The Mediterranean region in the German research tradition

Bodo Freund

Zusammenfassung Der Mittelmeerraum in der deutschen Forschungstradition Der Mittelmeerraum hat seit der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts Geographen aus dem deutschen Sprachraum angezogen. Durch die Publikationen der beiden Klassiker Philippson und Th. Fischer wurde er über Lehrbücher im Bewusstsein etabliert. In der Zwischenkriegs­ zeit herrschte noch die naturwissenschaftliche, insbesondere morphologische Forschung vor. Ab Mitte der fünfziger Jahre ermöglichten die wieder gewonnenen Reisemöglichkeiten der Westdeutschen einen starken Aufschwung der Forschungen bei gleichzeitiger Verlagerung auf humangeographische Themen (speziell auf wirtschaftsperiphere Agrarräume, neue Bewässerungsgebiete, industrielle Großprojekte, Tourismus, Herkunftsgebiete von Gastarbeitern). Obwohl man nach 1969 kaum noch Länderkunden hätte erwarten sollen, sind seit den späten sechziger Jahren geographische Monographien über sämtliche Staaten erschienen, worin sich die die regionalspezifische Kompetenz der Autoren spiegelt. Auffällig ist zugleich die große Zahl nicht-geographischer Länderkunden, ein Hinweise auf ein breiteres Bedürfnis nach wissenschaftlich fundierter Regionalinformation. In den letzten zehn Jahren sind besonders viele Forschungen zur Stadtgeographie betrieben worden (Stadtentwicklung, geschlossenen Wohnkomplexe, Geschäftszentren). Tourismus wird stärker unter den Aspekten der Nachhaltigkeit und des Übergangs zum Altersruhesitz untersucht. In der Physischen Geographie dominieren Themen der Umweltgeschichte und der aktuellen Landschaftsentwicklung, wodurch sich gute Kooperationsansätze mit Humangeographen bieten. In beiden Teildisziplinen werden Verfahren der Fernerkundung angewandt. Für die immer nur schwache Organisation der deutschen Mediterranforschung gibt es viele leicht verständliche Gründe (Vielfalt der Kul­ tur- und Sprachräume, sachlicher oder räumlicher Wechsel der individuellen Forschungsgebiete, fehlende institutionelle Basis). Unter jüngeren Geographen scheint es einen Rückgang des Interesses am mediterranen Raum zu geben, vielleicht ein Effekt der stark abgeschwächten Reizes an Fremdheit und Exotik. Eine Minderung der Forschungsintensität wäre längerfristig von Nachteil, denn mit dem größten Teil Südeuropas sind Deutschland und Österreich in der EU vereint, so dass regionale Entwicklungen in einem Zusammenhang stehen. Zu bedenken ist auch, dass die Länder jenseits des Meeres seit Ende der neunziger Jahren zu indirekten Nachbarn geworden sind.

Mittelmeerraum, Disziplingeschichte, Länderkunde, Tourismus, Migration, Agrargeographie, Physische Geographie, Industrie

Abstract The Mediterranean region has been attracting geographers from the German-speaking world ever since the second half of the 19th century. Two classic publications by Philippson and Th. Fischer brought it to the countries’ attention as textbooks. During the interwar years, research was predominantly centred on natural sciences and on geomorphology in particular. In the mid-1950s, the West Germans regained their freedom to travel, which triggered a great upsurge in research, but with a shift in emphasis to human geography (particularly agricultural areas on the economic periphery, new irrigation zones, major industrial projects, tourism and guest worker origins). Although nobody expected any more regional geography studies to be published after 1969, geographical monographs on all the states have been written since the late 1960s, re­ flecting the regional expertise of the authors. At the same time, it is striking that a large number of the regional studies are non-geographical, indicating a wider need for scientifically founded regional information. The last ten years have seen a great deal of research on urban geography (urban development, gated communities and business centres). Tourism is looked at in more depth, particularly with regard to sustainability and the transition to retirement homes. Physical geography is dominated by environmental history and current landscape development topics, offering excellent opportunities for collaboration with human geographers. Both sub-disciplines make use of remote sensing procedures. It is easy to understand why German Mediterranean research remains poorly organised (diversity of cultural and linguistic zones, changes in subject matter or spatial area of individual research fields, lack of an institutional foundation). Younger geographers seem to have lost in­ terest in the Mediterranean region – perhaps because it now appears far less different and exotic. However, it would be a disadvantage in the long term if research were to become less intensive since Germany and Austria are united with the majority of southern Europe in the EU and regional developments are thus connected. It must also be borne in mind that the countries across the sea have become indirect neighbours since the end of the 1990s.

Mediterranean region, history of the discipline, regional studies, tourism, migration, agricultural geography, physical geography, industry

From 12-15 August 2008, the capital of play host to the 31st Congress of the IGU. was born in Barcelona in 1995 shall be Tunisia – the most strongly European­ One month before that, on 13 July, the trans­formed into an intensified “Union ized country in northern Africa – will Euro-Mediterranean partnership that for the Mediterranean”. These two events

56 Europa Regional 15(2007)2 are occasion for a retrospective review of route and frequency, the book can be 1915) and Philippson (1904, 1911) may German geographic research activities identified immediately. The fascination have been favoured by the fact that since in the Mediterranean region and a brief of the Mediterranean region has per­ the end of the 19th century there were al­ outlook under discipline-political per­ sisted in Germany ever since, even down ready good relations between the Otto­ spectives. to the preference for certain landscapes man and the German empires, with the For some 150 years now German ge­ (Hard 1965). Meanwhile it is even being latter interested in railway construction, ographers have been travelling the coun­ attempted to reconstruct Goethe’s route concessions, and the development of the tries that form the shores of the Mediter­ geographically with a comprehensive country. ranean Sea and pursued research activi­ and up-to-date documentation (Fuchs & In his report, published in 1911, titled ties there. Their studies are a re­flec­tion Müller 2002). “Reisen und Forschungen im westlichen of changes in perspectives resulting from Due to the strong orientation of the Kleinasien” (Travels and studies in west- political circumstances (travel opportuni­ interest towards aspects of antiquity ern Asia Minor) describing his travels ties, migration), discourses within the and culture, the re­ports – at least those there in 1901, Philippson uninterruptedly discipline (regional geography, glacial written by German authors – prove to be follows the geological formations and and climate mor­phology, environmental relatively sparse documen­tation from the landscape morphologies; his strongest history), but at least to a similarly strong human-geographical perspective (Roth- interest was in geomorphology, includ- degree also by discourses beyond the er 1991). This is also true for reports on ing changes in the coastlines since the boundaries of the discipline (the foreign­ travels in other countries in southern Eu­ days of anti­qui­ty. The text is incidentally ness of other countries, the fascination of rope, which either partly served the ex­ interspersed with many comments relat- major projects, and interest in issues of ploration of natural resources (e.g. Link ing to the exploitation of raw materials ecology and sustainability). 1801-1803), or else were favoured by mo­ by foreign entrepreneurs, the antique In the meantime, the Mediterranean narchic relations of German houses of cities that were already being excavated countries have forfeited a great deal of nobility, for instance with Greece (Otto by Germans and Austrians, the condi- their exotic ap­peal. This may be one of von Bayern 1831) and Portugal (Haus tion and ethnic differentiation of the the reasons for the decrease of dedicated Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha 1836; cf. von small towns and villages, transportation foreign research activities by younger Heringen 1836). infrastructure, and land use. Due to the geographers. With regard to the public changes in the local place names follow- interest, however, from the discipline- Early geographers as researching ing the “population exchange” in 1922, political viewpoint it would be a loss to travellers it is relatively difficult to retrace his route neglect the southern regions of the EU The 19th century saw the start of a long exactly. It is still interesting, however, to and their neigh­bouring countries on the tradition of travels and research expedi­ map the enormous changes that have oc- other side of the sea in terms of research tions made in the Mediterranean region curred especially since the 1970s, for in- and scientific coope­ra­tion. by “genuine” German geographers, in stance the expansion of Turkish holiday most cases with a strong dominance settle­ments, cities and industrial zones. Prior to geography as an instituti- of natural-scientific objectives (Barth Even if the geographers of that day onalised discipline: reports by re- 1849, 1860). More comprehensive reports principally regarded themselves as natu­ searching and literary travellers. “on the country and people” show only ral scientists, the education system and For many centuries, the principally cul­ a limited degree of systematic thought the “spirit of the times” certainly left tural and “empirical” interest in the Med­ and focus on the area that would later them marked unawares. The interest in iterranean region focussed essentially on become part of geography per se. This antiquity and archaeology and also in Italy. A very early literary document is the is true, for ex­ample, of Johann Georg the “oriental way of life” may well have “Journal de Voyage” by Michel de Mon- Kohl, who was particularly interested in played a role in the choice of travel des­ taigne, his report of his travels through historic and ethnograph­ical issues. Not­ tinations, also to the Maghreb (Theobald Switzerland, southern Germany, and withstanding this, his book “Reise nach Fischer). above all Italy in 1580-1581, of particular Dalmatien und Montenegro” (Journey to interest to the modern-day reader on ac­ Dalmatia and Montenegro) published in The classic: the Mediterranean count of its entirely different perception 1851 already deals with aspects of land region as unity in diversity of nature. It can justifiably be considered use as well as with the political and so­ Two geographers who started out pursu­ a precursor of the “educational journey” cial issues in greater detail. ing scientific research projects and whose (“le grand tour”) that was undertaken in What motivated German geographers lives were characterized by them from the 18th and 19th centuries by aristocrats and scientists from related disciplines to there on count as classics for the Mediter­ and affluent bourgeois citizens from the undertake journeys into the Mediterra­ ranean region, namely Alfred Philippson English- and German-speaking coun­ nean region? There was obviously less of and Theobald Fischer. For the former, tries. Goethe’s book “Italienische Reise” a practical interest than was the case for this applies to the extent that after first (“Journey through Italy”), reporting his their colleagues of the long-established presenting lectures to women teachers travelling experiences there from 1786 colonial powers of France (Algeria from (1900) he published the first comprehen­ until 1788 and published in 1816, met 1830) and the United Kingdom (Gi­ sive sum­mary of the entire region (1904). with acclaim. This book has touristic braltar 1704, Malta 1899, Cyprus 1878, The subtitle indicates his contention that consequences right up to this very day: Egypt 1882), followed later by Spain he was primarily interested in the “geo­ if one were to plot the tours to Italy of­ (Morocco 1904) and Italy (Libya 1912). graphic and cultural singularity”, where fered by travel organizers on a map by All the same, the reports by Banse (1910, “geographic” can reasonably be inter­

57 preted as meaning “naturally caused”. research of the day, and in part the his­ The correct concept of forms of regional As he writes in the preface, he expressly toric, economic, and social-scientific geography as the prime objective of the follows Richthofen’s concept of geogra­ knowledge gained by the authors. On discipline was also a subject of contro­ phy, which should present a “causal rela­ the one hand, factors of the physical en­ versial debate among the experts of the tionship between the human phenomena vironment appear to exert – almost di­ day; however, only relatively few studies and the nature of their location” and be rectly – an influence on the economy; on were published in this regard, at least as based on “truly scientific percep­tion”. the other, the acting societies have modi­ far as the Mediterranean region is con­ Only about 22 % of the text is devoted fied the environment in the course of the cerned (Louis Albania, 1927; Schulze- to human-geographical phenomena, centuries. There is no restriction to a de­ Jena Macedonia, 1927; Maull Southern significantly partly as brief addenda to cidedly natural-scientific perspective on Europe, 1929; Lautensach Portugal, physical-geographical chapters on the the one hand or a social-scientific one on 1932/1937). These studies were general­ sea and the flora and fauna, and partly in the other, and the argumentation is cor­ ly conceived in such a way that stringent the longer final chapter. respondingly heterogeneous Regional basic physical conditions were given The second, more important classic geography hence becomes “hybrid ge­ preference, while the further phenomena for the Mediterranean region is Theo­ ography” (Schultz 2007) with a more or (vegetation, land use, etc. all the way to bald Fischer who, following research in less strong geodeterministic tendency, ethnopsychology and the shaping of na­ the Maghreb, travels in southern Europe since too little attention is devoted to the tional terri­tories) were at least in part “ex­ and studies on the cli­mate and cultivated relativity of all natural factors set in re­ plained” on their basis. All declarations plants, published his book “Mittelmeer­ lation to the changeable social interests to the contrary not­withstanding, these bilder” (Images of the Mediter­ran­ean) in and the respective technical-economic studies are hence at least tendentially 1906. The book, similar to Philippson’s skills employed in their application. geodeterministic in their approach. “Mittelmeer”, saw several reprints in just Regarding the relatively scarce human- a short space of time. Independent of the 1919-1945: dominance of morpho- geographic studies, it must be stated that conventional classification of the world by logy, weak human geography these are as to topics and places individual continents, he defined the unity of the re­ In the almost 25 years’ existence of the studies, without doubt an effect of the (ac­ gion by the climate and the related vegeta­ Weimar Republic and the Third Re­ cording to Schlüter 1906) delayed devel­ tion, in particular by the area of the olive ich, there were not all that many stud­ opment of the subdiscipline. All the same, tree. It is then just a short intellectual dis­ ies made by German geographers in the it is apparent that virtually only rural ar­ tance to derive restrictive and promoting Mediterranean region. The examination eas were involved, a fact that can soonest factors for the agricultural use of the land, of the bibliography of C. Schott (1977) be explained by the call for “landscape which in turn does not remain without – which is obviously not comprehensive relevance” (kayser 1931; Louis 1933; Nie- consequences for the way of life. – yields a total of just 53 titles. The pre­ meier 1935; Urban 1938). Taking his definition literally, howev­ dominance of physical geography (33) is In 1938, E. Müller supplies a er, would mean that none of the countries evident, especially the predominance of pan-Mediterranean overview of tran­ bordering the Mediterranean is charac­ studies into the ice-age transformation shumance (seasonal mi­grational pasture terized by an entirely “Mediterranean” of mountain ranges in all southern Eu­ farming), an aspect already dealt with in territory. On the other hand, an Atlantic ropean countries – a consequence of the 1916. A particular interest in tradi­tional country such as Portugal can possess a strong influence of Penck – is somewhat irrigation regions (Granada, Valencia, more strongly Mediterranean character surprising and alienating. Coming in at Argolis) and in land reclamation (Greece) than do many countries on the shores of a distant second place are studies into is at least rudimentarily discernible. the Mediterranean, and even in a land­ coastline mor­phology; in rare instances These studies are obviously founded on locked country such as Jordan the most karst phenomena are involved. All three the question of man’s relation “nature”, important parts from the human-geo­ directions are continu­a­tions of traditions be it by adaptation or mastery. graphic viewpoint can have a Mediter­ with their roots in the late 19th century. From the discipline-historic view­ ranean character under ecological and Strangely enough, the aspects of climate point, the share of the studies accounted land-use aspects. and vegetation, which from the publica­ for by human-geo­graphic papers appears While on the one hand the aspects of tions by Th. Fischer on count as con­ to be low and from the social-scientific climate, the strongly anthropogenically structive right up to the present day – are aspect weak; this notwith­standing, it was modified vege­ta­tion, and also the land virtually not touched upon at all. usefull to the writing of a monument of use may all be taken as indicators of the Besides the explicitly physico-geo­ modern-day historiography. In the first unity of the Mediterranean region, on the graphical studies, Schott lists eleven volume on “Le rôle du milieu” (The role other hand both authors and all their suc­ regional-geographic publications that of the milieu) published in 1948, Fernand cessors see the historically caused vari­ relate in most cases to clearly delineable Braudel, who was able to work on his ety in the cultural-geographic area. The regions, for example islands, penin­sulas study on the Mediterranean world in the human-geographical part of regional and areas under irrigation. This bypassed epoch of Philipp II as a prisoner-of-war monographs, which in Philippson con­ the problem frequently discussed at the in Mainz, cites a number of German ge­ stitute little more than a small annexe, time concerning how a landscape should ographers, for example Busch-Zantner, is expanded in further publications (e.g. be defined as a “central research object Krebs, Lautensach, H. Lehmann, Nie- Maull 1929). The concept of the chap­ of the discipline”; at the same time, the meier, Philippson and Wilhelmy. ters of geographic publications reflects aspect of individuality was taken as an The extent to which studies on the to a cer­tain part the status of scientific a priori fact. Mediterranean region reflect a national-

58 Europa Regional 15(2007)2 socialist way of thinking must remain It is conceivable that autarkist and isola­ er consideration of sociology. His studies unanswered here. For certain well-known tionist tendencies, which were particu­ into agrarian structures, society, and set­ authors of the day, the bib­liography by larly distinct in southern European coun­ tlement in southeastern Europe (1938) and Schott and obituaries for the 1933-1945 tries and lasted long there, contributed in particular his work on Albania (1939) period contain either no details what­ to the fact that well into the post WWII already show promising approaches to soever, or only with regard to their phys­ era even geographers such as Lauten- future forms of social and settlement ge­ ico-geographic publications. When read­ sach tended towards an isolated observa­ ography, considerably more than did P.H. ing human-geographic versions even tion of the southern European countries, Schmidt, who aroused exceedingly high from the time of the Weimar Republic, where since the 1920s technocratic mas­ expectations with the title of his study on from the language-critical viewpoint it tery over nature formed part of the po­ northern Calabria in 1937. must be stated that in many cases the litical programme and was cause for ad­ Far greater interest was stimulated works are written with personalisations, miration (battle for wheat, meliorations, by Hans Spethmann, who in his work organisistic arguments, and suggestive reforesting, dams for hydroenergy and “Dynamische Länderkunde” (Dynamic analogies from the sphere of mechanics irrigation schemes). This is not meant Geography) (1928) makes mention of (barrier, gate, bridge etc.), and also that as criticism of Lautensach’s excellent factors to which only little attention had the territorial patterns of the map exert (for his generation) geographic studies hitherto been paid, for instance financial, a fascination and not rarely stimulate the (1932/1937; 1964), nor of his theoretic technical, political “forces”, which in his imagination. achievements (1953). opinion deserved consideration as medi­ There can be no doubt that even before The innovative approaches of some ators between “nature” and the human- 1933 there were many geographers who authors – two of whom even worked in geographic structures and that could be were motivat­ed by the widespread inter­ the Mediterranean region – remained used as a basis for further study. He was est in geopolitics and whose publications without appreciable effect on the re­ attacked for this view inter alia by the re­ took on a corresponding taint. In matters search activities in the Mediterranean nowned specialist for the Mediterranean of social-spatial organization, not only is countries. Of particular interest are the Philippson, who vehemently advocated “nature” repeatedly used as an argu­ment: books written by Alfred Rühl, who as a the primacy of physico-geographic prin­ there is also the aspect of a hypostatisa­ versatile geographer dealt with geomor­ ciples for geographic studies. tion of space, which is “demanding” and phology in Spain (1909) and migration The (at that time) Marxist August Wit- “whose demands must be fulfilled”. In his from Italy (1912), but did not evolve into tfogel went considerably further than publication in 1929, Maull finds words of a true specialist for the Mediterranean. Spethmann; equally Wittfogel’s train admiration for Mussolini’s Italy, in which In his work into the economic spirit in of thought ran contrary to the more ide­ he sees a rising major power deserving the Orient (1925) and in Spain (1928) he alistic one of Rühl. As early as 1929 he dominance – if not actually direct domi­ elaborated with considerable sensitiv­ pointed out the erroneous conclusions of nation – over the Mediterranean region. ity the religiously founded “fine differ­ bourgeois “geographic materialism” and This is still the era of colonialism, and it ences” in the social behaviour patterns hence triggered fundamental criticism of appears to be normal for European pow­ of a European-Catholic population on the reduced natural-deterministic view ers to have mastery over the territories on the one side and the Islamic population that dominated the fields of geography the “opposite” shores. of Algeria on the other, data that are ul­ and geopolitics of the day. His approach During the First World War the supply timately of economic-geographical rel­ was also rejected without mentioning his of many products from the industrially evance. He is obviously influenced by name, only by using the indicative term. more developed countries of the conti­ Max Weber, even if he never cites him. The book on China published by this so­ nent to southern European countries was Rühl’s discourses are based on the one ciologist and geographer in 1931 has no interrupted. As a consequence, their eco­ hand on the careful evalu­ation of litera­ bearing on the Mediterranean region; all nomic weakness became evident and this ture from the broad field of social and the same, his views regarding the “hy­ enhanced the interest in import substi­tu­ economic sciences, and on the other on draulic cultures” may be applied at least tion. Furthermore, in the wake of the Oc­ his personal experiences in Spain. These to the “oriental” regions of the Mediter­ tober Revolution in Russia, many south­ ideas met with strong resonance among ranean. According to his approach, the ern and southeastern European countries the econo­mists of the day; however, they cultural and political super­struc­ture in a saw the emergence of strong movements had no effect in the geographic field, not (national) territory can be explained by aiming at a socialis­tic reformation of the least because Rühl was marginalized in the historic-social form of the exploita­ economy and society; these movements the Nazi era. In the two named studies tion of natural resources. were not, however, able to gain the upper (and a corresponding book pub­lish­ed on hand. Now came the era of authoritarian America in 1927), concepts are already After 1948: rediscovery by West and fascist governments, led by the pro­ preshaped regarding the connection be­ Germans, swing to issues of hu- tector of a debased nation (1918/1922 Ke­ tween cultural values on the one hand man geography mal Atatürk), a “saviour from Bolshe­ and economic and political development Following a marked interuption, ever vism” (Mussolini 1922-1945), a guard­ on the other; atten­tion has been focussed since the late 1950s the number of maga­ ian against national bankruptcy (Salazar on these ideas again only since the 1990s, zine articles and doctoral theses of West 1928/1932-1968), a protector of national now especially by Inglehart using mass German geographers on issues connect­ unity (regal dictatorship in Yugoslavia statistics in worldwide comparisons. ed with the Mediterranean has grown 1931), and a victor over the left-wing Re­ The second author here is Busch- rapidly. This reflects the opportunity publicans (Franco 1939-1975). Zantner (1938), who demanded a strong­ opened by the Currency Reform in 1948

59 to work scientifically in those places that oth 1959 on traditional agrarian regions, the West German youth, coming as it did also offered the first chances for travel­ from the mid-1960s on a conspicuously just a few years after the 1968 student re­ ling abroad, an opportunity, however, large number of doc­toral theses dealt volts. The concept that social problems that remained inaccessible for the citi­ with state-induced measures in rural in a European country migth be solved zens of the GDR. As the range of buses, regions, in other words with land and by the common cultivation of jointly trains, and cars increased, Italy, south­ agrarian reform, melioration measures owned land was attractiveamong young ern France, the Spanish Mediterranean and major irrigation projects, in some academics brougth up in an affluent so­ coast, and Croatia were successively cases in combi­nation with neosettlement ciety. In post-industrial Europe of today “conquered”; since the onset of tourist by means of domestic colonization. The this idea seems like an atavistic reflex. flight these destinations have been fol­ territorially clearly defined structural The academic fall-out in agrarian-ge­ lowed by the Mediterranean islands, changes were implemented in all market ographic publications remained sparse, Portugal, Turkey, and the countries of economy-oriented countries of southern especially since the changes were only the Maghreb. Europe including France, and further­ short-lived (Freund 1977; Jüngst & At that time, most regions in southern more also in countries in northern Afri­ Jülich 1982; Schacht 1988). Europe still possessed the charm of the ca. It makes hardly any sense to adopt all Besides this, one should not omit to exotic. Books by Ernest Hemingway with the relevant studies in the bibliography; mention that numerous studies were pub­ Spanish locations (The Sun also Rises/A without making any claim to complete­ lished regarding traditional irrigation re­ Farewell to Arms/For Whom the Bell ness, one must mention here – again in gions in coastal areas (Fröhling 1965; Tolls), the Italian and French film genres, chronological order – the works of Don- Bahr 1969; Schacht 1971; Teschendorf and also the paintings of classic modern gus 1962, 1970; Füldner 1967; Sauer- 1978) and in relatively weak regions art all contributed to the attractiveness of wein 1968; Knödler 1970; Achenbach, (from the agrarian-economic viewpoint) the reaccessible “south”. Götz, Rother 1971; Pletsch 1976; Lad- in the arid inlands and the mountains The studies in Physical Geography wig 1978; Popp 1983; Tyrakowski 1987; (Fiedler, Freund 1970; Grohmann-Ker- are now carried out with particular em­ Barth et al. 1990-1992; Popp & Rother ouach, Monheim, Sprengel 1971; Klug phasis on the as­pect of climate morphol­ (eds.) 1993. 1973; Kühne 1974; Sabelberg 1975; ogy (Büdel 1951; Hempel 1959; Men- Today at considerable temporal dis­ Lienau, Lücke 1976; Brüser 1977; G. sching 1964). This applies both to the tance, it can be stated that examples de­ Meyer, Struck 1984; Breuer 1985, A. major forms (inselbergs, foothill areas, scribing considerable changes of current Müller 1987; Knuth 1989). In general glacis, uvalas, dolines) as well as to the interest at the time dealt with the age-old it can be stated that agrarian geography minor forms (karren, tafonis). issue of the “man and land” relationship. played a very large role until well into Since due to karstification an edaphic At a critical distance it may be added that the 1980s. aridity remains on limestone rock even the demonstrated technocracy resulted in areas with a high annual precipitation, in the emergence of public awareness, an Industrial development poles – fas- these generally vegetation-poor forma­ intentional effect – especially under au­ cination and disappointment tions, which appear to be particularly thoritarian regimes –, which is why it was Studies into issues of industrial geogra- bright in sunlight, have an especially rather easy to obtain documents from the phy were far more scarce, even though “Mediterranean” appeal. It is no mean responsible offices. In the concrete cases interest here was in many cases awak­ chance, then, that these have been the of the Mediterranean region in ques­ ened by processes that exhibited similar­ object of comparatively many research tion, therefore, these studies constituted ities with the major projects made in the projects (Mensching 1955; Louis 1956; a combination of the German tradition agrarian sector. In this sector, too, many Liedtke 1962; Pfeffer 1967; Fey & Ger- of landscape geography and explorative governments undertook interventionist stenhauer 1977). Studies of the climate foreign research, with the phenomenon measures in an attempt to promote pro­ morphology of igneous (Klaer 1956; cf. of technocratic state measures as the duction, to achieve self-sufficiency and also Wilhelmy 1974) and loose rock for­ modern-day echo of ruralistic ideology. to mitigate regional economic dispari­ mations (Fregien 1971), by contrast, are A solution of social or even macroeco­ ties. The concept postulated by François far less frequently found. nomic problems could not be anti­cipated Perroux, according to which modern as a result of the measures acclaimed as branches of industry act as driving Attractive contrast of dynamic “agrarian reform”, since in the agrarian forces (unités motrices) in an intensive and stagnating agrarian regions sector of the economy – which was al­ interaction with upstream and down­ One aspect that deserves particular atten­ ready shrinking at the time – only a very stream business and so give impulses for tion, however, is that now a very strong small section of the (agrarian) population an all-encom­pass­ing economic develop­ swing of the pendulum away from physi­ actually “profited” from such measures, ment, was developed from a sectoral per­ cal geography towards human geography and then only over the short term (cf. spective into a spatial concept of growth takes place in which numerous issues also Freund 1993). poles. are investigated. The scientific fields of Under an entirely different sign, In the multi-year plans for national agrarian geography and rural space, in­ namely in the guise of socialistic agrar­ economic development that were stand­ dustrial geography, tourism, and guest­ ian reform, around 1975 there was the ard practice in the Mediterranean coun­ workers are given particular attention in (temporary) expropriation of large es­ tries in the 1950s and 1960s, this concept this regard. tates and the establishment of pro­duction won considerable relevance. Economic After some early publications by Lau- cooperatives in southern Portugal. This polarization was in particular project­ er 1954, Beuermann 1956 and Hütter- exerted a fascination on large parts of ed for underdevelopt regions. With its

60 Europa Regional 15(2007)2 specific development poles (polos de and northwestern Portugal. Since the late On the other hand, due to the changes in desarrollo), Spain provides the best ex­ 1990s, the commercial production in all the social structure (with fewer workers ample in this connection, but also Italy these regions has had to face strong com­ in open-air occupations) and ideologies, has made a name for itself with many petition from markets in Asia, especially the aristocratic and grand-bourgeois spectacular projects, even if the parallel in China. concept of “distinguished paleness” installation of development zones (aree was no longer an ideal, and instead of­ de sviluppo) has resulted in the sponsor­ The largest tourism region in the fice workers strived ever more for an as­ ship of areas with a low local concentra­ world is tempting – also for geo- sumedly healthy tan. With this change in tion. In the smaller countries of Portugal graphers demand, there was tendentially a spatial and Greece, it was rather more industrial In a bibliography of 33 studies regarding shift away from strolls along picturesque zones without any central dominating “tourism settlements” in 1962, Gabriele cliffs (Côte d’Azur, Riviera di Ponente) major enter­prises that were erected. Schwarz was not able to include one to flat stretches of coast with extensive In many places it soon became ap­ single German-language publication on beaches for mass tourism. parent that the hoped-for self-dynamic a Mediterranean country. It was only processes would never materialize; the then – i.e. with a very slight time delay The guestworker cycle: over, but reasons for this are manifold: overesti­ compared with the studies on agrarian- with aftereffects mation of the future chances of capital- structural interventionalism, but with On the basis of agreements with Italy intensive “industrializing” industries at least a similar intensity – that a pro­ (1955) and other Mediterranean countries (iron-smelting plants, oil refineries, ductive phase of studies into tourism in (1960-1968), until the end of 1973 guest- heavy chemicals industry), underestima­ Mediterranean destinations started. Re­ workers from Mediterranean countries tion of the relevance of regional quali­ garding this topic, again in chronologi­ came to what was then West Germany. fication and mentality, unpredict­ed de­ cal order of publications and without any All recruitment then came to an abrupt velopments of the global economy. The claim to completeness, mention is made halt, because after the Yom Kippur war geographic studies in this context thus here of a large number of authors, name­ the Arabian oil-producing countries generally did not turn out to be stories ly Fuckner 1963; W. Ritter 1966; Schli- drastically hoisted the price for crude oil of success (Schilling-Kaletsch 1976; eter 1968; P. Weber 1970; Riedel 1971; and thus amplified a recession that was Arnold 1978; Hering 1981; Hopfinger 1972, Heinritz, H.-D. May 1972; Klee- already in progress. The presence of a 1982; Mikus 1984). Follow-up studies mann, Mathey, Schott, Stäblein, Zahn considerable proportion of the popu­lation after the complete or partial close-down 1973; E. Mayer 1976; Döpp 1978; Pfitzer from Mediterranean countries (1973 of major, formerly state-sponsored in­ 1977; Jaschke 1985; Möller 1992. In the = 6.4 %, almost four million people in dustries would be a matter of interest as further course of tourism-related studies the old republic) also aroused the inter­ a measure to sound out future develop­ the aspect was investigated how travel est in the places of their origin and in a ment possibilities. With a lesser focus on guides affect perception (Popp 1994), consideration from the local perspective development poles, and to a certain ex­ what tourists “spontaneously” perceive, (Schrettenbrunner 1970; Lienau 1976). tent involving handicraft trades, are the and which impression tourists make on This also included the investiga­tion of studies by Stewig 1970, 1972; Ibrahim the local population – in other words the the decision pattern according to ethnic 1975; Arnold 1979; Ridder 1985; Escher course that cultural contacts take. or social affiliation as well as the analy­ 1986 and Brey 1989. Similar to the agrarian economy, it sis of the diffusion making process (Bar- Starting at the end of the 1970s there was possible to closely link tourism to tels 1968; P. Weber 1973). was another small wave of industrial- the Mediterranean climate, even when Later on, the scientific focus shifted geographic studies, this time with a one considers that the climate had un­ towards the effects of money transfers, highly specific focus on the so-called dergone considerable social revalua­tion the immigrants’ investments in the re­ “Third Italy” (la Terza Italia), in other since the previous century. While from gions of their origin, and their return words the regions between the long since the mid-19th century until the time fol­ to their native countries (Dickel 1970; highly developed areas of Lombardy and lowing the First World War the winter Adrikopoulou & Hermanns, Mertins, Liguria at the one end and the “Second was the more important season, because Struck 1984; Lienau 1987; Kagermeier Italy” south of Rome. Now attention the rich were drawn from moist, sombre & Popp 1995, Bencherifa et al. 1996). was focussed on the sector of medium- and cold regions into the bright and rela­ The years in which these studies were sized businesses, the favourable develop­ tively warm south, in the interwar period published make it clear that they also in­ ment of which could be explained by the there was a swing towards the summer volve a past wave of research work. At combination of familial cohesion, trust half-year (Schott 1973). This was due, the same time, further studies would be among local and regional partners, and on the one hand, to the dwindling flow of appropriate today, since the binational innovations in the realm of design. And members of the aristocracy and the rich, relations that have evolved are still today this in a broad spectrum of industrial for example travellers from the Tsarist of great importance. For some countries production (Pohl 1995; Bathelt 1998). Empire who in the wake of the October of origin, the money transfers are still of Apparently this approach has not been Revolution were no longer available as great value for the international balance pursued in other Mediterranean regions guests, as well as the drastic reduction in of payments (Morocco, the Lebanon, strongly oriented to industrie whose so­ the number of guests from Ger­many who Algeria). Cheaper travel and communi­ cial histories also show a basic small­ due to the economic situation could no cation opportunities have facilitated the holder structure with a high population longer afford such holidays (forfeited war emergence of transnational societies (e.g. density, such as, for example, Catalonia bonds, inflation, taxes for reparations). Germany-Turkey, France-Algeria). A fi­

61 nal issue deserving investigation con­ cerns which effects the money transfers Regional geographies and proceedings on the Mediterra- unfold in the economy-peripheral regions nean region 1968 - 2008 and whether the early investments in the By the age of the German authors/publishers regions of origin have been appropriate Age over the long term. 80

Regional geography is dead (1969), 70 long live regional geography After isolated separate publications (H. 60 Schamp/Egypt 1961; Hartke/France 1963; Lautensach/Iberian peninsula 1964), since 1968 regional geographies 50 regarding Mediter­ranean countries have been issued in two separate series (cf. 40 Fig. 1), the first of which was started by the Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft (Darmstadt) and is still today published 30 there in greater density and better de­ sign, and since 1978 also in the Stuttgart- 20 based Klett-Verlag (Länderprofile, i.e. Klett/Klett Perthes country profiles), since 1993 continued Scientific regional geographies IfL 2007 10 Draft: B. Freund in the Verlag Klett-Perthes (Gotha). The Proceedings Design: P. Mund fact that all authors are West Germans is not surprising for the starting period, 0 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 since firstly regional geography was re­ Year jected in the GDR as being a component of bourgeois ideology (Sanke 1958), and Fig. 1: Regional geographies and proceedings on the Mediterranean region, 1968-2008 by secondly geographers in East Germany – the age of the German authors/publishers even in times of good relations with Ara­ Source: own design bian countries such as Syria and Algeria contexts in terms of their relevance for book on the Mediterranean subtropics – had hardly any opportunity to make the economy and social valuation (Fre- (1984) worldwide followed the ecologi­ numerous travels and engage in local re­ und 1979). cal definition, also retains the “natural search projects. A final aspect that deserves men­ context” as the first and largest capi­ The astounding aspect here is that tion here is that the first authors were tal in his book on the Mediterranean regional geographies resurged in the relatively young as uni­versity teachers (33.2 % of the text). This is followed by old Federal Republic after having been when they wrote their studies, indicating the chapters on population (15.2 %), set­ declared dead at the Kieler Geography an early, thematically broad, and at the tlements (17.5 %), agriculture (19.8 %), Congress in 1969. This notwith­stand­ing, same time intensive involvement with and finally industry (8.8 %). These the authors took more or less good care to the country in question (cf. Fig. 1/Re­ proportions are evidence of a tradition- ensure that studies did not become ency­ gional geo­graphies and congress reports bound approach. clo­paedic in character. For this reason, in on the Mediterranean region). In the H.-G. Wagner, by profession an eco­ many cases they programmatically used course of time, however, there has been a nomic geographer, by contrast gives subtitles to indicate their specific prob­ shift in the age structure, which permits preference to access to the issue via three lem orientation. In this connection terms two unrelated conclusions to be drawn: historically oriented chapters (19.2 %), such as developing country, threshold geographies are increasingly becoming starting with the former political unity of country, dependence, southern periphery the “summa” of long experience, almost the entire region in the Roman era. Via (in allusion to the “peripheral capitalism” “late works”, or else that younger univer­ population dynamics and social change postulated by Senghaas 1974 and Leg- sity teachers no longer have country-spe­ (17.4 %) he subsequently arrives at ur­ gewie 1975) were used to indicate a sub­ cific expertise at their disposal, possibly banization and the manufacturing sector altern position. A further conspicuous a side-effect of changes in the education (19.2 %). Only after a human-geograph­ aspect is that, of the twenty-four regional system and qualification requirements. ically oriented excourse into natural- geographies of the two series, only two One factor may also be the decline in the spatial aspects (10.2 %) does he turn were written by physical geographers, relevance of regional-geographic tutori­ his attention to agriculture and the rural both on Tunisia (Mensching 1968; als in the various university curricula spaces (19.3 %) as well as – albeit to an Frankenberg 1979). In the extreme case, since 1970. extreme­ly brief extent – tourism (3.6 %). the swing towards the human-geograph­ The books by Rother (1993) and The end section is devoted to spatial dis­ ic approach is expressed in the fact that Wagner (2001) relate to the Mediterra­ parities and state-regulated area plan­ no longer is a separate chapter devoted to nean region in general. Klaus Rother, ning as well as regional conflicts and the natural phenomena, but instead that who started his scientific career as a development perspectives (11.4 %). His these are dealt with in the corresponding physical geographer and in a previous work hence shows itself to be decidedly

62 Europa Regional 15(2007)2 human-geographic and problem-oriented jor studies or else are report-like in char­ The third of the areas that once enjoyed in its structure. acter. greater scientific interest, industry, is Even at the publishers, it is unclear From the country-specific viewpoint given virtually no academic attention who the actual purchasers of the regional it is apparent that – in decreasing order any more, at least not on the European geographies are. From specific reso­ – most reports have been published on side. Positive exceptions are, on the one nance it can be concluded that these are Spain, Turkey, Italy, and Greece. There hand, studies into foreign investments to a very strong extent representa­tives of is virtually nothing more on Mediterra­ in Portugal and Spain (Pudemat 1996; other disciplines (politology, sociology, nean France; publications on all countries Harsche 2001), and on the other, detailed history, urban planning). The fact that in North Africa are scarce. Measured studies of Egypt, Syria and Palestine there is interest in thematically varied against the dimension of the country, with a special focus on the connection reports on other countries is also borne by contrast, there is plenty that has been with cultural affiliation (Lindner 1998, out by the many other regional studies published on Albania, which already as 1999; Ibrahim & Ibrahim 2003; Boeck- that have been written and published by a relatively isolated country attracted the ler 2005; Amann 2007). nongeographers. attention of geographers and following its In first place are research projects In the Beck series “Aktuelle opening was discovered by them (in par­ regarding urban geography, which first Länderkunden” (Topical regional geogra­ ticular by Becker and Heller) as a field experienced greater attention in the phies), the volume “Maghreb” published of research. Relatively many research 1980s (Sabelberg 1984; Kern 1986; in 1990 was the first one to deal with a projects have also been carried out in the Pricking 1988; Dirscherl 1989; K. Mediterranean region; in the meantime, small country of the Lebanon. In both Meyer 2001; Becker et al. 2005). Here, the series has been expanded to cover cases there is a predominance of aspects culture-specific phenomena such as the over one dozen countries in this general of urban geography. One remarkable as­ shaping of business centres (Pricking area. In the Wissenschaftliche Buchges­ pect is that following the disintegration 1988; Schröder 1999; Meini & Monheim ellschaft, the Romanistic directorship of Yugoslavia – a process that was fol­ 2002) or of gated communities (Glasze, (Grosse) has led to the publication of the lowed by many reports – the interest in Wehrhahn 2003; Schmid 2006) were the books “Frankreich verstehen” (Under­ the successor states with access to the subject of interest, complexes that have standing France) (1987) and “Italien ver­ Mediterra­nean – i.e. Slovenia, Croatia, emerged in the countries of the Mediter­ stehen” (Understanding Italy). In these Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Montenegro – ranean region including France since the books, two or more authors deal with the has remained limited. For all that, there 1990s. The “oriental city” is no longer aspects of state organization, the political is still the geography on Croatia pub­ the object of study as a culture-historical party system, economy, society, educa­ lished by J. Weber in 2002. typus, but instead in terms of it current tion, media, and relations with Germany. As far as the thematic orientation is development (Escher & Wirth 1992; The Bibliotheca Ibero-Americana has involved, there is still a strong predomi­ Klingshirn 1993; Schmid 2002; Brund- published books on Spain (Bernecker nance, at 70 %, of human-geographic iers & Odermatt 2004; F. Meyer 2004, & Dirscher 1991, 4´2004) and Portugal publications and their broader dissemi­ 2005. In regions with a deficient docu­ (Briesemeister & Schönberger 1997). nation to be found, without in­clud­ing mentation status, urban-geographic stud­ The engagement of innumerable Ger­ the roughly 10 % share of regional-geo­ ies are increa­s­ingly being supplemented man companies in foreign countries is graphic titles among them. Besides this, by remote-sensing (Radberger 2003; an important rea­son why there is also there has also been a pronounced shift Richter 2007). interest in getting up-to-date reports on in the thematic approach compared with One aspect that is being intensively economic and political events in other the 1960s to 1980s. discussed in the countries of the Medi­ countries, an interest that is covered by Studies concerning agrarian economy terranean region themselves is that of mi- special publications (Bundeszentrale für and cultivated landscape play hardly any grations in their various manifestations. Außenhandelsinformation, Länderana­ role any more. Since, however, the rural Primarily, it is now the im­migration from lysen des FAZ-Informationsdienstes). spaces of southern Europe can be seen highly varied source regions in northern Besides these there are also institutes to suffering major problems due to over­ Africa, eastern Europe, and on other and courses designed to impart intercul­ ageing, depopulation, and vacant build­ continents, also taking the form of trans­ tural competence. It will never be pos­ ings, then analogous to the “shrinking migration. The last volume of proceed­ sible to satisfy the demand for absolutely towns” in Germany it may be appropri­ ings of the “Geographic Mediterranean up-to-date information in the form of a ate to thematise the “shrinking villages“ Research” working group, published by regional geography; the general trend of extensive regions here. Rolf Monheim in 2004, imparts an im­ should, however, be taken into account Papers on the topic of tourism have pression of this trend. Inland migration in future. also become more sparse, and further­ and emigration are investigated prima­ more have under­gone a thematic shift. It rily using Albania as an example (Heller What path has geographic re- is no longer issues of regional economy 2003; Heller et al. 2004). In the highly search taken in the past ten years? and urban development that are of inter­ special case of the Spanish enclaves on The following summary of publications est now, but instead rather ones of eco­ the North African coast, the issues of from the period 1998 to 2007 essentially logical effects and sustainability (Lienau ethnicity and religion play a major role covers the doctoral theses and research 1998; SCHmitt 2002; Schürges 2005) as (F. Meyer 2004, 2005); these aspects are reports in the narrow sense of the word; well as of the forms of transition of plac­ otherwise the domain of represen­tatives it does not include brief descriptions that es of residence for retirees (Breuer 1998, of other disciplines, in the case of Alba­ are identifiably by-products of more ma­ 2002; Kaiser & Friedrich 2002). nia and Greece covered in particular in

63 the periodical “Südosteuropa”. Articles gra­phy (Pfäfflin et al. 2003; Hochhut and climate morphology – the shaping on population geography rather have the 2005; Brandes 2007). One conspicuous of further re­search projects through all character of reports. aspect is the frequent use of methods for areas of human geography would make The case regarding publications on remote-sensing (Siegmund & Neumann it possible to elaborate something genu­ regional development is similar. An 2004; Hochhut 2005; Hill & Röder, inely, typically and sustainably “Medi­ outstanding exception here is the work Siart 2006). It is further striking that terranean”. The initiator, Klaus Rother, by Jahnke (2005) on the Mezzogiorno joint research efforts are frequent among made proposals for the concentration on region, since this innovatively draws a scientifically oriented geographers. It can topics that had been given only scant at­ link to a geography of knowledge and only be hoped that in future there will tention so far. These included the broad of decision patterns. In view of the fact also be cooperation programmes with variety of consequences in areas from that the distri­bution of promotion funds human geographers who are interested which people had migrated, the special of the EU is also of relevance for regions in the development of rural areas and of aspect of “spaces of inertia” generally in Germany, further in­ves­tigations into regions in various protection categories. found in the inland regions, the aspect regional development exceeding far After almost thirty years, a proposal of connecting characteristics of the Eu­ beyond the mere evaluation of official put forward by Rother in 1981 for more ropean-Mediterranean city as opposed to statis­tics seems appropriate. cooperation with colleagues in the re- the frequently investigated and typified As regards political geography, there spective host countries must be reiter­ “oriental city”, and, last but by no means are several articles by Struck on Turkey ated. This would result in qualitative im­ least, trade and centrality. Studies have (2002, 2003, 2005, 2007); Cyprus (Hahn provements in foreign research, since not been made into all these aspects over the 2002, 2006; Struck 2007) has also re­ only would the different perspectives and decades and even right up to the present ceived attention. In ex­tremely stark con­ expertise of the external researchers pro­ day. However, this did not come about in trast not only to media reporting, but also vide further impulses on the one hand, the hoped-for way – namely by making to publications from the field of politolo­ but on the other the unwritten back­ many detailed studies and thus arriving gy, is the minimal degree of scientific at­ ground knowledge of the local partners at a virtually all-conclusive result re­ tention paid to Israel and the Palestinian would serve as a corrective. This might garding a speci­fically “Mediterranean” autonomy regions (Lindner 1998, 1999). enhance the transfer of knowledge in distinction. In view of the evident tem­ If it was not for the apolitical studies on both directions and would also mean that poral constraints on human-geographic water-supply chemistry (Siebert 2006) publications on topical aspects would not research results in particular, this aim and regional and archaeological history be at risk of coming too close to resem­ proved to be illusionary. (Zwickel 2002), one might justifiably bling un­re­flected (foreign) reports. The intended direction towards a the­ conclude that the most frequently dis­ The few cooperations that have been matic concentration incidentally proved cussed part of the region has been com­ made so far (Heller and Asche/Alba­ to be difficult, as later proceedings of pletely neglected by geographers. nia; R. Henkel/Croatia, Lienau/Greece; the studies on the Mediterranean re­ In the field of physical geography, R. Monheim/Italy; W. Popp/Morocco; gion show (edited by Gerstenhauer & while publications on Mediterranean Ries/Spain) should be complemented by Rother 1980; Freund & Jahnke 2001). subregions are more scarce, they are the establishment of contacts between This notwithstanding, most organizers indeed of substantial interest for repre­ younger researchers. The quality of Ger­ of the symposia that followed succeeded sentatives of other research disciplines. man foreign research has so far only in shaping them around a central aspect. Whereas there are virtually no publica­ rarely seen confirmation by publications Evidence for this is given by the pro­ tions whatsoever any more in the classic in the countries in question themselves ceedings for coastal strips (Popp & Tichy field of geo­morphology, there is inten­ (Freund, R. Henkel, Jahnke, Kagermei- 1985), conurbation processes (Ante & sive research-driven activity in the ar­ er, R. Monheim, Popp). Wagner 1988), irrigation areas (Popp & eas of environmental history and recent Rother 1993), tourism regions (Breuer landscape development. More than in The organization of German Me- 1998), and transcontinental migration the past, the studies here are interlaced diterranean research (R. Monheim 2003). with human geography by two special The first colloquia of researchers on These data give the impression that areas of interest. Firstly there is the re­ Mediterranean topics are the result of the the working group convenes at long in­ construction of land­scapes and in par­ initiative of Carl Schott. As the editor tervals, under chang­ing organizers, and ticular of coastlines of relevance for the of three issues of the Marburger Geog­ at different locations, in other words that ancient populations by means of sedi­ raphische Schriften (40/1970, 59/1973, it is a loosely formed organization held mentology and geoarchaeology (Kel- 73/1977), he succeeded in establishing together by a relatively small circle of letat & Schellmann 2002; Fouache, minor focuses on tourism and Italy after university teachers. There are several Müllenhoff, Schütt 2005; M. Fuchs, the first publication. factors that speak against a greater fre­ Vöth & Brückner 2006). Secondly, they A symposium held in Düsseldorf in quency of the meetings and a sharper deal with modern-day changes as a con­ 1976 saw the foundation of the “Geog­ profile. sequence of anthropogenic interventions, raphische Mittel­meerländer-Forschung” The divergence of interests of the re- including forest fires and abandonment (Geographic Mediterranean Research) searchers results in a limited extent of (Th. May 1990; Neff 1995; Marzolff et working group. Without for­mulating its overlap. One group of the speakers has al., Ries et al. 2003). There is naturally aims too specifically, many participants always processed its topics in the Medi­ no clear line of distinction here separat­ held the hope that – in analogy to the terranean region, without, how­ever, be­ ing these activities from vegetation geo­ results regarding climate, vegetation, ing fixated on this region constantly. The

64 Europa Regional 15(2007)2 research activities into the same discipli­ The division of the Mediterranean into at ants of Turkish origin is generally per­ nary area are either pursued in another least two major cultural regions is also ceived as a problematic social substratifi­ region, or else they form only a stepping not without consequences. Since by far cation, this is an issue that is the subject of stone in the scientific careers. This does the greater part of the investigations are particularly contro­versial debate. Besides nothing to enhance coherence and com­ performed by human geographers, the this topic, with alternating intensity there munication. This is a feature typical of tradition-rich and productive “oriental are also internal tensions (Turkey, Alge­ many projects involving remote-sensing, studies” of German researchers, a direc­ ria, Cyprus, Spain, Italy) and a number but also for studies on tourism and ur­ tion promoted especially by Wirth, seem of conflicts between neighbouring coun­ ban geography. While others research for to deserve special mention. A richly de­ tries (Greece, Turkey, Lebanon, Algeria- many decades in the Mediterranean re­ signed volume published by G. Meyer in Morocco) that play a role. In Germany the gion, this research is essentially focussed 2004 on the Arabian world as reflected perception is lacking that, on account of on a special area (e.g. coastline morphol­ by cultural geography makes mention of the country’s membership in the Euro­ ogy) or a specific country, in connection most of these studies. One minor criti­ pean Union and the EU’s ever-increasing with which they achieve internationally cism that must be made here is that this importance, also the political develop­ acclaimed competence. region of the Mediterranean is dealt with ments in the southern European countries Secondly, the region in its entirety is an excessively strong emphasis on as­ have come to be of major, almost “domes­ highly heterogeneous. This region counts pects of tourism. tic” political relevance (political fields of twenty-two states and eleven to twelve regional promotion, migration, environ­ national languages. Keeping up with the The future of Mediterranean re- ment, competition, security). One should literature in German, English and French search not forget that since the abolishment of is an exhausting effort in itself – reading Since research cannot be pursued in border controls for the southern Euro­ in other languages is beyond question in complete separation from pragmatic de­ pean EU countries (Schengen II, 1995) most cases. Most of the scientists attend­ mands and the “spirit of the times”, first and the completion of the Internal Market ing congresses are specialists for a given the question must be posed as to whether (3rd stage of the Economic and Currency country and possess the corresponding there is a public interest in the Mediterra­ Union, 1999) Germany’s southern border linguistic skills. On the other hand, it is nean region and which form any such in­ in a way is formed by the Mediterranean hard to find geographers who out of pro­ terest may take. To answer this ques­tion, coastline. fessional interest (and with a high invest­ a quantitative analysis of the reporting in The daily economic sections of the ment of their own funds) have travelled the media, over a relatively long period newspapers aperiodically contain coun­ in other countries over the years without of time and best in leading supraregional try-specific reports, but also many news taking an active research stand there. newspapers, is deemed particularly ap­ items concerning company takeovers Thirdly, the institutional organiza- propriate. This rapidly shows that the and foreign investments in all dir­ec­tions. tion does nothing to promote German interest that is present moves in many In the weekly travel sections, the Medi­ geography. There are a large number of different directions. terranean region is always as a central small institutes, and even at larger insti­ Regarding the political aspect, it is pillar, well documenting the diversifica­ tutes usually steps are taken to en­sure indeed true that in Germany there is tion of the activities and the destinations the coverage of a broad spectrum of spe­ interest “by tradition” in events east of for guests striving for individuality in cial areas, rather than promoting topic- the national borders. A remarkable as­ the process. The travel section is in some related or regional specialization. Spe­ pect here is that this was equally true cases also linked to the aspect of real es­ cialists for the Mediterranean region can for both western Germany (Frankfurter tate business (second homes, retirement hardly make their mark at a given loca­ Allgemeine) and in eastern Germany homes) that is otherwise dealt with in tion, especially when it is borne in mind (Neues Deutsch­land) prior to 1989 and other special sections. that the new occupation of a position has remained true up to the present day Imaginations of a potential threat that becomes vacant generally does not – which is not the case in the United from southern neighbouring countries enhance continuity. This is (somewhat) Kingdom and France. At the same time, arose in Italy as early as the 1980s, with better in other coun­tries, for example events in the Mediterranean region are the result that the country, together with in France (Aix-en-Provence, Bordeaux; also intensively reported on. Spain and France, planned a joint ini­ Paris: Institut du Monde Arabe). There is This firstly has to do with the tensions tiative within the European Community. no analogue to the Ibero-Amerikanische of global relevance, i.e. the “Middle East For several Arabian states, the end of the Institut/Preußischer Kulturbesitz (Ber­ conflict”. This starts with the Balfour dec­ east/west confrontation marked the loss lin), to the interdisciplinary Southeast­ laration of 1917, or at the latest ten years of their (potential) protective power. On ern Europe Institute or the former North later in connection with the reinforced the other hand, in 1993 Huntington initi­ America Institute of the Free University Arabian resistance to the Jewish infiltra­ ated the idea of the “The Clash of Civili­ of Berlin for the Mediterranean region. In tion of Palestine (Boveri 1936; Steininger zations”, embarrassingly recalling the ti­ the German-speak­ing countries there is a 2008). On top of this comes the unresolved tle of a book written by the (physical) ge­ general paucity of specialized geograph­ question of the relations between the EU ographer Schmitthenner (1938) that was ic periodicals and series. The attempt and Turkey, which country has been as­ reprinted in 1951. Huntington prognoses launched in 1989 to issue a specialized sociated since 1963, applied for full mem­ that of the conflicts of the 21st century it series in the guise of the “Passauer Mit­ bership in 1987 and was made an entry will be the one between the “Islamic” and telmeerstudien” (Passau Mediterranean candidate in 1999. In Germany, where the the “Western” civilizations that will play Studies) ended with issue 6 in 1994. presence of roughly 2.2 million inhabit­ a particularly major role. This thesis may

65 nership in the cultural, social, and human Europe and the Mediterranean region sector was aimed for, with mutual under­ Population 2007 – projections for 2025 and 2050 standing and respect for each other’s cul­ Millions tural and religious backgrounds. 800 The details of the foreign-trade con­ cepts are not really advantageous for the countries in northern Africa and the Levant, also because southern European 600 East countries asserted special clauses for the protection of many of their branches. For Southeast, rest Germany, with the exception of Turkey EFTA none of the southern and eastern Medi­ 400 terranean countries counts among the 25 EU north most important foreign-trade partners, E u r o p e EU south and also as destinations for foreign in­ vestment programmes these countries 200 Non-EU neighbours have remained relatively unimportant. Hardly any progress was made in the two other areas (security and culture), with the Israeli-Arabian conflict proving 0 to be a major obstacle in this connection

Turkey (Jünnemann 2005; Schäfer 2005). The relationship between the EU member Mediterranean region Israel states and the MTCs is highly asym­ 200 metric from the economic, military, and Levant also the media viewpoints, in connection North Africa with which the prevalent, yet dubious representation as a source of manifold 400 dangers (terrorism, illegal immigration, 2007 2025 2050 IfL 2007 Draft: B. Freund Year Design: P. Mund drug trafficking, criminality) is particu­ larly evident. Fig. 2: Europe and the Mediterranean region Issues of peace, stability by democra­ Population 2007 – projections for 2025 and 2050 tisation, the affluence divide, migration, Source: own design education and technological qualifica­ well turn into a self-fulfilling prophecy if ed as early as 1972 – i.e. ten years after tion, Europe’s supply of energy, and tech­ the European Union does not succeed in the end of the colonial epoch, marked by nical cooperation (water engineering, arranging a modus vivendi together with the independence of Algeria. The disso­ agriculture, forestry, marine economics) the Mediterranean countries of islamic lution of the Warsaw Pact (1990/91) then shall not lose their topical relevance, not character and Israel. gave rise to the concept that the previ­ even in the long term. This may be a fur­ Whereas prior to 1914 the countries in ous West/East confrontation could be su­ ther incentive for geographers to devote the southern and eastern Mediterranean perseded by a North/South divide, with themselves to pursing relevant research exerted a charm in the form of “orien­ the separating line running through the issues. This includes endeavours to fos­ talistic” art and literature, from the EU Mediterranean Sea. ter – in the narrow sense of the defini­ perspective the conditions and develop­ Approaches for a “new Mediterrane­ tion – cultural-geographic and institu­ ments are becoming increasingly threat­ an policy” (1990) led to the Conference tion-economic insights, such as those ening. The demographic trend of recent of Barcelona (1995), in which the foreign elaborated over the long term in Italy decades and the prognoses until 2050 are ministers of the then fifteen EU member by F. Schröder 1999 and Jahnke 2005 experienced with a feeling of oppression states and of twelve Mediterranean third and in the Arabian countries in numer­ (cf. Fig. 2: Europe and the Mediterranean countries (MTCs) participated, among ous studies by Escher und G. meyer that region/population), especially since the them those of Israel and the Palestinian have seen valuable additions in recent “migration pressure” of unwished-for autonomy authority. The result was the years (Lindner 1998, 1999; Boeckler, F. populations is derived from these figures. formal establishment of a “Euro-Medi­ Meyer 2004, 2005; Amann 2006). These Already in the late 1980s, measures were terranean partnership” with three central efforts may contribute to viewing the taken to make entry from these countries aims. Besides the intensification of the Mediterranean less as a “fracture zone”. difficult, even for scientists and students, traditional economic ties, designed to At the start of 2008, President which has resulted in their feeling the lead to a free-trade zone in the year 2010, Sarkozy declared a special Mediterra­ bitter sensation of being shut out. the political dimension was also made nean union as the most important project The Mediterranean policy of the EU in part of the partnership. The enhance­ for the French EU presidency start­ the past 35 (!) years is characterized by ment of the dialogue and the observation ing on 1 July, expressly describing it a only slight progress. A first concept of a of human rights was aimed at creating a means against a “clash of civilizations” “global Mediterranean policy” was draft­ “security partnership”. Thirdly, a part­ and designed to improve relations with

66 Europa Regional 15(2007)2 the Arabian world. The German govern­ tik deutsch-syrischer Unternehmens­ gration Nador III. Landwirtschaftli­ ment, which – in particular connection kooperationen (= Eichstätter Geogra­ che Entwicklung in der Provinz Nador with the Israeli-Palestinian conflict of phische Arbeiten, 16). Munich, Vien­ (Marokko) unter dem Einfluss der Ar­ many years’ standing – under indication na. (also a doctoral thesis at the Uni­ beitsmigration. Passau. of historic guilt essentially follows the versity of Eichstätt, 2006, titled.: Ins­ Berxholi, A., D. Doka & H. Asche dubious American policy (Mearsheimer titutionelle Defizite und die Rolle von (2003): Atlasi Gjeografik i Popullsise & Walt 2006), has displayed consider­ ‚Interkulturalität‘). se Shqiperise. Atlasi si Shqiperise. Be­ able irritation. Chancellor Merkel has Arnold, A. (1978): Die junge Eisen- und völkerungsgeographischer Atlas von rightfully challenged Sarkozy on this Stahlindustrie im Maghreb. 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