The British Psychological Society
Code of Conduct, Ethical Principles & Guidelines
St Andrews House 48 Princess Road East Leicester LE1 7DR,UK
Tel 0116 254 9568 Fax 0116 247 0787 E-mail [email protected]
http://www.bps.org.uk
Incorporated by Royal Charter Registered Charity No 229642 January 2000 Contents
A Code of Conduct for psychologists 2 Introduction to the revised ethical principles for conducting research with human participants 6 Ethical principles for conducting research with human participants 8 Guidelines for the use of animals in research 12 Guidelines on advertising the services offered by psychologists 22 Descriptions 25 Regulations for the corporate use of the title ‘Chartered Psychologist’ 32 Equal opportunities policy statement and policy 34 Sexual harassment at work and the ethics of dual relationships 36 A briefing paper on sexual harassment at work and the ethics of dual relationships 39 Guidelines for penile plethysmography (PPG) usage 48
The documents printed here have appeared at various times in the Bulletin ofThe British Psychological Society,The Psychologist or a CharterGuide for the guidance of Members of the Society.Where understanding of the content requires knowledge of the date of publication,this has been indicated.
Comments or enquiries about these matters should be addressed to The Honorary General Secretary at the Society’s Head Office.
Published by The British Psychological Society, St Andrews House, 48 Princess Road East,Leicester LE1 7DR. Tel:0116 254 9568 E-mail:[email protected] January 2000 A Code of Conduct for psychologists
Under the terms of its Royal Charter, the Society those re l evant to their own specialist fields of is required to ‘maintain a code of conduct’.In practice or re s e a rc h . 1985 the Society adopted a code of conduct prior to the introduction of the Register of 1. General Chartered Psychologists with provision for an In all their work psychologists shall conduct Investigatory Committee and Disciplinary Board th e m s e l v es in a manner that does not bring into to consider complaints of professional di s r epute the discipline and the prof ession of misconduct against members of the Society. In ps y c h o l o g y.Th e y shall value integrity, im p a r tiality and the light of experience dealing with several dozen respect for persons and evidence and shall seek to allegations of misconduct these committees establish the highest ethical standards in their wor k . recommended some amendments to the code. Because of their concern for valid evi d e n c e , th e y After extensive consultations the following shall ensure that res e a r ch is carried out in kee p i n g revised Code of Conduct was approved by the with the highest standards of scientific integrity. Council in February 1993 and adopted forthwith. Taking account of their obligations under the law, th e y shall hold the interest and wel f a r e of those in Statute 15 (12) states that a Disciplinary receipt of their services to be paramount at all Committee shall be ‘guided by the Code of times and ensure that the interests of participants in C o n d u c t , but that mention or lack of mention in res e a r ch are safeg u a rd e d . the Code of Conduct of a particular act or omission shall not be taken as conclusive on any 2. Competence question of pro fessional conduct’. N eve rt h e l e s s , Psychologists shall endeavour to maintain and the Code sets out certain minimum standard s develop their professional competence, to for conduct with which psychologists are recognise and work within its limits,and to re q u i red to comply. H oweve r, the Code is also identify and ameliorate factors which restrict it. supplemented by several other guidelines and statements on matters of ethics and conduct Specifically they shall: published by the Society and its sub-systems. 2.1 refrain from laying claim,directly or These fre q u e n t ly set out standards of go o d indirectly, to psychological qualifications or practice at which psychologists should aim. S o m e affiliations they do not possess,from claiming of these other statements give detailed guidance competence in any particular area of psychology on matters such as adve rtising and descriptions, in which they have not established their re s e a rch with human or animal participants and competence, and from claiming characteristics or some are re l evant to specific fields of capabilities for themselves or others which they p ro fessional practice or concern the special do not possess; p rovisions of law and practice on such matters as confidentiality and the disclosure of 2.2 recognise the boundaries of their own i n fo r m a t i o n . Members and contributors of the competence and not attempt to practise any S o c i e t y, m a ny of whom will be Charte re d form of psychology for which they do not have P s y c h o l o g i s t s , must also take account of these an appropriate preparation or, where applicable, f u rther guidelines issued from time to time by specialist qualification; the Society and its sub-systems, but especially
2 A Code of Conduct
2.3 take all reasonable steps to ensure that their consistent with a concern for the welfare of the qualifications,capabilities or views are not participants; misrepresented by others,and to correct any such misrepresentations; 3.3 refrain from making exaggerated,sensational and unjustifiable claims for the effectiveness of 2. 4 if requested to provide psychological servi c e s , their methods and products,from advertising and where the services they judge to be services or products in a way likely to encourage app r opriate are outside their personal competence, unrealistic expectations about the effectiveness of gi v e ever y reasonable assistance towa r ds obtaining the services or products offered,or from those services from others who are app ro p r i a t e l y misleading those to whom services are offered qualified to provide them; about the nature and likely consequences of any interventions to be undertaken; 2.5 take all reasonable steps to ensure that those working under their direct supervision 3.4 normally obtain the consent of those to comply with each of the foregoing,in particular whom interventions are offered,taking all that they recognise the limits of their reasonable steps to ensure that the consent competence and do not attempt to practise obtained is valid,except when the intervention is beyond them. made compulsorily in accordance with the provisions and safeguards of the relevant 3. Obtaining consent legislation; Psychologists shall normally carry out investigations or interventions only with the valid 3.5 recognise and uphold the rights of those consent of participants,having taken all whose capacity to give valid consent to reasonable steps to ensure that they have interventions may be diminished including the adequately understood the nature of the young,those with learning disabilities,the elderly, investigation or intervention and its anticipated those in the care of an institution or detained consequences. under the provisions of the law;
Specifically they shall: 3. 6 wh e r e interventions are offer ed to those in 3. 1 alw a ys consult experienced profe s s i o n a l no position to give valid consent, after consulting colleagues when considering withholding with experienced prof essional colleagues, es t a b l i s h in f ormation about an inves t i g a t o r y proc e d u r e, an d who has legal authority to give consent and seek withhold information only when it is necessary in consent from that person or those persons; the interests of the objectivity of the inves t i g a t o r y pro c e d u r e or of future prof essional practice; 3.7 recognise and uphold the rights of recipients of services to withdraw consent to interventions 3.2 where it is necessary not to give full or other professional procedures after they have information in advance to those participating in commenced and terminate or recommend an investigation,provide such full information alternative services when there is evidence that retrospectively about the aims,rationale and those in receipt of their services are deriving no outcomes of the procedure as far as it is benefit from them.
3 4. Confidentiality par ties without prior consent after first consulting Psychologists shall maintain adequate records,but an experienced and disinterested colleague, they shall take all reasonable steps to preser ve unless the delay caused by seeking this advice the confidentiality of information acquired would involve a significant risk to life or health; through their professional practice or research and to protect the privacy of individuals or 4.4 take all reasonable steps to ensure that organisations about whom information is records over which they have control remain collected or held.In general,and subject to the personally identifiable only as long as is necessary requirements of law, they shall take care to in the interests of those to whom they refer (or, prevent the identity of individuals,organisations exceptionally, to the general development and or participants in research being revealed, provision of psychological services),and to deliberately or inadvertently, without their render anonymous any records under their expressed permission. control that no longer need to be personally identifiable for the above purposes; Specifically they shall: 4.1 endeavour to communicate information 4.5 only make audio, video, or photographic obtained through research or practice in ways recordings of recipients of services or which do not permit the identification of participants in research (with the exception of individuals or organisations; recordings of public behaviour) with the expressed agreement of those being recorded 4.2 convey personally identifiable information both to the recording being made and to the obtained in the course of professional work to subsequent conditions of access to it; others, only with the expressed permission of those who would be identified,(subject always to 4.6 take all reasonable steps to safeguard the the best interests of recipients of services or security of any records they make, including those participants in research and subject to the held on computer, and,where they have limited requirements of law and agreed working control over access to records they make, practices) except that when working in a team or exercise discretion over the information entered with collaborators,they shall endeavour to make on the records; clear to recipients of services or participants in research,the extent to which personally 4.7 take all reasonable steps to ensure that identifiable information may be shared between colleagues,staff and trainees with whom they colleagues or others within a group receiving the work understand and respect the need for services; confidentiality regarding any information obtained. 4.3 in exceptional circumstances,where there is sufficient evidence to raise serious concern about 5. Personal conduct the safety or interests of recipients of services,or Psychologists shall conduct themselves in their about others who may be threatened by the professional activities in a way that does not recipient’s behaviour, take such steps as are damage the interest of the recipients of their judged necessary to inform appropriate third services or participants in their research and
4 does not inappropriately undermine public 5.6 value and have respect for all relevant confidence in their ability or that of other evidence and the limits of such evidence when psychologists and members of other professions giving psychological advice or expressing a to carry out their professional duties. professional opinion;
Specifically they shall: 5.7 value and have respect for scientific evidence 5.1 refrain from improper conduct in their work and the limits of such evidence when making as psychologists that would be likely to be public statements that provide psychological detrimental to the interests of recipients of their information; services or participants in their research; 5.8 refrain from claiming credit for the research 5.2 neither attempt to secure or to accept from and intellectual property of others and give due those receiving their service any significant credit to the contributions of others in financial or material benefit beyond that which collaborative work; has been contractually agreed,nor to secure directly from them any such benefit for services 5.9 take steps to maintain adequate standards of which are already rewarded by salary; safety in the use of all procedures and equipment used in professional practice or research; 5.3 not exploit any relationship of influence or trust which exists between colleagues,those 5.10 bring allegations of misconduct by a under their tuition,or those in receipt of their professional colleague to the attention of those services to further the gratification of their charged with the responsibility to investigate personal desires; them,doing so without malice and with no breaches of confidentiality other than those 5.4 not allow their professional responsibilities necessary to the proper investigatory processes or standards of practice to be diminished by and when the subject of allegations themselves, considerations of religion,sex,race, age, they shall take all reasonable steps to assist those nationality, party politics,social standing,class, charged with responsibility to investigate them. self-interest or other extraneous factors;
5.5 refrain from practice when their physical or psychological condition,as a result of for example alcohol,drugs,illness or personal stress,is such that abilities or professional judgement are seriously impaired;
5 Ethical principles for conducting research with human participants
Introduction to the revised of the collection of data would make much psychological research impossible.The principles Committee noted that there is a distinction The Standing Committee on Ethics in Research between withholding some of the details of the with Human Participants has now completed its hypothesis under test and deliberately falsely revision of theEthical Principles for Research informing the participants of the purpose of the with Human Subjects (British Psychological research,especially if the information given Society, 1978).The new ‘Ethical Principles for implied a more benign topic of study than was in Conducting Research with Human Participants’ fact the case.While the Committee wishes to (q.v.) have been approved by the Council. urge all psychologists to seek to supply as full information as possible to those taking part in TheStanding Committee wishes to highlight their research,it concluded that the central some of the issues that concerned it during the principle was the reaction of participants when drawing up of the Principles published below. In deception was revealed.If this led to discomfort, the forefront of its considerations was the anger or objections from the participants then recognition that psychologists owe a debt to the deception was inappropriate.The Committee those who agree to take part in their studies and hopes that such a principle protects the dignity of that people who are willing to give up their time, the participants while allowing valuable even for remuneration,should be able to expect psychological research to be conducted. to be treated with the highest standards of consideration and respect.This is reflected in the Debriefing change from the term ‘subjects’ to ‘participants’. Following the research,especially where any To psychologists brought up on the jargon of deception or withholding of information had their profession the term ‘subject’ is not taken place, the Committee wished to emphasise derogatory. However, to someone who has not the importance of appropriate debriefing.In some had that experience of psychological research it is circumstances,the verbal description of the a term which can seem impersonal. nature of the investigation would not be sufficient to eliminate all possibility of harmful after-effects. Deception For example, an experiment in which negative The issue of deception caused the Committee mood was induced requires the induction of a considerable problems.To many outside the happy mood state before the participant leaves psychology profession,and to some within it,the the experimental setting. idea of deceiving the participants in one’s research is seen as quite inappropriate.At best, Risk the experience of deception in psychological Another area of concern for the Committee was research can make the recipients cynical about the protection of participants from undue risk in the activities and attitudes of psychologists. psychological research.Since this was an area in However, since there are very many psychological which the Principles might be looked to during an processes that are modifiable by individuals if investigation following a complaint against a they are aware that they are being studied,the researcher, the Committee was concerned to statement of the research hypothesis in advance seek a definition that protected the participants
6 in the research without making important Principles were provisionally in operation.In research impossible. Risks attend us every Spring 1992 the Council reviewed the Principles, moment in life, and to say that research should in the light of experience of their operation. involve no risks would be inappropriate. During this period researchers were unable to However, the important principle seemed to be identify problems in the working of the Principles. that when participants entered upon a Following minor amendment the Principles were psychological investigation they should not,in so formally adopted in October 1992. doing,be increasing the probability that they would come to any form of harm.Thus,the The Council urges all research psychologists to definition of undue risk was based upon the risks ensure that they abide by these Principles,which that individuals run in their normal lifestyle.This supplement the Society’s Code of Conduct (q.v.) definition makes possible research upon and thus violation of them could form the basis individuals who lead a risk-taking or risk-seeking of disciplinary action.It is essential that all life (e.g.mountaineers,cave divers),so long as the members of the psychological profession abide by individuals are not induced to take risks that are the Principles if psychologists are to continue to greater than those that they would normally retain the privilege of testing human participants encounter in their life outside the research. in their research.Psychologists have legal as well as moral responsibilities for those who help them Implementation in their study, and the long-term reputation of the The Council of the Society approved the discipline depends largely upon the experience of Principles at its meeting in February 1990.There those who encounter it first-hand during followed a two-year period during which the new psychological investigations.
7 Ethical principles for conducting research with human participants
1. Introduction Researchers must recognise the possibility of 1.1 The principles given below are intended to such legal action if they infringe the rights and apply to research with human participants. dignity of participants in their research. Principles of conduct in prof essional practice are to be found in the Society’s Code of Conduct and in 2. General the advisory documents prep a r ed by the Divisions, 2. 1 In all circ u m s t a n c e s ,i nvestigators mus t Sections and Special Groups of the Society. consider the ethical implications and psychological consequences for the participants in their 1.2 Participants in psychological research should res e a rc h . The essential principle is that the have confidence in the investigators.Good in vestigation should be considered from the psychological research is possible only if there is standpoint of all parti c i p a n t s ; for eseeable threa t s mutual respect and confidence between to their psychological we l l - b e i n g ,h e a l t h , values or investigators and participants.Psychological dignity should be eliminated. In vestigators should investigators are potentially interested in all recognise that, in our multi-cultural and mul t i - aspects of human behaviour and conscious ethnic society and where investigations invol v e experience. However, for ethical reasons,some individuals of differ ent ages, gender and social areas of human experience and behaviour may be ba c k g ro u n d , the investigators may not have beyond the reach of experiment,observation or sufficient knowledge of the implications of any other form of psychological investigation.Ethical in vestigation for the parti c i p a n t s . It should be guidelines are necessary to clarify the conditions borne in mind that the best judge of whether an under which psychological research is acceptable. in vestigation will cause offence may be members of the population from which the participants in 1.3 The principles given below supplement for the res e a r ch are to be drawn . researchers with human participants the general ethical principles of members of the Society as 3. Consent stated in The British Psychological Society’s Code 3.1 Whenever possible, the investigator should of Conduct (q.v.).Members of The British inform all participants of the objectives of the Psychological Society are expected to abide by investigation.The investigator should inform the both the Code of Conduct and the fuller participants of all aspects of the research or principles expressed here. Members should also intervention that might reasonably be expected draw the principles to the attention of research to influence willingness to participate.The colleagues who are not members of the Society. investigator should,normally, explain all other Members should encourage colleagues to adopt aspects of the research or inter vention about them and ensure that they are followed by all which the participants enquire. Failure to make researchers whom they supervise (e.g. research full disclosure prior to obtaining informed assistants,postgraduate, undergraduate,A-Level consent requires additional safeguards to protect and GCSE students). the welfare and dignity of the participants (see Section 4). 1.4 In recent years,there has been an increase in legal actions by members of the general public 3.2 Research with children or with participants against professionals for alleged misconduct. who have impairments that will limit
8 understanding and/or communication such that 3.8 If harm,unusual discomfort,or other they are unable to give their real consent negative consequences for the individual’s future requires special safe-guarding procedures. life might occur, the investigator must obtain the disinterested approval of independent advisors, 3.3 Where possible, the real consent of children inform the participants,and obtain informed, real and of adults with impairments in understanding consent from each of them. or communication should be obtained.In addition,where research involves any persons 3.9 In longitudinal research,consent may need under 16 years of age, consent should be to be obtained on more than one occasion. obtained from parents or from those in loco parentis.If the nature of the research precludes 4. Deception consent being obtained from parents or 4.1 The withholding of information or the permission being obtained from teachers,before misleading of participants is unacceptable if the proceeding with the research,the investigator participants are typically likely to object or show must obtain approval from an Ethics Committee. unease once debriefed.Where this is in any doubt, appropriate consultation must precede the 3.4 Where real consent cannot be obtained investigation.Consultation is best carried out from adults with impairments in understanding or with individuals who share the social and cultural communication,wherever possible the background of the participants in the research, investigator should consult a person well-placed but the advice of ethics committees or to appreciate the participant’s reaction,such as a experienced and disinterested colleagues may be member of the person’s family, and must obtain sufficient. the disinterested approval of the research from independent advisors. 4.2 Intentional deception of the participants over the purpose and general nature of the 3.5 When research is being conducted with investigation should be avoided whenever detained persons,particular care should be taken possible. Participants should never be deliberately over informed consent,paying attention to the misled without extremely strong scientific or special circumstances which may affect the medical justification.Even then there should be person’s ability to give free informed consent. strict controls and the disinterested approval of independent advisors. 3.6 Investigators should realise that they are often in a position of authority or influence over 4.3 It may be impossible to study some participants who may be their students, psychological processes without withholding employees or clients.This relationship must not information about the true object of the study or be allowed to pressurise the participants to take deliberately misleading the participants.Before part in,or remain in,an investigation. conducting such a study, the investigator has a special responsibility to 3. 7 The payment of participants must not be used (a) determine that alternative procedures to induce them to risk harm beyond that which avoiding concealment or deception are not th e y risk without payment in their normal lifes t y l e . available;
9 (b) ensure that the participants are provided with 6.2 In the light of experience of the sufficient information at the earliest stage;and investigation,or as a result of debriefing,the (c) consult appropriately upon the way that the participant has the right to withdraw withholding of information or deliberate retrospectively any consent given,and to require deception will be received. that their own data,including recordings,be destroyed. 5. Debriefing 5. 1 In studies where the participants are awa r e 7. Confidentiality that they have taken part in an inve s t i g a t i o n ,w h e n 7.1 Subject to the requirements of legislation, the data have been collected, the inves t i g a t o r including the Data Protection Act,information should provide the participants with any necessary obtained about a participant during an in f ormation to complete their understanding of investigation is confidential unless otherwise the nature of the res e a rc h . The investigator should agreed in advance. Investigators who are put discuss with the participants their experience of under pressure to disclose confidential the res e a r ch in order to monitor any unfore s e e n information should draw this point to the ne g a t i v e effects or misconceptions. attention of those exerting such pressure. Participants in psychological research have a right 5.2 Debriefing does not provide a justification to expect that information they provide will be for unethical aspects of any investigation. treated confidentially and,if published,will not be identifiable as theirs.In the event that 5.3 Some effects which may be produced by an confidentiality and/or anonymity cannot be experiment will not be negated by a verbal guaranteed,the participant must be warned of description following the research.Investigators this in advance of agreeing to participate. have a responsibility to ensure that participants receive any necessary debriefing in the form of 8. Protection of participants active intervention before they leave the research 8.1 Investigators have a primary responsibility to setting. protect participants from physical and mental harm during the investigation.Normally, the risk 6. Wi t h d r a wal from the investigation of harm must be no greater than in ordinary life, 6. 1 At the onset of the investigation inves t i g a t o r s i.e. participants should not be exposed to risks should make plain to participants their right to greater than or additional to those encountered wi t h d r a w from the res e a r ch at any time, ir res p e c t i v e in their normal lifestyles.Where the risk of harm of whether or not payment or other inducement is greater than in ordinary life the provisions of has been offere d . It is recognised that this may be 3.8 should apply. Participants must be asked about difficult in certain observational or organisational any factors in the procedure that might create a se t t i n g s , but never theless the investigator mus t risk,such as pre-existing medical conditions,and attempt to ensure that participants (including must be advised of any special action they should ch i l d r en) know of their right to withdraw.Wh e n take to avoid risk. testing children , avoidance of the testing situation ma y be taken as evidence of failure to consent to 8.2 Participants should be informed of the proc e d u r e and should be acknowl e d g e d . procedures for contacting the investigator within
10 a reasonable time period following participation 10. Giving advice should stress,potential harm,or related questions 10.1 During research,an investigator may obtain or concern arise despite the precautions required evidence of psychological or physical problems of by the Principles.Where research procedures which a participant is, apparently, unaware. In such might result in undesirable consequences for a case, the investigator has a responsibility to participants,the investigator has the responsibility inform the participant if the investigator believes to detect and remove or correct these that by not doing so the participant’s future well- consequences. being may be endangered.
8.3 Where research may involve behaviour or 10.2 If,in the normal course of psychological experiences that participants may regard as research,or as a result of problems detected as personal and private the participants must be in 10.1,a participant solicits advice concerning protected from stress by all appropriate educational,personality, behavioural or health measures,including the assurance that answers to issues,caution should be exercised.If the issue is personal questions need not be given.There serious and the investigator is not qualified to should be no concealment or deception when offer assistance, the appropriate source of seeking information that might encroach on professional advice should be recommended. privacy. Further details on the giving of advice will be found in the Society’s Code of Conduct. 8.4 In research involving children,great caution should be exercised when discussing the results 10.3 In some kinds of investigation the giving of with parents,teachers or others acting in loco advice is appropriate if this forms an intrinsic part parentis, since evaluative statements may carry of the research and has been agreed in advance. unintended weight. 11. Colleagues 9. Observational research 11.1 Investigators share responsibility for the 9.1 Studies based upon observation must ethical treatment of research participants with respect the privacy and psychological well-being their collaborators,assistants,students and of the individuals studied. Unless those observed employees.A psychologist who believes that give their consent to being observed, another psychologist or investigator may be observational research is only acceptable in conducting research that is not in accordance situations where those observed would expect to with the principles above should encourage that be observed by strangers.Additionally, particular investigator to re-evaluate the research. account should be taken of local cultural values and of the possibility of intruding upon the privacy of individuals who, even while in a normally public space, may believe they are unobserved.
11 Guidelines for psychologists working with animals
Psychologists work with animals for a variety of harm in any ver tebrate (and one invert e b r a t e reasons.The most obvious use is in research,and octopus vulgaris) species is governed by this Ac t it is this that has commanded most attention in (see Section 4 below) . These guidelines will the general media.Animals are also sometimes pr ovide an outline of the legal responsibilities of used in practical teaching within psychology members of the BPS or EPS whose res e a r ch is degree programmes.However, these do not al r eady governed by the Ac t ; the guidelines should exhaust the possible ways in which psychologists, be taken into consideration where any work is not in their professional capacity, may work with governed by the Ac t , and may provide addi t i o n a l animals.There is increasing use of animals in help or advice. Psychologists working with animals various forms of psychological therapy with in ways that are not cover ed by legislation should people, and psychologists may also be asked to aim to maintain standards at least as high as those advise on therapy for animals whose behaviour is suggested here for res e a r ch use, and should fol l o w disordered or inconvenient.Psychologists may the spirit of these guidelines even where the letter find themselves involved in the training and use of cannot strictly be app l i e d . The guidelines are animals for commercial purposes.New uses are general in scope, since the diversity of species and likely to appear from time to time . Many techniques used in psychology preclude the psychological studies are non-invasive and involve inclusion of specific details about app ro p r i a t e only observation of the animals,but some animal care and trea t m e n t . Thus members of both research questions cannot be answered Societies are reminded of their general obligation adequately without the manipulation of animals; to avoid or at least minimise discomfor t to living and all studies of captive animals necessarily an i m a l s . It should be noted that permission to involve keeping animals in confinement.Even pe r f orm proc e d u r es regulated under the 1986 Ac t studies of free-living animals in their natural will not be granted unless the res e a r cher can habitat may involve disruption of the justify the costs to the animal in terms of the likel y environment,or capture of animals in order to benefits of the res e a r ch (see Section 4 below ) .I n mark them. add i t i o n , when permission to perform a reg u l a t e d pro c e d u r e is req u e s t e d , the res e a r cher is also The British Psychological Society has set up a req u i r ed to demonstrate that consideration has Standing Ad v i s o r y Committee on the Wel f a r e of been given to replacing animals with alternatives Animals in Psychology, to advise the Scientific wh e n e ver possible, reducing the number of Affairs Board and through it, the Society more animals used, and refining proc e d u r es to minimise ge n e r a l l y on the ethical issues invol v ed in wor k i n g su f f ering (Russell & Burc h ,1 9 5 9 ) .P s y c h o l o g i s t s with animals in psychology.This Committee, wi t h who work with animals should, th e re fo r e, kee p the co-operation of the Experimental Psychology ab r east of new developments in animal wel f a r e, So c i e t y , has produced the fol l o wing guidelines for with new ways of reducing the numbers of animals the use of all members who are engaged in req u i r ed for the proc e d u re s , and with refining the psychological activities involving living animals.Th e pro c e d u r es so as to enhance the wel f a r e of the majority of animal use in psychology is in res e a rc h , animals concerned (see, for example, th e and this is dealt with by the Animals (Scientific publications of the Joint Working Group on Pro c e d u r es) Act 1986.An y scientific proc e d u r e R e f i n e m e n t ) .A p p ropriate training courses could that may cause pain, s u f fe r i n g ,d i s t ress or lasting be useful in this res p e c t .
12 These guidelines will be used by the Editors of 2. Choice of species the Journals of both Societies in assessing the Psychologists should choose a species that is well acceptability of submitted manuscripts.Submitted suited for the intended use. Choosing an manuscripts may be rejected by an Editor if the appropriate subject species usually requires content violates either the letter or the spirit of knowledge of that species’ natural history and the guidelines.Members of The British some judgement of its level of sentience. Psychological Society using animals should Knowledge of an individual animal’s previous consider the guidelines before embarking on a experience, such as whether or not it was bred procedure, since any breach may be considered in captivity, is also important.When the use professional misconduct. involves regulated procedures,and when a variety of species can be used,the psychologist should 1. Legislation employ the species which,in the opinion of the Members of the Societies working in this country psychologist and other qualified colleagues,is must familiarise themselves with the laws least likely to suffer, and must justify their choice regarding animal welfare, and with threatened and in any Project Licence application.Alternatives endangered species that are relevant to their such as video records from previous work or work,and conform with the spirit and letter of computer simulations can sometimes be used, the relevant legislation.Wherever their work is especially in teaching contexts but also for some done, Members of the Societies,or those whose research purposes:see Stricklin et al. (1995) and work is published by the Societies,should Hull (1996).Advice on computer simulations for conform to the ethical standards underlying UK teaching can be obtained from the CTI legislation.A summary of the British laws Psychology Centre at the University of York. designed to ensure the welfare of animals is given by Crofts (1989):detailed guidance on the 3. Number of animals operation of the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Re s e a r chers working under the 1986 Act are Act 1986 is provided by the Home Office le g a l l y req u i r ed to use the smallest number of (HMSO 1990,1999),the Annual Reports of the animals necessary and sufficient to accomplish the Animal Procedures Committee (HMSO-APC) and res e a r ch goa l s , and this principle should be an updated summary is given every year in the ge n e r a l l y app l i e d . The aim of minimising the annual statistics (HMSO-Stats).Lists of threatened number of animals used in an experiment can be species and laws aiming to protect them can be ac h i e ved by app r opriate pilot studies, rel i a b l e obtained from the International Union for the me a s u r es of behavi o u r , good experimental design Conservation of Nature, Species Conservation and the use of statistical tests (see ECVA M ,1 9 9 8 ) , Monitoring Unit (219C Huntingdon Road, Hunt (1980), Still (1982) and McConway (1992) Cambridge CB3 0DL,UK).Before publication of discuss ways of reducing the number of animals primary reports of research involving animals in used in experiments through alternative designs. the Societies’ journals,authors must confirm in In 1996, the American Psychological As s o c i a t i o n ’ s their cover letter that they have adhered to the Task For ce on Statistical Infer ence re p o rt e d ,g i v i n g legal requirements of the country in which the guidance on the importance of taking statistical study was conducted,as well as to these po wer into account when designing experiments. guidelines. Copies of the rep o r t are available from the APA .
13 4. Procedures (Mellor and Morton 1997;Morton 1997;Morton The following section details procedures that are and Townsend 1995).According to the Animal specifically covered by the Animal (Scientific (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 the Personal Procedures) Act 1986.Any scientific procedure Licence holder has the primary responsibility in that may have the effect of causing an animal pain, this regard;a Named Animal Care and Welfare suffering,distress or lasting harm is regarded as a Officer with responsibility for day-to-day care of regulated procedure under the Act.These terms the animal and a Named Veterinary Surgeon will include death,disease, injury, physiological or also be available to give advice on animal health psychological stress,significant discomfort,or any and welfare.When applying for legal permission disturbance to normal health,whether to perform regulated procedures,investigators immediately or in the long term.The investigator are also required to discuss with colleagues and should consider experimental designs that avoid others,through a Local Ethical Review process, the use of regulated procedures by, for example the justification for the use of animals and the removing the deleterious condition (e.g. balance between costs and benefits.These Local enhancing rather than impoverishing the Ethical Reviews must include not only academics environment as the experimental treatment) or but also a veterinary surgeon and a lay person, employing situations in which naturally occurring and must approve project and personal licence instances of deleterious conditions are observed. applications before they are passed to the Home Permission to perform regulated procedures Office.There are several models for evaluating requires the possession of a Project Licence, animal research which can be of use when making which specifies the species, numbers of animals ethical decisions (Orlans 1987;Shapiro and Field and types of procedures that may be used.Such a 1988; Porter 1992;Smith and Boyd 1991;and licence is only granted on condition that the Morton 1998).Furthermore, when reporting Project Licence Holder makes an assessment that research in scientific journals or otherwise, justifies the costs to the animal against the likely researchers must always be prepared to identify benefits of the proposed programme of work.He any costs to the animals involved and justify them or she is responsible for ensuring that the project in terms of the scientific benefit of the work. is conducted legally under the terms of the Act, and in accordance with the conditions of the The following more specific points may be of use. Project Licence.The actual performance of a regulated procedure requires the granting of a (a) Reward,deprivation and aversive Personal Licence, which is given only to those stimulation who are competent to perform the procedures,if It is not always necessary to provide all species of necessary under supervision. Personal Licence animals with ad libitum food intake, and in some holders are also required to seek to minimise any cases this may even be considered harmful; pain,suffering or distress that might arise, given deprivation,on the other hand,can cause distress the requirements of the experimental design to animals (Claasen 1994).Some levels of (AVMA 1987;Bateson 1991;and NRC 1992;). deprivation are regarded as regulated procedures Whatever procedure is in use, any adverse effects under the Animal (Scientific Procedures) Act on animals must be recognised and assessed,and 1986,but others are not.Thus when arranging immediate action taken whenever necessary schedules of deprivation the experimenter should
14 consider the animal’s normal eating and drinking (c) Aggression and predation habits and its metabolic requirements;a short The fact that the agent causing harm may be period of deprivation for one species may be another non-human animal does not free the unacceptably long for another.When using experimenter from the normal and legal deprivation or aversive stimulation,the obligations to experimental animals.Huntingford investigator should ascertain that there is no (1984) and Elwood (1991) discuss the ethical alternative way of motivating the animal that is issues involved and suggest that,wherever consistent with the aims of the experiment,and possible, field studies of natural encounters that the levels of deprivation used are no greater should be used in preference to staged than necessary to achieve the goals of the encounters.Where staged encounters are experiment.Alternatives to deprivation include necessary, the use of models as targets should be the use of highly preferred foods and other considered,the number of subjects should be rewards which may motivate even satiated kept to the minimum needed to accomplish the animals.Use of minimal levels requires a experimental goals,and the experiments made as knowledge of the technical literature in the short as possible. Continuous observation,with relevant area:quantitative studies of aversive intervention to stop aggression at predefined stimulation are reviewed by Church (1971) and levels,and providing protective barriers and Rushen (1986) and the behaviour of satiated escape routes for the subjects,are also animals is considered by Morgan (1974).Further recommended. comments on reducing possible distress due to motivational procedures are to be found in (d) Fieldwork Moran (1975) and Lea (1979). Investigators studying free-living animals should take precautions to minimise interference with (b) Isolation and crowding individuals as well as the populations and eco- Caging conditions should take into account the systems of which they are a part.Capture, social behaviour of the species.Caging in isolation marking,radio-tagging,collection of physiological may be stressful to social animals; overcrowding data such as blood or tissue samples or field may also cause distress,and possible harm experiments may not only have immediate effects through aggression.Because the degree of stress on the animal,but may also have consequences experienced by an animal can vary with species, such as a reduced probability of survival and age, sex, reproductive condition,developmental reproduction.The subsequent release of the history and social status,the natural social animals may also be problematic.For guidance on behaviour of the animals concerned and their appropriate procedures see Kirkwood et al. previous social experience must be considered in (1994) and the British Wildlife Rehabilitation order to minimise such stress.The Animals Council (1989).Investigators should consider the (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 lays down effects of such interference, and use less guidelines for the housing of laboratory animals disruptive techniques such as recognition of (HMSO, 1989,1995). For further discussion,see individuals by the use of natural markings rather Dawkins’ (1988). than artificial marking (Scott 1978) where possible. Cuthill (1991) discusses the ethical issues associated with field experiments,and
15 recommends pilot investigations to assess 5. Procurement of animals potential environmental disruption and follow-up Common laboratory species,listed under studies to detect and minimise persistent effects. Schedule 2 of the Animals (Scientific Procedures) The cost-benefit analysis of a field procedure Act 1986, must come from Home Office should take into account the adverse Designated Breeding and Supply Establishments. consequences of disruption for not only the Other species should only come from reputable animals used as subjects but also for other suppliers.The list of species is updated and animals and plants in the ecosystem (Bekoff,1995; reported in the Annual Reports of the Animal Bekoff and Jamieson,1996).When an Procedures Committee. Further advice about experimental protocol requires that animals be purchasing animals may be obtained from the removed from the population either temporarily Laboratory Animal Breeders Association,c/o or on a long-term basis,investigators should Harlan UK Ltd.,Shaw’s Farm,Blackthorn,Bicester ensure that suffering or discomfort are minimised OX6 0TP. Guidance relevant to wild-caught not only for the removed animals but for others animals can be found in the ASAB/ABS Guidelines dependent on them (e.g.dependent offspring). for the treatment of animals in behavioural Removed individuals and their dependents must research and teaching (1997). be housed and cared for appropriately. Sources of further information on field techniques are the 6. Housing and animal care books edited by Stonehouse (1978) and Amlaner The researcher’s responsibilities extend also to and Macdonald (1980). the conditions under which the animals are kept when not being studied.If a regulated procedure (e) Anaesthesia,analgesia and is being used then these are governed by the euthanasia. Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986;this After conducting surgical procedures,attention principle should be extended to animals used for should be given to proper pre- and post- other purposes,and the housing conditions and operative care in order to minimise preparatory husbandry practices must at least reach the stress and residual effects.Regular and frequent standards required by the guidelines and codes post-operative monitoring of the animal’s issued under that legislation. condition is essential,and it is a requirement of the Personal Licence that if at any time an animal The 1986 European Convention (20) provides is found to be suffering severe pain or distress it that ‘Any animal used or intended for use in a must be killed humanely using an approved procedure shall be provided with technique (see Section 7 below).Unless accommodation,and environment,at least a specifically contra-indicated by the experimental minimum of freedom of movement, food,water design,procedures that are likely to cause pain or and care, appropriate to its health and well being. discomfort should be performed only on animals Any restriction on the extent to which an animal that have been adequately anaesthetised,and can satisfy its physiological and ecological needs analgesics should be used after such procedures shall be limited as far as practicable.’ Normal to minimise pain and distress whenever possible maintenance of captive animals should thus (Green 1979;and Flecknell 1996). incorporate, as much as possible, aspects of the natural living conditions deemed important to
16 welfare and survival (Poole, 1998).Consideration res e a r ch projects or teaching exer cises using should be given to providing features such as cap t i v e animals are completed, it may sometimes be natural materials, refuges,perches and dust and app r opriate to distribute animals to colleagues for water baths.Frequency of cage cleaning should fu r ther study or bre e d i n g .H owever , if animals are represent a compromise between the level of di s t r i b u t e d ,c a r e must be taken to ensure that they cleanliness necessary to prevent diseases and the co n t i n ue to rec e i v e a high standard of care. If amount of stress imposed by the cleaning animals must be killed during or subsequent to a process. Companions should be provided for study this must be done as humanely and painlessly social animals where possible, providing that this as possible; acceptable methods for parti c u l a r does not lead to suffering or injury.The housing species are defined in Schedule 1 of the An i m a l s regime should provide adequate exercise and (Scientific Proc e d u r es) Act 1986 (HMSO, 19 9 7 ) . cognitive stimulation. Death of the animals must be confirmed befor e their bodies are disposed of.A vet e r i n a r y surgeon The nature of human-animal interactions during should be consulted for advice on methods of routine care and experimentation should be euthanasia that are app r opriate for species not considered by investigators.Depending upon listed in Schedule 1. For information on euthanasia species, rearing history and the nature of the methods see AVMA (1993), and Close et al. (1 9 9 6 , interaction,animals may perceive humans as 19 9 7 ) . conspecifics,predators or symbionts (Estep & Hetts,1992).Special training of animal care 8. Animals in psychology teaching personnel can help in implementing procedures Di f fe r ent considerations app l y to the differe n t that foster habituation of animals to caretakers le vels of education ranging from secondary school and researchers and minimise stress.Stress can th r ough undergraduate to postgraduate.At ever y also be reduced by training animals to co-operate le vel where animals are used, the opportu n i t y with handlers and experimenters during routine should be taken to discuss, with students, th e husbandry and experimental procedures ethical issues invol ve d . Students should be (Biological Council,1992; Joint Working Group on encouraged to form their own ethical assessments Refinement,1993b, 1998). and must not be req u i r ed to carry out any experimental manipulation that they judge to be Some experimental procedures used in in ap p ro p r i a t e . It is the responsibility of teachers to psychology may involve special housing conditions en s u r e that students are trained and competent (e.g.social isolation).Even under such conditions to carry out whatever is req u i r ed of them. these Guidelines are still applicable to the non- At secondary school and the undergraduate level, manipulated environmental conditions (See 4b it may be appropriate to include some work above, on social isolation). involving live animals.The use of animals for demonstrations of known facts using regulated 7. Final disposal of animals procedures is prohibited unless they may not be If an animal has been used in a proc e d u r e reg u l a t e d taught effectively by any other means.There may, by the Animals (Scientific Proc e d u r es) Act 1986 its however, be some occasions on which students re-use is ver y tightly controlled and req u i r es Home may use animals individually for teaching purposes Office app r ova l . In other circu m s t a n c e s ,w h e n in ways that are not covered by this legislation,
17 but these by definition will not involve ‘co-therapists’ in the clinical setting,either procedures believed to cause any harmful through direct contact and interaction with the consequence. Observation of animals in their client/patient,or simply by their presence in the natural habitat may be encouraged provided that consulting room during a therapy session.Other neither the animals nor the habitat are examples include horse riding for disabled manipulated.The use of film and video brings children,companion animal visiting schemes in valuable opportunities for the observation of hospitals or hospices,and pet keeping schemes formal manipulative studies. within prison rehabilitation programmes.In addition,animals such as spiders and snakes are Students who have career aspirations in used in behaviour therapy for the treatment of professional psychology may have a special specific animal phobias. interest in animal psychology.They may wish to carry out final year experimental projects In all these cases,considerations concerning the involving animals.If such projects may involve pain general care and welfare of therapeutic animals or suffering,they are only legally permissible if are similar to those outlined for experimental they form part of an ongoing piece of research, animals.In addition,however, a number of specific and where the study would otherwise have been considerations can be noted.The individual conducted by the supervisor or his/her research temperament and training of such animals should team as work approved under an existing Project be appropriate for the planned task (e.g. a Licence. It is a legal requirement that any hospital visiting dog should be calm,placid and regulated procedures required by such projects sociable with people),and should,therefore, be will normally be performed by a Personal Licence assessed carefully prior to use. Care should also holder; in some circumstances tasks may be be taken that contact between the therapeutic delegated provided they are closely supervised by animal and client/patient is monitored at all times. a Personal Licence holder (See Home Office, Therapeutic interactions,especially with children, 1990 Appendix VII). can be very demanding and tiring for an animal. Such animals should,therefore, be given regular At the postgraduate level,any student wishing to rest periods during therapy sessions.They should use legally regulated procedures with animals also have the opportunity to retreat from must hold a Personal Licence. Home Office threatening situations or interactions,should accredited training courses must be taken as a they arise. prerequisite to obtaining a licence. During this preparatory period,the situation is broadly 10. Obtaining further information similar to that of the undergraduate student There are a number of organisations that provide research project. publications and detailed information about the care and use of animals.The Universities 9. The use of animals for Federation for Animal Welfare (The Old School, therapeutic purposes Brewhouse Lane,Wheathampstead,Hertfordshire A variety of animal species are currently used by AL4 8AN,UK) is particularly relevant to British psychologists as aides or adjuncts to therapy. psychologists,and has produced a Handbook on An example of this is the use of pet dogs as the Care and Management of Laborator y Animals
18 (Poole, 1987).Information is also available from exposed? In A.Rowan (Ed.) Wildlife conservation, zoos The Canadian Council on Animal Care (1105-151 and animal protection: A strategic analysis. Gratton, Massachusetts:Tufts Centre for Animals and Public Slater Street,Ottawa,Ontario, K1P 5H3,Canada), Policy. and the Scientists Centre for Animal Welfare Bekoff,M.& Jamieson, D. (1996).Ethics and the Study of (4805 St.Elmo Avenue, Bethesda,MD 20814, Carnivores:Doing science while respecting animals. USA) which publishes a series of bibliographics In J.L.Gittleman (Ed.) Carnivore behaviour, ecology and on special topics,and can also provide evolution. Vol 2,pp.15-45.Ithaca,New York:Cornell individualised database searches for investigators University Press. on potential alternatives,including techniques for Biological Council (1992). Guidelines on the handling and replacement with non-animal models or training of laboratory animals. Potters Bar, Herts:UFAW alternative species,methods for reducing the (Universities Federation for Animal Welfare). total number of animals necessary to address the British Wildlife Rehabilitation Council (1989).Ethical and legal aspects of treatment and rehabilitation of wild research question,and experimental refinements animal casualties. which can reduce pain and stress. Canadian Council on Animal Care (1992). Guide to the care and use of experimental Animals. Vols.1 & 2.Ottawa, Psychologists working with animals should inform Ontario:Canadian Council on Animal Care. themselves about the debate on the desirability Church,R.M.(1971).Aversive behaviour: In J.W. Kling & L.A. of animal research.The opposing arguments can Riggs (Eds.) Woodworth & Schlosberg’s experimental be found in literature published by the British psychology (3rd ed.),pp.703-741.London:Methuen. Union for the Abolition of Vivisection,Research Claasen,V. (1994).Neglected factors in pharmacology and Defence Society, Fund for the Replacement of neuroscience research.Biopharamaceutics,Animal Animals in Medical Experiments and the Royal characteristics,Maintenance Testing conditions. In J.P. Huston (Ed.) Techniques in the behavioural and Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. neural sciences, pp.486.Amsterdam:Elsevier. Relevant books include DeGrazia (1996) and Close, B.S.,Banister, K.,Baumans,V.,Bernoth,E.M.,Bromage, Dawkins (1993). N.,Bunyan,J.,Erhardt,W.,Flecknell, P.,Gregory, N., Hackbarth,H.,Morton, D.B. &Warwick, C. (1996, References 1997).Recommendations for euthanasia of Amlaner,C.L.J.& Macdonald, D.G.(1980). A handbook on experimental animals.Commission of the European biotelemetry and radio tracking. Oxford: Pergamon. Communities DGX1 Working Party Report. Laboratory ASAB/ABS (1997). Guidelines for the treatment of animals in Animals, 30, 293-316,and Laboratory Animals, 31, 1-32. behavioural research and teaching. London:ASAB. Code of Federal Regulations.Title 9 (Animal and Animal AVMA (American Veterinary Medical Association) (1987). Products). Subchapter A (Animal Welfare). Parts 1-3. Colloquium on recognition and alleviation of animal Available from:Regulatory Enforcement and Animal pain and distress. Journal of the American Veterinary Care,APHIS, U.S.D.A., Federal Building,6505 Belcrest Medical Association,191, 1184-1296. Road,Hyattsville, MD 20782. AVMA (American Veterinary Medical Association) (1993). Code of Federal Regulations,Title 50 (W i l d l i f e and Fisherie s ) . Report of the Panel on Euthanasia. Journal of the Ch a pter 1 (Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wi l d l i f e Servi c e , American Veterinary Medical Association,202, 222-249. Fish and Wi l d l i f e Servi c e , De p a r tment of Interior). Bateson, P. (1991).Assessment of pain in animals. Animal Was h i n g t o n , D.C : U. S .G overnment Printing Office. Behaviour, 42, 827-339. Crofts,W. (1989).A Summary of the Statute Law Relating to Bekoff,M.(1995).Naturalising and individualising animal well- the Welfare of Animals in England and Wales. Potters being and animal minds:An ethologist’s naivete Bar, UFAW.
19 Cuthill,I.(1991).Field experiments in animal behaviour: HMSO-Stats. Annual statistics of scientific procedures on living methods and ethics. Animal Behaviour, 42, 1007-1014. animals in Great Britain. London:HMSO. Dawkins,M.S.(1988).Behavioural Deprivation:A central Hull, D.B.(1996).Animal use in undergraduate psychology problem in animal welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour programmes. Teaching of Psychology, 23, 171-174. Science, 20, 209-225. Hunt, P. (1980).Experimental choice. In: The reduction and Dawkins,M.S.(1993). Through our eyes only.The search for prevention of suffering in animal experiments, pp. 63-75. animal consciousness. W.H.Freeman Spektrum. Horsham,Sussex:Royal Society for the Prevention of DeGrazia, D. (1996). Taking animals seriously:Mental life and Cruelty to Animals. moral status. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press Huntingford, F.A.(1984).Some ethical issues raised by ECVAM (1998). Reducing the use of laboratory animals in studies of predation and aggression. Animal Behaviour, biomedical research:Problems and possible solutions. 32, 210-215. ECVAM Workshop Report 29, ATLA,26,283-301. Joint Working Group on Refinement (1993a).Removal of Elwood,R.W. (1991).Ethical implications of studies on Blood from Laboratory Animals and Birds.1st Report infanticide and maternal aggression in rodents. Animal of the BVA-AWF/FRAME/RSPCA/UFAW Joint Behaviour, 42, 841-849. Working Group on Refinement. Laboratory Animals, 27, Estep,D.Q.& Hetts,S.(1992).Interactions, relationships,and 1-22. bonds:the conceptual basis for scientist-animal Joint Working Group on Refinement (1993b).Refinements in relations.In H.Davis & D. Balfour (Eds.) The inevitable rabbit husbandry. 2nd Report of the bond:Examining scientist-animal interactions. Cambridge: BVA-AWF/FRAME/RSPCA/UFAW Joint Working Cambridge University Press. Group. Laboratory Animals, 27, 301-329. Flecknell, P.A.(1996). Laboratory animal anaesthesia (2nd ed.). Joint Working Group on Refinement (1998).Refining Rodent Academic Press. Husbandry:The mouse . 3rd Report of the Green, C.J.(1979). Animal anaesthesia. London,Laboratory BVA-AWF/FRAME/RSPCA/UFAW Joint Working Animals Ltd. Group. Laboratory Animals, 32, 260-269. Guide Development Committee (1988). Guide for the care Joint Working Group on Refinemen (in press).Refinements and use of agricultural animals in agricultural research and in the Administration of substances.4th Report of the teaching. Washington, D.C.:Consortium for Developing BVA-AWF/FRAME/RSPCA/UFAW Joint Working a Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals Group on Refinement. Laboratory Animals. in Agricultural Research and Teaching Available from: Joint Working Group on Refinement (in press).Refinements Association Headquarters,309 West Clark Street, in the Husbandry of Birds.5th Report of the Champaign,IL 61820. BVA-AWF/FRAME/ RSPCA/ UFAW Joint Working HMSO (1990). Home Office Guidance on the Operation of the Group on Refinement. Laboratory Animals. Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act,1986. London:HMSO, Kirkwood,J.K.,Sainsbury,A.W. & Bennett, P.M.(1994). 182. The welfare of free living animals:methods of HMSO (1989). Home Office code of practice for the housing assessment. Animal Welfare, 3, 257-273. and care of animals used in scientific procedures. London: Lea,S.E.G.(1979).Alternatives to the use of painful stimuli in HMSO, 107. physiological psychology and the study of behaviour. HMSO (1995). Home Office code of practice for the housing Alternative Laboratory Animal Abstracts, 7, 20,21. and care of animals in designated breeding and supply McConway, K.(1992).The number of subjects in animal establishments. London:HMSO. behaviour experiments:is Still right? In M.Stamp HMSO (1997). Home Office code of practice for the humane Dawkins & L.M.Gosling (Eds.) Ethics in research on killing of animals under Schedule 1 to the Animals animal behaviour. London:Academic Press. (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986. London:HMSO. Mellor,D.J.& Morton, D.B.(1997) Humane Endpoints in HMSO-APC. Annual reports of the Animal Procedures research and testing.Synopsis of the workshop. Committee. London:HMSO. In L.F.M.Van Zutphen & M.Balls (Eds.) Animal
20 alternatives, welfare and ethics. Netherlands:Elsevier Poole,T.B.(Ed.) (1987). The UFAW handbook on the care and Science. management of laboratory animals (6th ed.).Harlow: Moran,G.(1975).Severe food deprivation:some thoughts Longman Scientific and Technical. regarding its exclusive use. Psychological Bulletin,82, Poole,T.B.(Ed.) In press. The UFAW handbook on the care and 543-557. management of laboratory animals (7th ed).Harlow: Morgan,M.J.(1974).Resistance to satiation. Animal Behaviour, Longman Scientific and Technical. 22, 449-466. Poole,T.B.(1998).Meeting a mammals psychological needs: Morton, D.B.(1997).A scheme for the recognition and Basic principles in Second Nature. In D.J.Shepherdson, assessment of adverse effects.In L.F.M.Van Zutphen & J.D. Mellen &M.Hutchins (Eds.) Environmental M.Balls (Eds.) Animal alternatives, welfare and ethics. enrichment for captive animals. Washington:Smithsonian Netherlands:Elsevier Science. Institution Press. Morton, D.B.(1998).The importance of non-statistical design Porter,D.G.(1992).Ethical scores for animal experiments. in refining animal experimentation.ANZCCART Facts Nature, London,356, 101-102. sheet. ANZCCART News, 11 (2),12.Australia: Rushen,J.(1986).The validity of behavioural measures of ANZCCART. aversion:a review. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 16, Morton, D.B. & Townsend, P. (1995).Dealing with adverse 309-323. effects and suffering during animal research. Russell,W.M.S.& Burch,R.L.(1959). The principles of humane In A.A.Tuffery (Ed.) Laboratory animals:An introduction experimental technique. UFAW Special Edition 1992. for experimenters (revised edition).UK: John Wiley. Scott, D.K.(1978).Identification of individual Bewick’s swans NRC (National Research Council) (1985).Guide for the by bill patterns.In B.Stonehouse (Ed.) Animal marking: Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.A Report of the Recognition marking of animals in research. London: Institute of Laboratory Animal Resource Committee Macmillan. on the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.NIH Shapiro, K.J.& Field, P.B.(1988).A new invasiveness scale:its publication no. 85,23.Washington, D.C.: U.S. role in reducing animal distress. Humane Innovations in Department of Health and Human Services. Alternative Animal Experimentation,2, 43-46. NRC (National Research Council) (1992).Recognition and Smith,J.A.,& Boyd,K.(Eds.) (1991). Lives in the balance. Alleviation of Pain and Distress in Laborator y Animals. Oxford University Press. A report of the Committee on Pain and Distress in Still,A.W. (1982).On the number of subjects used in animal Laboratory Animals,Institute of Laboratory Animal behaviour experiments. Animal Behaviour, 30, 873-880. Resources,Commission on Life Science. National Stonehouse, B.(Ed.) (1978). Animal marking:Recognition Research Council,Washington, D.C.:National Academ y marking of animals in research. London:Macmillan. Press. Stricklin,W.R.,Zhou,J.Z.,& Gonyou,H.W. (1995).Selfish Orlans, F.B.(1987).Research protocol review for animal animals and robot ethology:Using artificial animals to welfare. Investigatory Radiology, 22, 253-258. investigate social and spatial behaviour. Applied Animal PHS (Public Health Service) (1986).Public Health Service Behaviour Science, 44, 187-203. Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.Washington, D.C.: U.S.Department of Health and Human Services. Available from:Office for Protection from Research Risks,Building 31, Room 4B09,NIII,Bethesda,MD 20892.
21 Guidelines on advertising services offered by psychologists
The Society is frequently asked for advice on advertise psychological services they do so with acceptable ways of advertising the services due regard for acceptable standards. offered by psychologists.Conversely the Society Announcements through agencies should has to adjudicate on complaints when it is alleged conform to the same standards. that a Member is responsible for an advertisement which is in some way not entirely General concepts legal,decent,honest or truthful.The Professional All psychologists should recognise the need to Affairs Board prepared the following guidelines in encourage and preserve a relationship with those an attempt to make explicit the principles to whom their services are offered which is involved.They are approved and adopted by the dignified and based on confidence.They will Council as a Society position statement. therefore refrain from making exaggerated and unjustified claims for the effectiveness of their A definition methods,from advertising services in a way likely In the following guidelines an advertisement is to encourage unrealistic expectations about the defined as a communication addressed directly to effectiveness of the services offered,or from the public or a section of it,the purpose of misleading those to whom services are offered which is to influence the behaviour or opinions of about the nature and likely consequences of any those to whom it is addressed.An advertisement interventions to be undertaken. therefore includes any announcement of the professional services of an individual psychologist What to include in an advertisement or group of psychologists whether working in In the past the Society has advised any private practice or for a corporate employer, psychologist advertising personal services of a appearing, for example, in the press,television, therapeutic nature to individual members of the radio, in the Yellow Pages of the telephone public (e.g.clinical psychology, educational directory or in a brochure distributed directly psychology) to include only ‘visiting card’ through a potential client’s letterbox.Different particulars in the advertisement,that is, principles would apply to a letter of introduction information giving name, qualifications,status, which a psychologist might send to a third party address,telephone number and consultation (e.g.a solicitor or medical practitioner) hours of the psychologist.However, experience introducing the psychological services offered to has now shown that to limit the content of an clients who subsequently may be referred at the advertisement to only this information is not discretion of the third party receiving the letter. always in the public interest.Not all members of the public will know what services, for example, a The role of the Society clinical psychologist can offer.‘Visiting card’ The Society adopts a neutral position on the particulars do not permit a psychologist who quasi-political issue of the desirability or wishes to specialise in the treatment of particular otherwise of Members working in private presenting problems within a general field such as practice and thus charging clients directly for the clinical psychology to make it clear from the psychological services provided.The responsibility outset in which areas the psychologist specialises. of the Society is to ensure that however It is, for example, clearly in the interest of a client Members earn their livelihood,when they with a drinking problem to be able to discover
22 from an advertisement which clinical give better advice than others.(Psychologists may, psychologists offer help with this problem, of course, mention their formal qualifications). thereby avoiding unnecessary approaches to Psychologists will not,however, advertise their other clinical psychologists who are offering availability to give second opinions or treatment only for different problems (e.g. reassessments. phobias).Therefore, the Society is now of the view that,in addition to ‘visiting card’ particulars, (ii) When advertising personal services directly it is appropriate to include in advertisements for to individual members of the public avoid playing personal therapeutic services factual information on clients’ fears regarding their state of health about the specialist nature of the services and avoid stimulating in clients any feeling of provided and the methods employed. dissatisfaction with their present life situation. For example, a psychologist offering occupational When making reference to the specialist services guidance when reporting this fact should do offered,great care should be taken to avoid nothing to encourage a client to question his or playing on the fears of a client and then offering her current level of job satisfaction. to provide a cure. One way of meeting this requirement is to avoid reference to the kinds of (iii) Avoid the use of testimonials in client problems for which treatment is offered. advertisements for psychological services. However, it is not normally possible to refer to specialist areas of psychology other than by (iv) Never claim or imply the certainty of cure making reference to the problems for which the for any conditions to be treated nor the certainty client is seeking help (e.g.stress-related of success with the resolution of a client’s disorders,marital problems,smoking).Therefore, problems. when phrasing an advertisement discretion and judgement have to be used,the criteria being that (v) Avoid any offer to refund money to no reasonable person would find the dissatisfied users of psychological services. advertisement distasteful.Thus, by way of example, it would be reasonable to assume that a The competence of those claiming psychologist offering ‘help to those with marital expertise in specialist areas of difficulties’ or ‘help with slimming’ would be psychology acceptable, but an advertisement stressing the Attention is also drawn to the Society’s Code of health dangers of obesity and then offering help Conduct (q.v.) in which psychologists are would not. required to ‘refrain … from claiming competence in any particular area of psychology in which they Some prohibitions or what not to have not established their competence, and from include in an advertisement claiming characteristics or capabilities for (i) Avoid any comparative denigration of the themselves which they do not possess’. services of other psychologists or practitioners Therefore, where psychologists make claims to from other professions.Avoid claims that the offer specialist services or specific treatments services offered are of superlative quality or that (e.g. hypnotherapy) potentially the psychologists the psychologist offering the service is likely to concerned should be able to substantiate their
23 claims, e.g. by demonstrating that they have The Investigatory Committee has had to deal received relevant training in the area. with a number of complaints from members of the public, that they have been overcharged or Care should also be taken to avoid offering charged for reports that they did not need.The treatment or advice ‘as a psychologist’ in areas Chair of the Disciplinary Board (a lay member) that do not form part of the discipline and has endorsed the view of the Investigatory profession of psychology and in which training is Committee that it is not the role of the Society not normally given to psychologists. For example, to adjudicate on charges.However, we are all if a clinical psychologist advertised an concerned with the good name of psychology. acupuncture service, his or her qualifications ‘as a Having considered the issue, the Professional psychologist’ would not allow him or her to claim Affairs Board has agreed to promulgate the expertise in this field as it is not accepted as a directive that all psychologists in private practice field of psychology. No other clinical should,as a matter of routine, make it clear to all psychologists receive training in acupuncture and clients before any interventions are begun what no clinical psychologists are employed as their fees are likely to be and for what they will acupuncturists.If psychologists have skills in other be paying.Adoption of this practice is only areas,those not related to psychology should be common sense, but it is essential to give clients referred to in separate advertisements. explicit guidance on charges if future misunderstandings and complaints are to be Fees for Psychological Services avoided. It should be noted that, by law, the Society may not give advice on specific fees which should and can be charged by its members as this is a prohibited, restrictive practice.This position has been confirmed by the Monopolies and Mergers Commission.
24 Descriptions
This article was published in April 1988 in Charter Conduct.Only Members who have actually Guide No.3,an occasional publication about registered and agreed to abide by the Code of amendments to The Royal Charter. It was amended in Conduct may use the protected title ‘Chartered October1995. Psychologist’.
The amendments to the Society’s Royal Chart e r The Charter and Statutes are silent on what and Statutes re c e n t ly allowed by the Privy functions or activities as psychologists those on Council in 1987 introduced principles for the the Register or other members of the Society are manner in which various categories of members competent to perform.We have an indicative m ay re fer to their membership of the Society. form of non-statutory registration in which only Statute 30 is the key re fe rence that is the use of the title ‘Chartered Psychologist’ is c o n s i d e red in this art i c l e.The right to use protected.However, it is through the Code of c e rtain titles, in particular the title ‘ C h a rt e re d Conduct that the Society protects the public P s y c h o l o g i s t ’ , is enshrined in the Charter and from the actions of psychologists practising Statutes but certain other practices are left to outside their sphere of competence.Article 3 (iv) be determined by the Council (e. g . Statute 30 of the Royal Charter records the following as (3) that is discussed below ) .This statement one of the principal objects of the Society:‘to t h e re fo re is being issued by the Council for the maintain a Code of Conduct for the guidance of guidance of Society Members and Contributors. Members and Contributors and to compel the D i f fe rent principles ap p ly to diffe rent grades of observance of strict rules of professional conduct m e m b e r. as a condition of membership.’ It must be emphasised that the Code of Conduct refers to The indicative nature of the Register all Members and Contributors of the Society, that By analogy, the revised Charter and Statutes is by way of example all Chartered Psychologists, confers on the Society the ‘copyright’ to a specific Fellows,Associate Fellows,Graduate Members, ‘trademark’ – the title ‘Chartered Psychologist’. Student Subscribers or Affiliates – formerly called Only psychologists who are Members of the Subscribers.All members of the Society come Society with the necessary qualifications may use within the aegis of the new disciplinary provisions the title ‘Chartered Psychologist’ once they have and all members are bound by Clause 2 of the applied for and been accepted for registration.If Code of Conduct that concerns competence. anyone whose name is not on the Register were Clauses 2.1 and 2.2 are especially relevant;they to use the title ‘Chartered Psychologist’ the read as follows: Society would have the authority to seek an injunction or to take other legal measures to ‘Psychologists shall: restrain the person concerned from wrongly 2 . 1 refrain from laying claim, d i re c t ly or appropriating a title which by Royal Consent may i n d i re c t ly, to psychological qualifications or be used only by Members of the Society whose affiliations they do not possess, f rom claiming names are entered on the Register.Possession of competence in any particular area of the qualifications sufficient for registration is not p s y c h o l o gy in which they have not established enough as eligibility for registration is also their competence, and from claiming dependent on giving assent to the Code of characteristics or capabilities for themselve s
25 which they do not possess; personal notices or advertisements,but Members 2.2 recognise the boundaries of their own conditionally registered shall not use such competence and not attempt to practise any designation or abbreviation.’ form of psychology for which they do not have an appropriate preparation or, where applicable, It is important to note that no variants of the specialist qualifications.’ abbreviation of ‘C.Psychol.’ are permitted (e.g. ‘C.Clin.Psychol.’ is not allowed.) Chartered Psychologists Once on the Register all Chartered Psychologists ‘Paragraph 5’,that is Statute 30 (5),then goes on are to be encouraged to use the new title or the to state:‘Chartered Psychologists may insert an abbreviation ‘C.Psychol.’ as often as possible; additional item between ‘Chartered’ and indeed the wording of Statutes goes so far as ‘Psychologist’ to indicate their particular area of positively to enjoin Chartered Psychologists to psychological expertise (but may not use an use the title. Only if those on the Register abbreviation other than that authorised in routinely use the title in professional contexts, paragraph (4) above).Only such additional terms on case reports,on publications,in their may be employed in this context as are explicitly advertisements and on their letter paper will the sanctioned by a resolution passed in a postal public be able to rely on the title as the means of ballot of Members.In the case of terms referring knowing they are dealing with a bona fide to areas of psychology for which the Society has psychologist who is recognised as properly a Division,use of the term shall be restricted to qualified by the Society. those eligible for membership of the Division concerned.’ Article 9 of the Charter states: ‘The Council shall maintain a Register of A ballot has been arranged to determine whether Chartered Psychologists.Application to be the terms ‘Chartered Clinical Psychologist’ and entered on to the Register may be made by ‘Chartered Occupational Psychologist’ are to be suitably qualified Members.Those whose names sanctioned. appear on the Register, except those who have Conditional Registration,shall be entitled to use Following the convention adopted by other the designation ‘Chartered Psychologist’ and to chartered professions it will be usual for the use after their name the abbreviation ‘C.Psychol.’ abbreviation ‘C.Psychol.’ to be placed after the list of a Member’s degrees and diplomas but before Statute 30 (4) amplifies this provision by stating: the abbreviation ‘FBPsS’ or AFBPsS’,(e.g. Jo Smith, ‘Subject to the provisions of paragraph 5 below, BSc, PhD,C.Psychol.,AFBPsS).As far as Chartered Members whose names are included in the Psychologists are concerned the main message is: Register of Chartered Psychologists other than use the new title as often as possible and don’t those to whom only Conditional Registration has let anyone try to stop you.The right to use the been granted will use the designation ‘Chartered title is a privilege conferred on you with Royal Psychologist’ or use after their name the approval. abbreviation ‘C.Psychol.’ (but no other),in any appropriate professional context including
26 Fellows and Associate Fellows brochure distributed directly through a potential The amendments to the Charter and Statutes client’s letterbox’.Previously, in these contexts included a provision in which the former grade Fellows and Associate Fellows who had registered of ‘Associate’ became re-titled ‘Associate Fellow’. as Chartered Psychologists were encouraged to The former title was often misunderstood as claim to be ‘Chartered Psychologists’,but were referring to a lesser grade of membership than prevented from making any other reference to Graduate Member. Statute 12 (1) made provisions their membership of the Society, for example by for all Fellows and Associate Fellows who held listing the initials AFBPsS or FBPsS after their this grade of Membership on 18 December 1987 names.At that time the reasoning for this to be automatically eligible for registration as a prohibition was that the Society did not want to Chartered Psychologist,provided an application confuse the public, and that it was the r was submitted within 18 months of the eference to being a Chartered Psychologist on Statute coming into force, that is by which it was intended that the public should 18 June 1989. come to rely as the only certain way of recognising a psychologist who is regarded by the Statute 30 (2) places a restriction on the context Society as appropriately qualified to hold out to in which reference can be made to any offer advice or professional services as a description indicating membership or psychologist. contributorship in any personal notice inserted as an advertisement in the press or elsewhere.This As the Register of Chartered Psychologists has had previously been interpreted to place a become better known to the public , and as the restriction on the reference to Fellowships and awarding of Associate Fellowship and Fellowship Associate Fellowships as well as ordinary of the Society does confer additional recognition membership of the Society. Statute 30 (2) reads upon Members (as opposed to the use of MPPsS, as follows:‘No Member or Contributor shall use which provides no additional recognition of any description indicating Membership or qualification to a first degree in psychology) Contributorship in a personal notice inserted as Council felt that the application of Statute 30 (2) an advertisement in the press or elsewhere.’ ought not be interpreted to include the descriptions of AFBPsS and FBPsS.The previous Earlier (1987) the Council had defined an restrictions relating to the use of those letter advertisement as ‘a communication addressed descriptions was,therefore, removed with regard directly to the public or a section of it,the to advertisements. purpose of which is to influence the behaviour or opinions of those to whom it is addressed.An Chartered Psychologists who have the advertisement,therefore, includes any designation of AFBPsS or FBPsS may now make announcement of the professional services of an use of those letters in circumstances which were individual psychologist or a group of outlined and defined as an advertisement by psychologists whether working in private practice Council in 1987 as described previously. or for a corporate employer, appearing for example in the press,television,radio, or in the Yellow Pages of the telephone director y, or in a
27 Graduate Members and Ordinary reached a standard sufficient for professional Members practice in psychology without supervision…’ No new Ordinary Members of the Society have Graduate Members who believe they are fully been accepted since 1965 when this category of qualified to practise psychology professionally Membership became obsolete for all new without further training or supervised experience applicants. should apply for Chartered status.
Along with Fellows and Associate Fellows, All reference to Graduate Membership (or Graduate Members and Ordinary Members of Ordinary Membership) of the Society is therefore the Society are bound by Statute 30 (2) that misleading (e.g.on a business card,or on a letter states:‘No Member or Contributor shall use any heading,in a list of staff or in an advertisement) description indicating Membership or as it might be construed to imply an additional Contributorship in any personal notice inserted qualification beyond that of a first degree on as an advertisement in the press or elsewhere’. which it is normally based or an authority to However, Statute 30 (3) adds: practise psychology without supervision. ‘No Ordinary Member or Graduate Member shall use the description ‘(Member) (Graduate Graduate Members or Ordinary Members may Member) of The British Psychological Society’ (as refer to their Membership of the Society when the case may be) in any context,professional or applying for a job, a traineeship, a postgraduate otherwise, whatsoever, except in such course, or otherwise listing their membership of circumstances as may be determined by the learned societies on application forms (e.g. for Council’. membership of other societies).In these contexts it is right to point out that they are The implication of Statute 30 (3) is that Graduate Members of the Society and subject to its Code Members and Ordinary Members shall not refer of Conduct. to their membership of the Society except in the situations outlined below. Before considering Some Graduate Members will be fully qualified these situations when reference to membership is members of other professions (e.g.psychiatry, permitted,the reasons for the restriction social work) or in practice, for example, as imposed by Statute 30 (3) should be examined. management consultants,counsellors or Possession of an approved first degree in psychotherapists.In these situations it is still psychology entitles the psychology graduate to important that they do not imply they are Graduate Membership of the Society as a learned practising as psychologists by making reference to scientific society, but a first degree in psycholog y Graduate Membership, even though they will on its own does not entitle a psychology undoubtedly be using their knowledge of graduate to practise psychology professionally psychology to enhance their practice of without further training or supervised psychiatry, social work,psychotherapy or other experience.This principle is central to Statute 12 profession.If they are really in practice primarily (3) that defines the conditions necessary for as psychologists they should apply for Chartered chartered status,that is granted when the status. member ‘shall be judged by the Council to have
28 By insisting upon this principle the Society is not nevertheless be recognised by members of the asking psychology graduates or Graduate public as trainees when,under supervision,they Members to sell themselves short.In many provide various psychological services to the careers (e.g.as school teachers,personnel public.The prohibition of Statute 30 (4) was cited officers,social workers, nurses or management above. No Member who is conditionally consultants) psychology graduates are able to registered shall use any description or draw on their knowledge of psychology to abbreviation in any public context.However, the enhance their skills and effectiveness.This is Register will list the names of conditionally exactly what the Society claims a psychology registered psychology graduates.All conditionally degree should do.There is no intention of asking registered psychology graduates will have the psychology graduates to deny the value and Graduate Basis for Registration and therefore all practical relevance of their degrees in psycholog y. will be Graduate Members.The prohibitions on The danger the Council is seeking to avoid is reference to Conditional Registration are simply that reference to Graduate Membership in essentially the same as those that apply to any public context is misleading. To the Graduate Members. uninformed member of the public it implies a professional qualification to practise as a Contributors of the Society psychologist.The latter claim by Members should The category ‘Contributor’ referred to in the now be made only by Chartered Psychologists. Charter, Statutes and Rules covers the grades of The letters after the name of a Graduate Student Subscriber, Affiliate (formerly Subscriber) Member, MBPsS or GMBPsS or any other variant and Foreign Affiliate.Following the recent of them should never be used in any context. For amendments to Rule 3,no Student Subscribers many years their use has been prohibited by the will be eligible for Graduate Membership. Council. Contributors are referred to in the Charter, Statutes and Rules as ‘members of the Society’ Breaches of these regulations here promulgated (lower case ‘m’) to distinguish them from all by the Society may lead to disciplinary other grades of Society Members (with capital procedures and potentially to dismissal from ‘M’).To become a Contributor no formal Membership of the Society. However, linked to qualifications in psychology have to be held and this warning is the invitation for Graduate where they may be held (in case of Foreign Members who believe they are eligible to practise Affiliates) only minimal checks by the Society as psychologists without supervision to apply for have to be carried out to vouch for their Chartered status,if they have the qualifications authenticity. In some comparable bodies, outlined in Statutes 12 (2) or (3). Members are referred to as those with corporate grades of membership.Although this terminology Conditional Registration is not used in the Charter, Statutes and Rules it Conditional Registration was introduced into the nevertheless applies and only Members of the Charter and Statutes as a safeguard to ensure Society can vote in its affairs. that postgraduate students or trainees under supervision who have not yet obtained the The prohibitions of Statutes 30 (2) and 30 (3) qualifications required for Chartered Status can apply with equal force to Contributors as they do
29 to Graduate Members.Thus Statute 30 (2) states if all the req u i r ed options in an app r oved degree ‘No … Contributor shall use any description course are actually taken and the degree is passed indicating … Contributorship in any personal su c c e s s f u l l y at honours standard) ; when app ly i n g notice inserted as an advertisement in the press for a course students are likel y in addition to or elsewhere’ and Statute 30 (3) states ‘… no need to confirm that they are working towa r ds a Foreign Affiliate,Affiliate or Student Subscriber qualification that confers eligibility for Graduate shall use the description ‘[Foreign Affiliate] Membership or the Graduate Basis for [Affiliate] [Student Subscriber] of the British Registration (as the case may be). Psychological Society’ (as the case may be) in any context professional or otherwise, whatsoever, In any event,the same prohibitions apply to except in such circumstances as may be reference to Contributorship of the Society as determined by the Council.’ apply to Graduate Membership. No reference to Contributorship should appear in any public The principal purpose of being a Contributor is document,list of staff,advertisement,on a letter to gain access to various membership heading or in any other place where it could be concessions from the Society itself (e.g.to get construed to imply a qualification in psychology journals at reduced member rates or to pay the or authority to practise as a psychologist. reduced member registration fees for conferences).It is mainly when interacting with A Postscript the Society itself or with other organisations The re q u i rement to ensure that the Society’s offering concessions to Society members Statute 30 and these regulations pro mulgated by (e.g.the American Psychological Association) the Council are observed is not a trivial one. when Contributors may wish to make reference Under the terms of its revised Chart e r, S t a t u t e s to being an Affiliate,Foreign Affiliate or Student and Rules, even more than befo re, e x t e r n a l Subscriber. However, when applying for a organisations including Government itself will be postgraduate course or for certain jobs there looking to the Society as the Chart e re d may be advantages in being able to indicate an p ro fessional association responsible for defining interest in psychology. Great care should be taken the re q u i rements of those who are to hold out not to suggest, even indirectly, that Student as psychologists.The Society has a re s p o n s i b i l i t y Subscribership or Affiliateship implies the to maintain explicit standards and to take action possession of any qualification in psychology or to inhibit practices over nomenclature that authority to practice as a psychologist.Reference might be confusing to the public. Its crucial to membership of the Society should be avoided re q u i rement is for the public to be able to re ly as this could lead to misunderstanding;the term on the Register of Chart e red Psychologists as used in the Charter and Statues is ‘Contributor’. that group of Members with the necessary qualifications to ‘be judged by the Council to Student Subscribership does not guarantee that h ave reached a standard sufficient fo r the student will on graduation necessarily have p ro fessional practice in psychology without met the req u i r ements for Graduate Membership. s u p e rv i s i o n ’ . In this context pro fessional practice It means only that the student is on a track that includes teaching and re s e a rch just as much as can potentially lead to Graduate Membership (e.g . practice as a pro fessional applied psychologist.
30 The fact that the Society must ensure that these References regulations are observed is a good reason why The British Psychological Society (1987).Guidelines on all those eligible for Chart e red status should advertising the services offered by psychologists. re g i s t e r. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 40, 172-173.
31 Regulations for corporate use of the title ‘Chartered Psychologist’
The Society welcomes the development in which who are not Chartered Psychologists in a a group of Chartered Psychologists working in professionally subordinate role to undertake conjunction with each other, for instance in a particular types of psychological work (e.g. partnership, describe their firm by reference to administer psychometric tests).In this situation the corporate title ‘Chartered Psychologists’.This the Chartered Psychologists will remain practice is adopted by other Chartered responsible for the standard of psychological professions; e.g.a firm of accountants such as the work done under their aegis by co-workers who Society’s auditors are described as ‘Robson are not themselves Chartered Psychologists. Rhodes, Chartered Accountants’.However, when a group of Chartered Psychologists use a title (c ) The Society accepts that non-psychologists, corporately in this way, Council requires that the for instance an accountant serving as a Managing following conditions are met: Di re c t o r , ma y serve as fully integrated senior members of staff or partners within a corporate That all psychological services offered or agreed concern adopting the title ‘C h a rt e re d by the corporate concern or organisation are P s y c h o l o g i s t s ’ ,p rovided such people do not offer provided by or under the direct supervision of or purport to offer any psychological servi c e s . Chartered Psychologists. Ho wever , wh e r e the activities of such people from other prof essions are concerned with provi d i n g In addition,if a corporate concern or independent prof essional services direc t l y to organisation also uses a specialist adjectival title, members of the public which are not claimed to e.g.‘Chartered Occupational Psychologists’,then be psychology but might never theless be confused the same principles will apply. In this example all with it, for instance, social work or management psychologists offering or agreeing to provide consultancy then the firm or group should not professional services in psychology without adopt the corporate title ‘C h a rt e re d supervision under the aegis of this corporate Ps y c h o l o g i s t s ’ . To do so might confuse the public concern must be registered as Chartered by implying that the social work or management Occupational Psychologists. consultancy services wer e being provided by Ch a rt e r ed Psychologists. (The psychologists in the Some implications of these regulations are as corporate concern will individually be encouraged follows: to call themselves Charte r ed Psychologists but (a) A corporate concern using the title not the firm or partnership as a whole.) ‘Chartered Psychologists’ might employ or have junior partners who are Conditionally Registered (d) If a corporate group of ‘Chartered trainees, for whom the fully registered Chartered Psychologists’ through the aegis of their Psychologists within the corporate concern will organisation hire or arrange for ad hoc act as supervisors,taking a measure of psychological services to be provided by responsibility for any psychological services psychologists who are not registered provided by the trainees. (e.g.a training course to be offered by a visiting overseas psychologist or a non-registered (b) Similarly, a corporate concern using the title psychologist from the UK) then the Chartered ‘Chartered Psychologists’ might employ people Psychologists in the corporate concern remain
32 responsible for the quality of the service United Kingdom accepts that the legally provided if complaints have to be investigated by registered title of a partnership may retain the the Society. In these circumstances care should be names of people no longer associated with the taken not to mislead anyone into believing that firm, e.g. retired partners. such people are Chartered Psychologists. No regulations can anticipate every eventuality, (e) It is not necessary for the names of all or but in cases of dispute the guiding principle will any Chartered Psychologists involved with a be that no members of the public should be corporate concern or organisation to appear in misled by the title and description of a corporate the title and it is to be expected that some body into assuming that Chartered Psychologists corporate concerns will retain the names of are responsible for the psychological services retired or deceased former Chartered offered or provided by that body when this is not Psychologists. Custom and practice within the the case.
33 Equal opportunities policy statement and policy
Council approved the following Policy Statement in document seeks to provide a framework of good February 1993,and the Policy in February 1994. practice and to create a structure for managing equal opportunity within The British Psychological Policy Statement Society.The Society is committed to a The Society is committed to the achievement of programme of action designed to make this equality of opportunity as an employer and in its Policy effective based on the principle of merit, dealings with members.It is also committed to not positive discrimination or tokenism. ensuring equality of opportunity in academic and professional training and to users of psychological 1. AREAS OF RESPONSIBILITY services.The Society aims to ensure that no job 1.1 Council,committees and applicant or employee of the Society, member or subsystems user of psychological services receives less All committees, including Council, will endeavour to favourable treatment on the grounds of, for en s u r e that they reflect their constituency in terms example, gender, colour, ethnic origin,nationality, of gender,ethnicity and disability.This does not religion,disability or age or is disadvantaged by pr eclude committees examining other issues of terms or requirements which cannot be shown rep r esentation and expertise which may be to be justified. significant to their constituency.
The Society is committed to a programme of 1.2 Individual members action designed to make this Policy effective. Members will ensure that they; – comply with point 2.1 of Ethical Principles The Society will ensure that it has in place for Conducting Research with Human appropriate procedures which can be used by Participants; individual members of staff,members of the – are aware of relevant equal opportunities Society and users of psychological services if they legislation and how it applies to their feel that they have been unfairly treated in particular specialism; respect of this Policy. – regularly review the ways in which they carry out their work in order to ensure All members and employees of the Society have that standards of practice are being applied an individual responsibility to ensure they comply fairly to all users of psychological services with this Policy. Specific responsibilities fall upon and that accessible complaints and feedback the management and Council of the Society. procedures are provided.
Overall responsibility will rest with the Council 1.3 Academic and professional of the Society. training in psychology – course content should be reviewed on a Policy regular basis to ensure that issues relating The purpose of this Policy is to reaffirm The to equality and inequality receive sufficient British Psychological Society’s commitment to coverage. equal opportunity both in its responsibilities as a Members running training courses should seek to professional association and as an employer.This identify and utilise relevant expertise in equal
34 opportunities related subjects (e.g.in other members of the Society by gender. ethnicity professions;users of services) and ethical and disability; standards of practice. – update existing records; – courses should monitor applicants with – ask subsystems to consider how well the respect to ethnic origin, gender and disability. policy is being implemented in their area until quantifiable information has been gathered. The British Psychological Society will; – seek active participation and contribution 3. REVIEW OF POLICIES AND from a representative mix of people when PROCEDURES arranging conferences; This policy will be reviewed every two years to – ensure the provision of relevant training ensure that it remains appropriate to the aims of materials in the area of equal opportunities; the Society. – encourage individual courses to ensure the adequacy of coverage of equal opportunity The Standing Committee for the Promotion of issues. Equal Opportunities (SCPEO) will be encouraged to scrutinise and comment upon Society policy 1.4 Honours and awards decisions,and to be involved in the development The Society will endeavour to ensure that; of the policies. – there are systematic procedures for selecting people for honours and that these 4. RAISING AND RESPONDING are clear to all members; TO PUBLIC AWARENESS OF – there are clear criteria for selecting people EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES for such honours and that these criteria ISSUES are widely known and explicit; The Society will aim to raise awareness and – all awards are advertised and nominations improve knowledge of equal opportunities issues encouraged for suitably qualified individuals; among members. – each subsystem is encouraged to put forward nominations for honours; The Society will encourage publication of – the awarding of honours,including psychological research in the equal opportunities nominations,is monitored by the Society area. according to gender and ethnic origin; – the awarding body will consider strategies 5. IMPLEMENTATION to address any imbalance in nominations This document outlines the policy that the should they occur. Society wishes to adopt.Further documentation will be required detailing how the policy will be 2. MONITORING implemented and the exact nature of the The Society will; processes to be used for monitoring its – monitor the composition of Committees implementation. and Boards by gender, ethnicity and disability; The Society’s Employment Policy is consistent – monitor applicants wishing to become with the principles embodied in this document.
35 Sexual harassment at work and the ethics of dual relationships
Council approved the following statement at its (c) submission to or rejection of such conduct meeting on 22 May 1993.A Briefing Paper explaining is used as a basis for decisions affecting a person’s the background follows the statement. employment and/or educational prospects.
1.1 Introduction Sexual harassment can consist of a single intense The British Psychological Society recognises the or severe act or of multiple persistent or problem of sexual harassment in the work place pervasive acts and it does not have to be and is committed to helping to prevent it.Sexual explicitly sexual in nature.Any behaviour which harassment will not be tolerated and such ridicules or denigrates a person because of his or behaviour runs counter to employment policy her gender may be deemed harassment. and to the BPS Code of Conduct.The British Psychological Society is committed to taking 1.3 Dual relationships prompt action to advise members and to respond Dual relationships are those in which the to complaints about members.Proven sexual psychologist is acting in at least one other role harassment will constitute grounds for besides a professional one; for example, the disciplinary action under the Code of Conduct. psychologist is supervising a student to whom The Society also regards consensual sexual s/he is married or the psychologist is teaching a relationships between staff and trainees or student s/he is dating.Some dual relationships students as an important professional issue. Such may not be harmful although the risks of damage relationships raise serious questions of conflict of to either the normally impartial professional role interest,of trust,confidence and dependency in of the more senior partner, or to the personal or working relations and of equal treatment in social status of the more junior partner, are high. teaching,learning and selection,assessment and Such relationships carry the risk of deleterious research.Advice to members about sexual consequences for the more junior partner, a harassment and their professional responsibilities conflict of interests for the senior partner, a risk in the context of consensual dual relationships is of impairment to professional judgement,and the contained in the items which follow. risk to the quality of the working environment for others. 1.2 Sexual harassment Sexual harassment is defined as any unwelcome 2. General good practice for verbal or physical sexual advances, requests for psychologists involved in teaching sexual favours or other verbal or physical and training conduct of a sexual nature when either: (a) Students,trainees and staff should be free to (a) the conduct interferes with another person’s pursue their professional and academic activities work or creates an intimidating,hostile or without any kind of overt or covert harassment. offensive working environment;or (b) Any form of sexual advance or request for (b) submission to this conduct is made implicitly sexual favours by supervisors,trainers or or explicitly a term or condition of a person’s teachers engaged in a professional relationship education or employment;or with students or trainees is unacceptable.
36 (c) Remarks or inferences on the part of the familial) dual relationships between supervisors teacher or trainer which ser ve to identify or teachers and trainees or students which personal,physical or sexual characteristics of the include problems associated with the student,trainee or other colleague which are maintenance of boundaries of professional and offensive to the recipient(s) are unacceptable, personal life, disruption of teaching or learning, even if the remarks were intended to be friendly bias in assessment or damage to the quality of and/or humorous. the working environment.There may also be difficulties for other members of the group of (d) Supervisors,tutors and teachers should not trainees or staff. use sexist language. (k) It is the responsibility of the staff member (e) Tutors should cultivate an awareness of concerned to inform appropriate colleagues or power structures and tensions within teaching superiors and to separate themselves from any groups,in particular where one sex is in a professional responsibility towards the student or minority. trainee. Staff should be aware that failure to initiate this course of action will make them (f) Supervisors and tutors should make clear to vulnerable to allegations of favouritism. students that agreed procedures for cases of sexual harassment exist both within the work (I) Students or trainees who are, or who have place and the Society. Students and trainees been,involved in sexual and/or romantic should be informed of the existence of such relationships with staff and who do not consider policies as part of their induction. their involvement to have been truly consensual have the right of complaint under the Code of (g) Supervisors and teachers have an affirmative Conduct. duty to maintain their work places free from sexual harassment and intimidation. 3 Policy and information for individuals making a complaint (h) Psychologists in training or students subjected to sexual harassment should report (a) If you feel you are being subjected to such conduct to a specified management figure. harassment in any form,do not feel that it is your fault or that you have to tolerate it. (i) Staff should recognise their professional and ethical responsibility to protect the interests of (b) If possible, make it clear to the person that students and trainees,to respect the trust such behaviour is unacceptable to you. involved in the staff/student relationship and accept the constraints inherent in that (c ) It does not constitute consent to harassment responsibility. if you feel unable to speak to the person about it, nor will it prejudice any complaint you may bring. (j) Staff should recognise the difficulties which It is a good idea to keep a rec o r d or a ‘d i a r y’ of may be consequent upon consensual sexual the behaviour and events you have fou n d and/or romantic relationships or other (e.g. unacceptable and any action you took.
37 (d) Talk in confidence to a personnel manager protection and the protection of others that the or to someone in authority; you may be offender is dealt with.Any sexual relationship or accompanied by a friend or a colleague. Further behaviour that occurs without your full consent action will not normally be taken without your or into which you were coerced (implicitly or consent. explicitly) is unacceptable and may constitute harassment,or an assault and/or an offence. (e) If the behaviour continues (many cases are dealt with successfully by someone talking to the 4 The role of the Society person who you alleged harassed you) then you or someone acting on your behalf may make a (a) Under the terms of its Royal Charter of formal complaint which may lead to initiation of incorporation,the Society is required to disciplinary procedures. investigate all allegations of professional misconduct against its members,many of whom (f) If you are one of a group of trainees,one of are Chartered Psychologists.All complaints have whose number is engaged in a consensual sexual to be investigated by procedures which are set and/or romantic relationship with a member of out in the Society’s Statutes,as approved by the staff, you may feel that you have cause for Privy Council. complaint.Your complaint may concern favouritism shown to the trainee, disruption to A leaflet is available which sets out in easy terms, the quality of the working environment,or How to complain about a Psychologist. perhaps it may arise as a consequence of your view that the relationship is abusive. It is good (b) If following investigation,an allegation against practice to seek the advice of a member of staff. a member is upheld by a Disciplinary Committee, one of several actions may be taken.The member (g) You have a right to know about any policy found guilty of professional misconduct may be which exists on sexual harassment and to know expelled or suspended from membership of the the consequences of any action taken. You may Society, have his or her name removed from the pursue action or redress through your employer Register of Chartered Psychologists,or both. (and/or the employer of the alleged harasser), Alternatively a reprimand or severe reprimand through the relevant Trades Union and/or with may be accompanied by a request for an the Society (if the alleged harasser is a member). undertaking to refrain from continuing or These cases will be pursued independently in repeating the offending conduct. accordance with the policies of the respective organisations. (c) For any allegation against a member of the Society to be considered formally, the Statutes (h) If you have been attacked or assaulted you require that ‘the allegation shall be in writing and should seek help immediately (there are various shall be accompanied by as full an account of the support organisations you may wish to contact) relevant facts as possible’. and you should seek medical help and advice. In particular, you should report the incident(s) to (d) However, where a person has been the the police;it is important for your own recipient of sexual harassment,she or he may be
38 reluctant to put the complaint in writing and on request,promptly arrange for a member of counselling or advice upon the appropriate the appropriate gender (the complainant may course of action may be needed.In such choose) to meet and listen to the complainant or situations an informal and,if deemed necessary, someone seeking advice on their behalf. anonymous approach,should be made to the (f) During any such confidential,informal Society’s Investigatory Committee. meeting when the complaint is discussed,the complainant may wish to be accompanied by a (e) The Clerk of the Investigatory Committee friend or advisor of their own choice , including a will listen to the complaint sympathetically and, legal representative.
A briefing paper on sexual harassment at work and the ethics of dual relationships 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Sexual harassment The history of the term sexual harassment is A variety of effects have been noted as occurring rel a t i ve l y short and it is only in the past decade consequent upon sexual harassment (Salisbury et that the behaviour has been res e a rc h e d , al., 1986;Bartell & Robin,1990).These include anecdotes being replaced by systematic psychological,occupational and physical effects. in vestigation of the situational correlates and the Livingstone (1982) also describes the way in characteristics of victims and perpetrators. In the which cultural norms may exacerbate women’s m a i n ,s u rvey and self-rep o r t data form the basis feelings of intimidation following sexual for a variety of social, ps y c h o l o g i c a l , biological and harassment ‘since sex role stereotypes and organisational explanations, none of which socialisation seem to give men the right (if not sa t i s f a c t o r i l y accounts for behaviour which is the duty) to pursue sexual encounters with in c re a s i n g l y reg a r ded as socially, ec o n o m i c a l l y and women aggressively and women are encouraged le g a l l y unacceptable (Tangri et al., 19 8 2 ; to be nice and avoid challenging males’.Sexual R u b e n s t e i n ,1 9 8 9 ) . In the US survey res e a r ch has harassment is difficult to measure and difficult to bo l s t e r ed the view that harassment is a prob l e m prove (Fitzgerald,1989).It may occur between in the work place and that it rep r esents a cost to men and women,or between members of the b u s i n e s s .N ow, in the UK sexual and racial same gender with or without the same sexual harassment are well defined in law (The Sex orientation;thus,men may harass other men,or Discrimination Act 1975,The Employm e n t women other women.In a large scale survey Pr otection (Consolidation) Act 1978).Var i o u s conducted by Tangri (op cit) victims were more public sector employing authorities and Higher likely to be women and those under supervision Education establishments have policies on or younger workers were more likely to be harassment and within the National Health affected.The perpetrators were more likely (but Se r vice a recent Advance Letter (GC 2192) makes not exclusively) to be men and older than their it clear that employing authorities are expected to victims (if the victims were women) and en s u r e that sexual harassment is preven t e d . supervisors were two and a half times more likely
39 to be harassers of women.Despite evidence of pro f essional rel a t i o n s h i p s . Despite this, it is its frequency, however, individuals are apparently in t e r esting to note the suggestion (Glaser & reluctant to report sexual harassment (Gottlieb, Thorpe) that trainees (unlike staff) come to reg re t 1990) and men seem to perceive it differently the rel a t i o n s h i p s , feeling that they wer e unethical, (Saal,1989;Guteck,1985;Hartnett et al., 1989). ir responsible and unprofe s s i o n a l , despite fee l i n g co m fo r table at the time. Livingstone (1982) argues that to inspire remedial action it is first necessary to legitimise the A link between harassment and dual relationships problem. Policy documents should contain appears on examination of the social definitions of harassment and examples of psychological models which are invoked to unacceptable behaviour, contain an explicit explain them.An understanding of the social statement of disapproval,information about how psychology of power, the American research to complain,where to get support,and they argues,will explain both (Bogart et al., 1987).But should detail the disciplinary actions which could the social psychological analysis of power, an be taken. approach favoured explicitly by the feminist literature, is only one amongst several approaches 1.2 Dual relationships invoked to explain harassment,rape, assault and Whilst enough information exists about sexual the predominance of male over female harassment to make it plain that it should be supervisors in the incidence of sexually intimate pro s c r i b e d , that it is a matter for grieva n c e , an d relationships between staff and trainees.Other ma y sometimes be a matter for disciplinary action explanations include the ‘natural/biological model’ by the Society, less is known about what are called (behaviour is the product of biological drive and ‘dual’ relationships or ‘u n e t h i c a l l y’ intimate represents the expression of sexual attraction); rel a t i o n s h i p s . Dual relationships are those in the ‘organisational model’ (certain environments, which individuals engage in a personal lovi n g like open plan offices and overcrowding,make it and/or sexual relationship with someone to more likely);and the ‘socio-cultural model’ whom they also have prof essional res p o n s i b i l i t i e s . (certain hierarchies and authority relations Sexual relationships between supervisors and designed to protect male dominance of women postgraduate or undergraduate students, li k e promote it).These models,which are essentially sexual harassment, ha ve been demonstrated to be no more than preferences for viewing sexual mo r e common than is generally assumed harassment or dual relationships in particular ( F i t z g e r a l d ,1 9 8 8 ) . Glaser and Thorpe (1986) in a ways,are described fully by Tangri et al. (1982). large-scale US survey of almost 500 female clinical All the models are, to some extent,supported by psychologists found 17 per cent rep o r ting sexually the evidence which Tangri et al. present intimate relationships with ‘educators’ and concerning harassment;they conclude that ‘sexual Ri c h a r dson (1992) in the UK found a rate of just harassment is not a unitary phenomenon’ and under 10 per cent for a sample of men and that there may be different patterns of causes wom e n . In both these studies, ho wever , th e between supervisors and trainees or between rep o r ted rate of negative consequences was co-workers.More work is needed in this area to rel a t i ve l y low; some trainees, but by no means all, develop psychological models which have experienced negative effects upon their work and explanatory power. It is clear that dual
40 relationships will seldom be the subject of the action is taken once a complaint is made and Society’s disciplinary procedures;this is not least he/she therefore resigns.The test here is whether because dual relationships by definition require or not the trust and confidence necessary to the consent of both parties.Whilst many dual sustain the employment relationship is at an end. relationships do not cause harm,however, it is If an employer fails to take steps once harassment certain that they carry a risk of exploitation or of is reported then the employer is liable – but not impaired judgement.The question of the degree if the employer took such steps as were to which such relationships may therefore be reasonably practicable to prevent the employee regarded as unethical is raised.There may be from engaging in the behaviour.The dismissal of qualitative changes in the way that professional an individual after an employer has reasonably responsibilities are carried out,or difficulties concluded that he/she is guilty of harassment is between peers in a group of students when one not unfair, but an employer should not forcibly is known to be in a relationship with a member remove the person who has made the complaint of staff;in fact,it may be particularly difficult to as this can be seen as a detriment, regardless of convince other students or trainees that their motive.There are numbers of steps to follow colleague was not advantaged by the relationship when harassment or discrimination or and third parties may wish to complain about victimisation are thought to have taken place and this. For these reasons,it is argued that these are outlined in Section 4. psychologists (particularly those in the more ‘powerful’ position of teacher or trainer) should Th e r e is no case law in Britain concerning dual avoid such relationships or act immediately to rel a t i o n s h i p s , although the Codes of Conduct in remove, substitute or exchange their professional ma n y HE establishments contain refe r ence to the role once a sexual or loving relationship has been inadvisability of staff having relationships with their established.The APA Ethical Principles of st u d e n t s , because of the risks described earlier of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (1992) makes accusation by third parties of unfair advantage, of this point very plainly and contains several items bias in judgement about assessments of the which refer to this. tr a i n e e ’ s prog r ess or examination re s u l t s ,o f negligence (e.g . of clinical case supervision) and of 1.3 The legal position damage to the prof essional status, pro g re s s , Direct and indirect discrimination and op p o r tunities or prospects of the superv i s e e s .I n victimisation are against the law.Although the United States clients have attempted to sue harassment is not defined or mentioned in the su p e r visors for negligence on the grounds that legislation it is held to be discriminatory under their clinical case supervision was flawed because the Race Relations (1976) and Sexual a dual relationship existed. Despite the typical Discrimination (1975) Acts following,amongst po wer imbalances, ho wever , it seems unwise to others,two cases heard in 1986 (Strathclyde assume that dual relationships are exploitative or Regional Council vs.Porcelli and De Sousa vs. the to assume that they alwa ys lead to negative Automobile Association). Individuals as well as co n s e q u e n c e s ; dual relationships are consensual employers can be liable following a case of sexual and many appear to be successful and long-lasting. harassment,and an individual subjected to sexual Ne vert h e l e s s , such relationships may pres e n t harassment can claim constructive dismissal if no d i f f i c u l t i e s ,t h i rd parties may complain and
41 psychologists should be prep a r ed for these verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature even t u a l i t i e s . when either:
2. SOME DEFINITIONS AND (a) the conduct interferes with another person’s EXAMPLES work or creates an intimidating,hostile or 2.1 Direct discrimination offensive working environment; Where a person is treated less favourably than others in the same circumstances on the grounds (b) submission to this conduct is made implicitly of colour, race, nationality, ethnic or national or explicitly a term or condition of a person’s origin or some other characteristic (e.g.age, education or employment;or sexual orientation,gender, marital status) which is unrelated to the circumstances. (c) submission or rejection of such conduct is used as a basis of decisions affecting a person’s Examples employment and/or educational prospects. An Occupational Psychology training course operates a selection policy which excludes people Sexual harassment can consist of a single intense over the age of 40. or severe act or of multiple persistent or pervasive acts and it does not have to be A teacher or trainer repeatedly ignores the explicitly sexual in nature.Any behaviour which contribution made in a tutorial group by the one ridicules,denigrates or abuses a person because homosexual in the group. of his or her gender may be deemed harassment.
2.2 Indirect discrimination Examples Where an unjustified requirement or a condition ◆ A tutorial group leader (male or female) is made which adversely affects a particular ethnic regularly shows favouritism to one minority, group or sex more than others. particular sex.
Examples ◆ A clinical supervisor regularly interprets case ◆ A lecturer conducts an evening tutorial in material in a sexist manner. the pub, making it impossible for the Muslim students to attend. ◆ A lecturer makes habitual sexist references or uses suggestive material in teaching (e.g. ◆ A clinical psychology training course makes photographs of nude obese women in a certain kinds of occupational experience a lecture on eating disorders). pre-requisite for selection;it appears that this precludes black and ethnic minority ◆ A supervisor (male or female) asks candidates from being selected. questions about your sex life.
2.3 Sexual harassment ◆ A member of staff uses terms of Any unwelcome verbal or physical sexual endearment (darling,love, dear) and regularly advances, requests for sexual favours or other asks the students out.
42 ◆ A teacher, trainer or supervisor (male or Examples female) makes unwelcome sexual advances ◆ A lecturer develops and maintains a to a male or a female trainee (lunges, gr a b s , consensual loving and/or sexual relationship tries to kiss or touch) or implies that there with a student in his or her seminar group. ma y be adverse consequences of not The lecturer will be required to examine the complying with a sexual invitation. student’s work and/or write a reference for him/her. 2.4 Victimisation Where a person is treated less favourably than ◆ A clinical supervisor participates in a general others in the same circumstances because selection board for a clinical psychology proceedings were brought under the Sex training course to which his child or a sibling Discrimination Acts,because the person gave has applied. evidence in connection with proceedings or because they alleged that sexual discrimination or 3. THE BPS CODE OF CONDUCT harassment occurred. Section 5 of the BPS Code of Conduct is concerned with the personal conduct of Examples psychologists and contains three items (5.3, 5.4 and ◆ A trainee complains to her supervisor about 5.10) which have relevance for sexual harassment. a sexist comment he made. He ap o l o g i s e s .A t These items state that psychologists shall: a staff meeting the fol l o wing day he makes a remark and then adds jokingly: ‘I shouldn’t say 5.3 ‘not exploit any relationship of influence or that sort of thing in front of Linda, should I?’ trust which exists between colleagues,those under their tuition,or those in receipt of their ◆ A member of staff is accused of sexual services to further the gratification of their harassment and is subsequently exonerated; personal desires’; he makes a complaint about his alleged victim and he is then vilified by the rest of 5.4 ‘not allow their professional responsibilities the trainee group. or standards of practice to be diminished by consideration of religion,sex,race, age, nationality, 2.5 Dual relationships party politics,social standing,class,self interest or Dual relationships are those in which the other extraneous factors’; psychologist is acting in at least one other role besides a professional one; for example, the 5.10 ‘bring allegations of misconduct by a psychologist is supervising a student to whom professional colleague to the attention of those he/she is married or the psychologist is teaching charged with responsibility to investigate them, a student he/she is dating.Some dual relationships doing so without malice and with no breaches of may be not be harmful. Potentially unethical dual confidentiality other than those necessary to the relationships are those where there is a conflict proper investigatory process,and when the of interests or a risk of impairment to subjects of allegations themselves take all professional judgement as a direct or indirect reasonable steps to assist those charged with result of the ‘duality’. responsibility to investigate them.’
43 Item 5.3 of the Code of Conduct states that if it is felt that high standards of professional members in positions of influence or trust may practice are not being maintained. not exploit their position to further the gratification of their personal desires.Thus, Item 5.10 concerns the responsibilities of members of the public, students,trainees and members to behave in a prof essional way once other Society members may seek to complain to allegations of misconduct have been brought to the Society about a member of the Society if they their attention; it is self-explanatory and prob a b l y feel that he/she is guilty of what are commonly does not req u i r e elucidation here. Ne vert h e l e s s , called the sexual ‘quid pro quo’ harassing th e r e are important points to make about what is behaviours.These include the implication that good practice in general terms and about the influence can be bought with sexual favours, pro c e d u r es which psychologists should fol l o w in seductive behaviour, unwelcome attempts to their places of wo r k .M a ny Higher Education touch,or repeated suggestive verbal remarks of a es t a b l i s h m e n t s , public and private institutions have sexual nature to individuals or groups. policies on sexual harassment and BPS members ar e urged to read and fol l o w these caref u l l y. Item 5.4 concerns general standards of professional practice and can be compared with 4. INTERPRETING THE CODE OF the legislation on equal opportunities (Sex CONDUCT Discrimination,Race Relations and Disabled Psychologists faced with complaints of sexual Persons Employment Acts).It states that harassment,or who are victims or colleagues of members should not discriminate on grounds of those directly involved,may wish to take e.g.race, sex,age, etc.This item of the Code of complaints to their employing institution.They Conduct may therefore be invoked in cases may additionally or independently wish to make a where an individual is thought to be guilty of case to the Society that an individual is guilty of sexual harassment which,whilst not explicitly sexual harassment and should be disciplined sexual in nature, discriminates against any under the Code of Conduct.Such complaints will particular group on the grounds of sex or sexual be dealt with by the Society without prejudice orientation.Favouritism shown to one particular and will be investigated quite independently of sex is an example of this,as is the use of highly any investigation held by an employing authority. biased or suggestive material in teaching.The There are certain guidelines to good practice thoughtless use of terms of endearment would which apply equally to complaints taken to the also fall into this category if it continued after Society and to complaints taken to an employer. requests to stop. It is important to note that an It is hoped that these guidelines will be of value individual may be guilty of harassment despite the to members. absence of any intention to offend,because it is the effect upon the recipient which defines it as a It follows from the above that all psychologists problem.It is also important to recognise the have a responsibility to refrain from behaviours impact that staff-trainee relationships can have which can be identified as sexual harassment.In upon the group of trainees as a whole;complaints addition, following the discussion of the ethics of by third parties of favouritism or bias may also be dual relationships in Section 1,those in positions made under Section 5.4 of the Code of Conduct of management or authority would seem to have
44 additional responsibilities.Staff should recognise DO the difficulties which may be consequent upon Read in advance any existing employment policy consensual sexual and/or romantic relationships or policy of the HE establishment and be familiar or other (e.g.familial) dual relationships between with local procedures.Make an appointment supervisors or teachers and trainees or students. quickly to see the complainant.Clarify the scope and limits of your role (manager, senior colleague, These difficulties include problems associated with advocate, confidante) and agree the purpose of the maintenance of boundaries of prof essional and your interview. Remind the complainant of personal life, disruption of teaching or learning, confidentiality. Establish their rights.Inform them bias in assessment or damage to the quality of the of any harassment investigatory procedure.Ask working envi ro n m e n t .T h e r e may also be whether they need additional personal support. difficulties for other members of the group of Ask clear, specific questions.Remind them you trainees or staff. Gi v en the disparity of power and can’t take up a complaint on their behalf – only authority between staff members and students or guide and support them to do it themselves (a trainees it is the responsibility of the staff member colleague or manager ought not to present concerned to withdraw from any profe s s i o n a l evidence on behalf of someone else). responsibility towa r ds the student or trainee. St a f f should also be awa r e that failure to initiate this DO NOT course of action will make them vulnerable to Take sides.Give reassurance about the outcome allegations of bias or favou r i t i s m . Limited res e a rc h – you can only say that a fair assessment will take evidence suggests that around 10 per cent of place. Get personally involved;if it is difficult to postgraduate psychologists in training have be objective because the alleged harasser is a relationships with their ‘e d u c a t o r s ’ . Because there friend or a close colleague, refer the case on to ar e a number of potential prof essional risks in a someone else.Ask leading questions or make situation which can at first seem exciting, fl a t t e r i n g personal comments (Was it meant to be a joke? and positivel y helpful, it may be of value for Oh yes,X is known to be a bit of a rogue!) psychologists in training to be awa r e of this data. Whilst many dual relationships do not cause harm 4.3 Conduct in making a complaint to either party , and whilst there may be no People who feel they are being harassed should detrimental prof essional consequences, it is first understand that such behaviour is not ne ver theless good practice to be mindful of the acceptable, that it runs counter to the ri s k s . It may be good practice for a psychologist in employment legislation as well as the Society’s training to discuss the situation with a colleague Code of Conduct,that most organisations and seek advice. proscribe it and that there should be support at a number of levels for the case to be dealt with 4.2 Conduct in responding to and ultimately heard,if appropriate.The first step, complaints ideally, is to ask the person to stop and to make If an individual comes to you as someone in it clear that the behaviour is unwelcome. In many authority to complain about a colleague on the cases the problem can be solved by a clear, grounds that they are guilty of sexual harassment, balanced statement of the facts and a description the following points maybe helpful to obser ve: of the reasons for discontent.If this feels too
45 difficult,then the initial approach may be made by discussion of the facts and the associated fee l i n g s , a friend or a colleague . It is good practice to fol l o wed by an apo l o g y and an undertaking not to make a note (or keep a diary) of the behaviour al l o w the behaviour to be rep e a t e d . If a complaint and any action taken.If the initial approach does is carried for w a r d to disciplinary action at wor k not result in the harassment ceasing,then the or by the Society, members are encouraged as next step is to approach someone in authority pa r t of the Code of Conduct to help those who within the organisation where the behaviour has ar e req u i r ed to investigate the complaint. It is occurred (your own manager or a supervisor or im p o r tant to know that the Society underta k es to teacher) and describe the events.It might be a listen caref u l l y to your view of the facts, as well as good idea to take a friend along.Be prepared to that of the complainant. In the situation where a confirm in writing the dates and the details of the dual relationship has devel o p e d , or seems likel y to incidents and the approaches made to request de vel o p , it is also important to understand the the harasser to stop.You are entitled to prompt risks of third party complaints.Th e r e may be consideration of your complaint and to know the some difficulty in rem o ving yourself from the details of what action it is possible for the pro f essional element of the dual role (some of organisation to take.You do not have to agree to your courses may be compulsory for your private move away from the environment yourself,if this p a rt n e r, or there may be no other suitable is suggested,although you do have the right to su p e rv i s o r ) . It is wise to think through these facts ask to be moved.You should understand that you in advance of the relationship starting if you can. should be offered support by your work place, that the organisation should respond if there is 5. THE ROLE OF THE SOCIETY sufficient evidence of harassment,but that only The British Psychological Society recognises the you can give evidence.A complaint about problem of sexual harassment in the workplace harassment cannot be followed on hearsay. and is committed to helping to prevent it.Sexual harassment will not be tolerated and such 4.4 Conduct when someone behaviour runs counter to employment policy complains about you and to the BPS Code of Practice.The British It is important to note that sexual harassment is a Psychological Society is committed to responding pr oblem which may be identified solely on the promptly to complaints about members.Proven basis of the rec i p i e n t ’ s view. Jok es which wer e not sexual harassment will constitute grounds for meant to give offen c e , or the habitual (perhaps disciplinary action under the Code of Conduct. unconscious) use of terms of endearment, The Society also regards consensual sexual constitute harassment if the recipient finds them relationships between staff and trainees or of fe n s i v e and has told you so.This can seem unfair students as an important professional issue. Such and is sometimes the basis for unthinking relationships raise serious questions of conflict of victimisation (see Section 2). It is advisable to be interest,of trust,confidence and dependency in mindful of the guidance contained in Section 5.10 working relations and of equal treatment in of the Code of Conduct and take all rea s o n a b l e teaching,learning and selection,assessment and steps to listen to and understand the research.Whilst consensual dual relationships co m p l a i n a n t ’ s view. It is commonplace for may not form the basis for disciplinary action by complaints of harassment to go no further than a the Society, it is important to note that
46 unprofessional behaviour consequent upon such Gutek,B.A.(1985). Sex and the Workplace. San Francisco: relationships (bias in assessment, for example) Jossey-Bass. Ha d j i fo t i o u ,N .( 1 9 8 3 ) . Women and Harassment at Wor k . Pluto Pres s . may be pursued by third parties under Section Hall,J.(1988).Dual Relationships in Supervision. Register 5.3 of the Code of Conduct.The Society would Report,15, 1,5-6. also respond to complaints under Sections 5.3 Harrar,W.R. et al. (1990).Ethical and legal aspects of clinical and/or 5.4 if a complainant made the case that supervision. Professional Psychology Research and consent was not given. Practice, 21(1),37-41. Hartnett,J.,Robinson D. & Singh,B.(1989). Perceptions of References males and females towards sexual harassment and Abbey,A.(1982).Sex differences in attributions of friendly acquiescence. Journal of Social Behaviour & Personality, behaviour: Do males misperceive females’ friendliness. 4(3),291-298. Journal of Personality &Social Psychology, 4(2),830-838. Ka n d e l , W.L .( 1 9 8 8 ) . Sexual Harassment: Per s i s t e n t ,p r evalent but American Psychological Association (1992).Ethical Principals pr even t a b l e . Em p l o yee Relations Law Journal,14 (3 ) ,4 3 9 - 4 5 1 . of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. American Livingstone, J.A.(1982).Responses to sexual harassment on Psychologist,47, 12,1597-1611. the job:Legal,organisational and individual actions. Bartell, PA. et al. (1990).Dangerous liaisons:Sexual intimacies Journal of Social Issues, 38, 4,5-22. in supervision. Professional Psychology Research and NHS Management Executive Advance Letter (GC),Vol 2(1), Practice 21(6),442-450. 92.Harassment at Work. Brewer, M.B.& Berk R.A.(1982).Beyond Nine to Five. North West Thames RHA (1992).Code of Practice in Journal of Social Issues, 38,4,1-14. Equality of Opportunity. Harassment Policy. Cahill, C.,Llewelyn S.P. & Pearson, C. (1991). British Journal of Pol l a c k , D.A . et al. (1 9 9 0 ) . Psychiatric malpractice and supervi s i o n Clinical Psychology, 30,1-12. issues in community mental health programmes. Chartres,J.,Fisher,V. & Day,T. (1985).Sexual harassment Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 41(12),1350-1353. Code of Practice and procedure for individual cases. Richardson,A.(1992).The abuse of power in clinical Discussion document prepared for the AUT. psychology supervision.Clinical Psychology Forum. Cottrell, P. (1983).Consensual relationships – A draft policy Rubenstein,M.(1989). Preventing and Remedying Sexual statement for discussion by the AUT. Harassment at Work. IRS Eclipse Publications. CVCP (1990).Sexual and Racial Harassment:Guidance for Salisbury, J.,Cinono,A.B.,Remiek,H.& Stringer,D.M.(1986). Universities. Counselling victims of sexual harassment. De Angelis,T. (1991).Sexual harassment common,complex. Psychotherapy, 23(2),316-324. APA Monitor, December. Tangri,S.S. et al. (1982).Sexual harassment at work:three Fitzgerald,L.F. & Hesson-McInnis M.(1989).The dimensions explanatory models. Journal of Social Issues, 38, 33-35. of sexual harassment.A structural analysis. Journal of The Sex Discrimination Act (1975). Vocational Behaviour, 35, 309-326. The Employment Protection (Consolidation) Act (1978). Glaser, R.D.& Thorpe, J.S.(1986).Unethical intimacy: The British Psychological Society (1993).Code of Conduct, A survey of sexual contact and advances between Ethical Principles and Guidelines. psychology educators and female graduate students. York,K.M.(1980).Defining sexual harassment in the American Psychologist,41(1),43-51. workplace:A policy capturing approach. Academy of Gottlieb, M.C. (1990).Accusation of sexual misconduct: Management Journal,32(4),830-850. Assisting in the complaint process. Professional Psychology Research and Practice, 21(6),455-461.
47 Guidelines for penile plethysmography (PPG) usage
These guidelines were first published in The 5. Selection of PPG stimuli (content and mode Psychologist (September 1994) where they were of presentation) should take into account an accompanied by recent references at that date . appropriate balance between obtaining the best possible assessment and risk of exposing the These brief guidelines are intended to inform subject to material which may be therapeutically good practice in the penile plethysmography counter-productive if it is outside their own (PPG) assessment,while allowing for the exercise suspected or known experience. of professional judgement in particular situations. 6. The psychologist should brief the subject on They should be read in conjunction with existing the purpose and procedures involved in PPG guidelines on professional conduct published by assessment including possible results and their the Society and articles on PPG assessment in interpretation.He/she should explain limits of the scientific and professional literature. confidentiality and likely consequences of participation,non-participation and withdrawal 1. Responsibility for the supervision of the PPG and check that the subject has understood. assessment should rest with a psychologist who is eligible to be registered as a Chartered 7. Debriefing should be carried out at the end Psychologist. The psychologist should have up-to- of each assessment.This should include date knowledge of relevant practice, legal issues consideration of the impact of the assessment on and literature. the client and the need for support and advice.
2. Staff participating in this work at any level 8. A record that the subject has been properly should be adequately briefed and have the option briefed/debriefed should be kept where not to be involved should they find the procedure appropriate. or material distressing. 9. Stimuli material for PPG assessment should 3. The PPG test should be carried out only in be kept secure and access limited to those using the context of an appropriate range of other it for professional purposes. assessment and treatment procedures or in the course of research that has been professionally 10. Assessment should only be carried out in and ethically approved by the relevant body. appropriate physical conditions with due regard to the standards of safety, privacy, comfort and 4. Selection of the stimuli should take into current hygiene recommendations. account ethical consideration of how the material was produced or obtained, e.g.if it was under abusive circumstances.
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