Jl geol. Soc. Lond. Vol. 135, 1978, pp. 407-428, 7 figs., 5 tables. Printed in Northern Ireland.

MetaHogenesis in SE Asia

C. S. Hutchison & D. Taylor

SUMMARY: Southeast Asia may be subdivided into three distinct metallogenic provinces-- (a) peripheral Cenozoic volcanic arc, (b) Mesozoic Sundaland core, and (c) cratonic China north of the Red River Suture: a is a major producer of copper with minor gold and silver; b is the World's foremost producer of tin with subordinate tungsten and antimony; c is the World's premier tungsten and antimony province, with subordinate tin and mercury. Ophiolites, obducted since the Palaeocene from Pacific and marginal basin lithosphere, yield substantial chromite, increasing amounts of nickel from residual laterite, and massive Cyprus- type sulphides. Palaeocene to Miocene dioritic stocks, within the ensimatic arcs of the Philippines and north Sulawesi, contain important porphyry coppers. Gold and silver are important associates, but molybdenum is rare. Kuroko-type sulphides and mesothermal copper-gold vein deposits are important in the Philippines and Taiwan. Epithermal gold-silver telluride vein deposits are more widespread throughout the Cenozoic volcanic arc. Tin mineralization, spatially related to acid granitoids of Permo-Triassic age in Indonesia and the Malay Peninsula and of Cretaceous age in Phuket and Tenasserim, is widespread in province b. Important lode deposits are confined to Billiton and the East Coast Belt of the Peninsula, emplaced within the zone of fracture around high level granitoids. Some stratiform iron-tin deposits characterize this Eastern Belt. Other tin fields, which yield the bulk of the region's production, contain few worthwhile lode deposits. Huge amounts of tin have been produced from the contact zones of large deep-seated batholiths in Bangka, along the Main Range of the Malay Peninsula, and in the Phuket region of Thailand. The tin has been concentrated in Quaternary placers by the favourable combination of climate and topography. In the Southern Shan States and north Thailand, the deposits are associated with Triassic granites and have yielded more tungsten than tin, as well as significant amounts of antimony. Major tungsten and less important tin deposits are associated with Mesozoic granitoids in the Caledonian foldbelt of southeastern China. The important antimony and mercury occurrences lie on the continental side of the tungsten-tin belt. Gold, antimony and mercury mineralization is associated with Tertiary igneous rocks in West Borneo, and mercury occurs in Palawan island. Iron contact-metasomatic and sedimentary ore deposits are associated with the Mesozoic igneous rocks in China and Sundaland, and with Cenozoic dioritic rocks in the Philippines. The metallogenic zonation of China may be related to subduction of oceanic material beneath a continental margin, persistent since the early Mesozoic. In SE Asia, more complex patterns of subduction have resulted in less well defined metal zonation in the continental regions. Cenozoic mineralization in the Philippines and Indonesia resulted from convergent tectonics of great complexity involving both continental and oceanic crust of diverse origins.

SE Asia may be subdivided into the pre-Tertiary incident to Java throughout the Cenozoic, so that continental core of Sundaland, extending southwards towards Burma subduction included significant to Billiton, and a surrounding Cenozoic island arc amounts of transform motion (Karig et al. 1977, Mol- system (Fig. 1). The Chinese craton is separated from nar & Tapponnier 1975). North of Barren Island, the Sundaland by the Red River Suture Line (Hutchison, volcanic arc is now extinct (Mitchell & McKerrow 1975a). There is a strong metallogenic distinction 1975), but an eastward dipping Benioff Zone is still between these three sub-regions (Table 1). apparent beneath the Burmese Plains (Verma et al. The mineral deposits have been fitted into a plate 1976). tectonic scheme wherever possible, but the Main The Sumatran sector represents subduction, with a Range and Phuket tin-tungsten granitoid belts remain strong transform component, of young Indian Ocean enigmatic, although considered respectively to be col- crust beneath a pre-Mesozoic continental plate con- lision- and in part subduction-related by Mitchell & taining granites as old as Permian and Triassic Garson (1976). (Hehuwat 1976). The Java sector is a simple island arc displaying a good correlation of volcanic rock Geological framework geochemistry with Benioff Zone depth (Hutchisoa 1975b, 1976). The Flores-Banda sector is complicated The active arc-trench system changes in character by the impingement of the Australian continental along its length from Burma to the Banda Sea (Fig. 1). plate. The Philippine-Taiwan sector experienced west- Generally, the Indian Ocean Plate was perpendicularly ward subduction of the Pacific Plate along the

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TABLE 1: Highlights of Southeast Asian production of metals and ores

Geological Setting Pre-Tertiary craton "> Cenozoic island arc

Product World annual Southeast Asian country and percentage of world production (tonnes) total (only if it exceeds 1.0%) average for 1968 - 1970 China Thailand Malaysia Indonesia Philippines --. .,. "Antimony 64,660 " 18.2 IJ.'7 Barite 3,696,830 3.7 Bauxite 52,201,000 1.9 "I .8 Bismuth 3,884 6.4 Chromium 5,402,817 9.2 Copper (metal in ore) 5,570,341 1.7 2.3 Fluorite 3,881,544 6.7 7.4 .... 'Gold 1,452 1.2 Iron ore 721,272,000 5.6 Lead 3,215,826 3.1 , , Manganese 17,603,842 5.5 ,,. Mercury 9,586 7.2 1.4 Molybdenum 64,750 2.3 Nickel 533,939 2.9 (1970) Menazite lO, 931 17.8 Pyrite 21,394,000 8.3 1.0 Tin (metal in ore) 229,961 8.8 9.6 32.4 7.7 Tungsten (metal in ore) 32,227 24.8 1.9 Zinc (metal in ore) 5,272,552 1.9

Source: Minerals Yearbook 1972 Ryuku-Philippine arc-trench system, beginning in the sedimentation in the Triassic (Fig. 2). The basin has a early Miocene. The portion from Luzon to Taiwan distinct positive gravity anomaly as compared with the flipped to an eastwards subduction along the Manila western Main Range and the Eastern Belt (Ryall Trench in Middle Miocene (Murphy 1973a, b). 1976). Its eastern margins were characterized Palaeocene eastwards subduction of the Sulu Sea is by Permo-Triassic contemporaneous volcanism. also suggested by igneous rocks on Cebu with an age Granitoids in the Eastern Belt were high-level em- of 59 Ma (Wolfe 1973) and a fossil trench. placements within a volcano-plutonic arc in a terrain The South China Sea marginal basin is now being which has remained isostatically stable since the Trias- consumed along the Manila Trench (Hamilton 1976). sic, whereas the Main Range granitoids were emplaced The Sulu Sea is bounded by remnant arcs whose mesozonally in a terrain which has experienced con- polarity suggests southeastwards subduction (Tamesis siderable post-Triassic uplift (Hutchison 1977a, b). In et al. 1973, Hutchison 1978). The Macassar Trough is the early Palaeozoic, the Malay Peninsula was at- thought to be a marginal basin which has separated ta'ched, on its present west, to a craton from which it is the volcanic arc of western Sulawesi from Borneo. The now separated by the young Indian Ocean and Anda- Meratus Mountains and Lupar Line ophiolites delimit man Sea (Stauffer 1974). This has been suggested to western pre-Tertiary continental Borneo (Hutchison be eastern Australia (Carey 1976, Keppie 1977), but 1975a). the palaeomagnetic data argues against this hypothesis Pre-Tertiary Sundaland extends northwards from (McElhinny et al. 1974). the Sunda Shelf and structures of the Malay Peninsula Early Cretaceous epizonal granitoids characterize extend beneath the Gulf into Thailand (Woollands & the Phuket-Tenasserim area, and late Cretaceous Haw 1976). granitoids occur locally in Peninsular Malaysia and A pre-Tertiary marginal basin, bounded on the west more extensively in West Borneo. by the Bentong-Raub and Uttaradit-Luang Prabang A continental infrastructure for Sundaland and ophiolite lines (Hutchison 1975a), and on the east by China is indicated by the discontinuous Precambrian the Khorat Plateau and the East Coast Belt of the outcrops between the Palaeozoic-Mesozoic foldbelts Malay Peninsula, changed from marine to continental (Campbell 1975, Terman 1974) (Fig. 1).

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• , 91e. ~ '1or l l I (I I FIG. 2. Simplified geological map of the Malay Peninsula showing the various granitoid belts in relation to the ophiolite lines and the Palaeozoic-Mesozoic marginal basin. Based on Hutchison (1975a, 1975b) and Gobbett & Hutchison (1973).

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South China is characterized by impressive volumes in Acoje to aluminium chromite in Masinloc (Gervasio of granitoids of late Palaeozoic to middle Cretaceous 1973). Nickel and platinum sulphides, as intimate age, genetically related to subduction from the Pacific intergrowths of pyrrhotite, troilite, pentlandite and beneath a rather stable continental plate (Jahn et al. violarite, are mined from irregular blebs in serpen- 1976). tinized dunite in Acoje mine (Bryner 1969). Nickel laterite, overlying ophiolite obducted from the Pacific Mineralization associated with Plate, is mined on Nonoc island (Fig. 3). The Barlo mine of west Luzon is of Cyprus-type oceanic-type lithosphere low-grade fine-grained pyrite surrounded by small Ophiolite is now generally interpreted as the upper random zones of chalcopyrite-rich ore containing up parts of oceanic or marginal basin lithosphere tectoni- to 8 per cent Cu and/or 6 per cent Zn. The ore is cally emplaced at convergent plate junctures (Coleman closely associated with pillow lava but has been subse- 1977). Podiform chromitites have been concentrated quently localized within breccia (Bryner 1969). in the upper 30 km of the mantle (Thayer 1970). In Local concentrations of pyrolusite, psilomelane Borneo the distribution coefficient, K, of nickel be- and/or braunite occur between pillow basalt and the tween mantle peridotite and the crustal gabbroic rocks Tertiary biohermal limestones (Gervasio 1973). is 1531 ppm/96 ppm, or 15.9, and for chromium 2770/232, or 11.9 (Hutchison 1972). Platinum metals Sabah-Sulu Sea are also concentrated by a similar process (Crocket Ophiolite sequences occupy the southern part of 1972, Naldrett & Cabri 1976). Palawan island (Tamesis et al. 1973), some of the Sulu Nickel is further concentrated up to 2.4 per cent by islands and considerable parts of eastern Sabah Quaternary tropical weathering in residual laterites. (Hutchison 1972, 1978), but the chromite deposits are The highest concentration is in the low-iron horizons too small for large scale mining. Nickel-laterite in close to the peridotite bedrock (Reynolds et al. 1973). Sabah contains 42 to 51 per cent Fe and up to 0.5 per Cyprus-type stratiform sulphide bodies may form by cent Ni on the Tavai Plateau and Bidu Bidu Hills exhalations directly on to the spilitic ocean or marginal (Kirk 1968). There are plans to mine the laterite on basin sea floor (Mitchell & Garson 1976). Besshi-type southern Palawan (Min. Mag., Lond. 1976). sulphide bodies, which differ from Cyprus-type in The Lorraine Cyprus-type orebody of Balabac Is- their association with continent-derived clastic land (Fig. 3) is of pyrite, with subordinate chalcopyrite sedimentary rocks, are thought to have been carried and sphalerite, and local hematite, of average Cu along by sea-floor spreading to be incorporated in content 4 per cent (John 1963). The ore lies conform- fold-belts at convergent plate junctures (Garson & ably above the chert-spilite of the ophiolite, and is Mitchell 1977). Manganese deposits may have formed overlain by a mudstone m61ange containing serpenti- directly on the sea floor. nite, chert and spilite blocks. Regional considerations Taiwan The Cenozoic ophiolites of Southeast Asia are of The Tungshan stratabound massive sulphide de- contrasting origin: posit, together with nine minor occurrences, are found a. derived from Pacific Plate lithosphere: (Sulawesi, within low pressure, high temperature schists in the eastern Philippines, Halmahera, Irian Jaya and Central Range. All are bedded or lenticular, of thick- eastern Taiwan); ness variable from 10 to 50 cm, and of pyrite, with b. derived from marginal basin lithosphere of the subordinate pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and now inactive Celebes, Sulu and South China Seas galena (Tan 1976). They have been correlated with (western Philippines, Sabah, Meratus Mountains, the Besshi-type deposits of Japan because of similar perhaps Burma, and Taiwan in part); tectonic setting (Biq 1974). However, Besshi deposits c. derived from Indian Ocean lithosphere (Timor, occur within high pressure metamorphic terrain. Only Andaman-Nicobar and possibly Burma in part). the Hungyehchi occurrence in Taiwan is contiguous All current nickel-laterite mining is from category a, with the blueschist belt. and chromitites from category b.

The Philippines Indonesia The largest producers of chromite are in the Zam- Lateritic nickel deposits are mined at Pomalaa and bales Province ophiolite, considered to have been Soroako in east Sulawesi (Katili 1974). The nickel obducted from South China Sea lithosphere in the occurs as garnierite and chryoprase in the residual early Miocene (Fig. 3). The chromite is in serpen- blanket deposits, which may contain 2 to 3 per cent tinized peridotite and varies from metallurgical grade Ni. Nickeliferous laterite also occurs on Halmahera,

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L EGEND

KUANSHAN TAIW~ (~) Manganese ore on Pillow lava

Cyprus - type copper on Pillow lava

Z~ Chromite in ophiolite Acoje also has Ni 8, Pt sulphides 15¢

2o" I (~ ~LOCOS NORTE"~ [] Residual Nickel laterite ,BICOBIAN ~) Besshi- type sulphides .-(~ISABELLA ----~BALER p Platinum metals

~) PANGASINAN~ QUEZON"~- PHILIPPINES • Minor deposit /~ ACOJE ~ V,'-I -~ BICOL (Z AMBA LE S~_.~._J" .I0 °" ~, REGION )~__~_~ --~,~('~) CATANDUANES Major mine in production 15=. /~ MASINLOC~ • or about to produce (~ TARL AC /~ MINDORO-

NONOC ISLAND BOHOL

_ ~ LAWAN~----~ , "~".~.~_~ .5 °-

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.5 =- [] KALIMANTAN!~ [ii~:~~ LARONA %f

SEBUKU ISLAND

POMALAA q PLEIHARI 1 !8 r \ \ H3 ° I ° 123 ° 128 °

FIG. 3. Locality map of the most important ophiolite-related ore deposits of SE Asia. Data are from numerous sources discussed in the text.

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Gag, Waigeo, Gebe, and in New Guinea at Cyclops phyry coppers. Both may coexist, as at Baguio in the (Reynolds et al. 1973). Philippines. Platinum occurs along with gold and diamonds in The Lepanto-type mesothermal deposits may be alluvium adjacent to the ophiolitic Meratus Mountains considered as the subaerial analogue of Kuroko de- of Southeast Borneo, which contain diamond-bearing posits. They contain abundant copper and a suite of breccia pipes (Bemmelen 1970). antimonial minerals and barite. Thailand-Peninsular Malaysia There was a small production of chromite from Regional details serpentinite at Amphoe Tha Pa in the Uttaradit Pro- vince of Thailand (Tantisukrit 1975), but sporadic Philippines occurrences of serpentinite in the Peninsula have no There are three distinct areas of porphyry copper economic significance (Richardson 1939). mineralization: 1. The northern region, related to eastward subduc- Indochina and China tion of the South China Sea, with an age of Chromite is mined from serpentinite near Thanh mineralization mid to late Miocene (Almogela Hoa in the Black River (Song Ma) suture line of North 1974, Wolfe 1973) (Fig. 4). Vietnam (Fromaget 1941). The northwest extension of 2. The central zone, related to Sulu Sea subduction, this line is the main Chinese source of Ni and Cr of uppermost Palaeocene age (Almogela 1974). (Ikonnikov 1975). 3. The eastern region, related to Pacific subduction, dated Pliocene (Wolfe 1973). Burma The central zone is the most spectacular, and con- Ophiolites occur in the Indo-Burma Ranges, the tains the great Atlas Mine on Cebu of more than 1000 Naga Metamorphic Complex and in the Mogok Belt million tonnes of 0.46 per cent Cu ore with 0.25 (Aung & Kyaw 1969). There is a nickel mining poten- g/tonne Au (Fig. 4). A close second is Sipalay mine on tial at Tagaung Taung, 130 km upstream from Man- Negros Occidental with reserves of 662 million tonnes dalay, where garnierite veins and boxworks occur in of 0-50 per cent Cu. Altogether the Philippines con- brecciated serpentinite, associated with placer chro- tains seven mining deposits, and a further sixteen mite deposits (Ferencic 1961). deposits, with total reserves of 3230 million tonnes of ore of average grade 0-46 per cent Cu and 0.30 Volcanic arc association g/tonne Au (Saegart & Lewis 1976). The significant details of the Philippine porphyry Porphyry copper and Kuroko deposits copper deposits are given in Table 2. The Cu-Fe-Zn Bagacay and Sulat mining areas of Hollister (1975) has summarized the essential fea- Samar island are considered to be of Kuroko-type tures of porphyry copper deposits and drawn attention (Hernandez 1975). The Bagacay mine contains to the differences between those on continental mar- stratiform chalcopyrite, chalcocite and black copper gins and those on island arcs. Sato (1974, 1977) has oxides within Pliocene coaly beds contiguous with reviewed the Kuroko deposits, and Colley (1976) has strongly argillized dacite. Chalcopyrite replaces the described the spectrum that may exist as volcanoes in wood structures (Bryner 1969). At Sulat, massive island arcs grow from submarine to subaerial. stratiform pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, sphalerite and Porphyry copper is most important where the older galena occur as flat lenticular ore masses concordant Pacific crust has subducted, and least important when within Pliocene sediments contiguous with Miocene related to the younger Indian Ocean. Although disap- volcanic and pyroclastic rocks (Hernandez 1975). The pointing with respect to porphyry copper, Sumatra and massive pyrite body at Hixbar Mine on Rapu-Rapu Java have been reasonably well mineralized in gold island is conformable with the schistosity of enclosing within the higher zones of the volcanoes. quartz-sericite schist, thought to be of metavolcanic Volcanic arcs of west central Philippines, related to origin (Bryner 1969). Palaeocene subduction of South China Sea marginal The Lepanto mine contains gold and silver in the basin crust, are rich in porphyry copper. The older form of tellurides, and silver in part within tennantite. Mesozoic marginal basin of Thailand and Peninsular The principal copper minerals are enargite and luzo- Malaysia (Fig. 2) has so far proved of only moderate nite. The ore also contains traces of tin which increase value for base metal deposits. towards the volcanic centre. Chalcedony is abundant. It is proposed that the mineralized solutions came Gold-silver deposits from a volcanic centre and were trapped as a Gold-silver telluride epithermal mineralization is stratabound deposit, structurally controlled by a major subaerial and occurs at a higher level than the por- fault (Bryner 1969).

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,. ,.. , , ,. .,2,. ,\3; ..... 'f ,? , < ? ,~. • ,,~. , I-" : ~ ~ ) ~'.-/--" ~ - '.J./ "~ , ".~ ~ -cn ~ GOLD AND GOLD-SILVER / ;: - ~- ' ~ -' ~~..O ~ J / .5" ~-~' Cbi,gi,=elb [. "...... ";'"; A '~) , (0 O ~.,-., ,~Z~,,~ tc,a.g~., I?~ ~ , :" "'*" "~T L. ", '~) rv 1 C ~ ~ • MaJOrgo~d-eilv¢*' mini with base metals 2'0e" ..gchoo. A ~ . " u..p~og ~- - ~ ~ / '-"1

"°'*" '" G"'It"""°'*" ~"i ~ /\ /k -- ~kp~ O' ~ro~o~cC'-e r;lO'in(e r J (~)Nuitu(niL ;~\/ "~ (~Ti;~°sh~° ng " i Idop,- Oold mi..... b .tibnile [ .: t~ / ,, ' " ' ,~, ...... ~ 1" "~ ~ i / -..~ !~ ,, ® .,,,® .~ ~- . ~, .., ..... ,-,-,...... , ......

I (Lower Po olozo c) ." : :..'"" '., -% .....¢ ~ ~ ~ o " o y, ..... "* "':.: :.. ~ "...... 15:

10 M onywo •-.:" .,. -."': / ~ / Klinga-Apnyoo~---~ I ~ I--Beog vet I I .... ::'~ .... "" ~" s,,,,./~ ~ / ) ~o_J_-~ ...... ;~'...... , ...... l ~/ .... ,,,.,..._~:;i,.~__ Lop....

::" ' " "~'("~""~ " '" ~ I eggnog, In ~\ "... ~>)., '~ y ~ ",./!¢o I ,o,

5 ": ~ ... ~ IVe~oI__C uno : % L.. ..:.V': : S~buluey o ~ " ": oven DII Norte

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...... - : .

PORPHYRY COPPER ~ ~lol~°untolns /~ Mongoni Meier mining centre (RH*rvt= ,~

0 Idolor mining centre (O,,rves >1=1~ ~i-~ ~,~-~ t (~......

Minori),lte, tho~mining o ~0% centrs Cu ) (Rislrvll)lxl~ toni m __ SoNde~• lltC~

Centre not yet mined u u t Sedimi*lor~ 0 Zron ore mince Melolomolic KUROKO TYPE ~ Melimecehl¢

[] Co-Pb-Zn major d ...... "X'N"~"" A ~ ...... ~ Permion-Trloeeic Volcanic Belts .lO~..

Pb-Zn prospects ~ A Kilomller s ooio~ Oo.n L z?o ,?o ooo ~o I "~" MinOr Cu-booriog skorn i i L !

FIG. 4. Locality map of the most important volcanogenic ore deposits of SE Asia. Data are from numerous sources discussed in the text. The tectonic setting of the Chinese deposits is uncertain in most cases. In the Baguio District, the gold values are highest Taiwan when the gangue is rich in rhodonite, and lowest when gypsum and anhydrite (Bryner 1969). In the Acupan The Chimei porphyry copper has a similar setting to mine, the main mineralization is pyrite within quartz those on Luzon and the age of mineralization is consi- veins. An andesite breccia is cemented by quartz and dered to be 18 Ma or slightly older (Tan 1976). contains gold. Pegmatite dykes contain molybdenite The most important hydrothermal vein gold deposit and wolframite (Callow & Worley 1965). is at Chinkuashih. The gangue minerals are barite,

Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/jgs/article-pdf/135/4/407/4885777/gsjgs.135.4.0407.pdf by guest on 30 September 2021 Metallogenesis in SE Asia 415 TAm~ 2: Comparison of characteristics of Philippine and Noah American porphyry copper

Characteristic Philippine model American model

Age (pluton & mineralization) Paleocene to Late Miocene Laramide Source P1uton Quartz diorite or diorite quartz monzonite Host Rocks Cretaceous to Mid-Tertiary Precambrian to Cretaceous volcanic or metavolcanic sedimentary and metamorphic rocks rocks Ore Body Geometry tabular vertical cylinders % of ore in source pluton more than 50% more than 70% as compared with host rocks Distribution of ore bodies as clusters as clusters Average ore tonnage 133 x lO6 136 x 10 6 Average hypogene Cu grade 0.46% 0.45% Ore zone alteration Potassic (biotite, chlorite, Potassic to phyllic alkali fel~ Fringe area alteration Propylitic (chlorite, Phyllic, argillic, epidote, cal~ri- propylitic cite, clay) Zonation of alteration overlapping, indistinct Distinct zones zones Hypogene sulphides Chalcopyrite, minor bornite Chalcopyrite, minor bornite Sulphide occurrence As quartz-sulphide veinlets As disseminations and frac- with lesser disseminations ture fillings Weight % sulphides in ore 2 to 6% (Average 3%) 3 to 10% zone Pyri te/chal copyri te i n 0.8/I to 4/I (average 2/I) 3/I to 13/I ore zones Supergene enrichment negligible common Oxidation and leaching Shallow partial oxidation Shallow to deep to lOOm depth Associated gold O.3ppm minor Associated molybdenum 70ppm 150ppm Associated magnetite abundant (average 3%) sparse Anhydrite or gypsum common as moderate amounts common as minor amounts (often post-mineralization) Intra to post-mineralization Abundant of variable thick- Few and narrow only dykes ness Post mineralization structures abundant shatter fractures Major fault displacements

(After Saegart and Lewis 1976)

alunite, sphalerite, wurzite, galena, native mercury, the Philippines. Its radiometric age is 9 Ma (Lim cinnabar and native sulphur. Traces of famatinite in 1974). The ore body is only about one seventh of the the luzonite-enargite ore have been mined for copper. size of the Atlas Mine on Cebu. Chemically, the The ore body is well zoned, with a Cu centre, grading deposit is similar to other island arc porphyry coppers. outwards to gold, and finally to a mercury zone. Zinc Copper values presently range from 0.55 to 0.66 per and lead gangue minerals are found in the gold zone. cent, with values up to 6 per cent in the supergene The temperature of deposition is within the range 228 enriched zone. The Au content is 0.66 g/tonne and Ag to 305°C (Tan 1976). The metal contents are Cu 0-6 2-5 g/tonne. Zinc does not exceed 103 ppm and per cent and Au 3 g/tonne, whereas the similar Luzon molybdenum is around 7.5 ppm. deposits have Cu 3.0 per cent and Au 5 g/tonne (Tan 1976). Indonesia Sabah-Sulu Sea All the major Indonesian porphyry coppers are The Mamut copper mine is urmsual in this region, related to Miocene-Pliocene volcanic arcs resulting for the host rock is adamellite, and not diorite as in from Pacific Plate subduction (Katili 1974). The main

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areas are in Sulawesi at Tapadaa and Sasak (Djum- younger set of Cu-Ni-Co ore veins sharply cut across hani 1976) (Fig. 4). the main Pb-Zn-Ag orebody (Soe Win 1970). Gold and silver hydrothermal quartz vein deposits have been mined at the Lebong and West Coast Thailand-Peninsular Malaysia mining districts of Sumatra (Bemmelen 1970). The gold and silver occur native as well as in selenium Several minor Kuroko-type sulphide occurrences are minerals with an Au:Ag ratio ranging from 1 : 1 to found within the Permo--Triassic volcanic and pyro- 1:90. The gangue minerals are quartz, chalcedony, clastic rocks of central and eastern Peninsular calcite and zeolite. Malaysia (Chand & Rajah 1974). The Manson and The Lebong District of Sumatra yielded 72 per cent Galena Lodes of Kelantan are strongly stratabound of the gold and 69 per cent of the total silver produced (Chin 1969). The ore zones in south Kelantan contain in Indonesia this century. The ore occurred within up to 0"3 per cent Sn and 20-3 g/tonne Ag (Aw 1973). strongly faulted andesitic to dacitic volcanic rocks with These bodies are too small to support mining. minor granodiorite. The mineralization is dated as Mio- Base metal porphyry-type sulphides occur in the Pliocene (Bemmelen 1970). Loei district of northern Thailand (Jacobsen et al. At the Salida and Gunung Arum mines, the gold 1969). They are of continental type as shown by the and silver ore contained substantial amounts of silver close association with red-bed deposits of the Khorat tellurides, along with selenium and base metal sul- Plateau. They have not been dated, but it seems likely phides. The Mangani deposit of Sumatra contained they are Triassic. silver-antimony sulpho-salts in a gangue of manganese minerals. Selenides and tellurides were absent. Gold-silver hydrothermal vein ores were mined China within the mid-Miocene propylitized volcanic rocks in The important Tungchuan copper deposits are of south Java, and Mio-Pliocene volcanic rocks in north Proterozoic age and related to basic and intermediate Java (Bemmelen 1970, Westerveld 1952). igneous rocks. Minor porphyry coppers occur within Several small gold deposits, with associated silver, Permian rocks in SW China (Ikonnikov 1975). occur in the Mio-Pliocene volcanic rocks of north Stratiform galena and sphalerite ores in Hunan are Sulawesi. The epithermal gold ores occur some dis- of Proterozoic age. Cassiterite and scheelite accom- tance from the porphyry copper deposits, which them- pany lead-zinc mineralization within Triassic lime- selves normally contain 0-1 to 0.5 g/tonne Au (Ken- stones in Yunnan and Kwangtung (Ikonnikov 1975). necott Copper Corp., unpublished reports). Iron ore deposits Burma Iron oxide deposits are widespread throughout the There are three separate porphyry copper deposits circum-Pacific western margin (Park 1972). However, near Monywa in the Lower Chindwin District (Maung significant production has been confined to three et al. 1970). The volcanic rocks are predominantly areas: the southeast China province from Hainan is- Pliocene-Quaternary. The primary grades are only 0.1 land through Kwangtung and Fukien; the Malay to 0.3 per cent Cu, with supergene enrichment up to Peninsula and the Philippines. They are predominantly 0-9 per cent. of contact pyrometasomatic type, with associated The Bawdwin Pb-Zn-Ag ore body occurs within an sedimentary deposits occurring in China. Ordovician meta-arkose, which is intensely brecciated by hydrothermal activity associated with emplacement China of the Loi Mi quartz porphyry. Sulphide mineraliza- tion is strongly controlled by thrusts and has been There is an impressive belt of contact metasomatic suggested to be genetically related to the Tawnpeng deposits throughout the Kwangtung-Fukien Caledo- granite (Carpenter 1964), but a volcanogenic exhaltive nian Foldbelt, genetically related to the abundant origin, related to the Ordovician rhyolite and tuff ~'enshan cycle of late Jurassic granites (Jahn et al. formations, has been suggested (Robertson Research 1976). The Shihlu-type contact iron ores occur in 1975). The orebody has a massive Pb-Zn core and is Hainan. Tayeh-type ores occur in Kwangtung. Oolitic surrounded on all sides by a Cu or Cu-Pb zone. Every sedimentary ores range in age from Devonian to grade from solid sulphide to barren metasediment can Jurassic. The famous Kochiu tin deposit has a large be found. The ore is of fine-grained galena, sphalerite hematite capping (Ikonnikov 1975). and chalcopyrite, frequently banded and of sphalerite- galena veinlets in the lower grades. Underground re- Peninsular Malaysia serves are now estimated as 5 x 10 6 tonnes at 8 per cent Pb, 5.6 per cent Zn, 0-6 per cent Cu and 112 to The ore deposits are thought to be of Carboniferous 140 g/tonne Ag (Robertson Research 1975). A to Triassic age (Bean 1976). Most authors postulate a

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hydrothermal replacement origin related to subjacent occurs mineralization of magnetite, pyrite/pyrrhotite or nearby plutons (Bean 1969, 1976), but Taylor and cassiterite, which appears to be interbedded in the (1971) considered the Bukit Ibam deposit to be of clastic sedimentary sequence. The so-called 'bedded volcanogenic origin. A common feature of all the ore lodes' of Kelapa Kampit (Adam 1960) are of this type, bodies is the strong supergene enrichment by tropical as are the massive 'skarn' ores of Bukit Besi, Treng- weathering processes, as at Pelepah Kanan in the Kota ganu. While these ores have been traditionally re- Tinggi district of Johore, where the magnetite ore is garded as replacement deposits related to the granite, capped by a thick crystalline martite deposit (Cheng they could appropriately be classed as volcanogenic. 1976). Total iron production from Malaysia was a A wide variety of primary lode deposits are known little under 100 million tonnes. No major ore bodies from the other major tin fields (Hosking 1969, 1973a) remain. Tin associated with magnetite occurs at Bukit but, with few exceptions, production has been insig- Besi and in a number of smaller occurrences within nificant. Even where substantial output has been ob- the Eastern Belt of the Peninsula, particularly at tained, as at Mawchi in Burma or Pemali in Bangka, Pelepah Kanan and also on Billiton island, Indonesia. the deposits have very limited depth extension with no The exceptional purity of the Ipoh hematites is re- through-going vein systems in the country rocks. markable since they occurred in the centre of the great Mineralization is usually closely confined to the Kinta Valley tin field. granite-sediment contact zones with little continua- Philippines tion in depth into the granite. Stockworks of minor veins and stringers are frequently developed in argil- The pyrometasomatic iron ore deposits are closely laceous rocks, but bulk grades are usually so low that associated with dioritic rocks of Tertiary age (Bryner only the weathered portions can be worked by hy- 1969, Callow 1967). An interesting feature is the draulic methods. presence of copper and zinc. At the Larap mine the Though individually small, the aggregate amount of ore is mainly magnetite, but contains considerable tin in the vein swarms and stockworks of the contact copper, molybdenum, gold, uranium and cobalt. zones is very large, and Quaternary erosion has re- concentrated the cassiterite into rich alluvial tinfields.

The great tin girdle Mineralogical associations The pre-Tertiary core of SE Asia is the source of more Hosking (1973b) set out the different mineral and than 70 per cent of the tin mined this century in the metal associations and showed that certain associa- whole world. The major producing centres lie in a tions have limited regional distribution (Table 3). As- broad arc 3400 km long and up to 800 km wide. The sociations 1 and 2 occur only in the Malaysian East distribution of tin is strongly heterogeneous, with Coast Belt and in Billiton. Associations 3 and 4 seven major centres accounting for over 80 per cent of characterize the Thai Border, Kinta Valley and Kuala the mined output. The balance has come from a Lumpur fields, and malayaite is unknown elsewhere in further fourteen minor fields (Fig. 5). SE Asia. Lepidolite pegmatites are scarce except for the Phuket-Phanggna area, but some examples are Types of field known from the Kinta Valley. Magnetite and titano- magnetite are absent from the alluvial placer deposits. The tinfields fall into two distinct types, those where The general association of tin and tungsten is wide- virtually all the production is derived from mining spread, but the closeness of the association varies placers, and those with a significant deep mined pro- widely. Generally on a local scale the tungsten and tin duction. The former are by far the larger and the first mineralization exist separately. The closest associa- four fields (Fig. 5) fall into this group. They are the tion is at Mawchi in Burma, where both wolframite unique feature of the region and the reason for its and cassiterite exist in the same quartz veins. dominance in World production. Cassiterite and columbite occur together in pegma- The two major fields in the tinbelt proper with tites in two minor fields in Peninsular Malaysia (Bakri significant deep mined production, Billiton island and in Johore, and Gunung Jerai in Kedah). Cassiterite Pahang-Trengganu, show a number of common fea- from these fields is extremely pleochroic (Hosking tures and each has one major underground mining 1973a). Significant contents of columbite/tantalite are area. The mines are the Pahang Consolidated at Sun- also reported from Phuket and Phanggna (Garson et gai Lembing near Kuantan, and Kelapa Kampit in al. 1975). Elsewhere Nb-Ta minerals are rare. Billiton. The lodes are developed in contact Tin ore from the very important Kochiou district of metamorphosed Carboniferous-Permian argillaceous Yunnan always contains some lead, and the mining sedimentary and intercalated andesitic rocks within field formerly produced copper, silver, zinc and iron in the aureoles around high level granitoids. addition to the tin (Fawns 1912). A few small occur- In both Billiton and the East Coast Belt there rences of similar mineralogy are worked on a small

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,'," s'," ,W ,'o~ ,~,s" ',,s"

...... 7-

/ --"" ¢"-C': \ /' TIN and TUNGSTEN "~" ~) X .,-"" iS...,. .,-.. \ Oeposit. s of Southeastou

.) ./ \. • [ FU 0CH NG ~ ' ~ ~=--=- ~i ...... j.. ~ ! '~ t ; \'~ "~'~ " ~ 5. KOCHIU:HIU /""/'" / ~'i~i'~t'~ } |" it" ",)f" "'" '~, " - k~ :'...... ~orth-North YANGCHIANG~ v ) •" " 0, I,- . "~.+ r"-'-•/- : ~®v+et.omB~-~-L~mVietnam . I ~ j' I . J t .... " I~ "- .4""v'~'"* , ~._"~" -~ Izo" ..~ , .I ( " \ . .~ ,t~® ( . I i,, (...... " -" i " " ~"._."Y"t..t. ." northrth ~ ....j - I ~'Viet ham,am. ~C ~ ,~ : 1. KINTA LEGEND J VALLEY Mojor Tinfield (numbared/__ • - :" ~Chi~ng Roi ~w) .--J ~ (--.'~. "" "~. - • I -7in order of size ) Size I Pyinmo'~no ~ g e p' Range 2,000.000-200~3q ) ,;, ,.jw,,~_ s.' ..o ... ~-. .... tons Sn. 1 l --*~awc., ~. ,J'. ',/'" TA Minor Tinfield (fields pro~ % "'" (~) Moe Soriong D"" 1 -ducing tungsten 0nd tin or' is.. \\~ ..\.

/ , ~ ~R " "" 1 Motor Active Transform -'aCTive i ~0( ~ -- • ,~ /~ "'"'" ~ Faults with direction of ...... L, _o, .... ,o.

\o J 4 pHIIKET~/II ~' tHAIdMAeAT ~ S £ A o - . PHANGGNA m t .~

c\, , ~;' L~'~\~V'?.T..ti),~...... ", / / .... i ~ KEDAM'--%<,~I-,, /v \~ " " ° ' - I G. lotoi I I

o o °'-,,,~ ~/ - \ : \~ ~ ~,',~l--~...... ~ - J,',. ~ / ..,- ...... ~ •

\ \o ,~'+, "~,A':': ~ ...... ~ "., ...... o c E A Ill M l~kl -- AKRt ,~ t °°- \ \ \'...... " LI A NTAN

o ~'x X~) B°ngkin°ng ~----70 ~ ...... ('~ v -)

L . ~ ~ ~'-

,is" ?" ,os.., , ,?" ,,~" FIG. 5. Locality map of the most important tin deposits of SE Asia. Data are from numerous sources discussed in the text. The major fault and suture lines abruptly terminate the important mineralized belts.

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TABLE 3: Mineral and metal associations in Southeast Asian tin deposits

Mineralogical association Metal Association Ore type Type localities

I. Cassiterite-pyrrhotite-magnetite Sn-Fe Bedded and skarn Bukit Besi in Trengganu, Batu Besi in Billiton.

2. Cassiterite-chlorite Sn-Cu Major vein Sungai Lembing in Pahang

3 Cassiterite-malayaite-(varlamofite) Sn-Ca Skarn Pinyok on the Thai Border, Chenderiang in Kinta Valley

4. Cassiterite-stannite-complex sulphides Sn-Cu-Pb-Sb Xenothermal Lahat- Menglembu in Kinta.

5 Cassiterite-lepidolite Sn-Li-Ta pegmatite Reung Kiet in Phanggna, Thailand.

6. Cassiterite-wolframite Sn-W vein swarms Mawchi in Burma

7. Cassiterite-columbite Sn-Nb(Ta) pegmatite Gunung Jerai in Kedah

8. Cassiterite-arsenopyrite-pyrite Sn-As-Fe Stockworks Labu on the Thai Border

9. Cassiterite-galena Sn-Pb-(Ag) ? Kochiu in Yunnan

iO. Cassiterite-ilmenite-zircon- Sn-Fe-Ti-Zr- monazlte Ce-Yt Alluvial placers Kinta Valley and Kuala Lumpur

scale in the Yala District of South Thailand where primary tin deposits (Table 3). Triassic granites of massive sulphides with Pb, Zn and minor Cu and Sn, north Thailand have some similarities to the Main capped by iron-rich gossans, occur in the contact zone Range (Braun 1969). between granite and limestone. In the Phuket area, only the biotite and two-mica granites are associated with tin deposits, while the The assodated granites adamellites are not (Garson et al. 1975). The major xlifferences between the granitoids of the Radiometric dating three major tinbelts (Fig. 2) have been discussed by Hutchison (1973b, 1977a and b) and are summarized Experience has shown that Rb/Sr whole rock iso- in Table 4. The East Coast Belt has all the features of chrons give the best estimate of the age of crystalliza- an isostatically stable, slightly eroded volcano-plutonic tion (Bignell & Snelling in press) and K/At gives the last arc. In addition to volcanic rocks, it contains gabbros, time the rock cooled below 200°C. Only the Eastern diorites and granodiorites (Aleva 1960, Hutchison Belt granites have concordant ages, indicating an epi- 1973a). zonal volcanogenic environment of emplacement. The Main Range has a strong Bouger gravity ano- Braun (1969) quotes a date of 344 Ma for a foliated maly of -40 mgal, suggesting a granite extension to 15 granite which intrudes Devonian and is overlain by km depth (RyalI 1976). The mineralogy and late Carboniferous sediments in northern Thailand. geochemistry (Table 4) suggest that the magma, de- This granite is not associated with tin mineralization. rived from anatexis of the thick continental crust, In the Eastern Belt, tin is associated with the granites crystallized and cooled slowly within the greenschist- dated at 250 Ma. In Billiton, Bangka and the Tuju facies mesozone. Hydrothermal solutions were im- islands, a good Rb/Sr isochron of 219 + 5 Ma (Priem et pounded by the unfractured metasediments. The dis- al. 1975) agrees with one of 213+5 Ma for Billiton cordant radiometric dates (Table 4) indicate strong (Jones et al. in press). Muscovite in stanniferous greisen post-Triassic uplift of this isostatically depressed belt on Billiton gives a K/At date of 198 + 4 Ma, indicating a (Hutchison 1977b). High regional geothermal gra- delay of a few million years between the granite dients of 50 to 60°C (Kenyon & Beddoes 1977), emplacement and the hydrothermal tin deposition (Jones expressed on the surface as abundant hot springs et al. in press). throughout the Main Range, indicate that this tectonic In the Phuket-Takuapa-Renong area, early Cre- belt remains hot at depth. We postulate periodic loss taceous ages were obtained from lepidolite and mus- of hydrothermal solutions as the Main Range rose up covite from stanniferous pegmatites along the and was eroded, so that hydrothermal tin mineraliza- Phanggna Fault. tion episodes may have continued well after the Trias- Granites within the central zone of Sumatra have sic crystallization of the granite batholith. This could given Rb/Sr dates of approximately 210Ma, with explain the xenothermal nature of some Kinta Valley very young K/Ar dates in every case (Hehuwat

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TABLE 4: Summary of the properties of Southeast Asian an-belt granitoids Property Phuket-Tenasserim Kinta-Bangka Trengganu-Billiton Western Main Range Eastern Maxima at:- Maxima at:- *Age Rb;Sr 115 + 7 Ma 200, 230, 280 220, 250 Early Cretaceous Late Carboniferous, Permian to Triassic to Late Triassic

*K:Ar 57 _+ 5 Ma 80 to 200 Ma 220-250 Ma *Initial a7Sr/SraS .707 Carboniferous .7111 Permian .7102 Triassic .7098 Triassic .7075

Crystallization 4 to 18 0 to 14 O to 25 **Index K~O weight % 5.6 5.0 4.1 average K20/Na20 average 2.14 1.7 1.3 Rb/Sr average 3.4 I0.O increasing 2.7 westwards alkali feldspar orthoclase to Maximum Orthoclase to intermediate microcline intermediate microcline 2V = 70 to 90 ° mlcrocline. 2V=50-70 Femic minerals Biotite Biotite Biotite h-6-~blende ~te only Hornblende is muscovite in greisen locally important

Rock colour pale grey pale grey pale gre~ or pink or pink texture equigranular coarse strongly equigranular to to porphyritic porphyr1~-{~-c- ,Mcroporphyritic medium to coarse medium to coarse intrusive bodies large plutons extremely large large plutons batholith country rocks Devonian- Low grade phyllltic Carbo-Permian Carboniferous Palaeozoic rocks, gently deformed Phuket Group regionally sediments (pre- (unmetamorphic) metamorphosed dominantly un- metamorphosed) Contact Pronounced aureole Slight local Pronounced aureole metamorphism containing anda- increase of dyna- containing anda- from granite lusite and mothermal grade. lusite and eordierite No andaluslte or cordlerite. cordierite Tin Sn-Li-Ta Sn-Ca Sn °Fe association Pegmatite Sn-Cu-Pb-Sb Sn-Cu Sn-W major vein, bedded Sn-Nb Sn-As-Fe and skarn

other fealures Hot springs Hot springs Basaltic and are co,non are common Lamprophyric dykes are C o~lnon

** after Poldervaart & Parker (1964) *from Bignell (1972) and Bignell & Snelling (1977)

1976). The relationship of these granites to the central bounded or transected by faults, some of which are of Sumatran tin deposits is, however, unknown. major regional significance. The Kochiu district of In the south of the Malay Peninsula and on the Yunnan lies immediately to the north of the funda- Karimata islands east of Billiton, Rb/Sr dates of 70 to mental Red River suture zone. 80 Ma have been obtained, with ages as yound as 52 The Phuket-Phanggna field terminates abruptly to Ma from the Gunung Ledang granite. Concordant the east against the powerful Khlong Marui Fault K/Ar dates were obtained from these high level (Garson et al. 1975). The subparallel Phanggna Fault granites, and similar K/Ar dates have been obtained cuts through some of the stanniferous granites and is from the Tambelan and Bunguran (Natuna) island itself mineralized by lepidolite pegmatites indicating groups of the South China Sea. Minor amounts of tin that some of the faulting is pre-mineralization. have been reported from Karimata and Bunguran but The great tinfield of the Kinta Valley terminates no mining has ever taken place. abruptly on both the east and west sides along roughly N-S fracture zones which bisect the bounding granites Major fnltlag in and around the tinfields (Geological Map of West Malaysia 1973). The Kuala A number of the more important mining fields are Lumpur tinfield is transected by a complex suite of

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TABLE 5: Classification and occurrence of Southeast Asian tungsten deposits

Class and subgroup Mineralogy Geological environment Examples of localities

I. _Quartz hydrothermal vein type .(Southern Kiangsi type)

la. Tungsten-tin in cassi teri te-wol frami te, vein swarms in greisenized Nan Ling range of South greisen scheel'i ~e, chal copyri te, granite. Ore grade is low Kiangsi; Mawchi and melybdeni te, quartz. Hermyingi in Burma. Mae Sariang in Thailand lb. Wolframite-quartz wol frami te (ferberi te), veins in metasediments The most important ore veins quarK, With minor cassiterite, at top parts of granites, type of the Nan Ling molybdenite, base-metal or some distance from the Range of South Kiangsi. sulphides, stibnite, hematite. granites Khao Soon (Thailand) Chendrong and Tunku Mahkota (Peninsular Malaysia) Ic. Scheelite-wolframite scheelite, wolframite, small deposits re~ated Nan Ling Range of quartz veins quartz, with minor cassiterite, to granite and granodiorite. South Kiangsi, China. and base-metal sulphides. ld. Tungsten-antimonyl quartz, barite, scheelite, gently dipping veins Nan Ling Range, South gold deposits stibnite, native, go.ld. .Kiangsi ~ China. 2. Scheelite deposits garnet, diopside, scheelite, granite-limestone meta- Southeast Hunan in in skarns cassiterite, base-metal somatic contact zones China. Doi Mok in sulphides, fluorite. Thailan~Kramat Pulai in Malaysia 3. Wolframite-scheelite- fine grained (

(After Ikonnikov 1975, Chong 1976)

sinistral wrench faults (Shu 1969). These are thought canic rocks occur in NW Borneo (Haile 1969, 1973). to be young and to post-date the mineralization, and These igneous rocks are marked by epithermal massive quartz dykes introduced into the granites mineralization with gold, antimony and mercury hav- along these faults are barren of mineralization. ing been worked in Sarawak (Fig. 7). There are numerous small gold, antimony and mercury occur- Tungsten mineralization rences throughout the volcano-plutonic belt, with minor amounts of copper and lead accompanying the China is the World's major tungsten producer and the gold in places. The best known primary mineralization classification of its deposits has been summarized from is at Bau. The essential mineralization consists of Ikonnikov (1975) (Table 5). Cassiterite is a frequent complex arsenical ores containing native arsenic to- but by no means constant companion of tungsten in gether with other arsenical species, stibnite, pyrite and China and throughout SE Asia. The major deposits a little free gold, and quartzose ores containing more are shown on Fig. 6. The most important groups, from free gold (Lau 1970a and b). Silver is present but is a production viewpoint for the whole region are, in very subordinate in value to gold. Total gold produc- declining order: lb, 2, and la (Table 5). Types lb and tion is 36 000 kg. In addition to gold, 85 000 tonnes of 2 commonly have little or no associated cassiterite, but antimony ore has been produced mainly from eluvium, the vein type in greisen (la) contains significant cassit- and 760 tonnes of mercury from cinnabar mineraliza- erite. The closest association of tin and tungsten is to be found in Tavoy and the Shan States of Burma and tion in sandstone. In West Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) calc- the immediately adjacent parts of Thailand. The In- alkaline volcanic centres are aligned in a NNW trend donesian parts of the tinbelt are markedly deficient in across the Chinese districts. The northernmost centre tungsten, with only one small producer known. forming the Bawang Mountains has a granodioritic Epithermal mineralization in core containing scattered molybdenite in quartz vein- lets with traces of chalcopyrite, scheelite and cassiter- continental areas ite. The volcanic rocks around the granodiorite have Western Borneo yielded alluvial gold and a cluster of mercury occur- Numerous Tertiary or Cretaceous high-level intru- rences is reported. Gold mineralization is widely dis- sive bodies and associated andesitic and rhyolitic vol- tributed in south-central and SE Kalimantan, but the

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k r ./ I, ". J~ d

"~,~ mPy nrnonnojl _ . #.' X "=vB.X " 0 •uoi Mo~ ~,,/ ~ :,r~tl aowch, " / / \ ~. ~, , ,,...// \

\ "0". ~l_Moe Sor,ong~7 \ \ --,,.-~ , .j ,Esozo,c \ \ j _1%.,,, (\ ~:o.,~..... 1 \ W \ \\\ Konb~ IZll~l~ Pilok ~ ..,,.y~.~ k"h." %,\ _ ,o~o, ,,oo,oo. ~ '. " !

g ' i( ~ sour.sea c,~.A

t

• Bukit Lenlor \7"~ LEGEND • endrong/Buloh Nil)is

• Over 10,000 Tons " Tunku Mohkoto ~ : \~4~

(]l 5000 / I0,000 Tons

• t000 - 5000 Tons

O Tungsten Production Recorded

/ Mojor Foults ~x, T, ~o

Mop Projtction: LombeIl Clmi¢ol Offhemorphi¢ ROslin /? ;3. ia. ,'o~. 'oa .

FIG. 6. Locality map of the most important tungsten deposits of SE Asia. The data have been compiled from a variety of sources. Although tungsten is commonly associated with tin (see Fig. 5), the pattern of economic importance is strongly dissimilar.

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i~. ,~8" ,~?. ~,s. A3° ...... L ~, ....

\/ ~ / L . ~ t .*~. • [ i ,L~A rAJeEtt

-7 /*~ ' ! ", ,.' ! ~- ...' ",. ,.; '~P-;-":'-,o ., ¢.--,., <7- / ~. 11 ., .- ~ _ ~.ql, let ~ ,- ,.-. -I_o .... • , j" f ) :. ~ t ~ '~. A-- , ! " ~. ," --" " " ~ "--'" ",

'/ X~ N O i.'" , ]" ~,~/..~ CANTON ~_~

as* ..... , ,~ ~ _ ~ ~' • • " 2Z~ S~O~ r --'------"- ~ :t \ -~ ill c.....- ~ :- ...... ~.-, ~ ~-~ \ "~¢.. ,..,-.- ' - "~ ,i < .~.-~'° ! Molybdenum A occurrence ".~...... ~ - ..,r ,,. " r':O"}-~ "~ I ..... " ....

. <...... ;.. ~ L'O~-~;;~ X LZf I r *occurrence • . i ...... ~'?... ¢o pj~.~ I ..,cury 4 ,.,o,.,.. : ; "~ "+,~'.d /" / I L'k" mining district • "~ ~%,,,0 ,,, :-<. ¢ ( ~ ! Fluorite ~ mining distrlut "-" " i' ,_... .."M. ~ ~ ! ...... re occurrence ~ /.-9 ~ \.. '.\ ~ J Antimony -~ ~ mining district ~®LAMPANG VlENTIANE "~, \ I /

" ,i ~ \ ~; .~ \ o 200 ,oo ,oo k. \N :,,°,o,/ ). - .) ¢/ ~ i/qb ~t ..1") t PALAWAN .~

RANAU

--

I / ~- AUB ,• a / ~ ~ ~ ~AU/sb ~ ANAMBAS IS, qP lie . ""

ol % ©..,.o.

...... ~ ,~ ......

FIG. 7. ~e distribution of epithermal antimony and mercu~ mineralization in the continental parts of SE Asia. Outside of the map area, there are unimpo~ant mercu~ occurrences in Java and antimony in Sulawesi. Data are from numerous sources discussed in ~e text.

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bulk of the production has been from placers (Bem- Tin, tungsten, antimony, mercury melen 1970).

Palawan In Peninsular SE Asia there is a good concordance Along the faulted contact zone between the older in regional distribution between tungsten and an- continental part of Palawan and the younger ophiolite timony, both appearing to prefer the more continental part, occur several important mercury mines (Fig. 7). parts of the region. However, in China, although there Cinnabar is the chief ore mineral. Common gangue is an overlap, the antimony-rich areas predominate on minerals are quartz, chalcedony, opalite, calcite, pyrite the continental side of the major tungsten belt. and marcasite. Yellow ochre also occurs as a result of There is also a geological unity to the tin occur- cinnabar weathering. The occurrences are described as rences, which broadly coincide with tungsten, but by fissure veins, breccia fillings, replacements, cavity fil- no means exactly. However, their coeval nature can lings and disseminations. Free metallic mercury occurs hardly be doubted (Table 5). as globules in open fractures but is insignificant. It is Mercury mineralization occurs widely where the very clear that the mercury is of very low temperature region is underlain by an older sialic basement. The hydrothermal deposition from hot springs. Fernandez cratonic areas of China are the most important, and (1968) believes the mineralization is subaerial and of the metal becomes of less importance towards the Pleistocene to Recent age. outer fringes of Sundaland and is absent in commercial quantities from the ensimatic arcs. The occurrences in Mainland Southeast Asia West Borneo and Palawan are related to areas of thick underlying continental crust. The gold and antimony mineralization seems to be It may be deduced that tin, tungsten, antimony and related not to volcanism but to high-level granitoids mercury have been remobilized from the underlying different from those which are associated with the continental basement within which they have been tin/tungsten, although in several places, especially in preferentially concentrated (Taylor 1973). The China, the antimony, gold, tungsten and tin minerali- mineralization has been brought into the upper levels zation is often very closely associated (Table 5) (Fig. of the crust by various tectonic processes capable of 7). producing high heat flow causing crustal anatexis and Gold, antimony and minor mercury mineralization hydrothermal activity. occurs in a narrow zone within Permo-Triassic In the case of tin and tungsten, the Main Range Belt sedimentary and volcanic rocks on the east side of the is separated from the East Coast Belt by a Palaeozoic- Main Range of Peninsular Malaysia, but west of the Mesozoic marginal basin. We regard these two belts as high grade metamorphic belt. Only gold has been of originally contiguous before the early Palaeozoic importance with one mine (the Raub Australian Gold opening of the marginal basin. After separation, the Mine) yielding over 80 per cent of the recorded pro- belts experienced different tectonic and igneous his- duction. The major lodes were of quartz-calcite with tories which remobilized the tin/tungsten from their pyrite, stibnite, arsenopyrite, scheelite and gold in a common ancestral sialic basement into different styles country rock of calcareous graphitic shale. The lodes of mineral deposits. The closing of the marginal basin, yielded 20 000 kg of gold. Most of the gold was free resulting in westward overthrusting, is thought to be a milling and little silver was associated (Richardson suitable mechanism for the anatectic formation of the 1939). Main Range Granite. Underthrusting of the eastern part A lode deposit was formerly mined at Toh Moh in of the Main Range belt can account for the location of South Thailand at the northern expansion of the Raub gold-antimony mineralization within the western margin gold belt. About 1850 kg of gold was extracted from of the central Gold Belt (Fig. 7), with a source in the about 203 000 tonnes of ore (Nitipat 1953). underthrust sialic plate (see Garson & Mitchell 1977, for Antimony occurs at many places in Thailand and an appropriate model based on SW England). Major Burma east of the Shan Boundary Fault. Production episodes of tin/tungsten mineralization occurred in the has been small, usually below 100 tonnes per annum Permian, Triassic and early Cretaceous, but primary in Burma but with Thai production building up in deposits younger than the early Tertiary are unknown in recent years to over 7100 tonnes. All the deposits the region. appear to be small quartz-stibnite veins in a variety of The major Red River Suture Line abruptly sepa- rock types. They are of uncertain origin. rates the Chinese tin/tungsten belt from that of SE Asia. The Chinese deposits are associated with major Review Mesozoic batholiths occurring in a terrain which has been cratonic since the Palaeozoic. Poorly defined The metallogenesis of SE Asia offers excellent exam- belts of granitoids lie parallel to the Pacific coast and ples of metallogenic provinces defined in space and apparently young towards the Pacific (Jahn et al. time and associated with major tectonic units. 1976).

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GoM spectrum of E and SE Asia into one grand scheme. However, they relate all the features of the region to The gold occurrences fall into two distinct one tectonic scheme operating simultaneously categories, as described by Stanton (1972, Ch. 17). (Zonenshain et al. 1974), and this is clearly not the The epithermal gold-silver-telluride ores are related case in SE Asia. We cannot see much basis for their to subduetion-associated calc-alkaline volcanic rocks metal zonation inwards from the continental margin and frequently occur in the same belt as porphyry from Au-Mo, through Pb-Zn, through W-Sn to Hg- coppers, but at a higher structural level in the volcanic Sb. We do, however, agree with them that mercury pile. and antimony are characteristic of the more continen- The stibnite, stibnite-gold and stibnite-gold- tal areas and require the presence of an underlying scheelite veins occupy fault and other high-level frac- thick sialic basement. The Sb/Hg and W/Sn zones for ture zones within a variety of rock types, but the China are on the whole mutually exclusive. This may mineralization has been suggested to be genetically reflect the simple prolonged Pacific--Eurasian Plate related to underlying granites (Tantisukrit 1975) The margin. The complex plate interactions in Peninsular mineralization is not related to porphyry copper belts, SE Asia, with rapidly changing plate geometry, have and although it occurs close to the tin belts and caused the zonation pattern of mineralization to be overlaps them on a regional scale, the two mineraliza- considerably more complex than shown by Zonen- tions are separate. shain et al. (1974). This Russian group suggests that the mineral zona- Copper tion extends farther into the continental plate along major transform faults, such as the Red River Line. The porphyry copper province centres on Cebu in This they ascribe to higher heat flow along the suture. the Philippines. Tectonic activity in this outer zone of This hypothesis may be used to account for the remote SE Asia began in the Cretaceous and is still active. Kochiu tin centre in Yunnan and the smaller deposits The mineralization is of Cu-Au-Ag in the oceanic in North Vietnam. But apart from these tin occur- island arcs, with associated Ni and Cr in uplifted rences, there is no increase in mineralization on either ophiolites. There is a unity to the province, which has side of this major suture, and it abruptly separates the been created from oceanic materials by complex strongly mineralized cratonic South China from the opposed-dipping Benioff zones. Within this Cenozoic apparently mineral deficient Indochina block. tectonic outer zone of SE Asia there is a regional In summary, we may conclude that there is a broad contrast. Whereas the active arcs on the Pacific side convergence between metallogenic provinces and the are ensimatic, the Indian Ocean side presents an plate tectonic elements of SE Asia. However, there is ocean-continent convergent plate juncture. no clear gradual zonation of mineralization. Hence a model which relates the type of mineralization to Metallogeuic provinces depth of a dipping Beniott Zone cannot be established in this region. The Cenozoic volcanogenic mineraliza- The three major provinces--West Yunnan-Thai- tion may be satisfactorily related to derivation from Malaya Geosyncline, East China and the Cenozoic the Mantle, coeval with the calc-alkaline magma pro- convergent plate juncture province, do not overlap duction along a Beniott Zone. On the other hand, we from a metallogenic point of view. They are separated feel the Mesozoic, largely granitoid-related, metal- either by major suture lines with contrasting geology logenesis must be related to the underlying sialic crust on either side, or by wide sediment-filled Tertiary with little, if any, contribution from the Mantle, except shelf basins (Fig. 1). for the source of high heat flow which activated crustal There are large, notable, apparently poorly remobilization of the already concentrated metals. The mineralized areas, for example Laos-Cambodia-South lack of continuity along strike in the Mesozoic prov- Vietnam and the West Borneo Basement. It is not ince must reflect inhomogeneity in this underlying easy to find a reason why they generally lack any sialic basement. known significant mineralization. They acted as cratonic areas, but this does not explain their lack of Acrmowt~oGE~mrcrs. We wish to thank the Officers of the mineralization, for the cratonic East China was so Geological Society for inviting this review. The Geological strongly mineralized throughout the Mesozoic as to Society and the University of Malaya jointly financed the visit give one of the richest mining districts of the World. of Professor Hutchison to read the paper in London. Mr Modern systematic exploration has been hampered by Jaafar bin Abdullah photographed the slides for the lecture. We thank the following for draughting the figures: Mr. S. political instability in Indochina and inaccessibility in Srinivass, Mr Ching Yu Hay, Mr Mohammad bin Majid, and West Borneo. Mr Roslin bin Ismail. Encouraged by the now classic metallogenic reviews We gratefully acknowledge help from Dr C. K. Burton of Bilibin (1968) and Smirnov (1971), Zonenshain et and Mr Surapong Lerdthusnee for information on the Philip- al. (1974) attempted to fit the complete mineralization pines and Thailand respectively. We also thank Dr John

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Katili and Mr Djumhani for help regarding Indonesian We are indebted to Ms Karen Chua for typing the manu- sources, and Professor Li Ping Than for information on script at its various stages. Taiwan.

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Read at William Smith Lecture Meeting 'Metallogenesis in Mesozoic-Cenozoic Orogenic Belts' at The Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 9 February 1977; received 21 April 1977; revised typescript received 1 November 1977.

CHhm.~ S. HtrrcmsoN, Department of Geology, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 22-11, Malaysia. DENIS TAYLOR, Conzinc Riotinto Malaysia Sdn. Bhd., Wisma Bunga Raya, Jalan Ampang, P.O. Box 291, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

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