep in the enclosure were similar to free-ranging conspecifics. In May 1991, we instrumented 5 mountain sheep with heart-rate monitors and added them to the enclosure. During May 1991 to May 1992, F-16 aircraft flew over the enclosure 149 times during 3 1- month periods. We recorded heart rate and behavior of sheep 15 min pre-overflight, during the overflight, and post-overflight. Heart rate increased above preflight levels in 21 of 149 overflights but returned to preflight levels within 120 sec. When F-16

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aircraft flew over the enclosure, the noise levels created did not alter behavior or use of habitat, or increase heart rates to the detriment of the sheep in the enclosure. Annotation: A noise contour map was created from the experimental overflights that showed that directly under the aircraft, noise levels were in the 100–110 dB range (F-16 jet at flight altitude = 125 m AGL, 90% power setting) and five distance zones extended out from the centerline to an outer zone at 85–90 dB. The ambient level where the sheep were enclosed was 65 dB. In general, the animals showed little behavior changes or heart-rate increases in response to overflights. Although some animals did run (up to 40 m) during overflights, they soon returned to normal activities. The study adds the visual stimulus lacking in the Weisenberger et al. 1996 experimental study (annotated in this report). The large size of the enclosure also assured that animals could respond with escape behaviors, if desired. The authors conclude (p. 1253) that “…jet aircraft creating noise from 85 to 110 dB in national parks, wilderness areas, and other public lands appears to be of little consequence to mountain sheep.”

Kushlan, J. A. 1979. Effects of helicopter censuses on wading bird colonies. Journal of Wildlife Management 43: 756–760.

Annotation: The effects of helicopter aerial surveys on nesting wading birds in Florida were assessed in summer 1977. The disruptive effects of using a helicopter (Bell 47G-2) to census wading bird colonies were compared to using a fixed-wing aircraft (Lake amphibian airplane). Two sets of overflights (slow circular flight paths) were conducted, one at 160 m AGL and another at 60 m AGL. A third overflight set was flown with the order of aircraft reversed (helicopter first, then fixed-wing) to evaluate potential bias from habituation. Reactions of breeding herons, egrets, storks, and cormorants were recorded by observers on the ground. Wading birds were relatively unresponsive to disturbance by either aircraft type, with 75% of all observations recorded as “no reaction” and nearly 90% of the observations either “no reaction” or “looked up.” Reactions by birds to the helicopter were similar or less disturbed than to the fixed-winged aircraft. Helicopter disturbance was low in duration compared to ground surveys. No sound level data were recorded for the helicopter overflights.

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Larkin, R. P., L. L. Pater, and D. J. Tazik. 1996. Effects of military noise on wildlife: A literature review. Final Report. Technical Report USACERL-TR9621. U.S. Army, Construction Engineering Research Lab. 107 pp. http://nhsbig.inhs.uiuc.edu/bioacoustics/noise_and_wildlife.txt

Annotation: The report provides a good review of available studies involving the effects of noise on wildlife. Sections are broken up into:

• General acoustics • General biology • Effects on individuals and populations • Stimuli (including cue separation, vehicles and traffic, helicopters, etc.) • Methodological issues in designing studies Although oriented toward U.S. military activities, a wide variety of non-military studies are addressed. Most of the annotations provide no or minimal data summaries.

Lawler, J. P., B. Griffith, D. Johnson, and J. Burch. 2004. The effects of military jet overflights on Dall’s sheep in interior Alaska. Report to Department of the Air Force, Elmendorf Air Force Base, AK. 177 pp.

Abstract: [Authors’ Summary.] Research was initiated in March 1999 to investigate the impacts of military overflight activity on Dall’s sheep (Ovis dalli) in interior Alaska and to assess the effectiveness of current mitigation measures intended to reduce impacts on Dall’s sheep populations. We investigated the impacts of military jet aircraft on Dall’s sheep using: 1) populations surveys; 2) productivity and survival rates in mitigated and non-mitigated areas; 3) behavior in relation to military overflight activity; and 4) daily movements, home range size, and habitat use in relation to military aircraft activity. Two study sites were selected for intensive investigations of the effects of military overflight activity on Dall’s sheep. One (Cirque Lake) is located in Yukon-Charley Rivers National Preserve and is overlain by airspace mitigated for Dall’s sheep. Military aircraft flying over this area are restricted to flying 5,000 feet above ground level from May 10 - June 15 (lambing season). Because the floor of this military airspace is 100 feet above ground level at other times of the year, sheep in this area may be exposed to a significant change in flying activity during the 1 month mitigation period. The 2nd site (West Point) is located approximately 35 miles to the west of the 1st site and has no associated mitigation measure for Dall’s sheep. To investigate Dall’s sheep daily movements, home range size, and habitat use in relation to military aircraft activity, Global Position System (GPS) radiocollars were placed on sheep. These collars record the time and location of the collared sheep. Ten sheep were captured at each site in March of 1999, 2000, and 2002 (20 radiocollared Dall’s sheep per year). During March 2001, 10 sheep were radiocollared at West Point but due to problems locating sheep, only 7 were captured at Cirque Lake. In addition to radiocollars, ground crews observed sheep before, during, and after Major Flying Exercises (Cope Thunders)

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and recorded sheep behavior. Sound levels of overflight activities were recorded and used during analysis. We analyzed Dall’s sheep behavior in relation to: the number of military aircraft we observed per day; behavior before, during, and after an overflight event; and, behavior during an overflight event relative to the sound level and the proximity of the overflight event. Sheep behavior was analyzed as: the proportion of time Dall’s sheep were active; the feeding efficiency of Dall’s sheep; and the proportion of time sheep were engaged in bedding, standing, feeding, walking and running. Aerial surveys for Dall’s sheep were conducted with a helicopter in 8 study units within the interior Alaska, Military Operations Areas in June or July of 1997-2002. We found no differences in population trends between areas mitigated and not mitigated for low-level military aircraft. Although considerable fluctuation existed in sheep numbers in individual survey units, the overall sheep population in the Yukon-Tanana Uplands was relatively stable from 1997 to 2002 and there was little overall variability in the total count from year to year (coefficient of variation = 7%). There were no statistical differences in the pregnancy rates, lamb to ewe ratios, or yearling to ewe ratios between Cirque Lake (mitigated) and West Point (non-mitigated). There was a statistical difference in the mean body weights of captured ewes at the 2 study sites with ewes at West Point heavier than those at Cirque Lake. In general, there was greater variation in pregnancy rates, lamb to ewe ratio, yearling to ewe ratio, and body weights among years than there was between study sites. Survival rates of adult ewes were similar between the 2 study sites. Field crews observed Dall’s sheep behavior, overflight activity and collected information on sound levels during 4 field sessions per year during 2000 and 2001. Military overflight activity was extremely variable among years, seasons, and between study areas. There was no difference in the number or frequency of overflights observed between the mitigated study site and the non- mitigated site. There was no difference in the number of observed overflight before and after Cope Thunder exercises in comparison to during Cope Thunder exercises. Loud and low overflight events were rare at both study sites. The number of overflights we observed over Dall’s sheep on a given day did not influence Dall’s sheep behavior. Significant differences occurred in the feeding efficiency of Dall’s sheep when behavior was examined in the 10 minutes before, during and 10 minutes after an overflight event. In models that included all seasons, Dall’s sheep ewe feeding efficiency was higher after the overflight event in comparison to before the overflight event. In models that just examined lambing season and early summer (May, June and July), sheep feeding efficiency was higher before the overflight event in comparison to during the event. In models that considered the proximity and sound level of overflight events, a higher proportion of sheep were active with increasing sound levels. In models that just examined lambing season and early summer, more sheep were active with closer military overflights. In all models, factors other than military overflights, explained greater proportions of the variation in sheep behavior. In particular, the date sequence (time of year of the field observation) nested within year and study site explained greater proportions of the variability that we observed in Dall’s sheep behavior than did military overflight activity. We observed no significant effect of the number of military aircraft sorties launched on 2-week within-home-range scale: 1) total distance moved; 2) home range size; or 3) habitat use (proportional use of landcover classes and aspect classes,

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average elevation, slope, terrain ruggedness, and relative vegetation biomass. However, there was substantial variance in total distance moved, home range size and habitat use between study areas, among years within study areas, and among 2- week sequential periods within years within study areas. Once this natural variance was accounted for, the number of military aircraft sorties added no further explanatory power to the assessment of variance in sheep behavior and habitat use. We conclude that the levels of military activity which we observed in this study during Major Flying Exercises (~60 sorties/day) generally did not cause significant effects on sheep behavior and habitat use at the home range scale when compared to the background level of military sorties (~ 20 sorties/day). When statistical differences in feeding efficiency and activity of groups of sheep were observed, military aircraft activity typically accounted for a small proportion of the total variance in sheep behavior, the direction of these effects were variable for sheep, and there were no overt indications that military overflights affected sheep populations during 1999-2002. Few of the overflights that we observed were low or loud and the mitigation measures in place at the Cirque Lake study site provided no detectable reduction in sheep response to military overflights. We emphasize, however, that 1) the studied sheep population has had opportunity to acclimate to military overflights for over 20 years, 2) we made no comparisons to areas that were free of military overflights and thus cannot draw conclusions regarding the effect of the background level of military overflights on sheep behavior and populations, and 3) if the nature, intensity, or frequency of military flights in interior Alaska changes substantially compared to the situation described here, then sheep may respond differently than documented in this study Annotation: The study focused primarily on military jet overflights, not helicopters, but does provide a brief review of previous studies of helicopter disturbance on Dall’s sheep. Data were collected for helicopter overflights, but the sample size was too small (n = 9) to use in the analyses. Some sound level data are presented on helicopter (types not specified) overflights collected by observers with a sound meter. These values ranged from 23–51 dBA (2-min mean Leq) and 30–78 dBA (2-min mean LMAX). In contrast, military jet aircraft regularly had noise levels >80 dBA.

• Seven of the helicopter overflights were in the “close” category (<1500 m AGL, <1.6 km horizontal distance)

• One helicopter was in the “far” category (>1500 m AGL, >3.2 km horizontal distance)

• One helicopter was not accounted for in the summary table Behavioral reactions of sheep to helicopters were not provided. Study results for the effects of jet overflights on Dall’s sheep are presented in the summary (the Abstract for the study).

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Lawler, J. P., A. J. Magoun, C. T. Seaton, C. L. Gardner, R. D. Boertje, J. M. ver Hoef, and P. A. del Vecchio. 2005. Short-term impacts of military overflights on caribou during calving season. Journal of Wildlife Management 69: 1133–1146.

Abstract: The Fortymile Caribou Herd (FCH) is the most prominent caribou herd in interior Alaska. A large portion of the FCH calving and summer range lies beneath heavily used Military Operations Areas (MOA) that are important for flight training. We observed the behavior of Grant's cow caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti) and their calves before, during, and immediately following low-level military jet overflights. We also monitored movements of radiocollared cow caribou and survival of their calves. We conducted fieldwork from mid May through early June 2002. We concluded that military jet overflights did not cause deaths of caribou calves in the FCH during the calving period nor result in increased movements of cow–calf pairs over the 24-hour period following exposure to overflights. Short-term responses to overflights were generally mild in comparison to caribou reactions to predators or perceived predators. Caribou responses to overflights were variable, but responses were generally greater as slant distances decreased and jet speeds increased. A-10 jets caused less reaction than F-15s and F-16s. Although we found that short-term reactions of caribou to jet overflights were mild, we advise against assuming there are no long-term effects on calving caribou from jet overflights. Annotation: Noise data were collected (dBA) for jet aircraft overflights. Overflight events were defined as having a peak noise level of at least 70 dBA (or a reaction by caribou; only two events were recorded at 65 dBA). Slant angles and slant distances to jets were also recorded. The maximum sound levels recorded for military jets (all at <91 m distance) were:

• 114 dBA (F-16 at ~475 knots airspeed) • 113 dBA (F-15 at 640 knots) • 99 dBA (A-10 at 275 knots) In general, the lower the altitude and the higher the speed of the jet, the greater the response in the caribou. Higher level responses (i.e., greater disturbance) of caribou occurred at slant distances <1000 ft (305 m). No data are presented on helicopter overflights or noise.

Leberge Environmental Services. 2002. Flying in sheep country: how to minimize disturbance from aircraft. MERG Report No. 2002-6. 4 pp.

Annotation: The paper was prepared as an information booklet for wilderness users and mining companies flying helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft in Dall sheep and mountain goat woodland habitats in Yukon Territory, Canada. The booklet relates flight guidelines to sheep behavioral patterns. For sheep, they recommend:

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1) Avoiding lambing cliffs and mineral licks from 1 May to 15 June 2) Staying at least 3.5 km away from sheep 3) If the approach must be closer than 3.5 km, then maintaining an altitude below where the sheep are located (allowing sheep to flee upslope) 4) Minimizing the number of overflights 5) Flying during the sheep’s active periods (early morning, late afternoon; avoiding 11 a.m.–3 p.m.) 6) If approaching sheep, flying at an angle (less perception of aircraft as a predator) 7) Maintaining a “fly-by” path and not overflying or hovering over sheep Similar guidelines apply to woodland caribou, but also include avoidance of calving grounds during the last week of May and rutting areas from 1–15 October.

Lenarz, M. 1974. The reaction of Dall sheep to an FH-1100 helicopter. Chapter III in R. D. Jakimchuk, eds. The reaction of some mammals to aircraft and compressor station noise disturbance. Arctic Gas Biological Report 23. Canadian Arctic Gas Study, Limited and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study, 14 pp.

Abstract: Reactions of Dall sheep along the Canning River on Alaska’s North Slope to a Fairchild-Hiller 1100 helicopter were recorded. The helicopter was flown at distances of 300-500 diagonal feet from bands of sheep and at various levels with respect to them. Reactions were quantified and analyzed according to group size, season, sexual composition of the group, and relative position of the aircraft. Variations among sex groupings were found to be statistically significant while variations among other groupings were not significant. Annotation: The reactions of Dall sheep were studied during April and early August. The sound (dBA) for the helicopter varied from 81 dBA at 500 feet AGL to 95 dBA at 100 feet AGL (the sound was not measured but from a literature source [Klein 1973]). From 153 groups of sheep observed:

• 55 (36%) showed strong reactions (running) • 75 (49%) showed moderate reactions • 23 (15%) showed no reaction to the helicopter Helicopter slant distances to sheep were found to be statistically independent of reactions. Group size and season also were independent of reactions, but groups with ewes showed stronger reactions than other groups.

Luick, B. R., J. A. Kitchens, R. G. White, and S. M. Murphy. 1996. Modeling energy and reproductive costs in caribou exposed to low-flying military jet aircraft. Proceedings

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of the 6th North American Caribou Workshop, Prince George, B. C., Canada, 1–4 March 1994. Rangifer Special Issue 9: 209–212.

Abstract: We used simulation modeling to estimate the effect of low-flying military jet aircraft on the productivity of caribou. The base model (CARIBOU, CWS Whitehorse, Yukon Territory) uses daily intake and expenditure of energy to assess the condition of female caribou throughout the annual cycle. The activity budget of the model caribou was adjusted based on field observations of responses to noise disturbance. A subroutine was added that predicted the likelihood of conception based on fall body fat weight. Caribou responses to overflights were evaluated by equipping free-ranging caribou with radio collars and activity sensors that could distinguish between resting and active periods. Collared animals were exposed to 110 overflights by A-10, F-15 and F-16 jet aircraft during late-winter, post-calving and insect season. Noise exposure levels for individual animals either were measured directly with collar-mounted dosimeters or were estimated based on the proximity of the caribou to the aircraft during the overflight. A Time-averaged Sound Level (LT) was calculated from the total daily noise exposure for each animal and linear regression was used to evaluate the influence of daily noise exposure on daily hours spent resting. Results of these analyses then were sued to modify the time budgets in the CARIBOU model. That is, if time spent resting declined, then time spent in the two rest classes (lying and standing) were proportionately redistributed into the three active classes (foraging, walking and running). Model simulations indicated that caribou increased forage intake in response to increased noise exposure, but it also predicted that increased noise exposure would cause a reduced accumulation of body fat. Because body fat in fall has successfully been used to predict the probability of pregnancy (see Gerhart et al., 1993), this relationship was used in the model. Preliminary model simulations indicate that increased noise exposure decreases the probability of pregnancy and that unfavorable environmental conditions (e.g., deep snow and severe insect harassment) exacerbate the situation. The threshold at which point the caribou fail to conceive has not been determined at this time, but appears to be well beyond the exposure to aircraft that caribou in the Delta herd are currently experiencing. Annotation: The effect of low-altitude military jet aircraft on female fecundity was studied in the Delta Caribou Herd (near Fort Greely, Alaska) by applying a computer simulation (CARIBOU). The model uses associated sound exposure levels (SEL, dB) of overflights during the calving, post-calving, and insect periods to calculate daily activity budgets of females under disturbed conditions. A probability of pregnancy was calculated for several simulations based on fall fat weight. Environmental variables included deep snow, poor forage, and heavy insect harassment. SEL levels generated by jet aircraft ranged from near zero to 130 dB, and LT (described in the Abstract) ranged from near 0 to 84 dB. The authors conclude that, based on current operations by the military, the model predicts “…a minimal effect of jet aircraft overflight on caribou fecundity.”

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Luz, G. A., and J. B. Smith. 1976. Reactions of pronghorn antelope to helicopter overflight. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 59: 1514–1515.

Abstract: Photographic observations of pronghorn antelope suggested mild disturbance by helicopter noise levels at approximately 60-dBA and strong reactions at approximately 77-dBA. Annotation: Observations were made of pronghorns in southern New Mexico that were exposed to noise from an OH-58 helicopter. Ambient noise levels in the area were measured at 36-40 dBA during 6-10 knot wind conditions, and were below the limits of the sound meter when no wind was present.

• At an altitude of 400 ft (slant distance of 3000 ft), no reactions to the helicopter were observed.

• As the helicopter moved towards the pronghorns (herd of 17 animals), mild reactions (ceasing foraging) were observed at a descent rate of 200 ft/sec and airspeed of 40–50 knots.

• The herd began running when the helicopter was at 150 ft AGL and at a slant distance of 500 ft. Calculated noise levels for this helicopter (based on previous measurements) were 60 dBA at the point of no reaction (400 ft AGL, 3000-ft slant distance) and 77 dBA when the herd ran (150 ft AGL, 500-ft slant distance). The authors suggest that the pronghorns, which were rarely subjected to overflights, were not habituated to aircraft noise.

MacArthur, R. A., V. Geist, and R. H. Johnston. 1982. Cardiac and behavioral responses of mountain sheep to human disturbance. Journal of Wildlife Management 46: 351–358.

Abstract: Telemetered heart rates (HR) and behavioral responses of mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis) reacting to human disturbance in the Sheep River Wildlife Sanctuary, southwestern Alberta, were recorded. Cardiac and behavioral responses of sheep (4 ewes, 1 ram) to an approaching human were greatest when the person was accompanied by a dog or approached sheep from over a ridge. Reactions to road traffic were minimal as only 8.8% of vehicle passes elicited HR responses. No reactions to helicopters or fixed-wing aircraft were observed at distances exceeding 400 m from sheep. Responses to disturbance were detected using HR telemetry that were not evident from behavioral cues along. However, mean duration of the HR response (138.6 sec) was not greater (P>0.05) than mean period of the behavioral reaction when sheep were alert or withdrawing from harassing stimuli (112.4 sec). Use of HR telemetry in harassment research is discussed. Annotation: The study recorded telemetered heart rates and behavioral responses of mountain sheep reacting to disturbance by people engaged in recreation and photography near the Wildlife Sanctuary road system. Helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft traffic were recorded incidentally.

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• No HR responses were recorded for disturbances by helicopters or fixed-wing aircraft at >400 m from sheep.

• Five direct overflights by helicopters (Bell 206 or Hughes 500) at 90–250 m AGL were observed.

− HR of three ewes increased 2.5–3x (change = 60–120 beats/min) and recovery times were 20–65 sec.

− Sheep also ran during each overflight for 2–15 sec before the maximum HR was reached.

Magoun, A. J., J. P. Lawler, C. L. Gardner, R. D. Boertje, and J. M. ver Hoef. 2003. Short-term impacts of military jet overflights on the Forty Mile caribou herd during the calving season. Alaska Fish and Game, in cooperation with National Park Service and 11th U.S. Air Force, Fairbanks, AK. 71 pp.

Abstract: [Excerpted from Authors’ Summary.] A large portion of Fortymile caribou herd’s calving and summer range lies beneath heavily used Military Operations Areas (MOA) that are important for flight training. Field crews observed the behavior of cow caribou and their calves before, during and immediately following low-level military jet overflights. We concluded that military jet overflights did not cause direct deaths of caribou calves in the FCH during the calving period or result in increased movements of cow-calf pairs over the 24-hour period following exposure to overflights. Caribou responses to jet overflights were variable, but levels of response were generally higher as slant distances decreased and jet speeds increased. Maintaining a floor of 2000 ft (625 m) aboveground level (AGL) for all military jet aircraft over the calving grounds would eliminate most of the stronger- level reactions of caribou to military jet aircraft (startle reactions, trotting, and running), especially if speeds for F-15s and F-16s did not exceed 500 knots between 2000 (625 m) and 5000 ft (1562 m) AGL. A-10 jets caused less reaction than F-15s and F-16s. Our data indicate that A-10s could operate as low as 1500 ft (469 m) AGL over calving caribou with only mild behavioral responses if the jets maintain low speeds and avoid maneuvers that require changes to higher power settings. Because the F- 16 had a relatively high probability of causing stronger reactions in caribou at 1500 ft (469 m) AGL regardless of power settings, these jets should be restricted to elevations >2000 ft (625 m) AGL over the calving grounds if stronger-level reactions are to be minimized. Annotation: Observers were transported and captured caribou with a small helicopter (Robinson R-44). No noise measurements were made for this aircraft. The study focused on jet military aircraft overflights of caribou during the calving period and focused on cow-calf pairs. Pertinent results are presented in the Abstract for the study. Ambient noise levels measured at the study site were 20–40 dBA, which are likely to be similar to those found at other Interior Alaska sites away from settlements.

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Maier, J. A. K. 1996. Ecological and physiological aspects of caribou activity and responses to aircraft overflights. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Alaska, Fairbanks. 139 pp.

Abstract: I investigated the use of remote-sensing of caribou (Rangifer tarandus) activity to assess disturbance of low-altitude overflights by jet aircraft. Resource management agencies are concerned about the potential effects of these overflights on important species of ungulates. I hypothesized that low-altitude overflights would affect activity and movements of caribou, and thereby constitute a disturbance with negative consequences on energetics. I used caribou of the Delta Herd (DCH) and captive animals at the Large Animal Research Station (LARS) to address the hypotheses: caribou (1) exhibit equal activity day and night; (2) do not time activity to light; and (3) activity patterns do not change seasonally in response to daylength. Caribou were nychthemeral and exhibited uniform activity with no apparent timing to light. DCH caribou responded to seasonal changes in the environment by modifying activity (increased activity in response to insect harassment), whereas LARS caribou altered activity in response to fluctuating physiological variables (increased activity during rut). Changes in daylength did not affect activity. Data on activity from LARS and DCH caribou were compared with extant data on caribou of the Denali and Porcupine herds. Poor quality forage in winter was inferred from long resting bouts, and low availability of forage was inferred from long active bouts of post-calving caribou of the DCH. In midsummer, caribou of the DCH exhibited significantly longer active and shorter resting bouts than did LARS caribou, consistent with a moderate level of insect harassment. Responses of caribou to overflights were mild in late winter and, thus, overflights did not constitute a disturbance. Post-calving caribou responded to overflights by increasing daily activity, linear movements, incremental energy cost, and average daily metabolic rate. Energetic responses and movements were significantly related to the loudest overflight of the day. In the insect season, activity levels increased significantly in response to overflights but with no corresponding increase in linear movements or energetics. My recommendations are to prohibit aircraft overflights of caribou during calving and post-calving periods and during key feeding times in insect harassment seasons. Research indicates the possibility of more severe effects in nutritionally stressed animals. Annotation: Data are reported in other published studies (see subsequent annotations for Maier et al. 1998 and 2001 in this report).

Maier, J. A. K., S. M. Murphy, R. G. White, and M. D. Smith. 1998. Responses of caribou to overflights by low-altitude jet aircraft. Journal of Wildlife Management 62: 752–766.

Abstract: Military training exercises have increased in Alaska in recent years, and the possible effects of low-altitude overflights on wildlife such as barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus) have caused concern among northern residents and resource

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agencies. We evaluated the effects of overflights by low-altitude, subsonic jet aircraft by U.S. Air Force (USAF) A-10, F-15, and F-16 jets on daily activity and movements of free-ranging female caribou. This study was conducted on caribou of the Delta Caribou Herd in interior Alaska during each of 3 seasons in 1991: late winter, post- calving, and insect harassment. Noise levels experienced by caribou were measured with Animal Noise Monitors (ANMs) attached to radio collars. Caribou subjected to overflights in late winter interrupted resting bouts and consequently engaged in a greater number of resting bouts than caribou not subjected to overflights (P = 0.05). Caribou subjected to overflights during post-calving were more active (P = 0.03) and moved farther (P = 0.01) than did caribou not subjected to overflights. Caribou subjected to overflights during the insect season responded by becoming more active (P = 0.01). Responses of caribou to aircraft were mild in late winter, intermediate in the insect season, and strongest during post-calving. We conclude that females with young exhibit the most sensitive response to aircraft disturbance. Accordingly, military training exercises should be curtailed in areas where caribou are concentrated during calving and post-calving. Annotation: The study was conducted in the northern foothills of the Alaska Range west of Fort Greely and Delta Junction, Alaska. Caribou were fitted with ANMs that recorded sound levels (Lmax, SEL; dBA and dBC; SEL [dBA] was used in data analyses). The programmed noise threshold on the ANMs was 85 dBA (>2 sec for activation). Caribou were exposed to 159 overflights by military jet aircraft (A-10 [94 overflights]; F-15 [61 overflights], and F-16 [4 overflights]) during the three sampling periods (late winter, post-calving, insect). A total of 268 groups of caribou were observed during these overflights. Mean SEL was 98 dBA for all overflights and SELs ranged from 46 to 127 dBA; this maximum exposure was an F-15 at 106 m slant distance.

• Most overflights (70%) were at 85–100 dBA; 44% were at 90–100 dBA and <10% were >110 dBA.

• Mean SELs varied by aircraft type: A-10 (95 dBA), F-16 (96 dBA), and F-15 (103 dBA).

• Mean slant distances (m) also varied among the aircraft types: A-10 (457 m), F-15 (1197 m), F-16 (1647 m). Daily activity cycles and movements of caribou were affected to some extent by aircraft overflights (see the Abstract for the study). The authors indicate that female caribou with calves are most sensitive to aircraft disturbance and suggest that mitigation of military training exercises should be a priority during May and June, when calving and post-calving occur in Interior Alaska.

Maier, J. A. K., R. G. White, S. M. Murphy, and M. D. Smith. 2001. Effects of overflights by jet aircraft on activity, movements, habitat, and terrain use of caribou. Pages 60–61 in M. Baker and G. Belliveau, eds. Effects of Noise on Wildlife Conference. 22–23

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August 2000. Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Labrador. Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research. Terra Borealis. Vol. 2.

Annotation: The conference paper provides a brief overview of research on caribou of the Delta Herd in Interior Alaska. The authors evaluate responses by Delta Herd caribou to overflights by jet aircraft (A-10, flying at <33 m AGL) on a seasonal basis (winter, insect, and post-calving) to identify potentially sensitive times of the year. Caribou were fitted with radio collars and ANMs. Independent variables included number of overflights >85 dBA and at <1 km, loudest overflight each day, and time- averaged noise exposure level for treatment day.

• Caribou subjected to overflights in later winter interrupted resting bouts and consequently engaged in a greater number of resting bouts than did caribou not exposed to jet aircraft.

• During post-calving, caribou exposed to more overflights were more active, moved farther, and avoided forested habitats.

• Caribou similarly were more active and used higher elevation, more rugged terrain when exposed to overflights during the insect season. The authors found that responses were mild in winter, intermediate during the insect season, and strongest during post-calving. They conclude that: “female caribou with young exhibit the most sensitive response to aircraft disturbance and that overflights by jet aircraft do constitute a disturbance to caribou with young calves.” In addition, they suggest that military training exercises should avoid caribou during the calving and post-calving periods.

Matheson, J., S. Moore, C. Smyth, and B. Nalder. 2005. Effects of helicopters on canyon- dwelling mountain goats in northeast British Columbia. Paper presented at 1st BC Mountain Goat Workshop, 1–2 March 2005, Prince George, British Columbia.

Abstract: [Project Summary.] During a heli-portable seismic program, we studied a population of mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) inhabiting river canyons in northeast British Columbia, Canada. We first conducted ground and aerial-based inventories and then monitored mountain goat behavioural responses while helicopters were operating in the vicinity of goats. To minimise disturbance to goats, a mitigation strategy was developed prior to commencement of helicopter activity. During all helicopter activities, biologists monitored goat behaviour and terminated helicopter activity if goats appeared alarmed or ready to take flight. Helicopter type, distance to helicopter, goat age and sex, behavioural activity and behavioural response to helicopter were recorded for each observed goat. In general, goats exhibited an increased level of awareness, alertness and alarm with decreasing helicopter distance. At distances between 500 and 2000 m, 80% of goats exhibited either no response or an unconcerned response to helicopters. At distances less than 500 m, 18% of goats were concerned or took flight. The goats in our study appear to show a lower alarm response than those reported by other authors. We suggest that

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this may be due to the way helicopters were managed by terminating flights when goats were showing increasing levels of alertness and alarm. Other potential factors include the lower visibility of helicopters by goats within the narrow canyons, short- term habituation process to helicopters since helicopters usually began far and approached slowly and repeated exposure. Annotation: The paper discusses behavioral reactions of mountain goats exposed to helicopters used for seismic work in northern British Columbia. The helicopter type was a Bell 212 (Huey). During 26 days of monitoring, 794 observations were made with the helicopter within 2 km of the goats.

• At distances >1000 m, most goats showed no overt responses to helicopters (~60– 70% of individuals).

• At closer distances (<1000 m), most responses were still not strong (28% no overt behavior, 52% unconcerned), but small percentages did show concerned (8%), or low (9%), or high (1%) alarm behaviors (flight) at <500 m. The authors concluded that helicopters can operate close to goats provided:

• Operational monitoring occurs • Sudden, close helicopter overflights are avoided • Helicopters work slowly towards goat areas over a period of time to allow habituation The authors did recommend a 1000-m buffer zone around high-use goat areas where helicopters would not be allowed. No measurements were made of helicopter noise.

McCourt, K. H., J. D Feist, D. Doll, and J. J Russell. 1974a. I. Reactions of caribou to aircraft disturbance. Pages 183–208 in K. H. McCourt, J. D Feist, D. Doll, and J. J Russell, eds. Disturbance Studies of caribou and other mammals in the Yukon and Alaska, 1972. Arctic Gas Report 5. Canadian Arctic Gas Study, Limited and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study Company. Calgary, Alberta. 246 pp.

Abstract: While carrying out survey flights data were collected on the reactions of caribou, moose and grizzly bear to aircraft. Caribou reacted more strongly to a Bell 206 helicopter than a Cessna 185 at low altitudes (~300 ft.). No difference in reactivity to different aircraft occurred for altitudes greater than 300 ft. The reactivity of caribou to aircraft disturbance decrease as the altitude of the aircraft increases, up to an altitude of approximately 1000 ft. Reactions to aircraft at altitudes greater than 1000 ft. are unpredictable or infrequent. Groups of caribou which were feeding or bedded reacted most often to aircraft disturbance, the bedded animals exhibiting the strongest reaction. A correlation between group size and reactivity to aircraft was found only at altitudes less than 300 ft. Larger groups reacted most often and most intensely. Although data were incomplete for some seasons of the year, no outstanding changes in reactivity were observed between seasons. Comparison of

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data collected in two different habitat types (the Richardson Mountains, and Old Crow wintering areas and spring migration routes) suggested that the reactivity of caribou was basically similar between the two. However, the decrease in the proportion of strong response with increased altitude that is obvious in the data for the latter habitat type did not occur in the mountains between the <300 ft. and 301- 600 ft. altitude ranges. This may have resulted from a possible inconsistent relationship between altitude and strength of stimulus in the mountains because of acoustic factors. Moose reacted more often than not to aircraft at altitudes less than 200 ft. Fixed-wing aircraft at altitudes above 600 ft. elicited no reaction by moose. Data on reactions of grizzly bear to Cessna 185 aircraft show no consistent trend of decreased sensitivity with increased altitude. The grizzly bear is more sensitive to aircraft disturbance than caribou or moose. The recommended minimum flight altitude for aircraft in areas inhabited by caribou, moose, and grizzly is 1000 ft. above ground surface. Annotation: The study was part of the early baseline studies for a proposed natural gas pipeline between Alaska and Canada. Small sample sizes prevented any statistical analysis of data. Effects of caribou activity (feeding, bedding, etc.), group size, season, and habitat type were evaluated only for the Cessna 185.

• Of 1012 observations of caribou reacting to aircraft, 859 were to the Cessna 185 and the other 153 were to a Bell 206 helicopter. The authors indicate that distances (altitudes) were essentially vertically over the caribou groups and were presented as heights above the caribou (equivalent to slant distances).

• Caribou reactions were greatest (94% of 63 groups with a strong [fleeing] reaction) at <300 ft and declined as distance increased:

− 12% of 78 groups had a strong reaction at 301–600 ft − 0% of 45 groups had a strong reaction at 601–1000 ft − 0% of 14 groups had a strong reaction at >1000 ft The authors recommend minimum altitudes (>1000 ft) above animals and that helicopters not hover or fly slowly in the vicinity of caribou. No noise (sound) measurements were collected.

McCourt, K. H., J. D Feist, D. Doll, and J. J Russell. 1974b. II. Reactions of moose and barren ground grizzly bear to aircraft disturbance. Pages 209–215 in K. H. McCourt, J. D Feist, D. Doll, and J. J Russell, eds. Disturbance Studies of caribou and other mammals in the Yukon and Alaska, 1972. Arctic Gas Report 5. Canadian Arctic Gas Study, Limited and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study Company. Calgary, Alberta. 246 pp.

Abstract: See the Abstract for McCourt et al. 1974a. Annotation: The study was part of the early baseline studies for a proposed natural gas pipeline between Alaska and Canada. Small sample sizes prevented any

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statistical analysis of data. Aircraft effects for moose and grizzly bear were evaluated only for the Cessna 185.

• Moose reactions were greatest at altitudes <200 ft (2 of 16 with strong reaction, 7 with mild reaction) and at 201–600 ft (1 of 24 moose with strong reaction, 8 with mild reactions). No moose reacted at >600 ft (6 moose).

• Some grizzly bears reacted strongly at all altitude ranges and mild responses were variable (overall sample size was 72). The authors considered grizzly bears to be extremely sensitive to aircraft disturbance in the study, in comparison to caribou and moose. The authors indicate that moose and bears were at least as sensitive to helicopters as to fixed-wing aircraft. They recommend minimum altitudes above animals of 1000 ft and that helicopters not hover or fly slowly in the vicinity of these species. No noise (sound) measurements were collected.

McCourt, K. H, and L. P. Horstman. 1974. The reaction of barren-ground caribou to aircraft. Chapter I in R. D. Jakimchuk, eds. The reaction of some mammals to aircraft and compressor station noise disturbance. Canadian Arctic Gas Study, Limited and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study. Arctic Gas Report 23:1–36.

Abstract: During 1972 and 1973 an effort was made to determine the level of response of barren-ground caribou in the Yukon and northeastern Alaska to survey aircraft. The data were analyzed to assess the influence of factors such as distance of aircraft, terrain, group-size, and season on the degree of reaction. Reactivity was found to be dependent on all of these factors. With reactions classified as nil, moderate or strong, from 13% to 56% of all groups (depending on season) reacted strongly to aircraft below 300 feet while 1 to 14% reacted strongly at 300-600 feet. The largest group size categories showed the greatest reactivity during calving and winter (at aircraft distances under 300 feet) and during calving and the summer movement and dispersal period at 300 to 600 feet. It is speculated that the “herd effect” is overridden at other times of the year by other factors. The seasonal order of reactivity (greatest to least) was found to be: post-calving, winter, spring migration, calving, fall migration, summer movement for flights below 300 feet. However for flights at 300-600 feet a strictly chronological order of reactivity was observed. The influence of terrain, group size, temperature, habituation, and physiological condition of the caribou on the seasonal order of reactivity is discussed. Annotation: The study assesses the influence of seasonal activity, group size, and terrain on the reactivity of Porcupine Herd Caribou to fixed-wing aircraft overflights at varying distances as measured in diagonal feet (slant distances). Most reactions were of the nil category (69% of 4134 groups), with fewer in the moderate (15%) and strong (16%) categories. Most strong responses were during the calving season. The

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report does not give aircraft type or report results by aircraft type. Instead, see previous annotation for McCourt et al. (1974b). No noise data were collected.

McLellan, B. N., and D. M. Shackleton. 1989. Immediate reactions of grizzly bears to human activities. Wildlife Society Bulletin 17: 269–274.

Abstract: [Summary.] We studied reactions of grizzly bears to human activities between 1979 and 1986 in the North Fork of the Flathead River drainage of southeastern British Columbia and northern Montana. Reactions of bears were measured primarily by radio telemetry rather than by direct observations to reduce recording biases caused by cover or bear behavior. Bears responded more strongly to ground-based human activities, such as people on foot or moving vehicles, when in the open than when in cover. Cover had less effect o their response to fixed-wing aircraft. Bears generally displayed stronger reactions to human activities, other than to people on foot, that occurred <76 m than farther away. The strongest response of bears was to people on foot, and these reactions were most extreme in areas of low human use. Annotation: The study recorded disturbance reactions of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) to human activities along the North Fork of the Flathead River. The bears showed a stronger reaction to fixed-wing aircraft (types not described) at distances <150 m than to aircraft at greater distances. Bears showed a stronger response in open areas than in areas with greater cover (shrubs, forest). Only 24 occurrences of helicopter disturbances were recorded (17 at >150 m distance and 7 at <150 m distance). Of the seven bears at <150 m, one ran >1 km, one walked or slowly loped, and the remaining five did not move. At distances >150 m, most reactions (16 of 17) were no movements by bears; one bear ran >1 km. No helicopter types are given and no noise data were recorded during the study.

Merrill, S. B., and C. R. Erickson. 2003. A GPS-based method to examine wolf response to loud noise. Wildlife Society Bulletin 31: 769–773.

Abstract: We used Global Positioning System (GPS) telemetry data to examine response of a breeding male and 2 yearling wolves (Canis lupus) to military firing at Camp Ripley National Guard Training Site in Little Falls, Minnesota. Two of 3 wolves showed movements toward firing points more often than expected. Movements toward firing points were more frequent when wolves were <5 km from the firing point before firing began. The breeding male moved toward firing points more often the 2 yearlings. The method developed in this study could be useful for identifying tolerance thresholds in other wildlife species and for determining whether thresholds change when animals adjust to human activities.

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Annotation: The study identifies reactions of wolves to military ordnance firing. Weapon types included 155-mm howitzers (141 dB at 500 m), 0.50 caliber machine guns (60 dB at 500 m), M-60 machine guns (57 dB at 500 m), and handguns (0.40 and 0.22 caliber, pooled mean of 44 dB at 500 m). Although the study does not deal with helicopters, per se, it does indicate that some training activities may serve as attractants. Whether this type of attraction would be true in Alaska is uncertain because hunting, trapping, and aerial hunting are currently occurring on some military lands and may act as deterrents to attraction.

Miller, F. L., and A. Gunn. 1979. Responses of Peary caribou and muskoxen to helicopter harassment. Canadian Wildlife Service, Occasional Paper Number 40. Ottawa, Canada. 90 pp.

Abstract: This report provides information on overt behavioural responses of Peary caribou (Rangifer tarandus pearyi) and muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus) to simulations of three likely categories of helicopter activities that would be associated with construction of a gas pipeline in Arctic Canada. The study was carried out on Prince of Wales and Russell islands, Northwest Territories, in summers 1976 and 1977. One three-man team and a Bell 206B turbo-helicopter were used in July and August 1976, and four two-man teams and a Bell 206B were used in June-August 1977. All helicopter harassment overflights were flown at less than 400 m above ground level (m agl): mostly below and above 200 m agl in 1976 and 1977, respectively. The maximum response of an animal during an overflight was taken as a measure of harassment. In total, 3939 individual maximum response samples (IRS) of Peary caribou were obtained during 671 harassment overflights and 4011 IRS or muskoxen during 315 overflights: 64.0% of the Peary caribou samples and 43.6% of the muskox samples responded overtly to the helicopter overflights. It was judged that the 12.1% (477) of the Peary caribou samples and the 21.0% (841) of the muskox samples that were still responding at the extreme level after completion of the overflights represented the animals most seriously affected by the helicopter harassment. Helicopter landings were made on 116 occasions near 736 Peary caribou samples and 69 touchdowns near 1192 muskox samples. In total, 28.7% (211) of the Peary caribou IRS and 12.3% (147) of the muskox IRS responded at the extreme level to harassment. Our results indicated that (1) the responsiveness of cows and calves of both species and solitary bull muskoxen, (2) group size and type, (3) number of calves in a group, (4) the position of the sun and direction of the wind relative to the helicopter flight, (5) previous activity of the animals, and (6) the terrain where the animals were sampled are all factors contributing to the levels of responses exhibited by harassed animals. There was an inverse relationship between response levels and the altitude of the helicopter overflights or the distance away for a helicopter landing and our recommendations were based on that relationship. Evidence for habituation was detected within but no between sets of passes simulating cargo slinging. The levels of harassment did not cause any visible pathological conditions or lead to group splintering or calf desertion. It is not known, however, what the actual short-term costs of harassment to the individuals were in energy, or what are the potential long-

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term effects to the populations. If we are to advise wisely on the conservation of Peary caribou and muskoxen, there is a vital need for additional baseline data, especially on affinities for and locations of critical areas such as calving grounds, post-calving areas, rutting areas and migratory routes. Annotation: : The 2-year project studied the behavioral responses of caribou and muskox to three types of helicopter (Bell 206B) overflights: low-level, cargo slinging, and passes or circles at hovering speeds with landings. Observations were made during June–August. The authors present a detailed description of observed behaviors and analyze responses based on aircraft altitude, sex/age class, size of groups, season, weather, and terrain. Data results are presented in the Abstract for the study. No sound level data were recorded.

Miller, F. L., and A. Gunn. 1980. Behavioral responses of muskox herds to simulation of cargo slinging by helicopter, Northwest Territories. Canadian Field-Naturalist 94: 52–60.

Abstract: During a study of helicopter harassment of three different Muskox (Ovibos moschatus) herds we flew two sets of overflights with five passes each and one set of six passes in 1976 and 27 sets of overflights with six passes each in 1977 to simulate exposure to cargo slinging operations. The flights were made over two identifiable Muskox herds in 1976 and over three identifiable herds in 1977. We categorized ongoing maintenance activity (bedded or foraging) as no response; alerted or walking as a moderate response; and cantering or galloping as an extreme response. In 1977, but not in 1976, there was a trend toward decreasing responsiveness within the series of passes, which indicated short-term habituation by the Muskoxen to the helicopter flying at high altitudes (>180 m above ground level). There was consistent variation in the levels of responses among the three herds when similarly harassed, that allowed us to characterize one herd as “calm,” one as “excitable,” and one intermediate. Results from repeated simulations of cargo slinging over the three identifiable Muskox herds suggest that Muskoxen in the most “excitable” herd exhibited most long-term habituation. There was no evidence that the exposure of these Muskoxen to the levels of helicopter harassment we used caused any injuries, herd splintering, or range abandonment. Annotation: Low-altitude (114–400 m AGL) helicopter flights (Bell-206B) at slow speeds (<80 km/h) were flown to simulate cargo slinging. Muskox herds exposed to overflights were a mixture of males, females, juveniles, yearlings, and calves.

• The Back Bay herd overflown in 1976 galloped and formed defense formations in response to all overflights, which were flown at 297 m (4 passes), 175 m (1 pass), and 114 m AGL (2 passes).

• The distance moved decreased with each subsequent overflight, indicating some short-term habituation to the overflights.

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The authors conclude that the Back Bay herd studied in 1977 likely was the same herd exposed to overflights in 1976. The responses of that herd to the second year of overflights showed some long-term habituation to helicopter disturbance based on the lower level of disturbed behaviors recorded:

• 68.5% of the herd remained bedded or foraging during 74 overflights • 12.6% were alerted or walked • 18.9% cantered, galloped, or formed group defense formations The Allen Lake herd was less responsive to helicopters in 1976, with 60% of animals bedded or foraging during the helicopter overflights (305 m and 290 m AGL; five overflights at each altitude). As with the Back Bay herd, short-term habituation to the helicopter disturbance was apparent. Overflights of the Allen Lake herd in 1977 also showed little response, as the number of animals remaining bedded or foraging during overflights increased to 80% (58 overflights; most at 201–301 m AGL [35 overflights] and 301–400 m AGL [18 overflights]). The third herd, at Cape Briggs, observed in 1977, showed similar responses to helicopters, except that the earlier overflights occurred when the herd did not contain any bulls, and the behavioral responses of the animals were stronger than those recorded later in the season after several bulls had joined the herd. No sound level data were recorded for overflights.

Miller, F. L., and A. Gunn. 1981. Play by Peary caribou calves before, during, and after helicopter harassment. Canadian Journal of Zoology 59: 823–827.

Abstract: We observed 93 bouts of play behaviour by Peary caribou (Rangifer tarandus pearyi) calves on northeastern Prince of Wales Island, Northwest Territories (N.W.T.), between 23 June and 16 August 1977. Play consisted of 58 contagious, 20 exploratory, 13 agonistic, and 2 sexual bouts. Calves engaged in 30 bouts of play during the undisturbed phase, 30 bouts during the harassed phase, and 33 bouts during the recovery phase of the observations. Play was proportionately most frequent during the harassed phase, least frequent during the undisturbed phase, and occurred slightly less than expected during the recovery phase (P < 0.005). We speculate that (1) Peary caribou calves were more excited than adult companions by helicopter; (2) this higher excitement led to a general readiness to be active; and (3) when adults did not overtly respond, the readiness of the calves to be active was released as play. Therefore, play by Peary caribou should not be used as an indication of a total lack of stress during or shortly after periods of harassment. Annotation: The authors describe the response of caribou calves to low-altitude helicopter (Bell-206B) flights. Calves were more excited than adults by helicopter harassment, and this higher excitement led to a general readiness to be active. In the absence of social signals from adults, the readiness of calves to be active was released as play.

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Miller, F. L., and A. Gunn. 1984. Muskox defense formations in response to helicopters in the Canadian High Arctic. Pages 123–126 in D. R. Klein, R. G. White, and S. Keller, eds. Proceedings of the First International Muskox Symposium. Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK.

Abstract: In the summers of 1976 and 1977 we observed the grouping of muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus) into herd defense formations in response to helicopter overflights on northeastern Prince of Wales Island, Northwest Territories. Of the 973 muskoxen that walked, cantered, or galloped toward each other on 111 occasions, 727 (74.7%) came together and assumed defense formations in response to the helicopter overflights. There was no significant relationship (P>0.05) between the gait used and the subsequent participation by those muskoxen in defense formations. The gaits used partly reflected the distances between herd members at the onset of the helicopter overflights. Durations of defense formations in response to helicopter overflights were relatively brief: mean, 5.2 + 2.46 min (SD); range, 2 to 12 min. We did not see any muskoxen take up defense formations after the departure of the helicopter. Reactions of muskoxen to overflights of helicopters were monitored on Prince of Wales Island, Northwest Territories, during two summers. Annotation: Helicopter (Bell 206) overflights were conducted at 100 km/h at altitudes of 11–400 m AGL (one pass or a series of five or more passes were flown). Responses by muskoxen dropped slightly after the first two passes during the multiple-pass tests, indicating some short-term habituation (59%, 51%, and 40% of muskoxen responding during passes 1&2, 3&4, and 5&6, respectively). (See Miller and Gunn [1980] annotation for more details). No sound level data were reported.

Miller, F. L., A. Gunn, and S. J. Barry. 1988. Nursing by muskox calves before, during, and after helicopter overflights. Arctic 41: 231–235.

Abstract: Nursing bouts by 15 muskox (Ovibos moschatus) calves were measured to evaluate potential use of nursing behaviour as an indicator of muskox responses to helicopters. The muskox calves nursed 225 times during 313 hours of observation; 63% under undisturbed conditions; 12% when helicopter overflights took place; and 25% following those overflights. During exposure to the helicopter, the calf moved to the cow and then sometimes took the opportunity to nurse. Younger calves nursed relatively longer and more often then older calves; they also performed 68% of the nursings that occurred during helicopter overflights. Frequency and duration of nursing bouts are known to be related to the age of calves. This paper demonstrates that these aspects of nursing vary within or among muskox herds and concludes that observations of nursing at this level of effort cannot be employed with any confidence as a monitoring indicator of muskox response to helicopters.

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Annotation: : See Miller and Gunn (1980) annotation for details of the overflights for the study. A Bell 206B helicopter was used for simulated cargo slinging overflights. These overflights were defined as an approach from 8 km distance, flying directly over the herd, continuing for another 8 km, turning around, and returning for a second pass over the herd. Muskox behaviors were observed during these simulation overflights. Observations of nursing bouts during overflights were broken into three phases:

• Undisturbed (prior to helicopter overflight)

• Harassed (during helicopter overflight, when audible to observers, and during interval between passes)

• Recovery (after helicopter overflights were completed) Although Miller and Gunn (1979, 1980; see previous annotations) had found that 200 m AGL was the statistically significant threshold distance for muskox responses to helicopter overflights (i.e., below that height, muskox galloping responses occurred more than expected), all the observations of nursing for the study were made during helicopter overflights >200 m AGL (most at 260–400 m AGL). Therefore, the observations were not made during the most disturbing overflights, which may have contributed to the lack of a statistically significant result for their analyses. A second compounding factor was the variable nursing frequency with calf age, which affected the sample sizes during observations. The authors did note, however, an increased frequency of nursing by young calves in response to helicopter overflights, possibly because these youngest calves had an increased need for security. No sound level data for overflights were presented.

Miller, M. W. 1994. Route selection to minimize helicopter disturbance of molting Pacific Black Brant—A simulation. Arctic 47: 341–349.

Abstract: I used a previously described simulation model to assess the effects of helicopter activity on approximately 18,000 molting Pacific black brant (Branta bernicla nigricans) near Teshekpuk Lake, Alaska. Bell 206 and Bell 412 helicopters were simulated flying across the molting grounds along six flight lines at various altitudes and frequencies between two airfields. The model determined the behavioral and energetic responses of every bird encountered by the aircraft during an overflight, then calculated the weight of these birds at the end of wing molt. Body condition of the brant, reflected in weight loss, was used to quantify the impact of helicopter disturbance. The number of birds in each of five risk categories was determined for each route, altitude, helicopter type, and overflight frequency. Flight lines and overflight patterns that minimized disturbance to the molting population were identified. Slightly altering the direct route between the two airfields resulted in up to 91% fewer birds experiencing heavy weight loss. Flying either helicopter

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type around the southern edge of the molting grounds caused the least disturbance; flying parallel to the coast, 1.6 km inland, caused the most. The Bell 412 caused up to 15% more weight loss than did the smaller helicopter. Weight loss along a given flight line can be reduced by 1) flying at altitudes greater than 1065 m altitude, 2) flying only when most brant are in their second week of molt, 3) minimizing flight frequency, and 4) avoiding use of the larger Bell 412 when possible. Annotation: A model simulating the effects of helicopter overflights on the distribution and weight of molting brant was developed using 10 years of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service aerial survey data and a bioenergetics simulation (see subsequent Miller et al. 1994 annotation). Experimental overflights were also conducted and incorporated into the model (see Jensen 1990 annotation). Variables included helicopter altitude, type, flight routes, and number of overflights/day. The model indicated that the greatest disturbance to brant occurred at modeled flight altitudes of 305 m and 460 m AGL, rather than at the lowest simulated altitudes. The author suggests this result is because of “shadow zones” that are produced by wind, reducing noise levels of aircraft close to the ground (see subsequent annotation for Ward and Stehn 1989). Recommendations for reducing potential disturbance to molting brant include:

• Using the smallest helicopter that is practical for the required load • Flying at the highest safe altitude (often influenced by fog) • Restricting helicopter traffic to the first two weeks of molt • Minimizing the number of flights • Locating the flight route away from known molting areas No sound data were presented in the paper.

Miller, M. W., K. C. Jensen, W. E. Grant, and M. W. Weller. 1994. A simulation model of helicopter disturbance of molting Pacific Black Brant. Ecological Modeling 73: 293– 309.

Abstract: We describe a simulation model designed to study the effects of helicopter disturbance on molting Pacific black brant (Branta bernicla nigricans) near Teshekpuk Lake, Alaska. Locations of 18,118 brant were digitized into the model based on 10 years of population survey data. Bell 206 and Bell 412 helicopters were simulated flying across the molting grounds along two routes between two airfields. The model determined the behavioral and energetic response of birds encountered by the aircraft during an overflight. Altitude and frequency of overflights were held constant during a simulated 28-day molting period, but were varied among simulations. The model provided the degree of weight loss these birds experienced due to helicopter disturbance. The effects of overflights on brant were classified into five risk categories based on weight. For both routes, the number of flocks and birds in each category was determined for each altitude, aircraft type, and overflight frequency. Simulation results indicated that the model can be used to identify flight- line modifications that result in significantly decreased disturbance to the birds.

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Annotation: A simulation model was designed to study the effects of helicopter disturbance on molting Pacific black brant near Teshekpuk Lake, Alaska. The database included 10 population surveys for the area. Data on brant reactions to helicopter overflights (as described in Jensen 1990; see previous annotation) were used, and the model was based on both Bell 206 and Bell 412 helicopters. The model estimates the degree of weight loss that brant would experience because of helicopter disturbance during a 28-day molting period. The model may be used to identify flight line modifications that result in significantly decreased disturbance to the birds. The results of the model indicate that increasing the flight altitude to 915 m AGL for the more disturbing helicopter (Bell 412) and to 760 m for the Bell 206 would reduce the molting brant’s weight loss from disturbance. Alternatively, reducing the modeled 50 flights/day to fewer flights had a similar effect. (See also previous annotation for Miller [1994]). No sound data were used in the model.

Mosbech, A., and D. Boertmann. 1999. Distribution, abundance and reaction to aerial surveys of post-breeding King Eiders (Somateria spectabilis) in western Greenland. Arctic 52: 188–203.

Abstract: Moulting and post-breeding king eiders in western Greenland were surveyed in late August and early September of 1993, 1994, and 1995. We counted all eiders observed during fixed-wing aircraft flights along coastlines and offshore transects. The coastline in the survey area is roughly 13,400 km long, and our flightlines totaled approximately 16,500 km. The areas optimal for the birds were covered fully several times; in less suitable areas, only a fraction of the coastline was covered. Using the largest count for coastlines covered more than once, we counted a total of 22,980 king eiders. Large numbers of king eiders were observed at a number of remote localities on the west coast of Disko Island and in southern Upernavik. At localities considered to have frequent human disturbance, few birds were observed. Highest densities were found along coasts with sandy or muddy areas at the shorelines. Overall we estimate that 30,000 to 40,000 king eiders reside in the coastal zone of western Greenland in late August. Even allowing for a high turnover rate, as different individuals may occupy the moulting areas during the extended period from July to October, this figure can account for only half of a 950s estimate that 200,000 males and immatures were moulting in western Greenland. Annotation: Aerial surveys were flown in a Partenavia P68 airplane at 80–125 m (205– 400 ft) asl. Noise levels of the aircraft were 128 dBA (200 Hz peak levels). Experimental overflights were flown (six replicates within 3 days) to determine disturbance reactions of King Eiders.

• Eiders often dove underwater before the arrival of the aircraft, on several occasions when the aircraft was several kilometers away.

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• The percent of the group diving in response to the aircraft varied with flight altitude from 0% (at 1800 ft) to 35% (at 400 feet); less than 1% of birds flew.

• Flocks responded (alert or swimming away) to the approaching aircraft at distances of 500–5000 m.

• The strongest reaction (diving) occurred when the aircraft was at a distance of 1 km. The maximum noise level recorded during overflights was 65 dBA at 250 ft asl and a lateral distance of 400 m.

Mosbech, A., and C. Glahder. 1991. Assessment of the impact of helicopter disturbance on moulting pink-footed geese Anser brachyrhynchus and barnacle geese Branta leucopsis in Jameson Land, Greenland. Ardea 79: 233–238.

Abstract: Jameson Land, at the southern border of the high arctic zone in Northeast Greenland holds in the summer c. 5000 moulting Pink-footed Geese Anser brachyrhynchus and 5000 moulting Barnacle Geese Branta leucopsis and breeding populations of about 500 pairs of each species. Oil exploration activities in 1987 and 1988 have involved massive helicopter traffic. To assess the impact of this disturbance, the behavioural responses of the moulting geese to helicopter disturbance have been studied and related to time budget of undisturbed geese. Disturbance reactions were shown by the geese when helicopters approached to 10 km (large ones, Bell 212) or 5 km (small ones, Bell 206). Time budgets of Pink-footed Geese were strongly affected by the disturbance. They were seen to graze and rest less often and to swim more often, and probably did not get enough food. The effect on the time budget of Barnacle Geese was not so strong. Annotation: Earlier observations in the study area during 1982–84 found that molting (i.e., flightless) Pink-footed Geese reacted to helicopters at distances up to 10–20 km. The study was initiated to evaluate behavioral reactions to helicopter disturbance. Time budgets of Pink-footed Geese and Barnacle Geese were compared between disturbed and non-disturbed geese in late-June to late-July 1988. Helicopters (Bell 212 and Bell 206) transporting seismic crews and flying >120 m AGL were the disturbance variable. Disturbance varied between the two species. Pink-footed Geese showed disturbance reactions to helicopters at mean distances 4.4 km and 8.7 km for small (Bell 206) and large (Bell 212) helicopters, respectively. In contrast, Barnacle Geese reacted at mean distances of 2.6 km and 9.1 km, respectively. Increased helicopter activity reduced the feeding time of Pink-footed Geese, but not Barnacle Geese. Helicopter noise was more perceptible at long distances as the altitude of the helicopter increased, thus low-flying helicopters actually were less disturbing to molting geese as their distance from the geese increased.

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The authors suggest that helicopters keep 8 km from molting geese and that noise was the primary disturbance factor. No sound level data were collected for overflights.

Murphy, S. M., B. A. Anderson, and C. L. Cranor. 1986. Lisburne Terrestrial Monitoring Program—1985: The effects of the Lisburne Development Project on geese and swans. First Annual Report, prepared for ARCO Alaska, Inc., Anchorage, AK, by Alaska Biological Research, Fairbanks, AK. 151 pp.

Annotation: The effects of the Lisburne Development Program, a new oilfield constructed in Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, were studied on selected waterfowl (geese and swans) in 1985 through 1989. The report presents the results of the first year of study. Construction occurred in 1985–1986 and post-construction was monitored in 1987– 1989. The breeding biology, distribution and abundance, and behavior of geese (Brant and Canada, Greater White-fronted, and Snow geese) and Tundra Swans were studied each year. Reactions of waterfowl to human and natural disturbances were recorded, including aircraft (fixed-wing and helicopter) overflights. In this first year, aircraft types were lumped for analysis and distances were broken out into <500 m and >500 m. All geese were more sensitive to disturbance during brood- rearing, when both young and adults were flightless. No specific data on helicopter types are provided, although most helicopters used in the oilfield are either Bell 206 or Bell 212 types. (See also the annotations for other Murphy et al. [1987, 1988, 1989, 1990] annual reports for other helicopter disturbance data.)

Murphy, S. M., B. A. Anderson, C. L. Cranor, and R. H. Day. 1987. Lisburne Terrestrial Monitoring Project—1986: The effects of the Lisburne Development Project on geese and swans. Second Annual Report, prepared for ARCO Alaska, Inc., Anchorage, by Alaska Biological Research, Inc., Fairbanks, AK. 246 pp.

Annotation: See Murphy et al. (1986) annotation for a description of the study.

• Canada and Greater White-fronted geese showed similar reactions to aircraft types (<20% reacting to small fixed-wing and jet aircraft; 40% reacting to helicopters [n = 80, distance to birds = 10 m–5 km]).

• Brant and Snow Geese reacted more to fixed-wing aircraft than to helicopters (n = 47, distance range = 3–4 km).

• Few reactions were observed for Tundra Swans. No specific data on helicopter types are provided, although most helicopters used in the oilfield are either Bell 206 or Bell 212 types. (See also the annotations of other

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Murphy et al. [1986, 1988, 1989, 1990] annual reports for other helicopter disturbance data.)

Murphy, S. M., B. A. Anderson, C. L. Cranor, and C. B. Johnson. 1988. Lisburne Terrestrial Monitoring Program—1987: The effects of the Lisburne Development Project on geese and swans. Third Annual Report, prepared for ARCO Alaska, Inc., Anchorage, by Alaska Biological Research, Inc., Fairbanks, AK. 255 pp.

Annotation: See Murphy et al. (1986) annotation for a description of the study. Sixty- eight aircraft overflights were recorded in 1987. Helicopters were responsible for all disturbances at >1000 m distance (n = 4). Brant reactions to a helicopter slinging barrels from the tundra were recorded over a 50-min period with 20 overflights ranging in altitude from 10–30 m AGL and 10 landings at distances of 500 m to 2000 m from the geese. Responses of molting and unfledged Brant to this disturbance included alert behaviors and running on one occasion (200–300 m) and the geese appeared to become more sensitive as the number of helicopter overflights increased. A second event, one day later, (lasting 2 hr with 14 overflights at 15–30 m and landings at distances of 100–700 m) resulted in even stronger responses from the Brant, resulting in a net movement away from the helicopter of 1.4 km. No specific data on helicopter types are provided, but Bell 206 or Bell 212 types are the primary types used in the oilfield. (See also the annotations of other Murphy et al. [1986, 1987, 1989, 1990] annual reports for other helicopter disturbance data.)

Murphy, S. M., B. A. Anderson, C. L. Cranor, and M. T. Jorgenson. 1989. Lisburne Terrestrial Monitoring Program—1988: The effects of the Lisburne Development Project on geese and swans. Fourth Annual Report, prepared for ARCO Alaska, Inc., Anchorage, by Alaska Biological Research, Inc., Fairbanks, AK. 255 pp.

Annotation: See Murphy et al. (1986) annotation for a description of the study. Helicopter data were analyzed separately from fixed-wing aircraft in the 1988 annual report.

• Over 50% of Canada Geese reacted to helicopters within 500 m lateral distance and 25% reacted at 501–1000 m (n = 6 and 2, respectively). No geese flew at either distance, instead the most common reaction was to walk or run a short distance or simply become alert (head-up, look at disturbance). No responses were recorded to helicopters at >1000 m (n = 9).

• Responses of Greater White-fronted Geese decreased as the lateral distance to the helicopter increased, with 38% running/flying and 18% alert at lateral distances of <500 m (n = 3 helicopter events); 40% reacting (mainly alert) at 500–

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1000 m (n = 5 helicopter events), and 20% alert at 1000–1500 m (n = 7 helicopter events). No geese reacted to three helicopters at >1500 m.

• A helicopter slinging barrels near a Greater White-fronted Goose nest caused the nesting adults to fly 250 m away and apparently contributed to the ultimate failure of that nest. A female on a second nearby nest did not flush, however, to frequent overflights low over the nest.

• Brant were more reactive to helicopters than either Canada or Greater White- fronted geese, with nearly all Brant reacting to five overflights within 1500 m lateral distance (one overflight at 1500–2000 m caused no reaction).

• Snow Geese also reacted to helicopters with all birds flying 1200 m in response to a helicopter flying at 50 m AGL and about 400 m lateral distance. A second helicopter caused alert behaviors in Snow Geese at 1400 m lateral distance.

• Only one helicopter overflight of a Tundra Swan was observed, with a single adult showing no response to a helicopter at 50 m AGL and a lateral distance of 100 m. No specific data on helicopter types were provided, but Bell 206 or Bell 212 types are the primary types used in the oilfield. (See also the annotations of other Murphy et al. [1986, 1987, 1988, 1990] annual reports for other helicopter disturbance data.)

Murphy, S. M., B. A. Anderson, C. L. Cranor, M. T. Jorgenson, and B. K. Lance. 1990. Lisburne Terrestrial Monitoring Program—1989: The effects of the Lisburne Development Project on geese and swans. Fifth Annual Report, prepared for ARCO Alaska, Inc., Anchorage, by Alaska Biological Research, Inc., Fairbanks. 275 pp.

Annotation: See Murphy et al. (1986) annotation for a description of the study. Helicopter data were analyzed separately from fixed-wing aircraft in the 1989 annual report.

• Ten helicopter overflights were observed near Canada Geese, which did not react to helicopters >500 m lateral distance (n = 5). Reactions to helicopters at <500 m were relatively mild (18% alert and 70% no reaction). One helicopter (Bell 206) overflight directly over (50 m AGL) a flock of six geese caused them to fly 1000 m.

• Ten helicopter overflights were observed for Greater White-fronted Geese and no helicopters caused birds to react, including an overflight within 500 m of a brood-rearing group. Helicopter overflights were at <500 m (n = 6), 500–1000 m (n = 2), and 1000–5000 m (n = 2).

− Brant encountered helicopters more frequently (19 overflights). All reactions (alert or locomotion) occurred for helicopters at <500 m lateral distance (3 of 11 helicopters at that distance caused a reaction). The two overflights within 300 m did cause locomotion in brood-rearing Brant.

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• One helicopter overflight (200 m AGL, 100 m lateral distance) of a brood of Snow Geese (two adults with two goslings) elicited no response. No specific data on helicopter types were provided, but Bell 206 or Bell 212 types are the primary types used in the oilfield. (See also the annotations of other Murphy et al. [1986, 1987, 1988, 1989] annual reports for additional helicopter disturbance data.)

Murphy, S. M., R. G. White, B. A. Kugler, J. A. Kitchens, M. D. Smith, and D. S. Barber. 1993. Behavioral effects of jet aircraft on caribou in Alaska. Pages 479–486 in M. Vallet, ed. Noise & Man ‘93, Noise as a Public Health Problem. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference. Nice, France. INRETS, Arcueil Cedex, France.

Abstract: We evaluated the behavioral responses of free-ranging caribou (Rangifer tarandus) to low-altitude subsonic overflights by military jet aircraft. Overflights were conducted during three sampling periods in 1991: late winter (April), the post- calving period (June), and the insect season (July-August). Observers on the ground were positioned to direct the overflights and record caribou responses. Sound Exposure Levels (SEL) resulting from overflights were measured using prototype “Animal Noise Monitors” mounted on individual caribou or were modeled based on the proximity of the aircraft to the animals. During the three sampling periods, we recorded the reactions of 268 groups of caribou to 159 overflights by A-10 (n = 94), F- 15 (n = 16), and F-16 (n = 4) jet aircraft. The mean slant distance (i.e., line-of-sight distance from the aircraft to the caribou for all overflights was 756 m (SE = 181), and the estimated mean SEL for caribou under observation during all overflights was 98 dBA (SE = 0.7; maximum = 127). Approximately 50% of the caribou showed some degree of overt behavioral reaction to overflights, but only 13% of the overflights caused animals to move. There was no relationship between SEL and the duration of overflights. Activity budgets were compared between caribou that had not been overflown recently; no differences were evident in late winter, but during post- calving and the insect season, overflown animals spent less time lying and more time either feeding (post-calving) or walking (insect season). Daily distance traveled was compared for animals that had not been overflown during the previous 24-h period and animals that had been overflown; distance traveled did not differ during late winter and the insect season, but treatment caribou traveled farther than did control caribou during post-calving. Overall, behavioral impacts were mild, although female caribou with calves reacted to overflights by jet aircraft by lying less and moving more, especially during post-calving (June). Females with newborn calves appeared to be less tolerant of aircraft disturbance than were caribou during other times of the year, and the daily movement data suggest caribou with newborn calves were moving away from disturbed areas. These results are consistent with other studies of the behavioral responses of caribou to disturbance. More detailed predictions of energetic and demographic consequences of repeated overflights currently are being developed, using a caribou energetics model. Annotation: : The behavioral effects of low-altitude military jet overflights on free- ranging caribou from the Delta Herd in Interior Alaska were studied. In the 1-year

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study, authors measured noise levels experienced by caribou during overflights, described activity budgets and behaviors of disturbed and undisturbed caribou, and compared movements of caribou exposed to overflights with those that were not exposed to overflights. In addition, sound levels above 85 dBA were monitored. Caribou showed relatively few responses to overflights, but the most sensitive period was when newborn calves were present in June. No data are provided for helicopter overflights. (For complete details of the study, see previous Maier et al. [1998] annotation.)

Murphy, S. M., R. J. Ritchie, A.G. Palmer, D.L. Nordmeyer, D. D. Roby, and M. D. Smith. 2001. Responses of Peregrine Falcons to military jet aircraft. Pages 34–35 in M. Baker and G. Belliveau, eds. Effects of Noise on Wildlife Conference. 22–23 August 2000. Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Labrador. Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research. Terra Borealis. Vol. 2.

Annotation: A 3-year investigation of the effects of low-level military overflights on behavior, nest attendance, activity budgets, provisioning rates, and productivity of nesting Peregrine Falcons was conducted in Interior Alaska. Instantaneous behavioral reactions were obtained with video monitors fitted with ANMs. Annually, 33–39 nests were monitored with ANMs and instantaneous behaviors were collected at 12 nests. During the 3-yr study, 2212 jet aircraft overflights were recorded. Annual exposures at individual nests ranged from 0 to 392 overflights.

• Adult falcons displayed little or no overt behavioral responses to most (75%) of the close (<1000 m slant distance) overflights by military jets (n =191).

• Only 5.5% of reactions by falcons to jets were classified as intense (i.e., standing, crouching/cowering, preparing to fly, or flying).

• Responses to jets were less severe than those to other raptors or to mammals, including humans. Overflights apparently did not affect nesting activity budgets, but failed nests were generally exposed to greater aircraft disturbance than successful nests (few results were statistically significant, however). (See subsequent Murphy et al. 2002 annotation.)

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Murphy, S. M., R. J. Ritchie, M. D. Smith, D. L. Nordmeyer Elmore, and D. D. Roby. 2002. Effects of noise exposure from jet aircraft on nesting success and productivity of Peregrine Falcons in Interior Alaska. Chapter 10, Pages 225–252 in E. Pruitt, and R. C. Kull, Jr. eds. The effects of noise on birds of prey: A study of Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) in Alaska. AFRL-HE-WP-TR-2002-0190. U. S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH. 252 pp.

Abstract: We examined the relationship between noise exposure from low-flying jet aircraft and nesting success and productivity of Peregrine Falcons in interior Alaska during 1995-1997. Two surveys were conducted each year, the first in late May-early June to locate breeding pairs and active nests and the second in mid-July to check on nesting success and productivity. Surveys in remote “off-river” sites were conducted by helicopter, whereas surveys on the navigable Tanana River were conducted mostly by boat. We monitored 237 nests during the 3-yr study and deployed Animal Noise Monitors (ANMs) at a subsample of 106 nests. The ANMs recorded 2,212 jet aircraft overflights during ~135,000 h of monitoring, with extrapolated exposure levels at individual nests ranging from 0 to 392 overflights during nesting and brood-rearing. We used number of overflights, event duration, and several A- weighted acoustical metrics to test whether noise exposure affected nesting success or productivity. We also used these data to classify different regions of our study area as low, moderate, or high exposure, and these disturbance categories were assigned to nests that were not monitored with ANMs. Failed nests generally had higher levels of exposure to jet aircraft overflights that did successful nests, but these differences were not significant. When the fate of all nests in the study area was evaluated by disturbance categories, there again was a trend for high disturbance areas to have higher rates of nest failure, and this was most pronounced in the off- river sites where nesting success was 80%, 73%, and 63% in the low, moderate, and high disturbance areas, respectively. Models evaluating the effects of noise on productivity also indicated that off-river sites produced slightly fewer young, but again none of the models was significant. Because the off-river population is expanding, whereas the population on the Tanana River is established and relatively stable, these results suggest that disturbance primarily is affecting inexperienced pairs that are prospecting for new nesting territories. Still, productivity of the off- river population equaled and exceeded other monitoring areas in interior Alaska that do not have jet aircraft activity. We conclude, therefore, that population-level effects are not evident for the regional population. Annotation: The relationship between noise from low-flying jets and nesting success of and productivity of Peregrine Falcon was studied in MOAs in Interior Alaska. Noise monitors were placed at 106 out of 237 nests during the 3-year period. Because noise was monitored remotely, the identity of aircraft causing noise was not recorded. However, most overflights likely were by military jet aircraft (F-15, A-10, F-16) and not helicopters.

• The noise monitor data indicated that nests potentially were overflown an average of 36 times during the nesting period, with an average event lasting ~8.3 sec (average peak = 104.7 dBA; average SEL = 100.7 dBA).

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• The mean daily average SEL at all nests was 86.3 dBA (range = 60 [assigned value for non-monitored nests] to 114.5 dBA).

• Analyses of the number of low-flying jet overflights, event duration, and several dBA-weighted acoustical metrics tested whether the noise exposure affected nesting success or productivity.

• At off-river sites, data suggest that noise-monitored nests that failed had higher exposures to jets and noise than did successful nests. Habitat differences between off-river and Tanana River sites may have contributed to some of the differences in nesting success.

• Productivity did not appear to be affected by noise exposure. Although some nest-specific disturbance effects were apparent, the overall population in these MOAs was increasing. Although nests were surveyed with helicopters, no helicopter noise data are provided.

National Park Service. 1994. Effects of aircraft overflights on the National Park System. Report to Congress by the U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Washington, D.C. 252 pp.

Abstract: [Excepts of Introduction and the summary for Chapter 5 on effects on wildlife.] The report was prepared for Congress by the NPS pursuant to Public Law 100-91, The National Parks Overflights Act of 1987. “For three main reasons, aircraft flying low over parks present the NPS with a very different and unusual set of problems. First, the "natural quiet" found in many national park units has long been regarded as a park resource… Second, the effects produced in parks by aviation are perhaps less obvious and, in some ways, less permanent than the effects produced by visitors on the ground… The third main reason this is such an unusual and difficult problem is that the authority to legally exercise control on aviation access does not lie with the NPS… Congress unambiguously vested authority for all aspects of airspace management in the Administrator of the FAA…Thus, to the extent that use of airspace has effects on park lands, the NPS must work with the FAA to determine what controls are possible”. “NPS managers believe that approximately 30% of all National Park System units have aircraft overflight problems. These affected parks account for about three-fourths of the total NPS administered acreage, and about half the total park visits. Low-level overflights constitute a management problem for the NPS, one that needs to be addressed in a systematic manner.” “A wide range of impacts (disturbances) to wildlife due to aircraft overflights have been reported in the literature. There are many reports of behavioral responses in animals, these responses are highly variable depending on the type of study, the species under consideration, spatial and temporal parameters, and other broad ecosystem characteristics. Indirect effects on wildlife such as accidental injury, energy losses and impacts to offspring survival have been documented. Current literature supports the argument that aircraft overflights negatively impact wildlife

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populations. However, the significance of such impacts is not clear. Additional studies are still needed to better assist land managers in substantiating the effects on population subgroups. It is certain that some impacts do occur under certain circumstances and that it is a NPS priority to protect wildlife, especially threatened and endangered species, whenever a probable impact exists or is expected. Hence, a series of conditions, applicable system-wide, have been listed that can be used to define general levels of impacts. Working with these guidelines at specific parks will lead to setting of priorities, both for possible alteration of overflight times, locations and numbers, and for identification of further research needs.” Annotation: Much of the report focuses on the effects of aircraft overflights on natural sounds (natural quiet), visitors, safety, and cultural resources in the park systems of the U.S., but one chapter (Chapter 5) addresses the effects of overflights on wildlife. The chapter on wildlife discusses both direct effects (physiological changes, injury/mortality, direct behavioral responses) and indirect effects (indirect effects of disturbance on behavior, such as changes in breeding success, subsequent energetic effects, and changes in habitat use). A summary table of published effects on wildlife species is provided. Some parks receive large numbers of overflights by helicopters (Grand Canyon, Glacier, Hawaii parks), often up to 50/day. Effects on threatened and endangered species are also discussed and potential impact categories are described (ranging from negligible to high impacts). The NPS concludes that: “Of most concern related to wildlife in parks are: 1) low- altitude overflights by military aircraft, and 2) light, fixed-wing aircraft and helicopter activities related to tourism… Based on a limited number of studies it can be concluded that impacts to wildlife populations can occur from low level aircraft overflights… Criteria are identified in this report that the NPS proposes to use to trigger mitigation or prevention efforts.” Although sound effects are discussed, no sound data for aircraft are presented.

Nordmeyer Elmore, D. L., A. G. Palmer, and D. D. Roby. 2002a. Behavioral responses of nesting Peregrine Falcons to low-altitude jet aircraft overflights. Chapter 4, Pages 93– 118 in E. Pruitt, and R. C. Kull, Jr., eds. The effects of noise on birds of prey: A study of Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) in Alaska. AFRL-HE-WP-TR-2002-0190. U. S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH. 252 pp.

Abstract: Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) nesting along the Tanana River, Alaska, during the 1995-1997 breeding seasons. Animal noise monitors (ANMs) collected data on noise exposure level at 11 to 12 active nest sites annually, 6 to 9 of which were located in Military Training Routes (MTRs) and subject to low-altitude jet overflights. The majority (78%) of all observed responses by adult Peregrine Falcons to close overflights (<1000 m slant distance, n=401) were classified as minimal, 17.5% were alert responses, and 2% were considered intense. Males generally responded more intensely to overflights than did females; only males exhibited flight responses (2.5% of all observed responses). Maximum sound pressure level, sound exposure

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level, and slant distance were the best predictors of falcon response to overflights and explained a significant amount of the variation in both male and female response. If acute, short-term behavioral responses of Peregrine Falcons indicate damage caused by potential disturbance, then the low level of overt behavioral responses observed in this study suggests that nesting Peregrine Falcons are only slightly affected by overflights from low-altitude jet aircraft. Annotation: Noise exposure at Peregrine Falcon nest sites and behavioral responses of breeding peregrines to low overflights of military jets (primarily A-10, F-15, and F-16, but also a few British Harriers, Tornados, and Jaguars military jets) were studied for 2 years in Interior Alaska (along the Tanana River between Eielson AFB and Tok). ANMs were set to record when noise levels exceeded 85 dBA and lasted at least 2 sec but not more than 2 min. Observers recorded 1414 total audible jet noise events:

• 214 were barely audible (<15 dBA; 15%)

• 470 were jets of unknown type (>2 km and <40 dBA; 33%)

• 730 were identified military jets (<2 km and >40 dBA; 51%). Of those 730 identified events:

− 401 overflights were within a slant distance of 1000 m − 132 of those events (33%) exceeded the 85-dBA threshold and were recorded by the ANMs

• As indicated in the Abstract for the study, few responses by adult Peregrine Falcons were observed to overflights.

− In general, the intensity of the birds’ responses to overflights decreased with increasing overflight altitudes and slant distances (no intense responses at >300 m AGL and slant distances >550 m).

− All intense or flight responses by peregrines occurred at noise levels (SEL) of >89.0 dBA (mean = 100.5 dBA, range = 89.0–110.3 dBA, n = 14).

− Male birds had a higher proportion of the more severe disturbance behaviors than did females.

− Only males were observed to fly in response to overflights by military jets. The model indicated that “...a significant proportion of the variation in response intensity of adult Peregrine Falcons to jet overflights were sex, slant distance, A-weighted sound exposure level (ASEL), A-weighted maximum sound pressure level (Lmax), number of overflights in rapid succession, and phase of the nesting cycle.”

Nordmeyer Elmore, D. L., A. G. Palmer, and D. D. Roby. 2002b. Comparison of behavioral responses by nesting Peregrine Falcons to several types of potential disturbances.

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Chapter 6, Pages 135–152 in E. Pruitt, and R. C. Kull, Jr., eds. The effects of noise on birds of prey: A study of Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) in Alaska. AFRL-HE- WP-TR-2002-0190. U. S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH. 252 pp.

Abstract: We investigated the relative magnitude of potential disturbances to breeding Peregrine Falcons by observing behavioral responses to disturbance events at nests along the Tanana River, Alaska, during the 1995-1997 breeding seasons. As part of a larger study on the effects of Air Force aircraft overflights, military jets flew over a subsample of nests under observation (experimental nests). Close overflights (<1000 m slant distance) by military jets accounted for 57% of potential disturbances at experimental nests, but only 2.6% of potential disturbances at reference nests. Other potential disturbances at reference nests included civilian fixed-wing aircraft (41%), boats (33%), avian predators (17%), helicopters (5.1%), and humans and other mammals (1.3%). Peregrine falcons responded differently to animate and inanimate sources of disturbance; flight responses were a common reaction to animate sources, but not to inanimate ones. Peregrine Falcons responded most intensely and most frequently to other raptors, particularly conspecifics. Forty-two percent of responses to other raptors were flight responses. Humans and other mammals near the nest elicited extremely intense defense responses, but these interactions occurred infrequently. Among inanimate disturbances, Peregrine Falcons responded most intensely to boats and least intensely to helicopters and small fixed-wing aircraft; military jets elicited intermediate responses that were indistinguishable from those to boats and other aircraft. Only 2-6% of responses to close (<1000 m slant distance) mechanized vehicles were flight responses. Number of flight responses to potential disturbances was not correlated with productivity of the nesting pair. Therefore, quantifying flight responses may not be the most sensitive indicator of the magnitude of anthropogenic disturbance to nesting Peregrine Falcons. Annotation: The main study (see Nordmeyer Elmore et al. [2002a, 2002c] abstracts and annotations) focused on military jets, but during observations at nests, other motorized craft and potential disturbances were incidentally recorded.

• Helicopter events at observed nests were relatively rare (n = 34; 5% of 676 close [<1000 m slant distance] events).

• A flight response by a male falcon was induced by one helicopter event. Helicopter types were not reported. No noise data were reported for the helicopter events.

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Nordmeyer Elmore, D. L., A. G. Palmer, and D. D. Roby. 2002c. Effects of jet aircraft overflights on nesting success of Peregrine Falcons: relative roles of disturbance dose and behavioral response. Chapter 5, Pages 119–134 in E. Pruitt, and R. C. Kull, Jr., eds. The effects of noise on birds of prey: A study of Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) in Alaska. Report No. AFRL-HE-WP-TR-2002-0190. U. S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH. 252 pp.

Abstract: Behavioral responses of nesting raptors to potential disturbances have been used as indicators of the impact of disturbance on nesting success. The purpose of this study was to determine if the intensity of immediate behavioral responses by Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) to jet aircraft overflights is associated with lower nesting success. Field crews observed behavioral responses of peregrines to overflights at 12 active nests along the Tanana River, east-central Alaska, during the 1995, 1996, and 1997 breeding seasons. Military jet aircraft flew at low-altitudes over nest sites under observation (experimental nests); other nests were not intentionally overflown (reference nests). Nest productivity (number of young raised per nesting attempt) did not differ between experimental and reference nests and was within the normal range for Peregrine Falcons nesting in east-central Alaska. Productivity also did not differ between nests exposed to >20 close overflights per season compared with those exposed to <20 close overflights per season, nor between nests with an average daily sound exposure level (SELa) of >90 dB compared with those with average daily SELa of <90 dB. The apparent lack of an effect of military jet overflights on nesting success was associated with low intensity of response by adult Peregrine Falcons to overflights (see Chapt. 4). There were, however, significant differences among individual nesting peregrines in the intensity of response to overflights. Furthermore, the average response of Peregrine Falcons to overflights was negatively correlated with productivity and explained a significant proportion of the variation in productivity among nests. These results suggest that the intensity of response by breeding Peregrine Falcons to low-altitude jet overflights is a better indicator of subsequent productivity than the actual does of overflight disturbance. The available evidence supports the hypothesis that higher response intensity is associated with lower parental investment, presumably in younger, less experienced parents, and the productivity of these parents is generally lower. Annotation: The report is the second chapter on Peregrine Falcon responses (see Nordmeyer Elmore et al. 2002a, Chapter 4 annotation, which describes overflights and noise levels), which focused on the effects of overflights on productivity. In general, jet overflights had little effect on falcon productivity, but the response index (a regression residual based on response intensity versus slant distance) did vary significantly among individual females, but not among males. Although averages for all nests showed no significant relationships between productivity and response index, individuals that responded more to overflights did experience lower productivity on average. The authors suggest that this response intensity is a better indicator of subsequent productivity than the actual exposure data (i.e., number of overflights, noise levels) and that the individual birds showing the high intensity responses are also those pairs that have the lowest parental investment, such as younger, less-experienced breeders.

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Owens, N. W. 1977. Responses of wintering Brent Geese to human disturbance. Wildfowl 28: 5–14.

Annotation: This article provides an assessment on the effects of human disturbance on the distribution and behavior of Dark-bellied Brent (Branta bernicla bernicla) wintering in Essex, England. Disturbed areas and places with poor visibility were avoided in early winter, but were used later when other areas became depleted of food. Geese became partially habituated to the proximity of people and to some loud noises, but not to small low-flying aircraft, or to noisy aircraft-like helicopters, which could cause panic. Only two helicopter overflights were recorded (type unknown). Disturbances by aircraft caused 1.6 times the disturbance of people because of the larger area affected. In areas where food is limited, Brant may not be able to effectively compensate for the effects of disturbance. The author suggests that aircraft maintain altitudes of at least 500 m above goose habitats.

Palmer, A. G. 1998. Parental care of peregrine falcons in interior Alaska and the effects of low-altitude jet overflights. M.S. Thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. 115 pp.

Abstract: To assess the impact of low-altitude jet overflights on parental care, we examined nest attendance, time-activity budgets, and provisioning rates of 21 Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) pairs breeding along the Tanana River, Alaska in 1995 and 1996. Several intrinsic and extrinsic factors influenced attributes of nesting behavior. Female nest attendance declined substantially with progression of the nesting cycle, while male attendance patterns were consistent throughout the nesting cycle. Further, although females typically performed most of the incubating, male attendance at the nest area varied considerably among breeding pairs. Both prey item delivery rates and estimated prey mass delivery rates increased with brood size. Prey item delivery rates per nestling, however, decreased with increasing brood size; yet estimated prey mass delivery rates per nesting did not vary with brood size. Peregrine Falcons apparently maintained constant provisioning rates per nestling as brood size increased by increasing average prey size. We found evidence that nest attendance and time-activity budgets of Peregrine Falcons differed during periods of overflights compared with reference nests, but differences depended on stage of the nesting cycle and gender. Males had lower nest ledge attendance during periods when overflights occurred than males from reference nests when data from the incubation and early nestling-rearing stages of the nesting cycle were combined. Females apparently compensated for lower male ledge attendance by attending the ledge more during overflown periods compared to females from reference nests, although this trend was no significant. During late nestling-rearing, however, females perched in the nest area less during periods when overflights occurred than females from reference nests. We did not see a relationship between nest attendance and the number of overflights, the cumulative number of exposures experienced by

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each nesting pair, or the average sound exposure level of overflights. Nor did we find evidence that nestling provisioning rates were affected by overflights. Low altitude jet overflights did not markedly affect nest attendance, time-activity budgets, or nestling provisioning rates of breeding Peregrine Falcons. Annotations: : The first two chapters of the thesis dealt primarily with the life history of breeding Peregrine Falcons, while the third chapter focused on the effects of low- flying jet aircraft on breeding pairs. (The published version of the chapter is Palmer et al. 2003 [see subsequent annotation].) Low-altitude jet overflights affect parental behavior of Peregrine Falcons primarily by changing attendance patterns and time- activity budgets, with males attending nests less during overflight periods early chick rearing and females attending more during the same periods. This attendance pattern reversed during late rearing, when females were away more than males. Noise data for the study are presented in the previous Nordmeyer Elmore et al. (2002a, 2002b, 2002c) annotations.

Palmer, A. G., D. L. Nordmeyer Elmore, and D. D. Roby. 2002. Effects of jet aircraft overflights on nest attendance, time-activity budgets, and nestling provisioning rates of Peregrine Falcons. Chapter 9, Pages 195–224 in E. Pruitt, and R. C. Kull, Jr., eds. The effects of noise on birds of prey: A study of Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) in Alaska. AFRL-HE-WP-TR-2002-0190. U. S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright- Patterson AFB, OH. 252 pp.

Abstract: We examined the effects of low-altitude jet overflights on nest attendance, time-activity budgets, and provisioning rates of Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) breeding along the Tanana River, Alaska in 1995, 1996, and 1997. Subtle changes in these parameters could potentially lead to insidious impacts on nesting success. Nest attendance and time-activity budgets of Peregrine Falcons during periods of overflights differed from those of Peregrines at reference nests (nests rarely overflown). Differences depended on stage of the nesting cycle and gender. During the incubation/brooding stages of the nesting cycle, males attended the nest ledge less when overflights occurred than did males from reference nests. Females apparently compensated for low male ledge attendance by attending the ledge more often during overflown periods compared to females from reference nests. Additionally, while females were still brooding nestlings, they were less likely to be absent from the nest area during periods when overflights occurred than females from reference nests. During late nestling-rearing, however, females perched in the nest area less during periods when overflights occurred than females from reference nests. Although we found differences in nest attendance and time-activity budgets between overflown and reference nests, we did not observe differences between periods with overflights and periods without overflights at the same nests. Nor did we detect a relationship between nest attendance and the number of overflights to occur within a given time period, the cumulative number of above threshold noise events at each nest, or the average sound exposure level of overflights. Furthermore, we found no evidence that nestling provisioning rates were affected by overflights.

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Annotation: Peregrine Falcons nesting along the Tanana River in Interior Alaska were exposed to low-flying military jets using MTRs that crossed the river in several locations. ANMs were deployed at nests and set to record for noise levels >85 dBA (>2 sec to 2 min duration). The authors note that this sound threshold probably excluded some helicopter overflights. Factors studied at nests exposed to overflights and those in reference areas (i.e., not under an MTR and exposed to a maximum of five above-threshold noise events) included sex of birds, stage of nesting cycle, and number of overflights. The authors did not find a relationship between nest attendance and number of overflights for a given time, cumulative number of above-threshold noise events at each nest, or average sound exposure level of overflights. They did, however, see some differences in attendance patterns of males (ledge attendance) and females (nestling-rearing period) during time periods when nests were overflown. Noise data for the study are presented in the previous Nordmeyer Elmore et al. (2002a, 2002b, 2002c]) annotations.

Palmer, A. G., D. L. Nordmeyer Elmore, and D. D. Roby. 2003. Effects of jet aircraft overflights on parental care of peregrine falcons. Wildlife Society Bulletin 31: 499– 509.

Abstract: Concerns voiced by resource managers caused us to examine the hypothesis that low-altitude jet aircraft overflights affect parental care by peregrine falcons. Specifically, we studied the effects on nest attendance, time-activity budgets, and provisioning rates of peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) breeding along the Tanana River, Alaska in 1995, 1996, and 1997. We detected subtle effects of jet overflights on peregrine falcon parental behavior, but found no evidence that overall attendance patterns differed depending on exposure to overflights. Nest attendance and time-activity budgets of peregrine falcons during periods of overflights differed from those of peregrines at reference nests (nests rarely overflown). Differences depended on stage of the nesting cycle and gender. During the incubation and brooding stages of the nesting cycle, males attended the nest ledge less when overflights occurred than did males from reference nests. Females attended the nest ledge more during overflown periods compared to females from reference nests. Additionally, while females were still brooding nestlings, they were less likely to be absent from the nest during periods when overflights occurred than females from reference nests. Although we found differences in nest attendance and time-activity budgets between overflown and reference nests, we did not observe differences between periods with overflights and periods without overflights at the same nests. Nor did we detect a relationship between nest attendance and the number of overflights occurring within a given time period, the cumulative number of above- threshold noise events at each nest, or the average sound-exposure level of overflights. Furthermore, we found no evidence that nestling provisioning rates were affected by overflights.

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Annotation: The paper is the published version of the unpublished report chapter, which was annotated previously (Palmer et al. 2002). The study focused on military jet overflights and data are provided in the previous annotations by Nordmeyer Elmore et al. (2002a, 2002b, 2002c]) and Palmer et al. (2002). No helicopter noise data are provided.

Partenaude, N. J., W. J. Richardson, M. A. Smultea, W. R. Koski, G. W. Miller, B. Würsig, and C. R. Greene, Jr. 2002. Aircraft sound and disturbance to bowhead and beluga whales during spring migration in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. Marine Mammal Science 18: 309–335

Abstract: Short-term behavioral responses of bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) and beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) to a Bell 212 helicopter and Twin Otter fixed-wing aircraft were observed opportunistically during four spring seasons (1989–1991 and 1994). Behaviors classified as reactions consisted of short surfacings, immediate dives or turns, changes in behavior state, vigorous swimming, and breaching. The helicopter elicited fewer detectable responses by bowheads (14% of 63 groups) than by belugas (38% of 40). Most observed reactions by bowheads (63%) and belugas (86%) occurred when the helicopter was at altitudes <150 m and lateral distances <250 m. Belugas reacted significantly more frequently during overflights at lateral distances <250 m than at longer lateral distances (P = 0.004). When the helicopter was on the ice with engines running, 7 of 14 groups of belugas reacted, up to 320 m away, sometimes with small-scale (<100 m) diversion; only 1 of 8 groups of bowheads reacted. For the fixed-wing aircraft, few bowheads (2.2%) or belugas (3.2%) were observed to react to overflights at altitudes 60–460 m. Most observed reactions by bowheads (73%) and belugas (70%) occurred when the fixed-wing aircraft was at altitudes <182 m and lateral distances <250 m. However, the proportions reacting, especially to low-altitude flights (e.g., <182 m), were underestimated for both species because observation opportunities were brief. Even so, reactions were more common when the aircraft was low (<182 m): P = 0.009 for belugas, P = 0.06 for bowheads. There was little if any reaction by bowheads when the aircraft circled at altitude 460 m and radius 1 km. Aircraft sounds measured underwater at depths 3 m and 18 m showed that a Bell 212 helicopter was 7–17.5 dB noisier than a Twin Otter (10–500 Hz band). Bell 212 sound consisted mainly of main rotor tones ahead of the helicopter and tail rotor tones behind it. Twin Otter sound contained fewer prominent tones. Peak sound level as received underwater was inversely related to aircraft altitude, and received levels at 3 m depth averaged 2.5 dB higher than at 18 m depth. The dominant low-frequency components of aircraft sound are presumed to be readily audible to bowheads. For belugas, these components may be inaudible, or at most only weakly audible. Mid-frequency sound components, visual cues, or both, are probably important in eliciting beluga reactions to aircraft. Annotation: The study provides data on responses of bowhead and beluga whales to helicopter (Bell 212) and fixed-wing aircraft (Twin Otter) overflights, including noise

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measurements underwater. The study was conducted in the western Beaufort Sea about 100 km offshore from Point Barrow, Alaska, during spring migration. Most of the pertinent results on whale reactions to overflights are provided in the Abstract for the study. Noise levels measured by the underwater hydrophones during helicopter overflights ranged from 110–125 dB (10–500 Hz level) at 75 m altitude to 102–110 dB at 610 m. Ambient noise levels were 85–88 dB. The audibility of helicopter noise to belugas appears to depend on the frequency of the sound transmission, with the lower frequencies (<500 Hz) weakly audible to belugas near the surface, and the mid-frequencies more readily detectable because beluga hearing thresholds improve with increasing frequency. The researchers conclude that single overflights probably were not biologically significant, but that repeated passes, hovering, or circling at low altitudes were more likely to cause significant disturbance effects. The researchers could not determine from their observations if reactions of belugas to helicopters were caused by visual cues or noise alone.

Penner, D. F. 1988. Behavioral response and habituation of mountain goats in relation to petroleum exploration at Pinto Creek, Alberta. Biennial Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council 6: 141–158.

Abstract: Two programs of experimental habituation were conducted to condition a wild population of mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) to noise stimuli representative of petroleum exploration activities. The habituation programs achieved an increase in the goat’s awareness of introduced acoustic stimuli and human presence without causing adverse responses. Goats exhibited tolerance of increased levels of indirect and persistent noise, but continued to investigate any initial or novel sounds. Goats habituated to predictable, continuous stimuli, but were disturbed by sudden, unpredictable stimuli. Nannies were sensitive to stimuli of all kinds during the kidding and post-kidding seasons. Annotation: The study focused on mountain goats along Pinto Creek in Alberta, Canada, that were near a natural gas field and subjected to noise from drilling and seismic operations. The author notes that:

• Goats showed the greatest sensitivity to unusual or sudden stimuli, including aircraft overflights.

• If the stimuli could be seen or seen and heard, then the responses by goats were stronger than if the stimulus was noise only.

• Responses of goats to aircraft varied by type:

− Fixed-wing aircraft overflights usually elicited unconcerned responses − The sounds of a helicopter frequently elicited concerned or alarm responses

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The author felt previous experience with helicopters may have been a sensitization factor in these responses by goats. No noise data or information on the type or altitude of helicopters were provided.

Pepper, C. B., M. A. Nascarella, and R. J. Kendall. 2003. A review of the effects of aircraft noise on wildlife and humans, current control mechanisms, and the need for further study. Environmental Management 32: 418–432.

Abstract: Military and civilian aircraft overflights are an issue that may impact the quality of life for millions of United States residents. Aircraft noise annoys many people worldwide and is generally thought to adversely affect some wildlife species. In light of increasing demands being placed on airspace, and because of technological improvements in acoustical testing, there is a need to reexamine the effects of aircraft noise exposure on humans and wildlife. This paper reviews past research, current laws and legislation, and presents an argument for the need to revisit the effects of aircraft noise on humans and wildlife. Some evidence suggests that noise may adversely impact wildlife and humans, however, many of the past studies were inconclusive and based on relatively small sample sizes. Given that aircraft noise abatement legislation has been enacted and because of the recent promulgation of community-based noise awareness programs, future studies should be conducted to resolve public policy problems and debates associated with aircraft noise. The need to further study the effects of aircraft noise on humans and wildlife is critical for creating sustainable land use policies near aircraft installations. Data derived from these studies will be used to create sound public policies that enhance the operational capacity of military and civilian aircraft while reducing the opportunity for human and wildlife exposure to aircraft noise. Annotation: The paper provides a brief review of all types of aircraft noise on humans, wildlife, and domestic animals and background information on noise issues. The authors note that helicopters are a source of severe low-frequency sound and vibration. Table 2 in the report provides military aircraft noise levels (dBA) for various military jets and helicopters. Helicopter mean noise levels range from 80.9 dBA for a CH-53 to 64.8 dBA for a CH-47D (modeled levels at ground level for an aircraft taking off at 100 ft and climbing). The review includes a discussion of methods agencies and local governments can use to control noise levels.

Platt, J. B., and C. E. Tull. 1977. A study of wintering and nesting gyrfalcons on the Yukon north slope during 1975 with emphasis on their behavior during experimental overflights by helicopter. Chapter 1 in W. W. H. Gunn, C. E. Tull, and T. D. Wright, eds. Ornithological studies conducted in the area of the proposed gas pipeline route: Northern Alberta, Northwest Territories, Yukon Territory, and Alaska, 1975. Arctic

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Gas Biological Report 35. Canadian Arctic Gas Study, Limited and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study.

Abstract: Studies of Gyrfalcons were conducted on the Yukon North Slope during the period from January to July, 1975, to determine whether Gyrfalcons winter in the area, to study the nesting behaviour and nesting success of the birds, and to determine the effects on Gyrfalcons of disturbance caused by helicopter overflights and human presence. Supplementary data on occupancy and productivity of nests sites ere collected during 1976. Gyrfalcons were found to winter in the vicinity of nest sites. Willow Ptarmigan, which occur in flocks in the willow scrub during the winter, appear to be the principal prey item for the wintering Gyrfalcons. Gyrfalcons nested successfully during 1975 at 12 nest sites and fledged 38 young birds—a productivity of 3.2 young/successful nest. The number of successful nests was similar to that of 1974 but was much reduced from that of 1973. The productivities of successful nests, however, was similar for all three years. Detailed observations were made of the behaviour of nesting Gyrfalcons during each stage of the nesting cycle. Nesting Gyrfalcons were disturbed more frequently by helicopter overflights at altitude of 150 m than by overflights at 300 m. They were not visibly disturbed by helicopter at an altitude of 600 m. Birds were less disturbed by helicopters during the winter than they were during the nesting period (March-June). When kept to a relatively low frequency, disturbance to nesting Gyrfalcons by helicopter overflights and by human presence did not affect the nesting success of the birds. Disturbance should, however, be considered as a possible factor than may lead to the failure of Gyrfalcons to reoccupy disturbed nest sites in the year following the disturbance. Annotation: Helicopter overflights were conducted in a Jet Ranger (Bell 206) flying at 160 km/h at four heights above the nest—150 m, 300 m, 365 m, and 600 m. Flights were parallel to the nesting cliff at a horizontal distance of 60 m.

• Single Gyrfalcons and pairs at nests had similar reactions to the helicopter (47% and 55% disturbed, respectively).

• Anecdotal observations by observers indicated that birds did not respond to the sound of the helicopter when it was not visible.

• The effects of different lateral distances on bird reactions to helicopter passes and whether birds habituate to helicopters were uncertain. No noise data for the helicopter were collected.

Quimby, R. 1974. Grizzly Bear. Chapter II in R. D. Jakimchuk, ed. Mammal studies in northeastern Alaska with emphasis within the Canning River drainage. Arctic Gas Biological Report 24. Canadian Arctic Gas Study, Limited and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study.

Abstract: The size and composition of the grizzly bear population in the Canning River drainage were investigated by marking bears with collars of several types.

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Between 24 April and 7 October 1973, 39 grizzlies were marked. Using the Lincoln- Peterson Index, density in the drainage is estimated at between 1 per 32 and 1 per 62 sq. mi. The average age of marked bears was 11.8 years. A total of 479 grizzlies were observed during aerial surveys. The composition of the population did not differ statistically from that found in 1972. In both 1972 and 1973 the composition of bears on the north slope of the Brooks Range differed statistically from that on the south slope. Average litter size in 1973 was 1.60 for cubs of the year and 1.71 for yearlings and older cubs. From resightings of marked bears and aerial tracking of bears in the fall, distances traveled by some individuals were estimated. Twenty-one dug dens were found, and ten rock cave dens are described. Seasonal food habits and habitat utilization are described. The reaction of grizzlies to low-flying aircraft was recorded; about 70% of all reactions were in the “strong” category. Annotation: As indicated in the Abstract for the study, bears showed strong reactions to aircraft overflights by both fixed-wing aircraft (Cessna 185) and helicopters (FH-1100). Strong reactions were defined as:

• Standing and running • Running and hiding in willows • Running toward or away from the aircraft • Running when observed (presumably in response to the aircraft). Of the 120 reactions of bears to the helicopters that were observed:

• 10% had no reaction (9% no visible reaction, 1% bear looked up)

• 19% had a moderate reaction (short run and stop, stopped running when aircraft passed, came out of or moved to a den)

• 71% had strong reactions (primarily running from the aircraft [22% of all observations] or already running when observed [38%])

• All of the severest reactions were to the helicopter. Bears were observed running from 0.5 to 1 mi from the approaching aircraft, suggesting that sound may have been a factor in initiating the response. Some bears also abandoned dens when the survey helicopter hovered or overflew the den (5 of 10 bears abandoned dens:

• 1 female abandoned a den site twice

• 1 male abandoned a den it was digging (this male had been tagged a few days previously, which probably increased its sensitivity to disturbance)

• 2 additional males abandoned dens

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Radle, A. L. 1998. The effects of noise on wildlife: a literature review. World Forum for Acoustic Ecology. University of Oregon, Eugene. 19 pp. http://interact.uoregon.edu/MediaLit/wfae/library/articles/radle_effect_noise_wi ldlife.pdf.

Abstract: Noise pollution, as it effects humans, has been a recognized problem for decades, but the effect of noise on wildlife has only recently been considered a potential threat to animal health and long-term survival. Research into the effects of noise on wildlife, which has been growing rapidly since the 1970s, often presents conflicting results because of the variety of factors and variables that can effect and/or interfere with the determination of the actual effects that human-produced noise is having on any given creature. Both land and marine wildlife have been studied, especially in regards to noise in the National Parks System and the onslaught of human- made cacophony in the oceans from military, commercial and scientific endeavors. Most researchers agree that noise can effect an animal's physiology and behavior, and if it becomes a chronic stress, noise can be injurious to an animal's energy budget, reproductive success and long-term survival. Armed with this understanding it should follow that humans would attempt to minimize the threat to wildlife by reducing the amount of noise that they are exposed to in natural areas; but this has not been the situation. Natural areas continue to be degraded by human-made noise, wildlife continues to suffer from these disturbances, and to date the majority of the debate revolves around the egocentric demands of people to either produce more noise in nature (through motorized recreation, scientific research, military exercises etc.) or experience natural areas in the absence of anthropogenic noise. Neither side has adequately addressed the issue from the biocentric view of wildlife and the known, or as yet undiscovered, damage that our increasingly noisy human-altered environment is inflicting upon them. Annotation: This short literature review identifies recent literature on the effects of noise on wildlife available up to 1998 (approximately). It includes short discussions of the effects of noise on marine wildlife (primarily blast noise, sonar, shipping) and effects of noise in national parks (including effect on visitors), and a short section on an acoustic thermometry experiment in marine waters (i.e., evaluating temperature change using sound and temperature measurements). It also includes references to accounts in popular media (newspapers, magazines) and non-scientific academic journals. It includes many references to accounts in popular media (newspapers, magazines) and non-scientific academic journals. Few references on aircraft disturbance are represented other than an NPS report on noise in the National Parks (see National Park Service 1994).

Rees, E. C., J. H. Bruce, and G. T. White. 2005. Factors affecting the behavioural responses of whooper swans (Cygnus c. cygnus) to various human activities. Biological Conservation 121: 369–382.

Abstract: The effects of human activity on bird behaviour and distribution have been studied extensively in recent years, but variation in their response to disturbance is

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still poorly understood. Here, we analyze variation in the behaviour of wintering whooper swans Cygnus c. cygnus, to determine whether their susceptibility to human activity changes with time, location and the type of disturbance involved. Overall, the swans' feeding activity varied within and between years, and in relation to feeding site, but there was less variation in the amount of time spent alert. Disturbance frequency resulting from human activity was lower with increasing flock size and with increased distance to the nearest road or track. Distances that humans could approach before alerting the birds similarly varied with field characteristics (e.g. size and proximity to roads or tracks), and also with the type of disturbance involved. The distance at which >5% of the flock became alert because of human activity decreased with the number of previous disturbance incidents in the day, indicating that swans become less sensitive to disturbance events if daily disturbance frequency is high, but there was no evidence that habituation to disturbance persisted over longer periods. The time taken for the birds to resume undisturbed behaviour varied with the duration of the disturbance event, which in turn depended on the type of disturbance involved, with pedestrians alerting the birds for longer periods than vehicles and aircraft. Recovery rates following disturbance were also associated with field size, flock size and the proportion of the flock alerted. Feeding activity was influenced by a range of variables, including year, season, field location, crop type and the number of days that the flock had used the field (32.9% of variance in the data explained by these variables), with disturbance factors explaining an additional 4.9% of variance in the proportion feeding per hour. Conversely, alert activity was influenced mainly by disturbance events. The range of factors influencing the swans' feeding behaviour, and variability in their response to human activity, has implications for management programmes and for attempts to predict the effects of human activity on the birds at a local and larger scale. Annotation: Data from a 3-year study of Whooper Swans wintering in Scotland are used to analyze the effects of different types of human disturbance on the behavioral response of swans. Sources of disturbance included vehicles, bicycles, pedestrians, hunters/anglers, aircraft (helicopters and fixed-wing), and cattle.

• Helicopters and other aircraft alerted swans at greater distances than other ground-based disturbances. Mean distances of response were:

− 1355 m ± 227 m for helicopters (type not specified)

− 1342 m ± 311 m for fixed-wing aircraft (type not specified, but because the study was near Glasgow Airport, it is likely that they were commercial jets)

• The mean proportion of swans in the flock that were alerted was lower for helicopter/aircraft disturbances than for other ground-based disturbances (31.5% and 57.7%, respectively). The mean time to recovery following disturbance was relatively quick for aircraft disturbance (1.71 min, n = 57) compared to disturbance by pedestrians (4.31 min, n = 175).

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Reynolds, P. C. 1974. The effects of simulated compressor station sounds on Dall sheep using mineral licks on the Brooks Range, Alaska. Chapter II in R. D. Jakimchuk, ed. The reaction of some mammals to aircraft and compressor station noise disturbance. Canadian Arctic Gas Study, Limited and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study. Arctic Gas Biological Report Series, Vol. 23. 130 pp.

Abstract: The effects of simulated sounds of a 20,000-horsepower gas compressor on Dall sheep at mineral licks were studied. Observations were made at two control phases (simulator off) and one experimental phase (simulator on) at each of two licks, one of which was subjected to 58-73 decibels of sound and the other to levels too low to be recorded. No statistically significant difference was determined in numbers of sheep, sheep-hours, average time spent, and sexual composition at the licks between the control and experimental phases. Sheep spent less time in those parts of the lick which received the highest sound levels. The response of sheep to a sudden turning on of the simulator was tested. Reaction of sheep at the licks to aircraft is described. The responses of several other species to simulator sound area also described. Annotation: Sound levels (maximum) generated by the simulated compressor were measured at:

• 107.5–110.5 dBC at 15 ft • 78–92 dBC at 300 ft • 61–90 dBC at 600 ft • 53–82 dBC at 1320 ft Background (ambient) sound levels at the licks ranged from 35–66 dBC, varying due to natural noise (river sounds at one location). Aircraft overflights (n = 46) included two helicopter types (Bell 206, FH-1100) and a Cessna 185 fixed-wing airplane.

• All but one reaction by sheep was to helicopters.

• Dall sheep showed strong reactions (defined as running) when helicopters were within 150 yards at low altitudes.

• All reactions were not negative, however. An FH-1100 landed at one lick and one ewe walked toward the helicopter (which was idling); however, this ewe and other sheep did run when the helicopter took off and flew about 50 yards lateral distance from the sheep.

• Noise measurements were made of one FH-1100 flight.

− A maximum sound level of 78 dBC was recorded when the helicopter was 75 yards lateral distance and at an altitude of 50 ft above the lick

− As the helicopter flew south, the noise level was 81 dBC

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The author suggests that repeated overflights by aircraft prior to the simulator study likely affected the reactions of sheep to the sound generated by the experiment, indicating that some habituation to noise can occur over time.

Reynolds, P. E. 1987. Responses of muskox groups to aircraft overflights in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 1982–1985. Pages 1095–1108 in G. W. Garner, and P. E. Reynolds, eds. 1985 Update Report Baseline Study of the Fish, Wildlife, and Their Habitats. ANWR Progress Report No. FY86-5-Impacts. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska.

Abstract: Responses of muskox groups (Ovibos moschatus) to overflights of small single engine fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters were recorded during radio relocation flights, spring and fall population surveys, and summer composition counts. Responses were defined as: run, group, partial group, alert, and none observable. A total of 1744 responses to fixed-wing overflights and 187 responses to helicopter overflights were recorded. Muskoxen ran and grouped more frequently in response to helicopter overflights than fixed-wing overflights. Bulls grouped less frequently than did mixed-sex herds in response to fixed-wing aircraft. Groups were less responsive to fixed-wing overflights during summer and fall (late June to early November) than winter and calving (mid-November through mid-June) and showed less response as aircraft flight altitude increased. Similar results were seen during ground observation of 3 muskox herds. The percentage of mixed-sex groups showing no response to fixed-wing overflights, increased between 1982 and 1985. Annotation: The study in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge on Alaska’s North Slope focused on reactions of muskox to aircraft (small fixed-wing and helicopter) overflights. Data were gathered year-round and analyzed by winter, pre-calving, calving, summer, rut, and fall periods. Aircraft ranged in size from a Supercub to a DeHavilland Beaver, while helicopters were primarily Bell 206 Jet Rangers.

• Muskox responded differently to helicopters than to fixed-wing aircraft.

− More than 36% of helicopter overflights resulted in animals running compared to 5% for fixed-wing overflights.

− Muskox showed no response to 49% of fixed-wing overflights but to only 24% of helicopter overflights.

• The mean elevation of helicopter overflights was 82 m AGL, whereas fixed-wing aircraft were at a mean elevation of 332 m AGL (46% at 300–600 m AGL).

− Even at the higher flight altitudes (300–600 m AGL), the muskox showed a greater response (ran or grouped) to helicopters than to fixed-wing aircraft (63% [n = 16 groups] and 17% [n = 768 groups], respectively). The authors conclude that these data demonstrated that helicopters elicit a more intensive response than do fixed-wing aircraft. The response of muskox to aircraft appears to be dependent upon both vertical and horizontal distance to the aircraft.

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Richardson, W. J., C. B. Greene, Jr., C. I. Malme, and D. H. Thomson. 1995. Marine Mammals and Noise. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. 576 pp.

Annotation: The book provides a thorough review of the generation, transmission, and effects of noise in the marine environment, focusing on marine mammals. Several sections of the book are relevant to the effects of helicopter noise. Section 6.2.1 describes noise generation by helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft.

• Helicopter noise is detected for longer in the air than through water, but the reflective nature of the ocean bottom in shallow water can amplify noise generation through water.

• The amount of noise energy entering the water depends on the aircraft altitude, and the level and frequency content of the noise are dependent on water conditions and bottom reflectivity.

• Lateral (slant) distances for propagation of noise in water are less than those through air; thus transmission of noise in water is briefer in duration. Section 9.2 documents disturbance reactions of marine mammals to aircraft. The summary indicates that:

• Aircraft overflights at low altitudes can cause pinnipeds that are hauled out on ice or land to escape into the water, which can lead to mortality for some young animals that are abandoned or trampled.

• Toothed (such as beluga) and baleen whales have been observed diving or turning in response to aircraft, but responses seem to vary depending on the animals’ activities. The authors conclude that aircraft effects are generally transient and that occasional overflights have little long-term consequences for cetaceans.

Ritchie, R. J. 1987. Response of adult Peregrine Falcons to experimental and other disturbance along the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System, Sagavanirktok River, Alaska, 1985, 1986. Final Report, prepared for Alyeska Pipeline Service, Co., Anchorage, by Alaska Biological Research, Inc., Fairbanks. 91 pp.

Annotation: Restricted zones (1-mi radius) prohibiting Alyeska activities and aircraft existed around known peregrine nests (still listed as a federal threatened species at the time of the study) when the study was undertaken. To evaluate the effectiveness of these zones, the study objectives were to:

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• Monitor nest occupancy and productivity of Peregrine Falcons

• Document overt reactions to simulated pipeline activities (including helicopter overflights)

• Evaluate the effects of disturbance on activity budgets of nesting birds The study site was along the northern portion of the pipeline near Pump Station 2. Disturbance categories included:

• Helicopter (Bell 206-L) • Fixed-wing aircraft (Super Cub) • Vehicles (light trucks to Caterpillars) • Humans on foot • Natural disturbances Occupancy and productivity were not apparently affected by the disturbances.

• 528 disturbance events were recorded, including 163 helicopter events.

• Of the 195 reactions to helicopters recorded:

− 85% were classified as none/mild reactions

− 13% were classified as moderate reactions (mean distance to helicopter = 2358 ft, altitude range 200–1500 ft AGL).

− Only three severe reactions were recorded (severe was classified as flying, protest calls, or escape behaviors) and were restricted to the nestling and fledgling seasons and to helicopters within 2000 ft of the nest (1800 ft at 200 ft AGL; 1800 ft, landing; and 2000 ft, landing). No noise data were collected but the author did note that falcons appeared to respond to the sound of helicopters before they were visible. Although at the distances tested the helicopters were not identified as an important disturbance source, they did appear to elicit a stronger reaction and at greater distances than fixed-wing aircraft.

Rozell, K. B. 2003. Effects of military overflights on nesting Neotropical migrant birds. Unpublished report. Alaska Bird Observatory, Fairbanks, AK. 26 pp.

Abstract: [Summary.] Neotropical migrant songbirds have experienced significant population declines in North America due to a number of habitat and other disturbances on the breeding and wintering grounds. The alarming population declines of many bird species has demanded the attention of wildlife agencies and organizations, and resulted in international efforts to protect these birds through research and education. In Alaska, an increase in U.S. Air Force training activities in the 1980s and early 1990s, and the subsequent increase in the size of Military Operation Areas (MOAs) were considered to be a possible threat to songbird

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populations breeding beneath heavily used MOAs. Therefore, the U.S. Air Force recommended that a study be conducted on Neotropical migrants to evaluate the effects of military overflights on these birds. During the summer of 2000, the Alaska Bird Observatory initiated a three-year study to investigate the impacts of low-level military overflights on Neotropical migrant species nesting adjacent the runway at Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska. We compared nesting productivity, breeding density, species diversity, and initial and stress-induced levels of the stress hormone corticosterone in birds breeding at Eielson AFB, to the same species at Bonanza Creek Experimental Forest (an area with low levels of noise disturbance), to determine whether birds are adversely affected by military overflights. We concluded that the effects of military overflights on Neotropical migrant songbirds were generally mild, and varied among species. We found no significant differences in the reproductive success of Hammond’s Flycatcher, Swainson’s Thrush, Townsend’s Warbler or Dark-eyed Junco between Eielson AFB and Bonanza Creek; but we observed marginally lower success rates in Yellow-rumped Warblers breeding at Eielson. We found no significant differences in species diversity or abundance between Eielson and Bonanza Creek, suggesting that birds are not avoiding Eielson as a breeding site. Contrary to our prediction that birds at Eielson would be more stressed and respond physiologically by increasing corticosterone, we found significantly lower initial levels of corticosterone in Yellow-rumped Warblers at Eielson than Bonanza Creek. The reduced levels of corticosterone found in Yellow-rumped Warblers may be an adaptive response to a stressful environment, but could be detrimental to individual nesting success or long-term survival. We observed no differences in initial or stress-induced corticosterone levels between Eielson and Bonanza Creek for Dark-eyed Junco or Townsend’s Warbler. Although our study found few, if any, definitive effects of military overflights on selected Neotropical migrant songbirds, we cannot be certain that the long-term reproductive success and survivorship of individual birds is not adversely affected. Also, we cannot assume that our findings on a few, common species, breeding within one habitat type, represent that of all bird species within the variety of habitats found beneath the MOAs. Before we can assess the true effects of military overflights on birds, there are many important questions to address, these include: 1) Is site fidelity of birds that breed successfully in a noise-disturbed environment equivalent to birds in non-disturbed areas? 2) Is the lifetime reproductive success of individuals compromised in a noise-disturbed environment? 3) Because adults use vocal-cues to communicate with inexperienced, young birds, does noise-disturbance influence the survival of hatch-year birds in the postfledging period? 4) Do birds in disturbed environments experience temporary or permanent hearing damage? 5) Are some species highly susceptible to negative effects of noise-disturbance than other species? 6) Are there other techniques that can be developed or used to examine the effects of noise on breeding birds? Because of the declining populations of many Neotropical migrants, often from disturbances on the breeding grounds, we suggest that managers pay special attention to priority species and other sensitive species breeding in MOAs. Annotation: : Study plots were 500–1000 m from the main runway at Eielson AFB, which supports a squadron of A-10 and F-16 jet aircraft, as well as air refueling

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tanker aircrafts. The airbase also supports global flying exercises annually that bring many other types of aircraft to the base for short periods.

• Average daily sound levels (Leq) at Eielson were 65.1 and 66.6 dBA, in 2001 and 2002, respectively, compared to ambient levels at Bonanza Creek of 45.6 and 47.0 dBA in those same years.

• Noise levels were not associated with any particular aircraft events in the study. See the Abstract for the study for the pertinent results on the effects of military overflights on breeding songbirds.

Shideler, R. T., J. F. Winters, and N. Shishido. 1990. An annotated bibliography of selected references of caribou of the North Slope of Alaska, with emphasis on research conducted in the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska. Prepared for Department of Wildlife Management, North Slope Borough, Barrow, AK, by Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, AK. 110 pp.

Annotation: The annotated bibliography reviews the impacts of the various components of oil and gas development on caribou on Alaska’s North Slope. These components include humans, aircraft, heavy equipment, off-road vehicles, roads, pipelines, and drill rigs. The authors provide a detailed annotation of each study, presenting not only the different points of view on the effects of disturbance that have been expressed by researchers but also critiques of research. Relatively few references directly address the issue of helicopter disturbance, but general data on responses to aircraft disturbance are discussed.

Société Duventor Ltée. 2001. Review and analysis of studies and documents on the topic of waterfowl and low level flights in Labrador and northeastern Québec. Unpublished report prepared for Institute of Environmental Monitoring and Research, Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Labrador, by Société Duventor Ltée, Rivière-du-Loup, Québec. 30 pp.

Abstract: We review a set of 14 technical documents pertaining to the presumed impact of low level training flights (LLTF) on waterfowl distribution and abundance. None of the studies we reviewed were flawless and none were truly designed to assess the impact of the flights on the birds. The complexity of the problem is extreme and as LLTF have already taken place throughout the area and may already have influenced waterfowl abundance and distribution, a truly experimental approach to the problem is probably no longer possible. Most of the studies reviewed were summaries of incidental observations on waterfowl in connection with hydroelectric development or in connection with understanding continental

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demographic trends in selected species such as Black Duck and Canada Geese. Furthermore, many of these studies had inherent weaknesses (for instance, the use of questionable correction factors) and often major flaws in design (for instance, randomization of transects/plots was not deemed essential in some studies while in others, plot size and shape varied inexplicably). We conclude that none of the studies we reviewed has pertinence in assessing the impact of LLTF on waterfowl distribution and abundance. We conclude our review with recommendations concerning future studies: designing a comprehensive, experimental protocol to assess the impact of LLTF on waterfowl is not possible in our opinion. We rather recommend that waterfowl habitat be mapped throughout the range and this information combined with general ecological knowledge about the various components of the waterfowl community so as to delineate key waterfowl habitats. In a precautionary approach, these habitats could be excluded from LLTF once an appropriate ranking of the various species has been established in terms of vulnerability. Carefully designed specific studies should complement the overall assessment. Such studies should be critically reviewed before they are launched and should be assessed periodically by expert committees. Annotation: This report provides a critical review (including statistical analyses and study design) of the many studies conducted for the Goose Bay training area in Labrador. The authors comment that, “…we should bear in mind that helicopters and small prop-planes cannot be compared to jets, at least in the case of geese.” The authors conclude that many of the studies were poorly designed and that the results are not effective at determining actual impacts of the low-level jet aircraft training on waterfowl populations.

Stalmaster, M. V., and J. L. Kaiser. 1997. Flushing responses of wintering Bald Eagles to military activity. Journal of Wildlife Management 61: 1307–1313.

Abstract: We studied flushing responses of wintering bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucopcephalus) to military firing activity, helicopter overflights, and boating on the Nisqually River and Muck Creek on the Fort Lewis Army Reservation, Washington, during 1991-94. Eight percent of 1,452 eagles monitored near Muck Creek flushed during 373 firing events; 45% from ordnance explosions, 9% from automatic weapons fire, 6% from artillery impacts, 4% from mortar impacts, and 3% from small arms fire. Flushing by eagles decreased with increasing distance from firing events (16% flushed at 0.5-1.0 km, 9% at 1-2 km, 4% at 2-4 km, and <1% at 4-6 km). Forty- seven percent of 919 eagles flushed in response to 48 helicopter overflights, 37% on the Nisqually River and 53% on Muck Creek. Sixty-one percent of 1,825 eagles flushed in response to 52 experimental boat disturbances on the Nisqually River. Subadults flushed more often than adults, and eagles feeding or standing on the ground flushed more often than those perching in trees. Our data suggest that ordnance explosions, low-level helicopter overflights, and boating should be restricted near eagle foraging areas.

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Annotation: Military helicopters were used in experimental overflights for the study: UH-1 Huey (85% of overflights) and OH-58 Bell (15%). Overflights were flown at 60– 120 m AGL and airspeeds of 35–55 km/h. See the Abstract for the study for results of overflight experiments (results were not broken out by helicopter type). In general, helicopters did disturb wintering eagles, particularly subadults. The authors indicate that, despite the short duration of disturbance by helicopters (<1 min), the high flushing responses were probably caused by the proximity of the helicopter combined with its sudden appearance, loud noise, and air vibrations from its rotors. In contrast, they recorded few flushing responses by eagles to helicopters flying above 300 m AGL. Some habituation of adult eagles to helicopter traffic was apparent for the Nisqually River site, where overflights were common. Subadults were more likely to react, probably because of limited exposure to helicopter disturbance. The authors suggest a buffer zone of 300–500 m (horizontally or vertically) between wintering eagles and military activities.

Stephenson, T. R., M. R. Vaughan, and D. E. Anderson. 1996. Mule deer movements in response to military activity in southeast Colorado. Journal of Wildlife Management 60: 777–787.

Abstract: During January 1986-September 1988 we studied the behavioral responses of 71 radiocollared mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) to military activity on the Pinon Canyon Maneuver Site in southeastern Colorado. Military training was initiated on the site during August 1985 and recurred about 3 times yearly for periods of one month. During a maneuver, 3/7 of the site was used for training in accordance with a rotational land use schedule. During the nonsummer seasons, female seasonal convex polygon and harmonic mean home ranges were larger in maneuver and previous-maneuver areas than nonmaneuver areas (P < 0.002). During summer, female convex polygon home ranges were larger in maneuver than nonmaneuver areas (P = 0.066). Fawn summer home ranges were larger in maneuver than previous-maneuver areas (P < 0.01). Male home range sizes differed only for 50% harmonic mean transformation annual home ranges (P = 0.056); bucks in maneuver areas had larger home ranges than in nonmaneuver areas. Female deer in maneuver areas exhibited significant home area shifts (P = 0.049) between premaneuver and maneuver periods more frequently (40.0%) than did deer in nonmaneuver (control) areas (12.5%). Mule deer in military training areas may have responded to human harassment, alteration of security cover, or destruction of the forage base. We suggest that deer may respond more intensely to unpredictable than predictable human activity. Annotation: Military training activities included 2624–6619 personnel, vehicles, helicopters, and other aircraft (numbers and types of aircraft not provided). Helicopters operated in proximity to land-based vehicles. Although deer increased home ranges during maneuvers, the authors felt a combination of habitat alterations

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and harassment were the primary causes rather than natural changes in use. The combination of ground maneuvers and helicopter and jet aircraft overflights appeared to alter deer use of the training area. No sound data and no direct data on helicopter effects were provided.

Stockwell, C. A., G. C. Bateman, and J. Berger. 1991. Conflicts in national parks: A case study of helicopters and bighorn sheep time budgets at the Grand Canyon. Biological Conservation 56: 317–328.

Abstract: Wildlife in numerous national parks of the United States experience frequent overflights by aircraft. Such activities may disturb wildlife populations. We analysed time budgets for desert bighorn sheep Ovis canadensis nelsoni in the presence and absence of helicopter overflights at Grand Canyon National Park (GCNP) to determine the extent to which food intake may be impaired. Bighorn were sensitive to disturbance during winter (43% reduction in foraging efficiency) but not during spring (no significant effect). This seasonal difference may have arisen because the sheep were farther from helicopters during the spring after they had migrated to lower elevations. Further analyses indicated a disturbance distance threshold of 250-450 m. The conservation implications of these results are discussed. Annotation: The objectives in the 8-month study were to examine the extent to which sightseeing helicopter flights affected time budgets, especially time spent foraging, of bighorn sheep during spring and fall, and to determine the threshold of distance sufficient to cause disturbance. Sheep in the park are exposed to 15,000–42,000 helicopter flights per year. A helicopter flight was considered an overflight of sheep if the helicopter was flying below the canyon rim and within 400 m horizontal distance of the sheep. Analyses were conducted on sheep as a group because age and sex had no apparent effect on responses to helicopters. In winter, bighorn sheep foraged 43% less when helicopters were present, but foraging was not affected in spring. The authors determined that group size had not affected these foraging changes, thus the changes could be attributed to helicopter disturbance. Helicopters were closer to sheep in winter, suggesting that the changes in foraging may have been related to differences in the proximity of helicopters to sheep, and a possible threshold level for adverse reactions. For winter observations, further examination of the data indicated that differences in habitats may have been a greater factor and, therefore, a threshold distance for disturbance could not be determined. Conversely, in spring, a threshold distance of 250–450 m was determined for bighorn sheep to be disturbed by helicopter overflights. Management recommendations to reduce aircraft disturbance to desert bighorn sheep include restricting flights to a minimum of 500-m horizontal distance from bighorn habitat and restricting overflights during lambing.

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No helicopter types are described, but most are likely Bell Jet Rangers or similar civilian passenger helicopters. No noise data were provided.

Surrendi, D. C., and E. A. DeBock. 1976. The immediate behavioral response of caribou to aircraft. Chapter 3.9.4, Pages 98–188 in Seasonal distribution, population status and behavior of the Porcupine Caribou Herd. Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa, Quebec. 144 pp.

Abstract: A study of the Porcupine caribou herd was conducted from October 1972 through November 1973 and complements a study by Watson et al. (1973). A description and historical resume are presented. Distribution and movement data were obtained through general aerial reconnaissance and systematic transect flights. Information concerning herd composition was obtained from aerial photographs and ground observation posts. Caribou from the Porcupine herd preferred winter ranges in the Tatonduk, Peel and Upper Porcupine river drainages and central Richardson Mountains. Spring northward migration commenced any time after mid-February and continued until mid-June. Migration consistently occurred over the Old Crow, Western and Richardson mountain routes. Calving occurred primarily along the foothills of the Barn and British mountains between 9 and 13 June. During summer post-calving movements, the same geographic areas were traveled consistently. In the winter of 1972/73, an estimated 110,000 caribou were present in the Yukon. Caribou of the Porcupine herd appear to reflect the long term, traditional use of migration routes and seasonal movement patterns in the northern Yukon. Traditional river crossing points were utilized during migration, adult female caribou initiating most crossings. The minimum observed population was 86,260 in July 1972 with a projected minimum population estimate of 103,343 caribou. The July 1973 observed population was 116,086 and estimated to be 117,216 animals. There was a direct relationship between the elevation of light fixed-wing aircraft and violent escape behaviour of caribou, the most violent escape response observed when aircraft were less than 60 m above the caribou. Caribou appeared most sensitive to aircraft during spring calving and fall rut. Caribou, while in timbered habitat, responded more violently to aircraft than in open tundra habitat and tended to be more sensitive as group size increased. When caribou encountered a road with large or fast-moving vehicles, the animals generally refused to cross the road. Caribou were more prone to cross roadways having a low profile with respect to the surrounding terrain than those having a high profile. Drifted snow along steep road embankments or plowed snow along roadways acted as effective deterrents to caribou movements. Annotation: Study objectives were to document and quantify the immediate behavioral responses of caribou to fixed-wing aircraft. Variables included in the analysis included aircraft type (Cessna 185 and DeHavilland Beaver), aircraft altitude, month, habitat type, caribou behavior prior to disturbance, and group size. Data were collected from May–November.

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Although no quantitative data were obtained, the authors make casual references to responses elicited by jet helicopters. In winter (-40ºC), a jet helicopter (type unknown) flying at 75 m AGL caused a group of caribou to run for a distance of 3 km. During milder temperatures, jet helicopters apparently caused a panic response at flight altitudes of 60 m AGL (no slant distance to caribou were given, so presumably the helicopters were overhead). Periods of peak sensitivity of caribou to aircraft overflights were spring and early winter.

Telesco, D. J., and F. T. Van Manen. 2006. Do black bears respond to military weapons training? Journal of Wildlife Management 70: 222–230.

Abstract: The primary function of military training areas is to support military missions; however, management of natural resources that is compatible with that function has become a focal issue on many military installations. We investigated the relationship between black bear (Ursus americanus) habitat use and weapons-firing exercises at 3 spatial scales on the western portion of U.S. Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune (Camp Lejeune), North Carolina. In 2000 and 2001, we collected 1,494 telemetry locations for 14 bears (6 males, 8 females). We used spatial contours of human auditory disturbance levels based on the noise generated from firing activities to establish high-, medium-, and low-disturbance noise zones for each firing range. We used the multinomial logit form of discrete choice analysis to examine whether bears exhibited a spatial (i.e., general avoidance of areas associated with military activity) or temporal response (i.e., avoidance of military training areas but only when firing exercises occurred). Except for small areas near the firing positions, differences in bear use among the 3 noise zone areas was mostly a function of the prevalence of selected vegetation types and not a response to military activity. Our temporal analysis further suggested that bears did not respond to weapons exercises; the distance of bears to the nearest high-disturbance noise zone was not associated with the occurrence of weapons exercises. Annotation: Although not about helicopter noise or disturbance, the effects of military ordnance use is pertinent to the operations of helicopters on the gunnery ranges in Alaska. Bears avoided the active firing ranges, probably because of lack of suitable habitats (vegetation) and human activity (camps, soldiers on foot, vehicles). The authors found that bears were only 238 m farther from high-disturbance noise zones during firing than during periods when no firing was occurring, which the authors attributed to habituation by bears to the noise levels associated with weapons firing. The habituation also may occur because the bears are exposed only to the noise and not to other visual stimuli.

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Thiessen, G. J., E. A. G. Shaw, R. D. Harris, J. B. Gollop, and H. R. Webster. 1957. Acoustic irritation threshold of Peking ducks and other domestic and wildfowl. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 29: 1301–1306.

Abstract: When exposed to sounds of sufficient intensity Peking ducks respond in a characteristic manner combining shaking and tail twitching. The response rate (number of responses per unit-time) increases with intensity up to a certain level, but falls with further increase in intensity. There is not response at intensities lower than a certain critical value which may therefore be described as the irritation threshold. Prolonged exposure to sound leads to a more or less exponential drop in response rate but recovery is rapid during rest periods. Measurements on about thirty ducks indicate that the threshold has a broad minimum at about 500 cps and the average value at this frequency is about 70 db [all sound pressure levels are given with respect to 0.0002 d/cm2] with a range of 65-85 db. There is some indication that the threshold is slightly lower for warble tones. At 15 and 18 kc no consistent responses have been obtained up to 115 and 120 db, respectively. Similar experiments with chickens and geese showed fewer responses and hence much less accurate results. It has also been shown that hungry Peking ducks are greatly discouraged from taking food placed in low frequency sound field at 100 db intensity. Annotation: : This article discusses an early experimental study to determine the irritation threshold (i.e., visible response) of Peking Ducks (a domesticated relative of Mallards) to sound exposure. The authors note that the response rate increased with sound intensity up to a certain point, then declined. The frequency of the sound also influenced responses. Other species, including wild Mallards and Canada Geese, were also tested and their irritation thresholds appeared to be higher than those for Peking Ducks. Some field experiments were tried on Mallards and Northern Pintails, which indicated that continuous exposure to loud noises (air raid sirens) could clear fields of ducks, but the data on the rate of repopulation was unclear.

Trimper, P. G., and P. Thomas. 2001. Summary of Osprey research relating to the low-level flying program in Labrador and Quebec. Pages 36–40 in M. Baker and G. Belliveau, eds. Effects of Noise on Wildlife Conference. 22–23 August 2000. Happy Valley- Goose Bay, Labrador. Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research. Terra Borealis. Vol. 2.

Annotation: This paper presents the results and status of a long-term monitoring program of Osprey nesting in the Military Training Area of Labrador and Quebec. Studies included monitoring reproductive success and behavioral reactions in areas subjected to frequent jet overflights compared to areas without overflights and an evaluation of the effectiveness of exclusion zones (initially established at a 2.5-nm radius around nests). To evaluate the exclusion zone:

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• Five active nests were subjected to controlled low-level F-18 jet overflights (n = 139) at distances ranging from 0 to 2.5 nm at speeds of 400–440 knots (maximum noise levels varied from 52–101 dB). The behaviors of Ospreys were not significantly affected by overflights at all distances and noise levels, other than some crouching of nestlings in the nest.

• Uncontrolled flights were then evaluated (170 overflights) and noise levels measured (similar levels to controlled flights, ~88 dBA). Single Event Levels (representing the total acoustic energy of the aircraft) were 90–121 dBA (usually 97 dBA, n = 61). The behaviors recorded during these uncontrolled flights did not differ from those recorded during the experimental overflights. The exclusion zones, which did not appear to have a positive effect on the reproductive success of the Ospreys studied, were dropped in 1999. Because Ospreys reacted more strongly to slower moving fixed-wing aircraft, the authors suggest that “visual aspects (i.e., speed and not noise or duration of the noise) may act as a stronger stimulus” to nesting Ospreys.

Trimper, P., K. Knox, T. Shury, L. Lye, and B. Barrow. 2003. Response of moulting Black Ducks to jet aircraft activity. Pages 58–60 in M. Baker and G. Belliveau, eds. Waterfowl Conference. 17–18 September 2002. Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Labrador. Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research. Terra Borealis. Vol. 3.

Annotation: The conference paper describes methods used in a pilot project designed to monitor stress levels (heart rate) of molting black ducks from exposure to military jet overflights. Male Black Ducks were implanted with heart rate monitors and monitored while being overflown by military jets. All birds were undergoing wing molt and, therefore, flightless. Ten ducks were monitored and all reacted to aircraft noise events by increasing their heart rates when maximum noise levels were at least 75 dB. The heart rate increases were short (rarely lasting more than several seconds up to 1 minute) and were below levels recorded during active behaviors (swimming or avoiding perceived threats, such as humans on foot).

Trimper, P. G., N. M. Standen, L. M. Lye, D. Lemon, T. E. Chubbs, and G. W. Humphries. 1998. Effects of low-level jet aircraft noise on the behaviour of nesting osprey. Journal of Applied Ecology 35: 122–130.

Abstract: Nesting osprey Pandion haliaetus L. were exposed to controlled low-level CF-18 jet aircraft overflights along the Naskaupi River, Labrador, Canada, during 1985. Jet aircraft flew near five nests at distances ranging from 2.5 nautical miles (nm) to directly overhead at speeds of 400-440 knots. Maximum noise levels (L1) and other noise metrics were influenced by many factors including topography, distance, altitude, wind speed, and direction. Based on 240 h of observations from blinds, we recorded osprey nest attendance and egg exposure during 139 individual

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overflights. Similar observations were completed at two control nests. Overflights as low as 30 m above ground occurred during incubation, nestling and prefledging only when observers were present. Osprey behaviour did not differ significantly (P = 0.126) between pre- and post-overflight periods. Despite L1 values occasionally exceeding 100 decibels, adult osprey did not appear agitated or startled when overflown. Osprey were attentive to and occasionally flushed from nests when float planes, other osprey or raptors entered territories, and when observers were entering or exiting blinds. Annotation: The study recorded the behavioral responses and reproductive success of nesting Ospreys to controlled, low-level CF-18 (F-18) jet overflights at various distances.

• No significant difference was found in nesting behavior between pre- and post- overflight nests, and the ospreys studied did not exhibit any significant changes in behavior.

• Other types of disturbance (small fixed-wing floatplanes, investigators, potential predators, and other osprey) may have a more significant effect on nesting osprey behavior. The authors present graphical depictions and a discussion of the effects of topography on noise transmission (measured as maximum sound pressure level [L1], which is essentially equivalent to Lmax). One nest located near the river had noise impacts from all, but the closest overflights, essentially masked by the natural sounds of the rapids on the river. The authors suggest habituation of osprey to years of overflights may explain the limited reactions by nesting birds. They also suggest that the visual aspects of slower flying aircraft (floatplanes) may be a stronger stimulus to nesting osprey than those of military jets.

Turner, B. and A. Hicks. 2003. Breeding population trends of Black Ducks and Canada Geese in the low level flight training area of Labrador. Pages 29–36 in M. Baker and G. Belliveau, eds. Waterfowl Conference. 17–18 September 2002. Happy Valley- Goose Bay, Labrador. Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research. Terra Borealis. Vol. 3.

Annotation: Population trends for Black Ducks and Canada Geese were evaluated relative to the level of military jet overflights on a low-level flight training area in Labrador, Canada. The average number of overflights per year ranged from 287 to 586 on high-frequency plots, 5 to 29 on before-after plots, and 0 to 1 on control plots. Flights were at low-levels (30–300 m AGL) and subsonic speeds. The results suggest that the current level of jet training had not adversely affected the breeding population trends of Canada Geese or Black Ducks. Although Canada Goose populations were declining, the decline could not be attributed to disturbance from overflights. Although Black Duck population trend was not affected by overflights,

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some indications of a negative effect of overflights on control plots may have implied avoidance or displacement of Black Ducks from areas with frequent overflights or some reduced reproductive success at those sites.

Udevitz, M. S., B. S. Shults, L. G. Adams, and C. Kleckner. 2006. Evaluation of aerial survey methods for Dall’s sheep. Wildlife Society Bulletin 34: 732–740.

Abstract: Most Dall's sheep (Ovis dalli dalli) population-monitoring efforts use intensive aerial surveys with no attempt to estimate variance or adjust for potential sightability bias. We used radiocollared sheep to assess factors that could affect sightability of Dall's sheep in standard fixed-wing and helicopter surveys and to evaluate feasibility of methods that might account for sightability bias. Work was conducted in conjunction with annual aerial surveys of Dall's sheep in the western Baird Mountains, Alaska, USA, in 2000–2003. Overall sightability was relatively high compared with other aerial wildlife surveys, with 88% of the available, marked sheep detected in our fixed-wing surveys. Total counts from helicopter surveys were not consistently larger than counts from fixed-wing surveys of the same units, and detection probabilities did not differ for the 2 aircraft types. Our results suggest that total counts from helicopter surveys cannot be used to obtain reliable estimates of detection probabilities for fixed-wing surveys. Groups containing radiocollared sheep often changed in size and composition before they could be observed by a second crew in units that were double-surveyed. Double-observer methods that require determination of which groups were detected by each observer will be infeasible unless survey procedures can be modified so that groups remain more stable between observations. Mean group sizes increased during our study period, and our logistic regression sightability model indicated that detection probabilities increased with group size. Mark–resight estimates of annual population sizes were similar to sightability-model estimates, and confidence intervals overlapped broadly. We recommend the sightability-model approach as the most effective and feasible of the alternatives we considered for monitoring Dall's sheep populations. Annotation: The study focused primarily on comparing the efficacy of the two survey platforms (small fixed-wing aircraft [Piper Super Cub] and Robinson R-44 helicopter), not on evaluating the disturbance effects of the helicopter. Because the number of sheep counted was comparable between fixed-wing and helicopter aircraft, this suggested that the helicopter was not a significant disturbance to sheep groups. No flight altitudes are given, but pilots flew at the lowest altitude necessary to see all sheep in survey terrain. The helicopter also was used for net-gunning to capture sheep for attaching radio-collars, so some sensitivity of sheep to the helicopter might be expected. No noise data were provided for either aircraft type.

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U.S. Forest Service. 2002. Helicopter landing tours on the Juneau Icefield, 2003–2007: Final Environmental Impact Statement. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Tongass National Forest, Juneau Ranger District, Juneau, AK.

Abstract: The Forest Service is proposing to approve special use permits for commercial helicopter companies that land on the Juneau Icefield, through 2006, limiting the number of landings to the existing authorized level of 19,039, with limited new landing locations and restrictions on the number of days per week that landings are allowed. This Draft Environmental Impact Statement describes the effects of the No-Action Alternative and six action alternatives, which include the Proposed Action. The significant issues addressed by the alternatives and the EIS include: 1) noise impacts to residents, 2) noise impacts to recreationists, 3) impacts to wildlife, and 4) impacts in new areas. Annotation: The EIS addressed noise and disturbance to wildlife and humans from recreational landings of helicopters on the Juneau Icefield outside Juneau, Alaska. Frequent helicopter tours bring tourists from Juneau to the icefields to view the glaciers. Data on ambient noise levels on the glacier and associated noise from helicopters were collected over several seasons. Ambient levels ranged from 39 dBA (Leq) in the remotest location sampled to 63 dBA near Juneau. Noise measurements of helicopters found levels ranging from 58–83 dBA (SEL). The primary helicopter type in use for these tours is the A-Star. Observations of reactions of mountain goats to helicopters were collected in 1999 and 2000 by U.S. Forest Service (USFS) biologists. The biologists concluded that mountain goats were habituated to helicopter overflights based on three observations: 1) Goats near the icefield did not react as dramatically to overflights compared to reactions reported in the literature. (Helicopter traffic has been gradually increasing since 1984, thus ample time has passed for habituation.) 2) Habitats directly under the overflight routes had not been abandoned. 3) Aerial surveys indicated the local population is stable or increasing. The USFS did recommend several guidelines to reduce impacts on wildlife, including:

• Creating a 1500-ft horizontal and vertical buffer zone around mountain goat habitat and kidding areas

• Creating a similar buffer zone for mountain goats, black and brown bears, wolves, moose, trumpeter swans, and marine mammals

• Maintaining a 0.25-mi avoidance of eagle nests

• Creating a 3000-ft horizontal and vertical buffer zone around Steller sea lion haulouts

• Forbidding hovering, circling, harassing, or pursuing wildlife

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Valkenburg, P., and J. L. Davis. 1985. The reaction of caribou to aircraft: a comparison of two herds. Pages 7–9 in A. Martell, and D. E. Russell, eds. Proceedings of the First North American Caribou Workshop. Whitehorse, Y.T. Canadian Wildlife Service Special Publication, Ottawa.

Abstract: Aircraft overflights cause Western Arctic Herd caribou (Rangifer tarandus) to flee more often and to continue running more than Delta Herd caribou. Delta caribou have apparently become habituated to aircraft or never learned to fear them, whereas Western Arctic caribou have either had insufficient exposure to aircraft or, more likely, perceive them as a threat. Delta Herd caribou have been exposed to high levels of human activity including aircraft overflights, but they are not hunted directly from motor vehicles to any degree. Western Arctic caribou, on the other hand, are probably less subjected to human activity, but they are pursued from snowmobiles and, to some extent, aircraft. The emphasis in disturbance studies should be changed from simply documenting overt reactions to determining predictable aspects of inherent and learned behaviour, and ultimately finding ways to promote habituation. Annotation The paper reports the habituation of the Delta Caribou Herd to aircraft and discusses the differences in reactions between Western Arctic and Delta caribou. Responses to light fixed-wing aircraft were recorded during the winter period (October to April) for both herds. Reactions were grouped into five classes, ranging from no response to panic. Caribou in the Western Arctic Herd (WAH) ran from overflying aircraft (fixed-wing airplanes) during 82% of passes, whereas caribou of the Delta Herd (DH) ran during only 36% of passes. Differences in responses of calves to aircraft were also noted, with calves in the DH often not responding to aircraft, while WAH calves usually did respond. The authors conclude that DH caribou are habituated to aircraft overflights.

Ward, D. H. 1989. Black Brant aircraft disturbance studies. Pages 129–139 in Jarvela, L. E., and L. K. Thorsteinson, eds. Proceedings of the Gulf of Alaska, Cook Inlet, and North Aleutian Basin information update meeting, Alaska OCS Region. U.S. Department of the Interior, Mineral Management Service, Anchorage, AK: OCS Study MMS 89-0041.

Annotation: The author discusses the preliminary results (1985–87) of a study to determine the effects of helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft overflights on the behavior, distribution, and habitat use of brant and other geese staging at Izembek Lagoon. Of 2038 disturbance events recorded, <1% were by helicopters. The author found that:

• In general, helicopters caused a longer behavioral response by brant, at greater distances, than fixed-wing aircraft.

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• Brant were more sensitive than Canada or emperor geese.

• Responses of brant to helicopters decreased with increasing lateral distance to the helicopter, but not to increasing altitude. The author recorded noise levels of overflights and examined whether noise was related to the response of geese.

• Noise levels for a Bell 205 helicopter were 4 times greater than for a Piper 150 (fixed-wing).

• The distance for initiation of a response was greater for the Bell 205 than for any other aircraft.

• The estimated threshold at which brant responded to aircraft noise (all types) was >65 dBA (SEL). See also the final report for the study (Ward and Stehn 1989; a subsequent annotation).

Ward, D. H., and R. A. Stehn. 1989. Response of brant and other geese to aircraft disturbance at Izembek Lagoon, Alaska. Final Report, prepared for Minerals Management Service, Anchorage, AK, by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Alaska Fish and Wildlife Research Center, Anchorage, AK. Report No. 14-12-001-30332. 193 pp.

Annotation: The effects of increased aircraft disturbance and other disturbances to Brant (Branta bernicla nigricans) staging at Izembek Lagoon, southwestern Alaska, were studied in 1985–1988. Helicopters constituted a part of the overall aircraft disturbance occurring at the lagoon. Responses of Brant to various disturbances were recorded and experimental overflights were conducted with fixed-wing (various single and twin-engine types) and helicopter (Bell 205, 206B; Hughes 500-D, Aerospatiale Puma, Sikorsky HH-3F) aircraft. Noise levels were collected for each aircraft type. Ambient sound levels at Izembek were 34–59 dBA, with wind being the major contributor to higher ambient levels. Aircraft caused less response in Brant than did other disturbances (humans on foot, eagles, boats). Noise measurements for helicopters were collected (Lmax and SEL).

• The Bell 205 consistently produced more noise than other aircraft types.

• The Hughes 500-D was the second noisiest aircraft.

• The Bell 206B was similar in noise to the Cessna 206 fixed-wing airplane.

• At flight altitudes of 500 ft AGL and directly overhead (no lateral distance) the Lmax levels for the Bell 205, Hughes 500-D, and Bell 206-B were 84.4 dBA, 77.1 dBA, and 74.9 dBA, respectively.

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• Generally, noise decreased with increasing altitude or lateral distance, but at greater lateral distances the noise level often increased with increasing altitude, usually for the noisier aircraft.

• Lmax was positively correlated with the percent of Brant responding (any response and flying) and the average duration of that response, but not with the duration of flight responses. The lack of correspondence between noise levels and flight duration indicates that once Brant initiate the flight response, the duration of that flight is not affected by noise levels.

• Responses of Brant to helicopters did not diminish as helicopter altitude increased up to 610 m (2000 ft).

• Both the sound levels and behavioral responses of Brant increased as the helicopter flew at greater altitudes and at a 1.6-km lateral distance, indicating that noise, rather than the visual stimulus, was responsible for responses by the geese.

• Emperor Geese (Chen canagica) reactions to aircraft were similar to Brant, but Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) were less disturbed by aircraft. Many of the results of the study have been published (see subsequent annotations for Ward et al. 1994, 1999).

Ward, D. H., R. A. Stehn, and D. V. Derksen. 1990a. Behavior and energetics of Pacific Black Brant in response to aircraft overflights of Izembek Lagoon, Alaska. Pages 135–137 in Third information transfer meeting, Alaska OCS Region, Conference Proceedings. OCS Study MMS 90-0041. U.S. Department of the Interior, Mineral Management Service, Anchorage, AK.

Annotation: : This article presents the preliminary results of research to assess the impacts of human disturbance to fall-staging geese at Izembek Lagoon on the Alaska Peninsula. The authors quantified the temporal use of Izembek Lagoon by Brant, Canada Geese, and Emperor Geese. (Izembek Lagoon is a major fall-staging and wintering area for these species.) Baseline data describing the behavior and activity budgets of undisturbed Brant were collected and compared to their behavior while subjected to experimental overflights by fixed-wing and helicopter (Bell 205) aircraft. Disturbance by eagles and boats are mentioned as being more disruptive to Brant than most incidental aircraft events. Helicopters are more disturbing to Brant than other aircraft types, and the response did not diminish with increasing altitude up to 1800 m AGL. See also the previous annotation for Ward and Stehn (1989; the final report) and the subsequent annotation for Ward et al. (1994; a published paper about the study).

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Ward, D. H., R. A. Stehn, D. V. Derksen, M. White, B. Hoover, and P. D. Schomer. 1990b. Response of molting Pacific Black Brant to helicopter noise near Teshekpuk Lake, Alaska. Pages 139–143 in Proceedings of the Third Information Transfer Meeting, Alaska OCS Region. U.S. Department of the Interior, Mineral Management Service, Anchorage, AK: OCS Study MMS 90-0041. 220 pp.

Annotation: The article presents initial data on helicopter noise and responses of Brant at Teshekpuk Lake. Helicopters studied included the Bell 206-B Jet Ranger and Bell 412. Noise was recorded on 20 flights for the Bell 412 and 33 flights for the Bell 206-B in mid-July 1988 at altitudes ranging from 500–5000 ft and lateral distances to birds of 0-0.4 mi. The Bell 412 produced 6–7 dB more noise (Lmax) than the Bell 206-B. Ambient sound levels were relatively low at Teshekpuk at 40 dBA, thus noise from helicopters was audible at long distances, typically up to 4 mi, but the Bell 412 was audible at 6 mi when at >1500 ft AGL.

• Threshold levels for Brant responses to helicopters were variable, ranging from 33–64 dBA, with a mean threshold level for alert and swim responses of 49 dBA.

• Brant responded at higher threshold levels for the Bell 412 than for the Bell 206-B.

• Brant responded to low levels of aircraft noise, with >90% of brant flocks reacting to aircraft noise >62 dBA (Leq) and >76 dBA (SEL). See also the previous annotation for Derksen et al. (1992; the final report). The previous annotations for Miller (1994) and Miller et al. (1994) discuss the models derived from the study.

Ward, D. H., R. A. Stehn, and D. V. Derksen. 1994. Response of staging Brant to disturbance at Izembek Lagoon, Alaska. Wildlife Society Bulletin 22: 220–228.

Abstract: [Summary.] We studied natural and human disturbances of fall staging Pacific brant at the Izembek Lagoon, Alaska, 1985-1987 to evaluate the extent of disturbance and to identify sources of future conflicts. In 1,863 hours of daylight observation, the mean rate of disturbance was 0.79 events/hour. Flocks of brant responded to 67% of all disturbances and flew in response to 49% of them. Fixed- wing aircraft were the most frequent type of disturbance, but bald eagles caused the greatest interruption of brant behavior. Brant spent 2.2% of their time responding to disturbances and 1.0% in flight. Management of critical habitats, such as the Izembek Lagoon, should include monitoring and regulation of human disturbance. Research should determine the impact of disturbance on energy budgets and nutrient reserves of staging brant prior to their transoceanic migration to the U.S. and Mexico. Annotation: The study evaluates responses of Brant (Branta bernicla nigricans) to disturbances at Izembek Lagoon on the Alaska Peninsula (a major fall-staging area for this species). Data were collected in 1985–1987. Brant were observed and behavioral reactions were recorded for all disturbances.

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• Helicopter disturbances were relatively infrequent (0.02/hr), but other aircraft (0.39/hr) were the most frequent human-related disturbances.

• The predominant natural disturbance was the Bald Eagle (0.19/hr).

• During six helicopter (type not given) overflights, 83% of the Brant flocks took flight and left the study area.

• Data on slant distances for all aircraft were combined, so no data solely for helicopters were presented.

• The mean percentages of Brant flocks that flew or showed any response to helicopter disturbances were 40% and 47%, respectively (n = 15 flocks).

• The mean percentage of individuals in flocks that responded to aircraft and the mean duration of that response were the greatest for helicopters.

− A mean of 99% of individuals in flocks flew in response to helicopters (n = 6) − Mean duration of flights was 149 sec for individuals responding to helicopters and mean duration was 227 sec for all responses (alert and flight)

• Although helicopter flights were relatively infrequent, they tended to fly at low altitudes across the lagoon (mean = 220 m, n = 5). The authors conclude that, “The low altitude, slow air speed, and other characteristics (e.g., loud noise, shape) of helicopters may combine to cause greatest response by brant.” Note: data on experimental overflights conducted during the study are presented in the final report (Ward and Stehn 1989) and are published in Ward et al. (1999).

Ward, D. H., R. A. Stehn, and D. V. Derksen. 2001. Response of geese to aircraft disturbances. Pages 52–55 in M. Baker and G. Belliveau, eds. Effects of noise on wildlife. 22–23 August 2000. Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Labrador. Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research. Terra Borealis Vol. 2.

Annotation: The conference paper summarizes two papers (Ward and Stehn 1989 [previously annotated] and Ward et al. 1990a ) and describes an energetics model for fall-staging geese at Izembek Lagoon, southwestern Alaska. Experimental overflights were conducted using fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters.

• Responses to overflights varied among species, with 75% of brant flocks flying, but only 9% of Canada Goose flocks flying.

• The mean flight responses of flocks were greater for helicopters than for fixed- wing airplanes and only at low altitudes (<152 m AGL) or greater (>2 km) lateral distances did flocks respond similarly to the two aircraft types.

• Noise was a factor, with greater mean responses by geese to high noise (SEL >76 dBA for fixed-wing and >80 dBA for helicopters; both at 152 m AGL).

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• The most disturbing aircraft was a helicopter (Bell 205).

• Lateral distance, rather than altitude, was the most important factor in determining responses of Brant and Canada Geese to overflights. The model estimates reductions in body mass of staging geese at the time of departure based on the number of helicopter overflights that occur during staging.

Ward, D. H., R. A. Stehn, W. P. Erickson, and D. V. Derksen. 1999. Response of fall-staging brant and Canada geese to aircraft overflights in southwestern Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management 63: 373–381.

Abstract: Because much of the information concerning disturbance of waterfowl by aircraft is anecdotal, we examined behavioral responses of Pacific brant (Branta bernicla nigricans) and Canada geese (B. canadensis taverneri) to experimental overflights during fall staging at Izembek Lagoon, Alaska. These data were used to develop predictive models of brant and Canada goose response to aircraft altitude, type, noise, and lateral distance from flocks. Overall, 75% of brant flocks and 9% of Canada goose flocks flew in response to overflights. Mean flight and alert responses of both species were greater for rotary-wing than for fixed-wing aircraft and for high-noise than for low-noise aircraft. Increased lateral distance between an aircraft and a flock was the most consistent predictive parameter associated with lower probability of a response by geese. Altitude was a less reliable predictor because of interaction effects with aircraft type and noise. Although mean response of brant and Canada geese generally was inversely proportional to aircraft altitude, greatest response occurred at intermediate (305-760 m) altitudes. At Izembek Lagoon and other areas where there are large concentrations of waterfowl, managers should consider lateral distance from the birds as the primary criterion for establishing local flight restrictions, especially for helicopters. Annotation: The behavioral responses of Brant and Canada Geese to experimental overflights of fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters were measured. The helicopters used for overflights included Bell 206-B Jet Ranger, Hughes 500-D, Bell 205, and Sikorsky HH-3F. Geese were exposed to multiple overflights by the same aircraft each day with a mean interval between flights of 64 min (range = 5–430 min). Noise data were either recorded at Izembek or derived from published values. Helicopter noise was classified as high if it exceeded 80 dBA at level flight of 152 m AGL. Data are presented for helicopter flights ranging from low noise (Bell 206-B, Hughes 500-D) to high noise (Bell 205, Sikorsky HH-3F).

• The two species responded differently to helicopter disturbances. More Brant flew (51% of flocks) in response to helicopter overflights than did Canada Goose (11% of flocks).

• Lateral distance to the aircraft was the greatest predictor of response by geese, with responses decreasing consistently at increasing lateral distances, independent of the type of aircraft or its noise level.

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• Effects on birds of the aircraft’s altitude were dependent on the type of aircraft and its noise, but generally an inverse relationship was present between the altitude and the response at altitudes of 305–760 m.

• The authors could not determine a threshold altitude for no reaction by Brant to helicopters, but because staging birds responded to 61% (n = 28 overflights) of helicopters flying at altitudes ranging from 915 to 1220 m at Izembek, the authors concluded that the threshold altitude is approximately 1070 m (the altitude of no response found at Teshekpuk Lake for molting Brant [see previously annotated Jensen 1990]).

• Aircraft noise was apparently a factor in the responses of geese because some flocks took flight before the aircraft were visible.

• The windy conditions at Izembek and attenuation of noise from waves may have contributed to the higher perceived noise associated with the intermediate altitudes flown by aircraft.

• The authors also suggest that the low-frequency impulse noise generated by helicopter rotor blades elicits a greater response from geese than the more constant noise generated by fixed-wing aircraft.

• Evidence was slight for any habituation by Brant to helicopter overflights at Izembek during the study. The authors recommend that lateral distance be the primary criterion for establishing flight recommendations, particularly for helicopters.

Watson, J. W. 1993. Responses of nesting bald eagles to helicopter surveys. Wildlife Society Bulletin 21: 171–178.

Abstract: [Summary.] Bald eagles from several populations had lower response rates to fixed-wing aircraft than to survey helicopters at similar distances. In northwestern Washington, bald eagle disturbance rates and flush distances from survey helicopters were affected by encounter distances and nest tenacity. Eagles with young and closer to nests allowed closer helicopter approaches before flushing. At encounter distances >120 m eagles flushed at higher rates and returned to nests. No direct mortality of young or adults was known to occur during surveys, but 53% of 270 eagles encountered were disturbed; 68% of disturbed eagles were flushed, and 32% were agitated. Helicopter survey protocol that minimizes disturbance, and maximizes cost efficiency, data reliability, and observer safety should include hovering for <10 seconds at >60 m from nests, surveying on calm, dry days, and as late in the season as possible to minimize adult presence. Annotation: Helicopter surveys for nesting Bald Eagles were flown in the Puget Sound area of Washington from 1989–1991. The helicopters used were a Hiller/Soloy UH-12E and a Bell 206-B-III. Survey techniques ranged from a single, close pass over the nest to close approaches or hovering to determine contents.

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• A literature review found that responses of eagles varied by aircraft type at distances of <30–50 m:

− 7-42% of eagles responded (alert and flushing behaviors) to fixed-wing aircraft

− >40% responded to helicopters

• For the study, for helicopter approaches at <450 m (n = 270):

− 48% of eagles showed no response − 16% were alert − 36% flushed Eagles were disturbed at higher rates when no young were present in the nest, when the eagles were perched <60 m from the nest, or when the helicopter hovered rather than flew toward the nest. The distance at which eagles flushed appeared to be influenced most by the distance of the eagle to the nest and the distance of the helicopter to the nest (which explained 82% of the variability in flush distance). The presence of young in the nest increased the tenacity of adult eagles and reduced the tendency to flush when disturbed.

Weisenberger, M. E., P. R. Krausman, M. C. Wallace, D. D. DeYoung, and O. E. Maughan. 1996. The effects of simulated low-level aircraft noise on heart rate and behavior of desert ungulates. Journal of Wildlife Management 60: 52–61.

Abstract: Many landscapes underlying military designated air spaces have been established as national parks, wildlife refuges, or wilderness areas. The juxtaposition of public, wilderness, and military uses has led to questions of compatibility between aircraft and wildlife. We evaluated the effects of simulated low-altitude jet aircraft noise on the behavior and heart rate of captive desert mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus crooki) (n = 6) and mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis mexicana) (n = 5). We measured heart rate and behavior related to the number of simulated overflights per day (range = 1-7) and noise levels (range = 92-112 decibels [dB]) that animals were exposed to. We compared heart rates and behavior of mountain sheep and desert mule deer before, during, and after simulated overflights (n = 112 overflights/season) during 3 seasons. The heart rates of ungulates increased related to dB levels during simulated overflights (P < 0.05), but they returned to pre- disturbance levels in 60-180 seconds. Animal behavior also changed during overflights but returned to pre-disturbance conditions in <252 seconds (P < 0.005). All animal responses decreased with increased exposure suggesting that they habituated to simulated sound levels of low-altitude aircraft. Annotation: The study deals with noise from military jet aircraft (B-1B, F-4D) that operate in the southern Arizona desert (see also previous annotations for Krausman et al. [1983, 1986, 1993, 1998, 2004, 2005]). Although simulated noise levels were high, they were of such short duration that the authors felt that they had little detrimental

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effect. The lack of a visual stimulus (i.e., the actual aircraft flying over) may have reduced the impacts of the disturbance in this experimental situation.

White, C. M., and S. K. Sherrod. 1973. Advantages and disadvantages of the use of rotor- winged aircraft in raptor surveys. Raptor Research 7: 97–104.

Abstract: We believe that the advantages of aerial survey with helicopters far outweigh the disadvantages. Disturbance may be less than that caused by entering on foot. Statistical validity is greatly increased as is understanding of the gestalt of the population. Although other raptors may react in a different manner to helicopter observations, our impressions are that little damage is done by aerial vehicles used in the manner we have described for collecting data from the raptor species we have mentioned. Additionally one should be aware that although the cost, on a per hour basis, for helicopters may be considered expensive, it may prove no more expensive than the cost of outfitting and supporting a field party when the differential of time and efficiency are compared. Annotation This article discusses the use of helicopters in the late 1960s to survey for Bald and Golden eagles, Peregrine Falcon, Gyrfalcon, and Rough-legged Hawk in Alaska. The helicopters used for surveys included Sikorsky S-56, Hiller 12-E4, Bell helicopters (types not specified, piston engines), and jet-powered Alouette II and III, Hiller FH-1100, and Bell Jet Ranger helicopters. The authors preferred the FH-1100 because it appeared to be less noisy than the other models. Flight approaches to nests were important to reduce disturbance, including allowing the birds to see the helicopter before close approach, approaching obliquely, and maintaining an altitude similar to the nest location on the cliff. The authors found no reduction in productivity of raptors surveyed by helicopter. Some species (Peregrine Falcons) do not flush when closely approached by helicopters (within 60 ft [18 m]).

Winters, J. F., and R. T. Shideler. 1990. An annotated bibliography of selected references of muskoxen relevant to the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska. Prepared for Department of Wildlife Management, North Slope Borough, Barrow, AK, by Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, AK. 98 pp.

Annotation: A companion bibliography to that on caribou (Shideler et al. 1990), the annotated bibliography reviews the impacts of the references on muskoxen pertinent to Alaska’s North Slope and possible future oil exploration in the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska. The authors provide a detailed annotation of each study, presenting not only the results of the study, but also an evaluation of the usefulness of the research. Relatively few references directly address the issue of helicopter disturbance, primarily those of Canadian researchers (e.g., Gunn and Miller, Jingfors; some of the pertinent studies have been annotated previously).

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Workman, G. W., T. D. Bunch, J. W. Call, R. C. Evans, La Dawn S.N., and E. M. Rawlings. 1992. Sonic boom/animal disturbance studies on pronghorn antelope, Rocky Mountain elk, and bighorn sheep. Contract No. F42650-87-C-0349, prepared for U.S. Air Force, Hill Air Force Base, Utah, by Utah State University. 268 pp.

Annotation: The report details three separate experimental studies on antelope, elk and big horn sheep. Each species was exposed to disturbances ranging from people walking by their enclosure, to trucks driving by blowing horns, and to overflights of fixed-wing, planes helicopters, subsonic and supersonic jets. Throughout all disturbances, the heart rate of the animals was monitored, and for the aircraft trials, the behavior was observed as well. Although the sample of experimental animals was small, in all species, people entering the enclosure tended to be the biggest disturbance of the non-aircraft trials, although trucks blowing horns were major disturbances to some of the animals. Of the aircraft, helicopter flyovers and hovering had the largest consistent response, with most animals looking for a place to hide.

Zakrajsek, E. J., and J. A. Bissonette. 2005. Ranking the risk of wildlife species hazardous to military aircraft. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33: 258–264.

Abstract: Collisions between birds and aircraft (birdstrikes) pose a major threat to aviation safety. Different species pose different levels of threat; thus, identification of the most hazardous species can help managers identify the level of hazard and prioritize mitigation efforts. Dolbeer et al. (2000) assessed the hazard posed by birds to civilian aircraft by analyzing data from the Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) Wildlife Strike Database to rank the hazardous species and species groups. A similar analysis has not been done for the military but would be useful and necessary. Military flight characteristics differ from those of civilian flights. During the period 1985–1998, birdstrikes cost the United States Air Force (USAF) an average of $35 million/year in damage. Using the USAF Birdstrike Database, we selected and evaluated each species or species group by the number of strikes recorded in each of 3 damage categories. We weighted damage categories to reflect extent and cost of damage. The USAF Birdstrike Database contained 25,519 records of wildlife strikes in the United States. During the period 1985–1998, 22 (mean =1.6/year) Class-A birdstrikes (>$1,000,000 damage, loss of aircraft, loss of life, or permanent total disability) were sustained, accounting for 80% of total monetary losses caused by birds. Vultures (Cathartes aura, Coragyps atratus, Caracara cheriway) were ranked the most hazardous species group (Hazard Index Rank [HIR]=127) to USAF aircraft, followed by geese (Branta canadensis, Chen caerulescens, HIR = 76), pelicans (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos, P. occidentalis, HIR=47), and buteos (Buteo sp., HIR=30). Of the smaller flocking birds, blackbirds and starlings (mostly Agelaius phoeniceus, Euphagus cyanocephalus, Molothrus ater, Sturnus vulgaris, HIR = 46), horned larks (Eremophila alpestris, HIR=24), and swallows (Families Hirundinidae, Apodidae, HIR= 23) were species groups ranked highest. Coupling these results with local bird census data to

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adjust hazard rank indices to specific locations can facilitate hazard management and lead to meaningful reductions in hazards and costs associated with birdstrikes. Annotation: Although not specifically about helicopter noise or disturbance, the paper does provide a list of bird species groups that present hazards to military aircraft operations. Several species groups in the top 10 occur regularly in Alaska. Species groups (and their ranking in the hazard index table) that could be encountered in Alaska airspace include:

• Goose (2) • Buteo (5) • Horned Lark (6) • Swallow (7) • Gull (8) • Duck (9) • Crane (10) • Thrush (11) Of most interest for military operations in Alaska, particularly Interior Alaska, would be the larger-bodied species—geese and cranes—that migrate in large numbers through Interior and Southcentral Alaska during both spring and fall.

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CHAPTER 5 Bibliography

This chapter includes bibliographic information about all the literature reviewed. To assist the reader in locating them, a bolded asterisk (*) precedes the bibliographic citations for annotated references. Other references were not annotated because they were not reviewed or did not contain relevant information on the selected or similar species.

3D/Environmental. 1996. Impacts to Indiana Bats and Gray Bats from sound generated on training ranges at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri. Biological Assessment of the Master Plan and Ongoing Mission, by U.S. Army Engineer Center and Fort Leonard Wood, MO. Ackerman, J. T., J. Y. Takekawa, K. L. Kruse, D. L. Orthmeyer, J. L. Yee, C. R. Ely, D. H. Ward, K. S. Bollinger, and D. M. Mulcahy. 2004. Using radiotelemetry to monitor cardiac response of free-living Tule greater white-fronted geese (Anser albifrons elgasi) to human disturbance. Wilson Bulletin 116: 146–151. * AMEC Americas Limited. 2005. Effects of noise on wildlife. Unpublished report, prepared for Imperial Oil Resources Ventures Limited. 74 pp. Ames, D. R. 1971. Thyroid responses to sound stress. J. Animal Science 33: 247. * Amstrup, S. C. 1993. Human disturbances of denning polar bears in Alaska. Arctic 46: 246– 250. Andersen, D. E. 1984. Military training and the ecology of raptor populations at Fort Carson, Colorado. M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison. * Andersen, D. E., O. J. Rongstad, and W. R. Mytton. 1989. Response of nesting Red-tailed Hawks to helicopter overflights. Condor 91: 296–299. * Andersen, R., J. D. C Linnell, and R. Langvatn. 1996. Short term behavioural and physiological response of moose Alces alces to military disturbance in Norway. Biological Conservation 77: 169–176. Anderson, C. R., Jr., and F. G. Lindzey. 1996. Moose sightability model developed from helicopter surveys. Wildlife Society Bulletin 24: 247–259. * Andrus, K. 2005. Development of a heli-skiing and mountain goat habitat management model: a visual and audio analysis. Paper presented at 1st BC Mountain Goat Workshop, 1– 2 March 2005, Prince George, BC. Andrus, K. J. 2005. A heli-skiing and mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) habitat management model: A case study of the Skeena Region interim wildlife management objectives. M.S. Thesis, Royal Roads University, Victoria, B.C.

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Asherin, D. A., and D. N. Gladwin. 1988. Effects of aircraft noise and sonic booms on fish and wildlife: a research needs workshop. Report 88/23. National Ecological Center, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fort Collins, CO. Awbrey, F. T., and A. E. Bowles. 1990. Effects of aircraft noise and sonic booms on raptors: a preliminary model and a synthesis of the literature on disturbance. Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Noise and Sonic Boom Impact Technology Office (NSBIT), Advanced Development Program Office, Ohio. 158. Awbrey, F. T., and D. Hunsaker II. 2000. Effects of helicopter operations noise on the biological responses of the California gnatcatchers at MCAS Miramar. Final report prepared for Department of the Navy, Southwest Division Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Natural Resources Management Branch, by Department of Biology, San Diego State University, CA. * Baker, M., and G. Belliveau, eds. 2001. Effects of noise on wildlife conference. Conference Proceedings, 22–23 August 2000, Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Labrador. Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research, Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Newfoundland. Terra Borealis Vol. 2. 81 pp. Bangs, P. D., P. R. Krausman, K. E. Kunkel, and Z. D. Parsons. 2005. Habitat use by desert bighorn sheep during lambing. European Journal of Wildlife Research 51: 178–184. Barry, T. W., R. Everitt, and S. Johnson. 1985. The effect of low altitude aircraft flights on staging brant. Hypothesis No. 12. Beaufort Environmental Monitoring Project 1983–1984, Final Report. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Ottowa, Ontario. 220 pp. * Barry, T. W., and R. Spencer. 1976. Wildlife response to oil well drilling. 15 pp. Bateman, M. C., and A. H. Hicks. 1999. Waterfowl populations in the low level training area of Labrador—A data compilation and analysis. Prepared by Canadian Wildlife Service, Sackville, NB, for Goose Bay Office, National Defence Headquarters, Ottawa, Canada. 75 pp. * Bateman, M. C., A. H. Hicks, and S. M. Bowes. 1999. Waterfowl Behaviour in Response to Jet Overflights at Snegamook Lake, Labrador. Prepared by Canadian Wildlife Service, Sackville, NB, for Goose Bay Office, National Defence Headquarters, Ottawa, Canada. 139 pp. * Belanger, L., and J. Bedard. 1989. Responses of staging Greater Snow Geese to human disturbance. Journal of Wildlife Management 53: 713–719. Belanger, L., and J. Bedard. 1990. Energetic cost of man-induced disturbance to staging snow geese. Journal of Wildlife Management 54: 36–41. Bell, W. B. 1972. Animal response to sonic booms. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 51: 758–765. Benetto, E., C. Dujet, and P. Rousseauxl. 2006. Fuzzy-sets approach to noise impact assessment. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 11: 222–228.

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Bies, L., T. B. Balzer, and W. Blystone. 2006. Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife Refuge: Can the military and migratory birds mix? Wildlife Society Bulletin 34: 2. 502–503. Blackwell, B. F., and S. E. Wright. 2006. Collisions of red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), Turkey Vultures (Cathartics aura), and black vultures (Coragyps atratus) with aircraft: Implications for bird strike reduction. Journal of Raptor Research 40: 76–80. * Bleich, V. C., R. T. Bowyer, A. M. Pauli, M. C. Nicholson, and R. W. Anthes. 1994. Mountain sheep Ovis canadensis and helicopter surveys: Ramifications for the conservation of large mammals. Biological Conservation 70: 1–7. Bleich, V. C., R. T. Bowyer, A. M. Pauli, R. L. Vernay, and R.W. Anthes. 1990. Responses of mountain sheep to helicopter surveys. California Fish and Game 76: 197–204. Bleich, V. C., J. T. Villepique, T. R. Stephenson, B. M. Pierce, and G. M. Kutliyev. 2005. From the field: Efficacy of aerial telemetry as an aid to capturing specific individuals—a comparison of 2 techniques. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33: 332–336. * Blix, A. S., and J. W. Lentfer. 1992. Noise and vibration levels in artificial polar bear dens as related to selected petroleum exploration and development activities. Arctic 45: 20–24. Blokpoel, H., and D. R. M. Hatch. 1976. Snow geese, disturbed by aircraft, crash into power lines. Canadian Field Naturalist 90: 195. Bodie, W. L., and L. E. Oldenburg. 1995. A standardized technique for helicopter surveys of bighorn sheep. Biennial Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council 9: 65–68. Boldt, A., and P. Ingold. 2005. Effects of air traffic, snow cover and weather on altitudinal short-term and medium-term movements of female Alpine chamois Rupicapra rupicapra in winter. Wildlife Biology 11: 351–362. Boothroyd, P. N. 1986. Spring use of the Mackenzie River by Snow Geese in relation to the Norman Wells Oilfield Expansion Project. Canadian Wildlife Service, Internal Report. * Born, E. W., F. F. Riget, R. Dietz, and D. Andriashek. 1999. Escape responses of hauled out ringed seals (Phoca hispida) to aircraft disturbance. Polar Biology 21: 171–178. Bowles, A., B. Tabachnick, and S. Fidel. 1993. Review of the effects of aircraft overflights on wildlife. Vol. II of III, Technical Report. Prepared by BBN Systems and Technologies, Canoga Park, CA, for National Park Service, Denver, CO. 305 pp. * Bowles, A. E. 1995. Responses of wildlife to noise. Pages 109–156 in R. L. Knight, and K. J. Gutzwiller, eds. Wildlife and recreationists: Coexistence through management and research. Island Press, Washington D.C. Bowles, A. E., F. T. Awbrey, and J. R. Jehl, Jr. 1991. The effects of high-amplitude impulsive noise on hatching success: A reanalysis of the “sooty tern incident.” Technical Report No. HSD-TP-91-0006, prepared for U.S. Air Force Noise and Sonic Boom Impact Technology Program, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, by Hubbs-Sea World Research Institute, San Diego, CA. 19 pp. Bowles, A. E., S. Eckert, L. Starke, E. Berg, L. Wolski, and J. Matesic, Jr. 1999. Effects of flight noise from jet aircraft and sonic booms on hearing, behavior, heart rate, and oxygen

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consumption of desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii). AFRL-HE-WP-TR-1999-0170, by Sea World Research Institute, Hubbs Marine Research Center, San Diego, CA. 131 pp. * Bowles, A. E., F. T. Awbrey, and R. Kull. 1990. A model for the effects of aircraft overflight noise on the reproductive success of raptorial birds. Pages 1129–1132 in Noise and Sonic Boom Impact Technology, Inter-Noise, 1990. Wright Patterson AFB, OH. * Bowles, A. E., J. K. McClenaghan, F. S. Wisely, R. Golightly, and R. Kull. 1993. Effects of aircraft noise on the predator-prey ecology of the kit fox (Vulpes macrotis) and its small mammal prey. Pages 462–469 in Michel Vallet, ed. Proceedings of the 6th Annual International Congress on Noise as a Public Health Problem. Nice, France. INRETS, Arcueil Cedex, France. * Brackney, A.W. 1986. Effects of aircraft disturbance on the energetics of staging Lesser Snow Geese: a model. G. W. Garner, and P. E. Reynolds, eds. 1985 Update Report Baseline Study of the Fish, Wildlife, and Their Habitats. ANWR Progress Report No. FY86-6-Impacts. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska. Bradshaw, C. J. A., S. Boutin, and D. M. Hebert. 1997. Effects of petroleum exploration on woodland caribou in northeastern Alberta. Journal of Wildlife Management 61: 1127–1133. Bradshaw, C. J. A., S. Boutin, and D. M. Hebert. 1998. Energetic implications of disturbance caused by petroleum exploration to woodland caribou. Canadian Journal of Zoology 76: 1319–1324. * Brown, A. L. 1990. Measuring the effect of aircraft noise on sea birds. Environment International 16: 587–592. * Brown, B. T., G. S. Mills, C. Powels, W. A. Russell, G. D. Therres, and J. J. Pottie. 1999. The influence of weapons-testing noise on Bald Eagle behavior. Journal of Raptor Research 33: 227–232. Brown, K. M., R. M. Erwin, M. E. Richmond, P. A. Buckley, J. T. Tanacredi, and D. Avrin. 2001. Managing birds and controlling aircraft in the Kennedy Airport-Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge complex: The need for hard data and soft opinions. Environmental Management 28: 207–224. * Brown, L. 2001. The response of sea birds to simulated acoustic and visual aircraft stimuli. Pages 56–59 in M. Baker, and G. Belliveau, eds. Effects of Noise on Wildlife Conference. 22– 23 August 2000, Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Labrador. Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research, Terra Borealis Vo. 2. Brumm, H. 2004. The impact of environmental noise on song amplitude in a territorial bird. Journal of Animal Ecology 73: 434–440. Burger, J. 1981. Behavioral responses of Herring Gulls Larus argentatus to aircraft noise. Environmental Pollution, Series A 24: 177–184. Burger, J. 1983. Jet aircraft noise and birds strikes: Why more birds are being hit. Environmental Pollution 30: 143–152.

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Welch, B. L., and A. S. Welch. 1970. Physiological effects of noise. Plenum Press, New York, NY. * White, C. M., and S. K. Sherrod. 1973. Advantages and disadvantages of the use of rotor- winged aircraft in raptor surveys. Raptor Research 7: 97–104. White, R. G. 1993. Energy expenditures of caribou responding to low-altitude jet aircraft. Report by University of Alaska Fairbanks, AK, to United States Air Force, NSBIT, Armstrong Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH. Report number AL/OE-TR-1994, 63 pp. Williams, M. T. S. 1997. The impact of aircraft activity on the behavior and productivity of northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) on St. George Island, Alaska. M.S. Thesis, University of Alaska, Fairbanks. 54 pp. Wilson, D. R. 1971. Sonic booms and seabird colonies. Seabird Report 2: 44. Wilson, S. 2005. Management of commercial recreation in relation to mountain goats and their habitat. Paper presented at 1st BC Mountain Goat Workshop. Prince George, BC. Windsor, J. 1977. The response of peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) to aircraft and human disturbance. Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa, Ontario. Research Note 87. * Winters, J. F., and R. T. Shideler. 1990. An annotated bibliography of selected references of muskoxen relevant to the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska. Report prepared for Department of Wildlife Management, North Slope Borough, Barrow, AK, by Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, AK. 98 pp. * Workman, G. W., T. D. Bunch, J. W. Call, R. C. Evans, La Dawn S.N., and E. M. Rawlings. 1992. Sonic boom/animal disturbance studies on pronghorn antelope, Rocky Mountain elk, and bighorn sheep. Contract No. F42650-87-C-0349, prepared for U.S. Air Force, Hill Air Force Base, Utah, by Utah State University. 268 pp. Würsig, B., S. K. Lynn, T. A. Jefferson, and K. D. Mullin. 1998. Behaviour of cetaceans in the northern Gulf of Mexico relative to survey ships and aircraft. Aquatic Mammals 24: 41–50. Youkey, D. 2002. Mountain goat response to helicopter overflights on the Juneau Icefield and Chilkat Range. Unpublished Progress Report by U. S. Forest Service, Juneau Ranger District. Juneau, AK. * Zakrajsek, E. J., and J. A. Bissonette. 2005. Ranking the risk of wildlife species hazardous to military aircraft. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33: 258–264. Zonfrillo, B. 1993. Low-flying aircraft and seabirds on Ailsa Craig. Seabird Group Newsletter 64: 7–8.

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CHAPTER 6 References

Larkin, R. P. 1996. Effects of Military Noise on Wildlife: A Literature Review. Center for Wildlife Ecology. Illinois Natural History Survey. Champaign, IL. http://nhsbig.inhs.uiuc.edu/bioacoustics/noise_and_wildlife.txt Moxley, T. T. 2007. “Memorandum on Operational Noise Consultation 52-EN-05KCb-07, Operational Noise Contours for U.S. Army Alaska.” Letter, February 2007. U.S. Army Alaska (USARAK). 2006. Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Construction and Operation of a Battle Area Complex and Combined Arms Collective Training Facility within U.S. Army Training Lands in Alaska. U.S. Army Alaska, Fort Richardson, AK.

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CHAPTER 7 Indexes to Annotated Bibliography

7.1 Taxonomic Index to Annotated References Note that annotated references in Chapter 5 are in alphabetical order.

BIRDS Andersen et al. 1989 Passerines Dolbeer 2006 Seabirds Gollop et al. 1972 Brown 1990 Hunsaker 2001 Brown 2001 Rozell 2003 Claridge 1997 Zakrajsek and Bissonette 2005 Dunnet 1977 Harris 2001 Raptors Harris 2005 Bald Eagle Penguins Brown et al. 1999 Giese and Riddle 1999 Grubb and 1991 Harris 2001 Grubb and Bowerman 1997 Harris 2005 Stalmaster and Kaiser 1997 Watson 1993 Waterbirds Falcons Komenda-Zehnder et al. 2003 Gyrfalcon Kushlan 1979 Platt and Tull 1977 Sandhill Crane Prairie Falcon Herter 1982 Holthuijzen et al. 1990 Kessel 1979 Peregrine Falcon Gulls & Terns Murphy et al. 2001 Gollop et al. 1972 Murphy et al. 2002 Glaucous Gulls Nordmeyer Elmore et al. 2002a Gollop et al. 1974a Nordmeyer Elmore et al. 2002b Arctic Tern Nordmeyer Elmore et al. 2002c Gollop et al. 1974a Palmer 1998 Palmer et al. 2002 Waterfowl Palmer et al. 2003 Dahlgren and Korschgen 1992 Ritchie 1987 Dolbeer 2006 Mexican Spotted Owl Fleming et al. 2001 Delaney et al. 1999 Thiessen et al. 1957 Johnson and Reynolds 2002 Zakrajsek and Bissonette 2005 Osprey Ducks (Dabbling/Diving) Carrier and Melquist 1976 Baker and Belliveau 2001 Jacques Whitford Environment Dabbling/Diving Ducks Limited 1999 Conomy et al. 1998 Trimper and Thomas 2001 Komenda-Zehnder et al. 2003 Trimper et al. 1998 Black Duck Red-tailed Hawk Bateman et al. 1999

BOI072060003.DOC 7-1 INDEXES TO ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Conomy et al. 1998 Société Duventor Ltée 2001 Giroux et al. 2003 Turner and Hicks 2003 Harms et al. 1997 Ward and Stehn 1989 Société Duventor Ltée 2001 Ward et al. 1999 Trimper et al. 2003 Ward et al. 2001 Turner and Hicks 2003 Emperor Goose Peking Duck Ward and Stehn 1989 Thiessen et al. 1957 Ward et al. 2001 Wood Duck Greater White-fronted Goose Conomy et al. 1998 Barry and Spencer 1976 Sea Ducks Johnson et al. 2003 Gollop et al.1974b Murphy et al. 1986 Common Eider Murphy et al. 1987 Gollop et al. 1974a Murphy et al. 1989 Johnson et al. 1987 Murphy et al. 1990 King Eider Pink-footed Goose Mosbech and Boertmann 1999 Mosbech and Glahder 1991 Harlequin Duck Snow Goose Goudie 2003 Barry and Spencer 1976 Goudie 2006 Belanger and Bedard 1989 Goudie and Jones 2004 Brackney 1986 Geese Davis and Wisely 1974 Barnacle Goose Murphy et al. 1986 Mosbech and Glahder 1991 Murphy et al. 1987 Brant Murphy et al. 1989 Baker and Belliveau 2001 Murphy et al. 1990 Derksen et al.1992 Swans Gollop et al. 1974a Trumpeter Swan Jensen 1990 Henson and Grant 1991 Miller 1994 Tundra Swan Miller et al. 1994 Barry and Spencer 1976 Murphy et al. 1986 Johnson et al. 2003 Murphy et al. 1987 Murphy et al. 1986 Murphy et al. 1988 Murphy et al. 1987 Murphy et al. 1989 Murphy et al. 1989 Murphy et al. 1990 Whooper Swan Owens 1977 Rees et al. 2005 Ward 1989 Ward and Stehn 1989 Woodpeckers, Red-cockaded Ward et al. 1990a Delaney 2002 Ward et al. 1990b Delaney et al. 2002 Ward et al. 1994 Doresky et al. 2001 Ward et al. 1999 Ward et al. 2001 Canada Goose MAMMALS Baker and Belliveau 2001 Carnivores Bateman et al. 1999 Bears Giroux et al. 2003 Black Bear Murphy et al. 1986 Telesco and VanManen 2006 Murphy et al. 1987 Grizzly Bear Murphy et al. 1989 AMEC Americas Limited 2005 Murphy et al. 1990 Barry and Spencer 1976

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Harper et al. 2000 Jakimchuk 1980 Klein 1974 Jingfors et al. 1982 McCourt et al. 1974b Jung and Jones 2001 McLellan and Shackleton 1989 Klein 1974 Quimby 1974 Lawler et al. 2005 Polar Bear Luick et al. 1996 AMEC Americas Limited 2005 Magoun et al. 2003 Amstrup 1993 Maier 1996 Blix and Lentfer 1992 Maier et al. 1998 Richardson et al. 1995 Maier et al. 2001 Gray Wolf McCourt et al. 1974a Klein 1974 McCourt and Horstman 1974 Merrill and Erickson 2003 Miller and Gunn 1979 Kit Fox Miller and Gunn 1981 Bowles et al. 1993 Murphy et al. 1993 Shideler et al. 1990 Marine Mammals Surrendi and DeBock 1976 Polar Bear (see Carnivores, Bears) Valkenburg and Davis 1985 Seals Deer Born et al. 1999 Mule Deer Dietz 1992 DeYoung et al.1993 Richardson et al. 1995 Efroymson et al. 2001a Whales Krausman et al. 1986 Dietz 1992 Krausman et al. 1993 Beluga Stephenson et al. 1996 Dietz 1992 Weisenberger et al. 1996 Partenaude et al. 2002 White-tailed Deer Richardson et al. 1995 D’Angelo et al. 2007 Bowhead Whale Elk Partenaude et al. 2002 Workman et al. 1992 Richardson et al. 1995 Moose Andersen et al. 1996 Small Mammals Klein 1974 Bowles et al. 1993 McCourt et al. 1974b Harper et al. 2000 Mountain Goat Andrus 2005 Ungulates Côté 1996 Bison Foster and Rahs 1983 Fancy 1982 Foster and Rahs 1985 Fortin and Andruskiw 2003 Goldstein 2005 Harper et al. 2000 Gordon and Wilson 2005 Caribou Harper et al. 2000 AMEC Americas Limited 2005 Jalkotzy et al. 1997 Baker and Belliveau 2001 Keim 2005 Calef et al. 1976 Matheson et al. 2005 Fischer et al. 1977 Penner 1988 Gunn and Miller 1980 U.S. Forest Service 2002 Gunn et al. 1983 Muskox Gunn et al. 1985 AMEC Americas Limited 2005 Harrington 2003 Jingfors and Lassen 1984 Harrington and Veitch 1991 Miller and Gunn 1979 Harrington and Veitch 1992 Miller and Gunn 1980

BOI072060003.DOC 7-3 INDEXES TO ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Miller and Gunn 1984 Jalkotzy et al. 1997 Miller et al. 1988 Jorgenson 1988 Reynolds 1987 Krausman and Hervert 1983 Winters and Shideler 1990 Krausman et al. 1993 Pronghorn Antelope Krausman et al. 1998 Krausman et al. 2004 MacArthur et al. 1982 Krausman et al. 2005 Stockwell et al. 1991 Luz and Smith 1976 Weisenberger et al. 1996 Workman et al. 1992 Workman et al. 1992 Sheep Dall Sheep (Dall’s Sheep) Wildlife (multiple species) Frid 1999 AMEC Americas Limited 2005 Frid 2001 Baker and Belliveau 2001 Frid 2001 Bowles 1995 Frid 2003 Efroymson and Suter 2001 Frid and Dill 2002 Efroymson et al. 2000 Griffith, B. et al. 2006 Efroymson et al. 2001b Harper et al. 2000 Frid and Dill 2002 Lawler et al. 2004 Il’ichev et al. 1998 Leberge Environmental Jalkotzy et al. 1997 Services 2002 Kempf and Hüppop 1996 Lenarz 1974 Larkin et al. 1996 Reynolds 1974 National Park Service 1994 Udevitz et al. 2006 Pepper et al. 2003 Mountain/Bighorn Sheep Radle 1998 Bleich et al. 1994 DeYoung et al.1993

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7.2 Topic Index to Annotated References Note that annotated references in Chapter 5 are in alphabetical order.

AIRCRAFT Owens 1977 Brackney 1986 Partenaude et al. 2002 Fixed-wing Airplane (single or twin- Penner 1988 engine) Quimby 1974 Amstrup 1993 Rees et al. 2005 Barry and Spencer 1976 Reynolds 1974 Belanger and Bedard 1989 Reynolds 1987 Born et al. 1999 Ritchie 1987 Brown 1990 Shideler et al. 1990 Calef et al. 1976 Surrendi and DeBock 1976 Claridge 1997 Trimper and Thomas 2001 Dahlgren and Korschgen 1992 Trimper et al. 1998 Davis and Wisely 1974 Udevitz et al. 2006 Dietz 1992 Valkenburg and Davis 1985 Dolbeer 2006 Ward 1989 Dunnet 1977 Ward and Stehn 1989 Fancy 1982 Ward et al. 1990a Fischer et al. 1977 Ward et al. 2001 Foster and Rahs 1983 Ward et al. 1999 Foster and Rahs 1985 Workman et al. 1992 Frid 2001 Frid 2003 Helicopter Gollop et al. 1974a Civilian or Unspecified Type Gordon and Wilson 2005 AMEC Americas Limited 2005 Goudie 2006 Amstrup 1993 Grubb and Bowerman 1997 Andrus 2005 Grubb and 1991 Barry and Spencer 1976 Harris 2005 Belanger and Bedard 1989 Harris 2001 Bleich et al. 1994 Henson and Grant 1991 Blix and Lentfer 1992 Herter 1982 Born et al. 1999 Johnson et al. 2003 Brown 2001 Kessel 1979 Calef et al. 1976 Klein 1974 Carrier and Melquist 1976 Komenda-Zehnder et al. 2003 Claridge 1997 Krausman and Hervert 1983 Côté 1996 Krausman et al. 1986 Craig and Craig 1984 Kushlan 1979 Dahlgren and Korschgen 1992 Leberge Environmental Services 2002 Davis and Wisely 1974 MacArthur et al. 1982 Derksen et al. 1992 McCourt et al. 1974a Dietz 1992 McCourt et al. 1974b Dunnet 1977 McCourt and Horstman 1974 Foster and Rahs 1983 McLellan and Shackleton 1989 Foster and Rahs 1985 Mosbech and Boertmann 1999 Frid 1999 National Park Service 1994 Frid 2001

BOI072060003.DOC 7-5 INDEXES TO ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Frid 2003 National Park Service 1994 Frid and Dill 2002 Nordmeyer Elmore et al. 2002b Giese and Riddle 1999 Owens 1977 Goldstein 2005 Partenaude et al. 2002 Gollop et al. 1974a Penner 1988 Gollop et al. 1972 Platt and Tull 1977 Gollop et al. 1974b Quimby 1974 Gordon and Wilson 2005 Rees et al. 2005 Grubb and Bowerman 1997 Reynolds 1974 Grubb and 1991 Reynolds 1987 Gunn and Miller 1980 Ritchie 1987 Gunn et al. 1983 Shideler et al. 1990 Gunn et al. 1985 Stockwell et al. 1991 Harper et al. 2000 Surrendi and DeBock 1976 Harrington and Veitch 1991 Udevitz et al. 2006 Harris 2005 U.S. Forest Service 2002 Harris 2001 Ward 1989 Henson and Grant 1991 Ward and Stehn 1989 Herter 1982 Ward et al. 1990b Jalkotzy et al. 1997 Ward et al. 1990a Jensen 1990 Ward et al. 1994 Jingfors and Lassen 1984 Ward et al. 2001 Jingfors et al. 1982 Ward et al. 1999 Johnson et al. 2003 Watson 1993 Johnson et al. 1987 White and Sherrod 1973 Jorgenson 1988 Winters and Shideler 1990 Keim 2005 Workman et al. 1992 Kessel 1979 Klein 1974 Military Komenda-Zehnder et al. 2003 Andersen et al. 1989 Krausman et al. 2004 Andersen et al. 1996 Kushlan 1979 Conomy et al. 1998 Leberge Environmental Services Delaney et al. 1999 2002 Delaney et al. 2002 Lenarz 1974 Doresky et al. 2001 MacArthur et al. 1982 Efroymson and Suter 2001 Matheson et al. 2005 Efroymson et al. 2001a McCourt et al. 1974a Efroymson et al. 2000 McLellan and Shackleton 1989 Goudie 2006 Miller and Gunn 1979 Hunsaker 2001 Miller and Gunn 1980 Kessel 1979 Miller and Gunn 1981 Larkin et al. 1996 Miller and Gunn 1984 Lawler et al. 2004 Miller et al. 1988 Luz and Smith 1976 Miller 1994 Stalmaster and Kaiser 1997 Miller et al. 1994 Stephenson et al. 1996. Mosbech and Glahder 1991 Zakrajsek and Bissonette 2005 Murphy et al. 1986 Murphy et al. 1987 Jet Aircraft Murphy et al. 1988 Civilian or Unspecified Type Murphy et al. 1989 Dahlgren and Korschgen 1992 Murphy et al. 1990 Dolbeer 2006

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Henson and Grant 1991 Rozell 2003 National Park Service 1994 Société Duventor Ltée 2001 Rees et al. 2005 Stephenson et al. 1996. Trimper and Thomas 2001 Military Trimper et al. 1998 Andersen et al. 1996 Turner and Hicks 2003 Baker and Belliveau 2001 Workman et al. 1992 Bateman et al. 1999 Zakrajsek and Bissonette 2005 Bowles et al. 1993 Conomy et al. 1998 HUMAN DISTURBANCE (NON Conomy et al. 1998 AIRCRAFT) Efroymson and Suter 2001 Fortin and Andruskiw 2003 Efroymson et al. 2000 Ellis 1980 MILITARY TRAINING ACTIVITIES Ellis et al. 1991 Andersen et al. 1996 Fleming et al. 2001 Krausman et al. 2005 Giroux et al. 2003 Stalmaster and Kaiser 1997 Goudie 2006 Stephenson et al. 1996. Goudie 2003 Telesco and VanManen 2006 Goudie and Jones 2004 Griffith et al. 2006 NOISE (sound-level data [decibels] provided Grubb and Bowerman 1997 in reference) Grubb and 1991 AMEC Americas Limited 2005 Harrington 2003 Baker and Belliveau 2001 Harrington and Veitch 1991 Bowles 1995 Harrington and Veitch 1992 Dahlgren and Korschgen 1992 Hunsaker 2001 Radle 1998 Jacques Whitford Environment Limited 1999 Aircraft Johnson and Reynolds 2002 Bowles et al. 1990 Jung and Jones 2001 Krausman et al. 2004 Krausman et al. 2005 Fixed-wing Airplane (single or twin- Krausman et al. 1993 engine) Krausman et al. 1998 Bowles 1995 Larkin et al. 1996 Brown 1990 Lawler et al. 2004 Komenda-Zehnder et al. 2003 Lawler et al. 2005 Mosbech and Boertmann 1999 Luick et al. 1996 Partenaude et al. 2002 Magoun et al. 2003 Richardson et al. 1995 Maier 1996 Ward 1989 Maier et al. 1998 Ward and Stehn 1989 Maier et al. 2001 Ward et al. 1990a Murphy et al. 1993 Ward et al. 2001 Murphy et al. 2001 Ward et al. 1999 Murphy et al. 2002 Nordmeyer Elmore et al. 2002a Helicopter Civilian or Unspecified Type Nordmeyer Elmore et al. 2002b AMEC Americas Limited Nordmeyer Elmore et al. 2002c 2005 Palmer 1998 Andrus 2005 Palmer et al. 2002 Blix and Lentfer 1992 Palmer et al. 2003

BOI072060003.DOC 7-7 INDEXES TO ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Born et al. 1999 Harrington 2003 Bowles 1995 Harrington and Veitch 1991 Brown 2001 Hunsaker 2001 Conomy et al. 1998 Johnson and Reynolds 2002 Delaney et al. 1999 Krausman et al. 2004 Delaney et al. 2002 Krausman et al. 1993 Efroymson and Suter 2001 Krausman et al. 1998 Efroymson et al. 2001a Larkin et al. 1996 Efroymson et al. 2000 Lawler et al. 2004 Efroymson et al. 2001b Lawler et al. 2005 Giese and Riddle 1999 Luick et al. 1996 Johnson et al. 2003 Magoun et al. 2003 Klein 1974 Maier et al. 1998 Komenda-Zehnder et al. Maier et al. 2001 2003 Murphy et al. 1993 Lenarz 1974 Murphy et al. 2001 Partenaude et al. 2002 Murphy et al. 2002 Reynolds 1974 Nordmeyer Elmore et al. Richardson et al. 1995 2002a U.S. Forest Service 2002 Nordmeyer Elmore et al. Ward 1989 2002b Ward and Stehn 1989 Nordmeyer Elmore et al. Ward et al. 1990b 2002c Ward et al. 1990a Palmer 1998 Ward et al. 2001 Palmer et al. 2002 Ward et al. 1999 Palmer et al. 2003 Military Pepper et al. 2003 Larkin et al. 1996 Rozell 2003 Lawler et al. 2004 Trimper and Thomas 2001 Luz and Smith 1976 Trimper et al. 2003 Pepper et al. 2003 Trimper et al. 1998 Weisenberger et al. 1996 Jet Aircraft Civilian or Unspecified Type Ambient (natural [undisturbed] sound Conomy et al. 1998 levels) Conomy et al. 1998 Blix and Lentfer 1992 Efroymson et al. 2001b Bowles et al. 1993 Ellis 1980 Brown 1990 Ellis et al. 1991 Delaney et al. 2002 Fleming et al. 2001 Giese and Riddle 1999 Giroux et al. 2003 Goudie 2003 Goudie 2006 Goudie and Jones 2004 Goudie 2003 Il’ichev et al. 1998 Goudie and Jones 2004 Johnson and Reynolds 2002 Il’ichev et al. 1998 Klein 1974 Kempf and Hüppop 1996 Krausman et al. 2004 Richardson et al. 1995 Krausman et al. 1993 Military Krausman et al. 1998 Baker and Belliveau 2001 Luz and Smith 1976 Bateman et al. 1999 Magoun et al. 2003 Bowles et al. 1993 National Park Service 1994 Harms et al. 1997 Partenaude et al. 2002

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Reynolds 1974 Partenaude et al. 2002 Rozell 2003 Thiessen et al. 1957 Trimper et al. 1998 U.S. Forest Service 2002 Human, general Ward and Stehn 1989 Jakimchuk 1980 Ward et al. 1990b Military Ordnance (noise generated by Explosions missles, artillery, small-weapons fire, Blasting tanks, grenades) Holthuijzen et al. 1990 Brown et al.1999 Military ordnance Delaney et al. 2002 Krausman et al. 2004 Doresky et al. 2001 Larkin et al. 1996 Efroymson et al. 2001a Merrill and Erickson 2003 Telesco and VanManen 2006 Sonic Booms Ellis 1980 Hearing Range (descriptions of species- Ellis et al. 1991 specific hearing ranges) Kempf and Hüppop 1996 D’Angelo et al. 2007 Krausman et al. 2004 Delaney 2002 Workman et al. 1992 Delaney et al. 2002 DeYoung et al.1993

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