CHAPTER ONE Introduction

1.1 Preliminaries The purpose of the present research is to study the phenomenon of code mixing and code switching with the help of the selected fictional works in Indian English. Since the process of nativization mainly operates through the mechanism of code mixing and code switching, it is highly rewarding to discover socio-cultural dimensions of these terms in the Indian context. The chapter is mainly devoted to the introduction. It essentially outlines the aims and objectives of the study, scope and limitations and takes the review of related literature. The chapter also discusses the varieties of native and non-native English across the globe. It is due to the impact of other languages, the variations are caused resulting in the code mixing and code switching strategies. It is pointed out that nativization or acculturation makes English as an Indian language. The rationale and significance of the study, selection of the writers and their fictional works are amply justified with illustrations in the middle part of the chapter. The significance of the study and the methodology of research are spelt out in clear terms towards the end of the chapter.

1.2 Aims and Objectives Following are the aims and objectives of the study: 1. To study how the process of nativization mainly operates through the mechanism of code-mixing and code-switching. 2. To study the phenomenon of code mixing and code switching as it manifests in Indian writing in English, particularly in fiction.

3. To discover the socio-cultural aspects with the help of code- mixing and code-switching.

4. To highlight the process of acculturation through code-mixing and code-switching.

5. To analyze the categorically chosen examples of code-mixing and code-switching from the selected fictional works by Indiein writers in English.

6. To evaluate the selected fictional works against the backdrop of code-mixing and code-switching.

7. To present a panoramic view of linguistic within India.

8. To study, interpret, and analyze the highly marked examples of code-mixing in the selected fictional works.

9. To study, interpret, and analyze the highly marked examples of code-switching in the selected fictional works.

10. To elucidate the code-mixing and code switching behaviour of the characters in the fictional works under consideration. 11. To investigate the linguistic beliaviour of the characters in bilingual situations.

12. To describe the code switchinjg baha\^our in different speech situations.

13. To prove the pedagogic significance of the present study.

1.3 Scope and Limitations The present research, being applied in nature, is an attempt to study and analyze the categorically selected examples of code-switching and code-mixing from the selected fictional works. Since Indian experience is expressed through English language, it is likely that one comes across a number of expressions mixed or switched in the Indian writing in English. Therefore, it would be highly interesting and appealing to study the phenomenon of code mixing and code switching against the backdrop of Indian socio-cultural milieu. There is a tremendous scope to unveil the cultural associations as far as the use of code mixing and code switching is concerned.

Since these fictional works represent multicultural elements, there are examples galore of code-mixing and code-switching. Indian English is seen as a process of acculturation in the sense that there are modifications in the use of English in the above stated fictional works. In view of the fact that the writers are from different parts of India, they present interesting examples of code-switching and code- mixing in their respective literary works. The literary works belong to colonial and postcolonial epochs. The present study is limited to the following fictional works of Indian writers in English: 1. Untouchable (1935) - (Novel) by Mulk Raj Anand 2. Kanthapum (1938) - (Novel) by Raja Rao 3. Poona Company (1980) - (a string of short stories) by Farrukh Dhondy 4. Starry Nights (1991)- (Novel) by Shobha De'

1.4 Selection of the Writers and their Works The selection of the Indian writers and their works is made on the basis of certain criteria. In th^^lst^place, Mulk Raj Anand and Raja Rao are the novelists of the first generation of the writers writing in English. Secondly, they belong to the colonial India. Thirdly, the spirit of nationalism and socialism influences their writing. Both the novelists extensively make use of code switching and code mixing in their respective novels. On the other hand, Farrukh Dhondy and Shobha De' belong to the third generation of the writers writing in Indian English. These writers belong to the postcolonial India. Their writing is very different from that of Mulk Raj Anand and Raja Rao. Therefore, binding these writers together by a common thread of the strategy of code mixing and code switching is a bold step in itself in the field of applied research. Let us study the nature of their themes in nutshell.

Mulk Raj Anand is among the pioneers of the modem Indian Novel in English. His concern for the underprivileged and downtrodden is so appealing that the reader's heart melts with compassion. He is mainly concerned with the plight of the untouchables, labours, and the weaker sections of the society. Therefore, he is regarded as the doyen of Indian fiction in English.

'Untouchable' (1935) is the first novel of Anand in which he depicts the plight of those suffering under the yoke injustice, humiliation and deprivation. In fact, it is one of his powerful novels, wherein he portrays the character sketch of Bakha, who is socially, economically, politically and above all educationally weak. Secondly, Anand makes a linguistic experiment by using code-mixing and code-switching naturally and freely in order to portray emotional world of his characters. The novel has been selected keeping in mind the above discussed points.

Raja Rao is a worldwide famous novelist who was among the first generation of Indian writers to cajole the English language into conveying the distinct pulses of Indian psyche. In fact, Raja Rao, seized the language of the colonizer to represent the down-to earth experiences of the colonized by evoking the sights, sounds, and sufferings of Indian village life.

The novel 'Kanthapura' {\9?>%) has been selected on the basis of some parameters. Firstly, it is based on the spirit of nationalism. In other words, it is a story of national struggle through the viewpoint of Murthy, a villager in Kamataka. Secondly, it is an account of Mahatma Gandhi's teachings. Thirdly, like the Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe, writing in English, Rao has been concerned with language and consciousness. Fourthly, there are plenty of examples of code-mixing and code-switciiing in the novel which are cuhure- bound.

A native of India, Farrukh Dhondy came to Great Britain to be a schoolteacher, and also embarked on a career as an author, journalist, and playwright. Identifying with the growing number of non-white teens who were coming of age at that time, Dhondy has become known for works, such as the short-story collection East End at four Feet, that shows the confusion and anxieties of these young people. He has also been praised by critics for using accurate descriptions, , and slang expressions to add emphasis to his tales.

Written for a broader adult audience, 'Poona Company' contains stories about the gossip-filled, spirited atmosphere of a Poona gathering place, where locals gather to catch up and tell tales. The result, according to some reviewers, is illuminating. According to Dervla Murphy in the Times Literary Supplement, in Poona Company "Dhondy is illuminating not merely a sliver of the Indian scene but a chunk of universal human nature." Gillian Welch also praised the volume, writing in New Statesman that the collection "is the work of a natural story-teller, entertaining and funny and truth-telling in a way that no lesson about other cultures could ever be." Salman Rushdie in the preface of the book says: " It is a beautifid collection, full of affection, maliciously exact detail, dialogue perfectly caught; and it's an extremelyflinny book "

In this collection of nine linked stories, young Farrukh recounts his years growing up in a Parsi neighbourhood in Poona during the

6 fifties. Sarbatwalla Chowk is the centre of the world of those he remembers. Eddie the Inventor and his Big Boy; the massive Samson, who lives on the street and refuses to get a job; the blind man and his guide, Black Dog, supposed to have special powers; Terry Soakum, the Australian crybaby who has his eye on Farrukh's swimming trunks; Confession D'Souza, the scholarship boy who loses favour with the Jesuits over a 'dirty book' and later becomes a courageous journalist; Chamak, a permanent pimple on his big nose, who wants to win the college elections and the heart of 'Jhansi-ki-Rani'. There's Farrukh himself, distressed over a pair of broken spectacles, or a knife-fight at school. Warm, funny, sometimes sad but always delightful, 'Poona Company' seems as fresh as when it was first published in 1980, and presents a picture of small-town India observed with a sharp eye and a fond heart - a combination still rare in Indian fiction. The book is replete with code-mixing and code-switching.

Shobha De is one of India's top best selling authors. She is an eminent Indian novelist, who is often known as India's Jackie Collins. In the beginning of her career, she worked as a model and made a name for herself Thereafter, she thought of changing her profession. Then, she pursued her career in Journalism. She brought out three magazines namely Stardust, Society, and Celebrity. Presently, she is working as a freelance writer for a couple of newspapers and magazines.

Most of her writings focus on different aspects of urban India. The erotic matter that she has written in the past has become the subject of controversy. She has also been actively involved in writing scripts for various TV soaps like Swabhimaan. Her fictional world has aroused curiosity and interest on the one hand and downright reflection and denunciation on the other. She also makes a linguistic experiment in order to portray her characters. Most often, she uses nativized words to display the unique feature of Indian society.

Shobha De's novel Starry Nights exposes unusual faces of women. The novelist thinks that the only way a female can reach the ladder of success is "SEX". That is what the heroine of the novel Asha Rani does. Shobha De presents exhaustive description of sexual scenes between Asha Rani and various known and unknown people. The heroine never hesitates to have sex with the filmwalas as if it is a regular routine of her life. It is astonishing when she claims that her true love is Akshay Kumar, the famous film star, who meets a tragic end. There is another face of woman portrayed by Shobha De in the form of Aasha Rani's mother who instigates her daughter to use sex to become a successful heroine. There is a scene where she herself unhooks her daughter's blouse while doing a blue film. Therefore, this novel of Shobha De offers a different face of Indian reality. The novelist uses the strategy of code mixing and code switching in order to expose the true faces of sophisticated people living in the big cities.

The books of the above Indian writers in English have been selected on the basis of the following parameters: 1) The books represent different cultural milieus. 2) The writers of these books have carved their own place in the Indian literary scene. 3) They have made highly creative experiments with the English language. 4) The selected books provide vast data of code-switching and code-mixing.

The analysis of these books, therefore, is likely to present a panoramic view of linguistic variation within India.

1.5 Review of Related Literature Language contact and language change have always attracted the attention of researchers and linguists. English, being an international language, has been exposed to almost all the languages all over the world. Particularly in multi-lingual countries like India, we witness emergence of many varieties of English. These varieties exhibit certain common characteristics, which are termed as "Indianization" or "Indianisms". Indian writing in English is an interesting sociolinguistic phenomenon where Indian experience is expressed through the foreign language. It amply presents the tendency to Indianise English. Raja Rao, Mulk Raj Anand, Kamala Das, Nisim Ezekiel, Shobha De', Farrukh Dhondy- all had to alter or mould the English language to suit the needs of their expressions. Similar alterations have also been made by Chinua Achebe and O'jaide, among others, in the African Continent. These kinds of experiments give legitimacy to the varieties known as Indian English or African English. Even if some purists dub these varieties as deviations or aberrations, they are the inevitable outcomes of the socio-cultural milieu that shapes the sensibilities of the writers or the other users of this foreign language. If the functional role of these varieties is talcen into account, no one would be able to ignore these varieties.

1.5.1 Language Variation It is said that is the spice of life and language is no exception. All people whichever part of the world they live in like variety including language. In speech communality, not all the individuals speak in the same style. One notices that even the same person may not speak in the same manner in all the speech situations and speech events. However, the differences among groups of speakers in the same speech community can be considerable. There is bound to be difference in the way people speak. People tend to use different linguistic forms even if the purpose is the same. Let us consider the following examples: 1. Could you bring me a glass of water? 2. I want a glass of water. 3. I am thirsty. 4. Will you bring me a glass of water? 5. Would you mind bringing me a glass of water?

In all the above linguistic expressions, the intention of the speaker is the same. However, the sentences differ as far as the form is concerned. Therefore, the study of socio-linguistics is vital from the point of view of understanding variations in language. According to Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia (2008):

"The study of language variation is concerned with social constraints determining language in its contextual environment. Code switching is the

10 term given to the use of different varieties of language in different social situations. "

William Labov is the founder of the study of . He is especially noted for introducing the quantitative study of language variation and change, making the sociology of language into a scientific discipline.

Kachru writes exhaustively and authoritatively on sociolinguistics and pragmatics of Indian English. He has revealed different aspects of Indian English. Consequently, the process of change through contact is often termed as 'nativization Different manifestations of this process like borrowing, pidginization code-mixing and code-switching are now emerging as focal points in sociolinguistic studies of Indian English. The process of nativization mainly operates through the mechanism of code- mixing and code-switching. The main purpose of the present research, therefore, is to study the phenomenon of code-mixing and code- switching as it manifests in Indian creative writing in English.

One notices that there are several varieties of English language all over the world. These varieties are subdivided into native and non- native respectively. The varieties of language are , , registers, Creoles and pidgins. American English, British English, Canadian English, Switzerland English are native varieties of English. The non-native varieties include Caribbean English (Allsopp, 1971) South Asian English (Kachru, 1983) and West African English (Spencer, 1971). They are used extensively in literature. One might, further use the term 'pidginization' as a cover term for these sub-varieties, such as Babu English, Butler English, Box-Wallah English etc. are South Asian varieties of English. Indian

II regional varieties of English also have separate names in India. The 'regional' varieties of South Asian English, i.e. Dravidian English, North Indian English or Lankan English. ( Kachru, 1983 ).

1.5.2 Varieties of English a) The Standard Language: It is the historical fact that English has become the most widely used second language in the world today. Therefore, it is subject to alteration by non-native speakers. Numerous "non-native dialects" are developing their own standards. For instance, there are many publications in other countries where English is generally learned as a foreign language. In countries where English is either not a native language or is not widely spoken, the variants of English spoken in the United States and England are considered standard.

However, there is a tendency to call a native variety of English as the standard variety. It is a common belief that the study of the linguistic features has always been the focal point in standard language. Standard language is used specifically in printed newspapers, books, magazines and textbooks. This is used in the mass media and taught in schools to acquire English as a second language in India. Therefore, it is associated with education and broadcasting in public contexts. It is also used more in terms of the written language (i.e. vocabulary, spelling, grammar) than the spoken language. Standardization is a historical process which always undergoes changes. A standard is an ideology, abstract, not a particular set of variety. As stated earlier, the notion of standard variety is associated with the national standard. In United States, standard American English is used as general variety. It is also used in public broadcasting as Standard British English in Britain. There are also other standard varieties available such as standard Australian English, standard Canadian English, and standard Indian English.

However, the truth is that English language, although originated in England, is now spoken as a first language in many countries of the world. Each variety has a national standard in terms of vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and spelling. Therefore, Standard English is a relative concept and can be debated at length. b) Dialects: The word 'dialect' has been derived from the Greek word 'dialektos' which means a variety of a language that is characteristic of a particular group of speakers of that language. Dialect is also associated with a specific geographical region. It is called as regiolect. However, social class within the geographical region also has its own dialect. In fact, it is a lesser type of language. Dialect of a language has certain associations with an individual, social class and a regional impact. A dialect associated with an individual is called idiolect. In other words, a dialect is a variety of a language, which is unique to an individual. It is manifested by patterns of word selection, vocabulary, lexicon, grammar, phrases, idioms, or pronunciations that are unique to the individual who speaks it. Every individual has an idiolect; the grouping of words and phrases is unique, rather than an individual using specific words that nobody else uses. Idiolects change through contact with other idiolects, and change throughout their lifetime as well as from generation to generation. A sociolect is a

13 variety of language associated with a particular social group. Examples of social groups that might be said to have their own distinctive styles of language use include those based on socio­ economic status, age, occupation and gender. Probably the most notable difference here is between the speech of teenagers and the speech of older members of the same community. Teenagers have a large and ever-changing lexicon of slang words and expressions. Any trade or profession - second-hand car dealers, lawyers, accountants, doctors, builders, estate agents, etc. - will have its own specialist semantic field and vocabulary. Research suggests that women tend to use more prosodic features - backchannelling, emphatic stress, etc. - and men tend to be more direct in their speech, using very few non- fluency features - fillers, non-fluent pauses, etc. Research also suggests that women interrupt each other far less frequently than men, with the occasional overlap instead. This suggests that women, are more receptive and supportive as listeners, and can sense when it is socially acceptable to take the floor and begin their turn to speak. It also indicated that men tended to be more competitive and assertive in their speech and more likely to interrupt. Let us discuss the nature of the above said dialects in detail as follows: i) Regional Dialects: A regional variety of language is distinguished from other regional varieties by features of vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. In other words, it is a variety of language used by a group of people living in a particular geographical area.

There are many varieties of a spoken language, in different regions. Yule (1997) says: 'Some regional dialects clearly have stereotyped pronunciations associated with them': (P.228).

According to Yule, regional dialect is widely understandable and the sources are also found in the humour which depend on region, e.g. The norms of regional dialects are generally found into non-mobile old people in the rural area and male speakers, who are not having influences from outside the region in their speech.

The use of the regional dialects in creative literature such as short story, novel, drama and poetry gives an authenticity to the creative work. The role of the regional dialect in any creative literary work is usually confined to setting and characterization. When a novel or a drama or a short story is written using a regional or social dialect, people, not familiar with the regional or social dialect, have difficulty in interpreting and enjoying the work of art. ii) Social dialects: The language variety used in groups according to class, education, age, sex and a number of their social parameters are called social dialects. According to Yule, the language has social values. The higher values are the maker of social solidarity. Educated people use the standard language, which we come across in the books. It is also used to show socio-economic status. It is observed that less educated people avoid some sounds from their speech.

Many linguists describe social dialect with variation, according to age. It is most noticeable in the speech of grand parent-grand child generation gap. The language terms used by grand parents and by their grand children are different. There is difference in dialect according to gender. Women prefer more prestigious form than men do. Women select the medium of language for effective conversation and expressions of their feelings and emotions.

Ethnic background of the users of the language gives birth to a social dialect. The speech of many African-American, known as Black English , is a wide spread social dialect. These variations tend to show "bad speech" as in the case of 'they minn', 'You crazy' etc. Arabic and Russian languages have similar structure without the copula 'loss of auxiliary'. 'As a dialect, it simply has features which are consistently different from the standard' (Yule, P. 243). c) Idiolect: The term 'idiolect' is used for personal dialect of each individual speaker of language. All the elements of social and regional dialects variations have combined in the speech of each individual. Idiolects depend on personality and voice of the individual. A person's appearance, expression, accents, sociopolitical background, power and socio-economic background determine each person's idiolect. 'From the perspective of the social study of language, you are, in many respects, what you say': (Yule, P. 244). A person's idiolect is his/her own personal language. The words a person chooses characterises his/her speech and writing. Some users of a language have typical features in their language, which become a part of their idiolect. d) Style, register and : Particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language are the outcome of the style. The situation in which a type of language is found can usually be seen as appropriate or inappropriate to the style of language used. Another source of variety is individual's speech. It is occasioned by the situation. The grades are given from formal to informal style of speech. The speech in an office differs from the speech in a canteen as far as the degree of formality and informality. These differentiations occur due to address markers. Language symbols of address markers vary from language to language. For example, Japanese, French and German have different language symbols for pronouns.

The term 'Register' refers to properties within a language variety that associate that language with a given situation. Some human actions are allowed in certain context, whereas some are prohibited in definite context and situation. In other words, language functions according to the context. Yule describes that there are different types of registers such as religious register, legal register and linguistic register. For example, the words 'blessing', 'plaintiff, 'witness', 'morphology', 'inflectional suffix' etc. show register differences respectively.

The term 'jargon' covers the language used by people who work in a particular area or who have a common interest. The words related to the computer such as RAM, Hard Disk, Drive, CPU, Graphics Card etc. are as they are associated with computer. Therefore, a computer dictionary is different from a normal dictionary. The special activities of groups are associated with special technical vocabulary or language. " In social terms, jargon helps to connect those who see themselves as 'insiders', in some way and to exclude 'outsiders' " (Yule, P. 245).

17 e) Pidgins and Creoles: In the strict sense of the terms, Creoles and pidgins are new language varieties. They are created and developed out of contacts between colonial non-standard varieties a European Language and several non-European languages. A pidgin is a simplified language that develops as a tool of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common. For instance, we come across the use of pidgin in situations such as trade and commerce. It is observed that pidgins were extensively used in trade colonies especially in the coastal lines of West Africa. Pidgins are not the native language of any speech community, but are instead learned as second languages. A pidgin has a low prestige as compared to the other languages. Pidgin English developed for some practical purpose, such as trading among groups of people who had many contacts, but who did not know each other's languages. As such, it would have no native speakers.

According to George Yule the origin of the term 'pidgin' is thought to be from a Chinese Pidgin version of the English word 'business'. For example, the standard 'Tok pisin' is used as an official business language in Papua New Guinea. There are several English Pidgins used today, which have limited vocabulary, simple grammatical morphology. The original phrases are taken from other languages while using pidgins. In fact, they are reduced in structure and specialized in functions. However, in urban settings their expansion became a regular feature and are known as expanded pidgins. Examples include Bislamo, Tok Pisin, Nigerian, Cameroon Pidgin Englishes. To be precise, pidgins are limited forms of secondary, supporting language used for minimal functional understanding in

18 such areas as work, trade, and religion. They are often tied to specific master-slave, and slave-slave relations.

A Creole is a more fully developed and self-sufficient form of language than pidgin. A Creole develops as the first language of the children of Pidgin speakers. Hawaii', French-based Creoles are 'Haiti' and English-based Creoles are used in Jamaica and Sierra Leone. Many Afro-Caribbean Englishes are Creoles. These often carry traces of other languages of empire such as Spanish, Portuguese, French and Dutch. The vocabulary and grammatical structures are more shortened than original English language. For example the expression 'yu bigo' has an English equivalent translation, 'you will go'.(Yule, P.235) f) : In linguistics 'diglossia' is a situation where a given speech community uses two languages or dialects: the first being the community's present day vernacular and the second being either an ancestral version of the same vernacular from centuries earlier (Arabic, Chinese) or a distinct yet closely related present day dialect (German). According to Trugill and Coulmas, this term is used to describe a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each with a distinct range of social functions. For example, in Arabic speaking countries where the high or classical variety is used in lectures, religious speech and formal political talk, while the low variety is used in the local dialect of colloquial Arabic.

19 g) Borrowing: When there is a cultural contact between two language communities, it is called borrowing. Borrowing of words takes place between the two languages in contact. For example, English speakers adopted the word garage from French. It is common that more words are borrowed from the dominant language. In.this case the source language community has some advantage of power, prestige and wealth that makes the objects and ideas it brings desirable and useful to the borrowing language community. For example, the Germanic tribes in the first few centuries A.D. adopted numerous loanwords from Latin as they adopted new products via trade with the Romans. Few Germanic words, on the other hand, passed into Latin. Mixing of different varieties is called borrowing. This mixing is limited towards lexis or words. French words are mixed into English. Similarly, English words are mixed into all the Indian languages and assimilated into everyday speech. h) Code-switching: Hymes (1974) defines code-switching as a common term for alternative use of two or more languages, varieties of a language even speech styles. Code-switching is different from other language contact phenomenon, such as borrowing, pidgins and Creoles. Linguists have made considerable effort to differentiate between borrowing and code-switching. Mostly, borrowing occurs at the word level whereas code-switching occurs at the level of syntax. In other words, code-switching refers to alternating between one or more languages or dialects. We use different forms of expression depending on the person we are speaking to and where we are speaking to that person. Mixing of the various language items more than words with their social, functional, attitudinal situation and

20 connotations means code-switching. In multilingual and bilingual society, many language items are mixed in one language from another. All the language features, structures are mixed. The items from words to sentences are mixed into each other. The main motive of mixing is development of language as new strategy for communication. This phenomenon is common in multilingual and multicultural country like India. Most known cases of code-switching are, however, restricted to the spoken form, in which English is liberally interspersed with regional languages such as Marathi, Hindi, Punjabi and Telugu. Thus, code-switching is the alternate use of two linguistic systems within a same clause which is a everyday occurrence in multilingual contexts. i) Code-mixing: Code-mixing is the mixing of words, phrases and sentences from two distinct grammatical systems across sentence boundaries within the same speech event. The term 'code-mixing' emphasizes hybridization, whereas the term 'code-switching' highlights movement from one language to another. Some words are mixed from one language into another as a new strategy of communication. Wide range of use has been made to avoid ambiguities. For the sake of clear meaning of language in certain context, specific words are required. These words are transferred from one language into another according to particular context. This transfer of word is referred to as code-mixing. The words, phrases and sentences are transferred from one language for certain context. The specific words are used to describe sweets and ceremonies. These contexts are different in different regions vis-a-vis countries. Hence, there is necessity of transfer of typical words, sweets as representatives of that particular, region or country. These transferred words may be various types, such as collocation, hybridization etc.

1.5.3 Non- native Varieties of English It is observed that some developments and changes have occurred over a period in a number of fields. Similarly, there have been changes in English language. English has become an international language due to its wide spread. The fast growing body of literature in the English language has been developing in Indian literature, as a non-native language variety, whereas, English language is used as native language in North America, Australia, Canada, Britain and New Zealand. "The non-native Englishes are the legacy of the colonial period, and have mainly developed in 'un-English' cultural and linguistic contexts in various parts of the world, wherever the arm of the Western colonizers reached." : (Kachru, P. 211). To the non- native speaker, English is a 'second', or 'foreign', language. Basically, as a second language this is a source of bilingualism. Therefore, in the sociolinguistic context, it is developed as 'varieties within a variety'. It is called 'transplanted-English' as metaphoric terni and 'transported English' and 'twice bom English' as Kachru mentioned. This is applicable for every non-native variety of English. The context of these Englishes is different from British English. Turner (1966) and Ramson (1970) have used the term 'transplanted English' for 'Australasian' English. Mukherjee (1971) has used the term 'twice bom' for English in Indian fiction since it is the product of two parent traditions. A native English speaker is more educated in the native variety as compared to a non-native variety.

->'^ The native speaker has surprising attitude towards the non-native varieties of English. There may be dislike about non-native varieties of English to the speaker of native variety of English. It is due to these varieties, one of the sociolinguists Firth pointed out that non- native varieties are developed in the same way as native varieties. These varieties show plural social roles and functions of each individual language in that particular society. Again Firth( 1959:208) says, "a close speech fellowship and a wider speech community in what may be called the language community comprising both written and spoken forms of the general language"(Kachru, P. 232).

Following are the prominent varieties of Englishes: a) African Englishes: English is widespread as a first or second language as well as a lingua franca in sub-Saharan Africa. As the title suggests these varieties are anything but uniform, exhibiting a wide range of variation on all structural levels and dependent on social context. For instance, Ghana in African continent is non-native English using country; Ghana has three distinct varieties of English. The first, 'Educated Ghanaian English', is introduced to the primary and middle school in Ghana. It is also known as 'Broken English', which is similar to the South Asia context to Butler English or Box- Walla English for e.g. I come go: I am going away, but I'll be back. (Kachru, P.229) It is not intelligible, it has a characteristic of child language, but it has qualities related to function. The third type is 'Pidgin English,' i.e. spoken by the workers, who come from other parts of Africa to Ghana, namely Northern Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leona, and Liberia.

23 In West Africa, one can find similar situations in language variation, as in south or in Ghana. 'Even in Pidgins, there exists considerable variety in terms of area and functions., but these are feasible' (Kachru, P.229) There are many Nigerian speakers called as snobbish, but still there are many Nigerian Indian, Ghanains speak like a native speaker of English.

In South Africa, English is used as a national lingua franca besides Afrikaans. As such, English is spoken as a mother tongue, as a language-shift variety, as a second language and as a foreign language. Its mother tongue speakers are mainly descendants of the British settlers, but English is increasingly becoming the first language of both coloured and black speakers as well. Most of these, however, speak English as a second language, either learned in an institutionalised context or acquired informally, in an interaction with a variety of other speakers of English. b) Caribbean Englishes : "The Caribbean variety of English has its well defined sub-varieties; AUsopp uses the following terms for them, free vernacular, of sub-culture, elevated vernacular, creolized English and formal Caribbean English" (Kachru, P. 229). All the varieties within variety are not similar / shared features. These are distinct from each other. One may use the general names / cover terms such as Caribbean English (Allsopp, 1971), South Asia English (Kachru, 1983) and West African English (Spencer, 1971) which is used in literature. According to Strevens, 'The ultimate test of effectiveness of a variety of a language is whether it meets the communication needs of those who use it', 'Indian English seems to

24 pass that test'. (Kachru, P. 233). There are sub varieties of South Aasian EngUshes. c) South Asian Englishes: - Schuchardt conducted a survey of 'Indo-EngUshes'. These are continued in India from century ago. The varieties lists are Indo-English, Butler English (Madras), Pidgin English (Bombay), Boxwala English (itinerant peddlers, upper India) Chee-chee English (Chi-chi English), spoken by Eurasians , and Baboo (Babu) English (Bengal and other places).

These varieties distinguish according to the speakers and in terms of users. Kachru has offered a brief discussion of these sub varieties: i) Indo-English is associated with educated graduate who has English as one of the subjects like educated British English and educated Ghanian English the terms applied by Quirk et. al. for former.

ii) Butler English is the term used by Yule and Bumell. They said, "the broken English is spoken by the native servants in the Madras Presidency which is not very much better than Pidgin -English of China : It is singular dialect; the participle being used for the future indicative / and the preterit indicative is being forwarded by 'done', thus I telling = T will teir, I done tell = i have told', done come- 'actually arrived'.

iii) The term 'chee-chee English' is used both by Yule and Bumell. This variety is noticeable in pronunciation, as Kachru

25 called this 'mincing accent' and 'hybrid minced English' which is spoken by the Anglo-Indians and Eurasians.

1.6 Methodology and Techniques Creative Indian writers in English tend to use the words, phrases, idiomatic-expressions, sentences from their mother tongue, while writing literary works like novels and short stories. Therefore, the researcher has to collect suitable data from the selected works of Indian writing in English which comprises of the elements of code- mixing and code-switching. The data is segregated as code-mixing and code-switching. The highly marked examples are analysed taking into account the principles and theories in sociolinguistics. An attempt is made to use the models of different sociolinguists.

1.7 Significance of the Study

The significance of the study lies in the fact that language is used as a social tool as it reflects the linguistic behaviour of the persons or the characters in a fiction. One cannot deny the fact that language is a social institution. Moreover, a socio linguistic study directs the meaning of language in diverse speech situation and speech events. Therefore, there is an inherent relationship between language and society. In a social set up, people come from dissimilar social factions and different geographical environment due to which language varies. Ethnic group, social status, region etc. are some of the important factors that influence the use of language. Thus, it is obvious that language reflects the very nature of social structure.

26 The present study is aimed at exploring socio-cultural dimension of the use of code-mixing and code switching in the fictional works of the selected writers. The writers under consideration make use of code-mixing and code-switching extensively in their respective literary works. If these communicative strategies are examined and analyzed against the socio-cultural background, it will pave the way for authenticity of the characters.

This study tries to find out the relationships namely social intimacy and social distance of the speakers and the hearers and the impact of social relationships on code mixing or shifting and on language use in general. This work also attempts to study the code-switching behaviour in relation to various socio linguistic factors (Age, Sex, Occupation, Income, and Education) under which the code switching behaviour occurs. It also gives reasons for the code switching behaviour.

It is the human speech context that encourages code switching behaviour. It involves a switch from one language to another in a specific context. The context of the speech determines the language behaviour. Language behaviour varies from one domain to another. A person tends to adapt different varieties or codes and styles and keep switching over from one code to another depending upon the context.

A person's social intimacy, social relationship, social distance, the situation of both the speaker and hearer, all play their roles in the language behaviour. The speaker does not select his own way or style in his language use, but the context determines the varieties according to the situations.

27 Thus, the strategy of code mixing and code switching in a linguistic interaction becomes a handy tool for establishing the authenticity of the characters in the fictional world. The fictional works under consideration offer bilingual speech situations and speech events, which are worth studying from sociolinguistic point of view.

1.8 Conclusion

This is an introductory chapter. It highlights the main aims and objectives of the present study. The scope and limitations of the study have been made clear keeping in mind the phenomenon of code- mixing and code-switching. The methodology and techniques to be adopted for the analysis have been clearly spelt out. The rationale behind selection of the Indian writers and their fictional works has been justified. Towards the end, the chapter validates the significance of the present research.

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