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Astrophysics with Radioactive Isotopes

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Astrophysics with Radioactive Isotopes Chapter 1 Astrophysics with Radioactive Isotopes Roland Diehl1 Radioactivity was discovered as a by-product of searching for elements with suit- able chemical properties. Understanding its characteristics led to the development of nuclear physics, understanding that unstable configurations of nucleons trans- form into stable end products through radioactive decay. In the universe, nuclear re- actions create new nuclei under the energetic circumstances characterising cosmic nucleosynthesis sites, such as the cores of stars and supernova explosions. Observ- ing the radioactive decays of unstable nuclei, which are by-products of such cosmic nucleosynthesis, is a special discipline of astronomy. Understanding these special cosmic sites, their environments, their dynamics, and their physical processes, is the Astrophysics with Radioactivities that makes the subject of this book. We ad- dress the history, the candidate sites of nucleosynthesis, the different observational opportunities, and the tools of this field of astrophysics. 1.1 Origin of Radioactivity The nineteenth century spawned various efforts to bring order into the elements en- countered in nature. Among the most important was an inventory of the elements assembled by the Russian chemist Dimitri Mendeleyev in 1869, which grouped elements according to their chemical properties, their valences, as derived from the compounds they were able to form, at the same time sorting the elements by atomic weight. The genius of Mendeleyev lay in his confidence in these sorting principles, which enforce gaps in his table for expected but then unknown elements, and Mendeleyev was able to predict the physical and chemical properties of such elements-to-be-found. The tabular arrangement invented by Mendeleyev (Fig. 1.1) still is in use today, and is being populated at the high-mass end by the great ex- periments in heavy-ion collider laboratories to create the short-lived elements pre- dicted to exist. The second half of the nineteenth century thus saw scientists be- 1 Max Planck Institut fur¨ extraterrestrische Physik, 85748 Garching, Germany 3 4 1 Astrophysics with Radioactive Isotopes ing all-excited about chemistry and the fascinating discoveries one could make us- ing Mendeleyev’s sorting principles. Note that this was some 30 years before sub- atomic particles and the atom were discovered. Today the existence of 118 elements is firmly established2, the latest additions no. 113-118 all discovered in year 2016, which reflects the concerted experimental efforts. 1 IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements 18 1 2 H He hydrogen helium 1.008 [1.0078, 1.0082] 2 Key: 13 14 15 16 17 4.0026 3 4 atomic number 5 6 7 8 9 10 Li Be Symbol B C N O F Ne lithium beryllium name boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon 6.94 conventional atomic weight 10.81 12.011 14.007 15.999 [6.938, 6.997] 9.0122 standard atomic weight [10.806, 10.821] [12.009, 12.012] [14.006, 14.008] [15.999, 16.000] 18.998 20.180 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon 24.305 28.085 32.06 35.45 22.990 [24.304, 24.307] 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 26.982 [28.084, 28.086] 30.974 [32.059, 32.076] [35.446, 35.457] 39.948 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton 79.904 39.098 40.078(4) 44.956 47.867 50.942 51.996 54.938 55.845(2) 58.933 58.693 63.546(3) 65.38(2) 69.723 72.630(8) 74.922 78.971(8) [79.901, 79.907] 83.798(2) 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon 85.468 87.62 88.906 91.224(2) 92.906 95.95 101.07(2) 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60(3) 126.90 131.29 55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Cs Ba lanthanoids Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn caesium barium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon 204.38 132.91 137.33 178.49(2) 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23(3) 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 [204.38, 204.39] 207.2 208.98 87 88 89-103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 Fr Ra actinoids Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium nihonium flerovium moscovium livermorium tennessine oganesson 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium 138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 150.36(2) 151.96 157.25(3) 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.05 174.97 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium 232.04 231.04 238.03 For notes and updates to this table, see www.iupac.org. This version is dated 28 November 2016. Copyright © 2016 IUPAC, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. Fig. 1.1 The periodic table of elements, grouping chemical elements according to their chemical- reaction properties and their atomic weight, after Mendeleyev (1869), in its 2016 version (IU- PAC.org) In the late nineteenth century, scientists also were excited about new types of pen- etrating radiation. Conrad Rontgen’s¨ discovery in 1895 of X-rays as a type of elec- tromagnetic radiation is important for understanding the conditions under which An- toine Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896. Becquerel also was engaged in chemical experiments, in his research on phosphorescence exploiting the chem- istry of photographic-plate materials. At the time, Becquerel had prepared some plates treated with uranium-carrying minerals, but did not get around to make the planned experiment. When he found the plates in their dark storage some time later, he accidentally processed them, and was surprised to find an image of a coin which happened to have been stored with the plates. Excited about X-rays, he believed he had found yet another type of radiation. Within a few years, Becquerel with Marie and Pierre Curie and others recognised that the origin of the observed radiation were elemental transformations of the uranium minerals: The physical process of radioactivity had been found! The revolutionary aspect of elements being able to spontaneously change their nature became masked at the beginning of the twentieth 2 IUPAC, the international union of chemistry, coordinates definitions, groupings, and naming; see www.IUPAC.org 1.1 Origin of Radioactivity 5 century, when sub-atomic particles and the atom were discovered. But well before atomic and quantum physics began to unfold, the physics of weak interactions had already been discovered in its form of radioactivity. The different characteristics of different chemical elements and the systematics of Mendeleyev’s periodic table were soon understood from the atomic structure of a compact and positively charged nucleus and a number of electrons orbiting the nucleus and neutralising the charge of the atom. Bohr’s atomic model led to the dramatic developments of quantum mechanics and spectroscopy of atomic shell transitions. But already in 1920, Ernest Rutherford proposed that an electrically neutral particle of similar mass as the hydrogen nucleus (proton) was to be part of the compact atomic nucleus. It took more than two decades to verify by experiment the existence of this ’neutron’, by James Chadwick in 1932. The atomic nucleus, too, was seen as a quantum mechanical system composed of a multitude of particles bound by the strong nuclear force. This latter characteristic is common to ’hadrons’, i.e. the electrically charged proton and the neutron, the latter being slightly more massive3. Neutrons remained a mystery for so long, as they are unstable and decay with a mean life of 880 seconds from the weak interaction into a proton, an electron, and an anti-neutrino. This is the origin of radioactivity. The chemical and physical characteristics of an element are dominated by their electron configuration, hence by the number of charges contained in the atomic electron cloud, which again is dictated by the charge of the atomic nucleus, the number of protons. The number of neutrons included in the nucleus are important as they change the mass of the atom, however the electron configuration and hence the properties are hardly affected. Therefore, we distinguish isotopes of each particular chemical element, which are different in the number of neutrons included in the nucleus, but carry the same charge of the nucleus.
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